INSERT INTO `gmcropdatabase_events_execsummaries` (`id`, `eventId`, `description`, `status`, `created`, `updated`) VALUES
(29, 13, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Maize (<i>Zea mays</i> L.), is grown primarily for its kernel, which is largely refined into products used in a wide range of food, medical, and industrial goods.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Only a small amount of whole maize kernel is consumed by humans. Maize oil is extracted from the germ of the maize kernel and maize is also a raw material in the manufacture of starch. A complex refining process converts the majority of this starch into sweeteners, syrups and fermentation products, including ethanol. Refined maize products, sweeteners, starch, and oil are abundant in processed foods such as breakfast cereals, dairy goods, and chewing gum.<br />\nIn the United States and Canada maize is typically used as animal feed, with roughly70% of the crop fed to livestock, although an increasing amount is being used for the production of ethanol. The entire maize plant, the kernels, and several refined products such as glutens and steep liquor, are used in animal feeds. Silage made from the whole maize plant makes up 10-12% of the annual corn acreage, and is a major ruminant feedstuff. Livestock that feed on maize include cattle, pigs, poultry, sheep, goats, fish and companion animals.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Industrial uses for maize products include recycled paper, paints, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and car parts.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The maize line MS3 was genetically engineered to express male sterility and tolerance to glufosinate ammonium, the active ingredient in phosphinothricin herbicides (Basta&reg;, Rely&reg;, Finale&reg;, and Liberty&reg;). Glufosinate chemically resembles the amino acid glutamate and acts to inhibit an enzyme, called glutamine synthetase, which is involved in the synthesis of glutamine. Essentially, glufosinate acts enough like glutamate, the molecule used by glutamine synthetase to make glutamine, that it blocks the enzyme&#39;s usual activity. Glutamine synthetase is also involved in ammonia detoxification. The action of glufosinate results in reduced glutamine levels and a corresponding increase in concentrations of ammonia in plant tissues, leading to cell membrane disruption and cessation of photosynthesis resulting in plant withering and death.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Glufosinate tolerance in this maize line is the result of introducing a gene encoding the enzyme phosphinothricin-N-acetyltransferase (PAT) isolated from the common aerobic soil actinomycete, <i>Streptomyces hygroscopicus</i>. The PAT enzyme catalyzes the acetylation of phosphinothricin, detoxifying it into an inactive compound. The PAT enzyme is not known to have any toxic properties.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The male-sterile trait was introduced by inserting the barnase gene, isolated from <i>Bacillus amyloliquefaciens</i>, a common soil bacterium that is frequently used as a source for industrial enzymes. The barnase gene encodes for a ribonuclease enzyme (RNAse) that is expressed only in the tapetum cells of the pollen sac during anther development. The RNAse affects RNA production, disrupting normal cell functioning and arresting early anther development, thus leading to male sterility. The PAT enzyme was used as a selectable marker enabling identification of transformed plants during tissue culture regeneration, and as a field selection method to identify the male-sterile lines prior to flowering. Under field conditions, plants that were not male-sterile could be eliminated by application of the herbicide glufosinate ammonium. The novel hybrid system provided an efficient and effective way to identify male-sterile plants for use in hybrid seed production.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The male sterile maize line MS3 has been tested in the major maize growing regions of the United States since 1992 and has been extensively evaluated in laboratory, greenhouse, and field experiments. Agronomic characteristics such as seed germination, vegetative vigour, time to maturity, time to tassel emergence, time to and process of silk extrusion, male and female fertility, yield parameters, and disease and pest susceptibilities were compared to those of non-transgenic Zea mays counterparts and found to be within the normal range for commercial maize hybrids. Overall the field data reports and data on agronomic traits demonstrated that MS3 maize was as safe to grow as any other male sterile maize and had no potential to pose a plant pest risk. It was demonstrated that the transformed maize line did not exhibit weedy characteristics, or negatively affect beneficial or non-target organisms. Maize line MS3 was not expected to impact on threatened or endangered species.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Maize does not have any closely related species growing in the wild in the continental United States and Canada. Cultivated maize can naturally cross with annual teosinte (<i>Zea mays</i> ssp. mexicana) when grown in close proximity, however, these wild maize relatives are native to Central America and are not naturalized in North America. Additionally, multiple barriers, including sterility of the maize line MS3, ensured that gene flow from this transformed line into wild or cultivated sexually-compatible plants was extremely unlikely. Gene exchange between maize line MS3 and maize relatives was determined to be negligible in managed ecosystems, with no potential for transfer to wild species in Canada and the United States.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">In an assessment of food and livestock feed safety the composition of grain from MS3-derived hybrid maize was compared to grain from non-transgenic maize. Parameters such as moisture, fibre, fat, protein, ash, starch, oil, and the fatty acid and amino acid composition were compared with no significant differences observed. It was therefore concluded that the use of grain from MS3-derived maize hybrids would have no significant impact on the nutritional quality of the food supply.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Potential toxicity and allergenicity of the PAT protein and the barnase RNase expressed in the transgenic maize line MS3 were investigated by searching for amino acid sequence homology with known toxins and allergens, and by examining their physiochemical properties. No significant homologies between the deduced amino acid sequence of the PAT protein or the barnase RNase and the sequences of known toxins or allergens were detected. Neither the PAT enzyme nor the RNase possess the proteolytic or heat stability characteristic of toxic compounds, and the PAT enzyme was readily digested under conditions simulating mammalian digestion. In summary, the barnase RNAse and PAT enzyme were not derived from allergenic sources, do not share amino acid sequence homology with known allergens, and do not possess the physiochemical properties (heat and proteolytic digestion stability) normally associated with allergens. Based on these properties, it was concluded that the RNase and the PAT protein, and thus MS3 maize, possessed little or no potential for allergenicity or toxicity.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 01:29:12'),
(30, 17, '<p style="text-align: justify;">As the development of DK404SR did not employ recombinant DNA technologies, this product was not subject to regulation in any jurisdiction except Canada, where it was regulated as a plant with novel trait under the <i>Seeds Act</i>, a novel feed under the <i>Feeds Act</i>, and as a novel food under the Food and Drug Regulations. Specific environmental, livestock feed, and food safety assessment of this product was only required for Canada.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Only a small amount of whole maize kernel is consumed by humans. Maize oil is extracted from the germ of the maize kernel and maize is also a raw material in the manufacture of starch. A complex refining process converts the majority of this starch into sweeteners, syrups and fermentation products, including ethanol. Refined maize products, sweeteners, starch, and oil are abundant in processed foods such as breakfast cereals, dairy goods, and chewing gum.<br />\nIn the United States and Canada maize is typically used as animal feed, with roughly 70% of the crop fed to livestock, although an increasing amount is being used for the production of ethanol. The entire maize plant, the kernels, and several refined products such as glutens and steep liquor, are used in animal feeds. Silage made from the whole maize plant makes up 10-12% of the annual corn acreage, and is a major ruminant feedstuff. Livestock that feed on maize include cattle, pigs, poultry, sheep, goats, fish and companion animals.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Industrial uses for maize products include recycled paper, paints, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and car parts.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The maize hybrid DK404SR was developed to allow the use of sethoxydim, the active ingredient in the herbicide Poast&reg;, for the control of annual and perennial grasses in maize crops. The original sethoxydim-tolerant mutant line (S2), which was the source of the sethoxydim tolerance trait in hybrid DK404SR, was selected as a somaclonal variant from maize embryo tissue grown under sethoxydim-selective pressure. The process involved growing somatic embryos on sethoxydim-enriched media in the presence of mutagenic agents. The somaclonal variant cell line S2 was selected from the resulting mutant cells and subsequently regenerated. This S2 line was backcrossed at least six times with both parental lines of the hybrid DK404SR to transfer the herbicide tolerance trait.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Sethoxydim and other cyclohexanedione herbicides act by inhibiting the enzyme acetyl-CoA-carboxylase (ACCase), a key enzyme in the fatty acid biosynthesis pathway necessary for the synthesis and maintenance of membranes and for the incorporation of fatty acids into triacylglycerides. Inhibition of this enzyme results in a lethal disruption of lipid biosynthesis. Cyclohexanedione herbicides applied at rates recommended for effective weed control are toxic to conventional maize varieties. The ACCase present in DK404SR contains a mutation within the sethoxydim binding site that reduces the herbicide&rsquo;s affinity for the enzyme, and thus its inhibitory activity, while retaining the normal catalytic properties of the enzyme. The modified maize plants also demonstrated some level of cross-tolerance to the related herbicides, aryloxyphenoxypropionates, including haloxyfop (not registered in Canada), fluazifop (Venture&reg;) and quizalofop (Assure&reg;). These herbicides all have the same mode of action through ACCase inhibition. Natural tolerance to sethoxydim herbicide is found in several broad-leaved plants and grasses, including annual ryegrass, green foxtail and red fescue.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">As the development of DK404SR did not employ recombinant DNA technologies, this product was not subject to regulation in any jurisdiction except Canada, where it was regulated as a plant with novel trait under the Seeds Act, a novel feed under the Feeds Act, and as a novel food under the Food and Drug Regulations. Specific environmental, livestock feed, and food safety assessment of this product was only required for Canada.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Field testing of DK404SR maize hybrids demonstrated that agronomic characteristics such as plant size and vigour, growth, male and female fertility, time to maturity, flowering period, and seed yield were within the range of values displayed by currently commercialized hybrids. It was determined that the growing habit of the modified maize plants was not inadvertently altered and that they did not exhibit weedy characteristics, or negatively affect beneficial or non-target organisms. DK404SR was not expected to impact on threatened or endangered species.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Maize does not have any closely related species growing in the wild in Canada. Cultivated maize can naturally cross with annual teosinte (Zea mays ssp. mexicana) when grown in close proximity, however, these wild maize relatives are native to Central America and are not naturalized in North America. Additionally, reproductive and growth characteristics were unchanged in DK404SR. Gene exchange between DK404SR and maize relatives was determined to be negligible in managed ecosystems, with no potential for transfer to wild species in Canada.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">A food and livestock feed safety assessment of DK404SR compared the nutritional composition of the modified maize line to that of its unmodified counterparts, revealing no significant differences. The selection of the DK404SR maize hybrid through somaclonal variation had no meaningful effect on the maize plant nutrient levels. It was therefore determined that the use of maize products derived from the DK404SR maize hybrid would have no significant impact on the nutritional quality of the food supply in Canada.<br />\n<br />\nThe novel trait in the DK404SR maize hybrid results from modifications of a single maize enzyme, altering the sethoxydim binding site without modifying the metabolic abilities of the ACCase enzyme. Potential toxicity of this enzyme was therefore not a concern. No new genetic material was introduced into the maize genome during the modification process, minimizing potential toxicity and allergenicity concerns.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 01:31:50'),
(31, 134, '<p style="text-align: justify;">MON89034 X MON88017 (OECD identifier: MON-89&Oslash;34-3 X MON-88&Oslash;17-3) maize is an F1 hybrid resulting from the hybridization of maize inbred MON89034 (MON-89&Oslash;34-3) with MON88017 (MON-88&Oslash;17-3). This stacked maize hybrid is a product of traditional plant breeding, and therefore is not automatically subject to regulation in all jurisdictions as are transgenic plants resulting from recombinant DNA technologies. Certain jurisdictions may request notification in advance of the release of a stacked hybrid, or may request information to conduct an environmental and food safety assessment. Examples of jurisdictions that require either notification or information about stacked hybrids prior to their release into the environment, and for use in human food and livestock feed are Canada and Japan.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The stacked hybrid MON89034 X MON88017 expresses three novel insecticidal proteins and a protein providing tolerance to the herbicide glyphosate. MON 89034 produces the Cry1A.105 and Cry2Ab2 proteins, which are active against lepidopteran insect pests and MON88017 produces Cry3Bb1 which confers resistance to Corn Rootworm. All of these proteins are derived from <i>Bacillus thuringiensis</i>. Tolerance to glyphosate is provided by the CP4 EPSPS protein, produced by the <i>cp4 epsps</i> gene from MON88017. The novel traits of each parent line have been combined, through traditional plant breeding, to produce this new hybrid. For a full description of each parent line please refer to the individual product descriptions in the crop database for MON89034 and MON88017.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The inserted genes and their gene products have a history of safe use, and have undergone review and approval by several regulatory agencies. No interactions among the gene products or negative synergistic effects are expected in the stacked hybrid. The Cry1A.105, Cry2Ab2 and Cry3Bb1 proteins are not enzymes and therefore do not affect plant metabolism. The CP4 EPSPS has high affinity for its substrates phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) and shikimate-3-phosphate, which are part of the shikimate metabolic pathway. These proteins are therefore not expected to interact within, nor affect the metabolism of the stacked hybrid.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 17:34:00'),
(32, 22, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Argentine or oilseed rape (<i>Brassica napus</i>) was grown as a commercial crop in over 50 countries, with a combined harvest of 48.9 million metric tonnes in 2006. The major producers of rapeseed are China, Canada, India, Germany, France, the United Kingdom and Australia. Canola is a genetic variation of <i>B. napus</i> that was developed through conventional breeding to contain low levels of the natural rapeseed toxins, glucosinolate and erucic acid. Canola is grown for its seed, which represents a major source of edible vegetable oil and is also used in livestock feeds.<br />\nThe only food use of canola is as a refined oil. Typically, canola oil is used by itself as a salad oil or cooking oil, or blended with other vegetable oils in the manufacture of margarine, shortenings, cooking and salad oils. Canola meal, a byproduct of the oil production process, is added to livestock feed rations. An increasing amount of oil is being used for biodiesel production, especially in Europe.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The removal of weeds early in the growing season is extremely important in canola production. Young canola seedlings are not very competitive and early weed pressure has detrimental effects on final yield. Precautions such as pre-plant tillage or herbicide application are common approaches for reducing weed competition. Once established, canola forms a dense canopy and is very competitive, making weed control less of a concern.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">At present, it is expensive, but possible, to control annual grassy weeds (wild oats, volunteer cereals), perennial weeds (Canada thistle, perennial sow thistle, quackgrass), and certain annual broadleaf weeds in canola. The broadleaves are the most difficult to control because there are few herbicide options available. Many producers will use as many as four herbicides per year in an effort to control weeds.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Traditionally, it has been difficult to manage weeds in canola rotations because of the need to use Group 1 herbicides (Assure&reg;, Fusion&reg;, Poast&reg;, Select&reg;, Venture DG&reg;) that are also commonly used to control weeds in flax, wheat and other cereals. Growers favour these herbicides because they are easy to work with, are extremely effective, and may be applied over a period of time. However, the constant use of Group 1 herbicides has placed large acreages of cultivated land at high risk of developing Group 1 weed resistance. The establishment of several herbicide-tolerant weed populations demonstrates this problem.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The canola line HCN92 was genetically engineered to express tolerance to glufosinate ammonium, the active ingredient in phosphinothricin herbicides (Basta&reg;, Rely&reg;, Finale&reg;, and Liberty&reg;). Glufosinate chemically resembles the amino acid glutamate and acts to inhibit an enzyme, called glutamine synthetase, which is involved in the synthesis of glutamine. Essentially, glufosinate acts enough like glutamate, the molecule used by glutamine synthetase to make glutamine, that it blocks the enzyme&#39;s usual activity. Glutamine synthetase is also involved in ammonia detoxification. The action of glufosinate results in reduced glutamine levels and a corresponding increase in concentrations of ammonia in plant tissues, leading to cell membrane disruption and cessation of photosynthesis resulting in plant withering and death.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Glufosinate tolerance in HCN92 is the result of introducing a gene encoding the enzyme phosphinothricin-N-acetyltransferase (PAT) isolated from the common aerobic soil actinomycete, <i>Streptomyces viridochromogenes</i>, the same organism from which glufosinate was originally isolated. The PAT enzyme catalyzes the acetylation of phosphinothricin, detoxifying it into an inactive compound. The PAT enzyme is not known to have any toxic properties.<br />\nThe canola line HCN92 was field tested in Canada from 1990 to 1994. Agronomic and adaptation characteristics such as vegetative vigour, seed production and dormancy were compared to unmodified canola counterparts and determined to be within the normal range of expression found in commercial canola cultivars. The only significant difference between HCN92 canola and the parental non-transformed variety was its resistance to glufosinate ammonium. It was demonstrated that the transformed canola line did not exhibit weedy characteristics, or negatively affect beneficial or non-target organisms. Canola line HCN92 was not expected to impact on threatened or endangered species.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;"><i>Brassica napus</i> may outcross (up to 30% of the time) with plants of the same species, and potentially with plants of related species <i>B. rapa</i>, <i>B. juncea</i>, <i>B. carinata</i>, <i>B. nigra</i>, <i>Diplotaxis muralis</i>, <i>Raphanus raphanistrum</i>, and <i>Erucastrum gallicum</i>. Previous studies have demonstrated that cross hybridization is most likely to occur with <i>B. rapa</i>. Because of the ability of canola to outcross with related plants, the formation of glufosinate-tolerant hybrids is possible. However, the glufosinate-tolerance trait is not expected to provide a competitive advantage to hybrid plants unless grown in managed environments routinely subjected to glufosinate applications. In the event that a glufosinate-tolerant hybrid survived, the herbicide-tolerant individual could be easily controlled using mechanical and/or other available chemical means.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The human consumption of canola products is limited to the refined oil. Refined edible canola oil consists of purified triglycerides (96-97%) and does not contain any detectable protein, and hence no PAT protein was detected in the refined oil of HCN92 canola. As such, there will be no human exposure to this novel protein as a result of the consumption of refined oil from line HCN92.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">A comparative analysis of nutrients from transgenic HCN92 canola and non-transgenic canola did not reveal any significant differences in the levels crude protein, crude fat, crude fibre, ash and gross energy in either the whole seed or processed meal. Compositional analysis of processed canola oil indicated that no statistically significant differences existed between HCN92 and current commercial canola cultivars in fatty acid, chlorophyll, phytosterol, glucosinolate and erucic acid content. These results collectively demonstrated that the novel herbicide-tolerant genes introduced into HCN92 had no observable secondary effects on nutritional composition or quality. The use of refined oil from line HCN92 was judged to be equivalent to that of traditional canola varieties and would therefore have no significant impact on the nutritional quality of the food supply.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Canola meal from HCN92 canola was also assessed to determine its safety for use in animal feed. In vivo tests performed on broiler chickens fed diets containing transgenic canola confirmed the safety previously established with purified PAT protein. It was also determined that PAT protein represented only 0.005% of protein in finished canola meal and enzyme activity was always destroyed in toasted canola meal. The overall results lead to the conclusion that there were no significant risks to livestock consuming transgenic HCN92 canola meal.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">It was determined that there were no toxicity and allergenicity concerns with HCN92. There is no dietary exposure to PAT since this protein is not present in the refined canola oil consumed by humans. PAT was not found to have any amino acid sequence similarities with known toxins or allergens. An acute oral toxicity study revealed that no negative effects were experienced by mice fed high doses of the PAT protein, providing further evidence supporting the lack of toxicity or allergenicity concerns related to the expression of PAT protein in HCN92 canola.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 11:14:58'),
(33, 32, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Argentine or oilseed rape (<i>Brassica napus</i>) was grown as a commercial crop in over 50 countries, with a combined harvest of 48.9 million metric tonnes in 2006. The major producers of rapeseed are China, Canada, India, Germany, France, the United Kingdom and Australia. Canola is a genetic variation of <i>B. napus</i> that was developed through conventional breeding to contain low levels of the natural rapeseed toxins, glucosinolate and erucic acid. Canola is grown for its seed, which represents a major source of edible vegetable oil and is also used in livestock feeds.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The only food use of canola is as a refined oil. Typically, canola oil is used by itself as a salad oil or cooking oil, or blended with other vegetable oils in the manufacture of margarine, shortenings, cooking and salad oils. Canola meal, a byproduct of the oil production process, is added to livestock feed rations. An increasing amount of oil is being used for biodiesel production, especially in Europe.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The removal of weeds early in the growing season is extremely important in canola production. Young canola seedlings are not very competitive and early weed pressure has detrimental effects on final yield. Precautions such as pre-plant tillage or herbicide application are common approaches for reducing weed competition. Once established, canola forms a dense canopy and is very competitive, making weed control less of a concern.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">At present, it is expensive, but possible, to control annual grassy weeds (wild oats, volunteer cereals), perennial weeds (Canada thistle, perennial sow thistle, quackgrass), and certain annual broadleaf weeds in canola. The broadleaves are the most difficult to control because there are few herbicide options available. Many producers will use as many as four herbicides per year in an effort to control weeds.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Traditionally, it has been difficult to manage weeds in canola rotations because of the need to use Group 1 herbicides (Assure&reg;, Fusion&reg;, Poast&reg;, Select&reg;, Venture DG&reg;) that are also commonly used to control weeds in flax, wheat and other cereals. Growers favour these herbicides because they are easy to work with, are extremely effective, and may be applied over a period of time. However, the constant use of Group 1 herbicides has placed large acreages of cultivated land at high risk of developing Group 1 weed resistance. The establishment of several herbicide-tolerant weed populations demonstrates this problem.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The canola line T45 was genetically engineered to express tolerance to glufosinate ammonium, the active ingredient in phosphinothricin herbicides (Basta&reg;, Rely&reg;, Finale&reg;, and Liberty&reg;). Glufosinate chemically resembles the amino acid glutamate and acts to inhibit an enzyme, called glutamine synthetase, which is involved in the synthesis of glutamine. Essentially, glufosinate acts enough like glutamate, the molecule used by glutamine synthetase to make glutamine, that it blocks the enzyme&#39;s usual activity. Glutamine synthetase is also involved in ammonia detoxification. The action of glufosinate results in reduced glutamine levels and a corresponding increase in concentrations of ammonia in plant tissues, leading to cell membrane disruption and cessation of photosynthesis resulting in plant withering and death.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Glufosinate tolerance in T45 is the result of introducing a gene encoding the enzyme phosphinothricin-N-acetyltransferase (PAT) isolated from the common aerobic soil actinomycete, <i>Streptomyces viridochromogenes</i>, the same organism from which glufosinate was originally isolated. The PAT enzyme catalyzes the acetylation of phosphinothricin, detoxifying it into an inactive compound. The PAT enzyme is not known to have any toxic properties.<br />\nLine HCN28, which was derived from T45, was field tested in Canada (1993 - 1995), in the United States (1996, 1997) and in Chile, Japan, the United Kingdom, and Australia. Agronomic characteristics such as cotyledon width, pod and leaf length, flowering period, time to maturity, plant height, lodging score, seed yield and thousand seed weight were compared to those of unmodified canola. The only significant difference between HCN28 canola and the parental non-transformed variety was its tolerance of glufosinate ammonium. It was demonstrated that the transformed canola line did not exhibit weedy characteristics, or negatively affect beneficial or non-target organisms. Canola line HCN28 was not expected to impact on threatened or endangered species.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;"><i>Brassica napus</i> may outcross (up to 30% of the time) with plants of the same species, and potentially with plants of related species <i>B. rapa, B. juncea, B. carinata, B. nigra, Diplotaxis muralis, Raphanus raphanistrum</i>, and <i>Erucastrum gallicum</i>. Previous studies have demonstrated that cross hybridization is most likely to occur with <i>B. rapa</i>. Because of the ability of canola to outcross with related plants, the formation of glufosinate-tolerant hybrids is possible. However, the glufosinate-tolerance trait is not expected to provide a competitive advantage to hybrid plants unless grown in managed environments routinely subjected to glufosinate applications. In the event that a glufosinate-tolerant hybrid survived, the herbicide-tolerant individual could be easily controlled using mechanical and/or other available chemical means.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The human consumption of canola products is limited to the refined oil. Refined edible canola oil consists of purified triglycerides (96-97%) and does not contain any detectable protein, and hence no PAT protein was detected in the refined oil of HCN28 canola. As such, there will be no human exposure to this novel protein as a result of the consumption of refined oil from line HCN28. Compositional analyses of processed canola oil from HCN28 and current commercial canola cultivars were compared for fatty acids, glucosinolates, chlorophyll and phytosterol content. These comparisons indicated no statistically significant differences for the components analyzed. The use of refined oil from HCN28 would therefore have no significant impact on the nutritional quality of the food supply.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Canola meal from line HCN28 was also assessed to determine its safety for use in animal feed. Additional compositional studies were conducted, revealing no significant differences in the moisture, oil, protein, crude fibre, ash, phytosterol and gross energy content between HCN28 and other commercially available canola lines, thus supporting the safety of the inclusion of HCN28 canola in animal feed.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">It was determined that there were no toxicity and allergenicity concerns with HCN28. There is no dietary exposure to PAT since this protein is not present in the refined canola oil consumed by humans. PAT was not found to have any amino acid sequence similarities with known toxins or allergens. The PAT enzyme does not possess the proteolytic or heat stability characteristic of toxic compounds, and was readily digested under conditions simulating mammalian digestion. An acute oral toxicity study revealed that no negative effects were experienced by rats fed high doses of the PAT protein (up to 50,000 ppm for a period of 14 days), providing further evidence supporting the lack of toxicity or allergenicity concerns related to the expression of PAT protein in HCN28 canola.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 11:54:04'),
(34, 19, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Argentine or oilseed rape (<i>Brassica napus</i>) was grown as a commercial crop in over 50 countries, with a combined harvest of 48.9 million metric tonnes in 2006. The major producers of rapeseed are China, Canada, India, Germany, France, the United Kingdom and Australia. Canola is a genetic variation of <i>B. napus</i> that was developed through conventional breeding to contain low levels of the natural rapeseed toxins, glucosinolate and erucic acid. Canola is grown for its seed, which represents a major source of edible vegetable oil and is also used in livestock feeds.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The only food use of canola is as a refined oil. Typically, canola oil is used by itself as a salad oil or cooking oil, or blended with other vegetable oils in the manufacture of margarine, shortenings, cooking and salad oils. Canola meal, a byproduct of the oil production process, is added to livestock feed rations. An increasing amount of oil is being used for biodiesel production, especially in Europe.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The removal of weeds early in the growing season is extremely important in canola production. Young canola seedlings are not very competitive and early weed pressure has detrimental effects on final yield. Precautions such as pre-plant tillage or herbicide application are common approaches for reducing weed competition. Once established, canola forms a dense canopy and is very competitive, making weed control less of a concern.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">At present, it is expensive, but possible, to control annual grassy weeds (wild oats, volunteer cereals), perennial weeds (Canada thistle, perennial sow thistle, quackgrass), and certain annual broadleaf weeds in canola. The broadleaves are the most difficult to control because there are few herbicide options available. Many producers will use as many as four herbicides per year in an effort to control weeds.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Traditionally, it has been difficult to manage weeds in canola rotations because of the need to use Group 1 herbicides (Assure&reg;, Fusion&reg;, Poast&reg;, Select&reg;, Venture DG&reg;) that are also commonly used to control weeds in flax, wheat and other cereals. Growers favour these herbicides because they are easy to work with, are extremely effective, and may be applied over a period of time. However, the constant use of Group 1 herbicides has placed large acreages of cultivated land at high risk of developing Group 1 weed resistance. The establishment of several herbicide-tolerant weed populations demonstrates this problem.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The herbicide-tolerant canola line GT200 was developed to allow for the use of glyphosate, the active ingredient in the herbicide Roundup&reg;, as a weed control option. In order to obtain field tolerance to glyphosate herbicide, two novel genes, CP4 EPSPS and goxv247, were introduced into <i>B. napus</i> cv. Westar by <i>Agrobacterium</i>-mediated transformation.<br />\nThe CP4 EPSPS gene codes for the enzyme 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase that is present in all plants, bacteria and fungi. The EPSPS gene put into GT200 was isolated from strain CP4 of the common soil bacterium <i>Agrobacterium tumefaciens</i> and is a glyphosate tolerant form of EPSPS. The EPSPS enzyme is part of an important biochemical pathway in plants called the shikimate pathway that is involved in the production of aromatic amino acids and other aromatic compounds. When conventional canola plants are treated with glyphosate, the plants cannot produce the aromatic amino acids needed to grow and survive. EPSPS is not present in mammals, birds or aquatic life forms, which do not synthesize their own aromatic amino acids. For this reason, glyphosate has little toxicity to these organisms. The EPSPS enzyme is naturally present in foods derived from plant and microbial sources.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The canola line GT200 contains a second gene that codes for a modified version of glyphosate oxidase (GOX) enzyme that is ubiquitous in nature. The <i>goxv247</i> gene inserted into GT200 was isolated from strain LBAA of the bacterium <i>Ochrobactrum anthropi</i>. Glyphosate oxidase (GOX) enzyme accelerates the normal breakdown of the herbicide glyphosate into two non-toxic compounds, aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA) and glyoxylate. AMPA is the principal breakdown product of glyphosate and is degraded by several microorganisms, while glyoxylate is commonly found in plant cells and is broken down by the glyoxylic pathway for lipid metabolism.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The canola line GT200 was field tested in Canada from 1992 to 1994. Agronomic characteristics such as vegetative vigor, overwintering capacity, time to maturity, seed production and yield of the transformed line GT200 were compared to unmodified canola counterparts and determined to be within the normal range of expression found in commercial canola cultivars. The only significant difference between GT200 canola and the parental non-transformed variety was tolerance to glyphosate. It was demonstrated that the transformed canola line did not exhibit weedy characteristics, or negatively affect beneficial or non-target organisms. Canola line GT200 was not expected to impact on threatened or endangered species.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;"><i>Brassica napus</i> may outcross (up to 30% of the time) with plants of the same species, and potentially with plants of related species <i>B. rapa, B. juncea, B. carinata, B. nigra, Diplotaxis muralis, Raphanus raphanistrum</i>, and <i>Erucastrum gallicum</i>. Previous studies have demonstrated that cross hybridization is most likely to occur with <i>B. rapa</i>. Because of the ability of canola to outcross with related plants, the formation of glyphosate tolerant hybrids is possible. However, the glyphosate-tolerance trait is not expected to provide a competitive advantage to hybrid plants unless grown in managed environments routinely subjected to glyphosate applications. In the event that a glyphosate tolerant hybrid survived, the herbicide-tolerant individual could be easily controlled using mechanical and/or other available chemical means.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The human consumption of canola products is limited to the purified oil. Refined edible canola oil consists of purified triglycerides (96-97%) and does not contain any detectable protein, hence no amounts of CP4 EPSPS or GOX proteins were detected in the refined oil of GT200 canola. As the introduced gene products are not detectable in the refined oil produced from transgenic canola, there will be no human exposure to these proteins and the consumption of refined oil from GT200 was judged to have no significant impact on the nutritional quality of the food supply.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The livestock feed safety of GT200 canola was established based on several standard criteria. The analysis of nutrients from transgenic GT200 canola and non-transgenic canola did not reveal any significant differences in the levels of crude protein, crude fat, crude fibre, ash and gross energy in either the whole seed or processed meal. Raw seeds of GT200 were shown to have the same levels of glucosinolates and erucic acid as commercial canola varieties. Seed protein profiles, amino acid and fatty acid compositions were all within the range of the unmodified counterparts.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Several animal feeding studies were conducted to demonstrate the wholesomeness of glyphosate-tolerant canola meal. Canola meal is used only for animal feed and is not considered a human food fraction. These studies included a four-week rat study on processed and unprocessed meal, a five-day quail (Northern Bobwhite) study on unprocessed meal, and a ten-week trout study on processed meal. The studies all supported the safety of the inclusion of GT200 canola in animal feed.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">It was determined that there were no toxicity and allergenicity concerns with GT200. There is no dietary exposure to CP4 EPSPS and GOX since these proteins are not present in the refined canola oil consumed by humans. Furthermore, the structure and function of CP4 EPSPS protein was determined to be similar to the same enzyme naturally present in foods. Neither CP4 EPSPS nor GOX were found to have any amino acid sequence similarities with known toxins or allergens, and there are no known reports of toxicity or allergenicity of EPSPS or GOX proteins derived from plants, bacteria and fungi. Direct laboratory studies of the CP4 EPSPS and GOX proteins revealed the ready digestibility of both proteins under conditions simulating mammalian digestion, providing further evidence supporting the lack of toxicity or allergenicity concerns with GT200.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 01:32:48');
INSERT INTO `gmcropdatabase_events_execsummaries` (`id`, `eventId`, `description`, `status`, `created`, `updated`) VALUES
(35, 27, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Argentine or oilseed rape (<i>Brassica napus</i>) was grown as a commercial crop in over 50 countries, with a combined harvest of 48.9 million metric tonnes in 2006. The major producers of rapeseed are China, Canada, India, Germany, France, the United Kingdom and Australia. Canola is a genetic variation of <i>B. napus</i> that was developed through conventional breeding to contain low levels of the natural rapeseed toxins, glucosinolate and erucic acid. Canola is grown for its seed, which represents a major source of edible vegetable oil and is also used in livestock feeds.<br />\nThe only food use of canola is as a refined oil. Typically, canola oil is used by itself as a salad oil or cooking oil, or blended with other vegetable oils in the manufacture of margarine, shortenings, cooking and salad oils. Canola meal, a byproduct of the oil production process, is added to livestock feed rations. An increasing amount of oil is being used for biodiesel production, especially in Europe.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The canola lines MS8 and RF3 were developed using genetic engineering techniques to provide a pollination control system for the production of hybrid oilseed rape (MS8xRF3) expressing male sterility and tolerance to glufosinate ammonium. The novel hybridization system involves the use of two parental lines, a male sterile line MS8 and a fertility restorer line RF3. The transgenic MS8 plants do not produce viable pollen grains and cannot self-pollinate. In order to completely restore fertility in the hybrid progeny, line MS8 must be pollinated by a modified plant containing a fertility restorer gene, such as line RF3. The resultant F1 hybrid seed, derived from the cross between MS8 x RF3, generates hybrid plants that produce pollen and are completely fertile.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The male-sterile trait was introduced in MS8 by inserting the <i>barnase</i> gene, isolated from <i>Bacillus amyloliquefaciens</i>, a common soil bacterium that is frequently used as a source for industrial enzymes. The <i>barnase</i> gene encodes for a ribonuclease enzyme (RNAse) that is expressed only in the tapetum cells of the pollen sac during anther development. The RNAse affects RNA production, disrupting normal cell functioning and arresting early anther development, thus leading to male sterility.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The transgenic line RF3 was produced by genetically engineering plants to restore fertility in the hybrid line. Transgenic RF3 plants contain the <i>barstar</i> gene, also isolated from <i>Bacillus amyloliquefaciens</i>. The <i>barstar</i> gene codes for a ribonuclease inhibitor (barstar enzyme) expressed only in the tapetum cells of the pollen sac during anther development. The ribonuclease inhibitor (barstar enzyme) specifically inhibits barnase RNAse expressed by the MS8 line. Together, the RNAse and the ribonuclease inhibitor form a very stable one-to-one complex, in which the RNAse is inactivated. As a result, when pollen from the restorer line RF3 is crossed to the male sterile line MS8, the resultant progeny express the RNAse inhibitor in the tapetum cells of the anthers, allowing hybrid plants to develop normal anthers and restoring fertility.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Both transgenic lines MS8 and RF3 were also engineered to express tolerance to glufosinate ammonium, the active ingredient in phosphinothricin herbicides (Basta&reg;, Rely&reg;, Finale&reg;, and Liberty&reg;). Glufosinate chemically resembles the amino acid glutamate and acts to inhibit an enzyme, called glutamine synthetase, which is involved in the synthesis of glutamine. Essentially, glufosinate acts enough like glutamate, the molecule used by glutamine synthetase to make glutamine, that it blocks the enzyme&#39;s usual activity. Glutamine synthetase is also involved in ammonia detoxification. The action of glufosinate results in reduced glutamine levels and a corresponding increase in concentrations of ammonia in plant tissues, leading to cell membrane disruption and cessation of photosynthesis resulting in plant withering and death.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Glufosinate tolerance in these canola lines was the result of introducing a gene encoding the enzyme phosphinothricin-N-acetyltransferase (PAT) isolated from the common aerobic soil actinomycete, <i>Streptomyces hygroscopicus</i>. The PAT enzyme catalyzes the acetylation of phosphinothricin, detoxifying it into an inactive compound. The PAT enzyme is not known to have any toxic properties.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The PAT enzyme was used as a selectable marker enabling identification of transformed plants during tissue culture regeneration, and as a field selection method to obtain 100% hybrid seed.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The transgenic canola lines MS8, RF3, and derived hybrids, have been extensively field tested in Canada from 1994 to 1996, in the United States beginning in 1997, and in Europe. Important agronomic characteristics such as germination, vegetative vigour, flowering period, time to maturity and seed production were within the normal range of expression found in unmodified canola varieties. Flowers of the MS8 line had undeveloped anthers, slightly smaller petals and did not produce fertile pollen, but nectar production remained unchanged and normal insect pollination was observed. Stress adaptation was evaluated, including disease and pest susceptibilities, and determined to fall within the ranges currently displayed by commercial varieties. It was demonstrated that the transformed canola lines did not exhibit weedy characteristics, or negatively affect beneficial or non-target organisms. Canola lines MS8, RF3 and their progeny were not expected to impact on threatened or endangered species.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;"><i>Brassica napus</i> may outcross (up to 30% of the time) with plants of the same species, and potentially with plants of related species <i>B. rapa, B. juncea, B. carinata, B. nigra, Diplotaxis muralis, Raphanus raphanistrum</i>, and <i>Erucastrum gallicum</i>. Previous studies have demonstrated that cross breeding is most likely to occur with <i>B. rapa</i>. Due to the ability of canola to outcross with related plants, the formation of glufosinate-tolerant hybrids is possible. However, the glufosinate-tolerance trait is not expected to provide a competitive advantage to hybrid plants unless grown in managed environments routinely subjected to glufosinate applications. Additionally, multiple barriers, including the male-sterility of the canola line MS8, ensured that gene flow from this transformed line into wild or cultivated sexually compatible plants was extremely unlikely. In the event that a glufosinate-tolerant hybrid survived, the herbicide-tolerant individual could be easily controlled using mechanical and/or other available chemical means.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The human consumption of canola products is limited to the refined oil. Refined edible canola oil consists of purified triglycerides (96-97%) and does not contain any detectable protein, hence no amounts of the introduced proteins were detected in the refined oil of MS8 or RF3 canola. Furthermore processing would destroy the enzymatic activity of the introduced gene products. As such, there will be no human exposure to these proteins as a result of the consumption of refined oil from these transgenic lines, or their hybrids.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The composition of refined canola oil from MS8xRF3 hybrid canola was compared to that of non-transgenic canola. Some statistical differences in fatty acid composition were revealed, but the fatty acid composition of the oil from the transgenic line was still within the normal range for canola oil. Processing according to protocols mimicking industrial practices further demonstrated the composition and physical characteristics of oil from the MS8xRF3 canola line was equivalent to that of non-transgenic canola. It was determined that the consumption of refined oil from MS8, RF3 or hybrids derived from these lines would have no significant impact on the nutritional quality of the food supply in Canada.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Potential toxicity and allergenicity of the transformed canola lines was further investigated through examination of the amino acid sequences and physiochemical characteristics of the novel proteins RNAse (<i>barnase</i>), RNAse inhibitor (<i>barstar</i>), and PAT (<i>bar</i>). No significant homologies between the amino acid sequences of these novel proteins and those of known toxins or allergens were detected. Further, these proteins were shown not to possess the proteolytic or heat stability characteristic of toxic compounds, and were readily digested under conditions simulating mammalian digestion. It was concluded that these proteins, and thus MS8, RF3 and MS8xRF3 hybrid canola lines, possessed little or no potential for allergenicity or toxicity.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 11:50:27'),
(36, 26, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Argentine or oilseed rape (<i>Brassica napus</i>) was grown as a commercial crop in over 50 countries, with a combined harvest of 48.9 million metric tonnes in 2006. The major producers of rapeseed are China, Canada, India, Germany, France, the United Kingdom and Australia. Canola is a genetic variation of <i>B. napus</i> that was developed through conventional breeding to contain low levels of the natural rapeseed toxins, glucosinolate and erucic acid. Canola is grown for its seed, which represents a major source of edible vegetable oil and is also used in livestock feeds.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The only food use of canola is as a refined oil. Typically, canola oil is used by itself as a salad oil or cooking oil, or blended with other vegetable oils in the manufacture of margarine, shortenings, cooking and salad oils. Canola meal, a byproduct of the oil production process, is added to livestock feed rations. An increasing amount of oil is being used for biodiesel production, especially in Europe.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The canola lines MS1 and RF1 were developed using genetic engineering techniques to provide a pollination control system for the production of hybrid oilseed rape (MS1xRF1) expressing male sterility and tolerance to glufosinate ammonium. The novel hybridization system involves the use of two parental lines, a male sterile line MS1 and a fertility restorer line RF1. The transgenic MS1 plants do not produce viable pollen grains and cannot self-pollinate. In order to completely restore fertility in the hybrid progeny, line MS1 must be pollinated by a modified plant containing a fertility restorer gene, such as line RF1. The resultant F1 hybrid seed, derived from the cross between MS1 x RF1, generates hybrid plants that produce pollen and are completely fertile.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The male-sterile trait was introduced in MS1 by inserting the <i>barnase</i> gene, isolated from <i>Bacillus amyloliquefaciens</i>, a common soil bacterium that is frequently used as a source for industrial enzymes. The <i>barnase</i> gene encodes for a ribonuclease enzyme (RNAse) that is expressed only in the tapetum cells of the pollen sac during anther development. The RNAse affects RNA production, disrupting normal cell functioning and arresting early anther development, thus leading to male sterility.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The transgenic line RF1 was produced by genetically engineering plants to restore fertility in the hybrid line. Transgenic RF1 plants contain the <i>barstar</i> gene, also isolated from <i>Bacillus amyloliquefaciens</i>. The <i>barstar</i> gene codes for a ribonuclease inhibitor (barstar enzyme) expressed only in the tapetum cells of the pollen sac during anther development. The ribonuclease inhibitor (barstar enzyme) specifically inhibits <i>barnase</i> RNAse expressed by the MS1 line. Together, the RNAse and the ribonuclease inhibitor form a very stable one-to-one complex, in which the RNAse is inactivated. As a result, when pollen from the restorer line RF1 is crossed to the male sterile line MS1, the resultant progeny express the RNAse inhibitor in the tapetum cells of the anthers, allowing hybrid plants to develop normal anthers and restoring fertility.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Both transgenic lines MS1 and RF1 were also engineered to express tolerance to glufosinate ammonium, the active ingredient in phosphinothricin herbicides (Basta&reg;, Rely&reg;, Finale&reg;, and Liberty&reg;). Glufosinate chemically resembles the amino acid glutamate and acts to inhibit an enzyme, called glutamine synthetase, which is involved in the synthesis of glutamine. Essentially, glufosinate acts enough like glutamate, the molecule used by glutamine synthetase to make glutamine, that it blocks the enzyme&#39;s usual activity. Glutamine synthetase is also involved in ammonia detoxification. The action of glufosinate results in reduced glutamine levels and a corresponding increase in concentrations of ammonia in plant tissues, leading to cell membrane disruption and cessation of photosynthesis resulting in plant withering and death.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Glufosinate tolerance in these canola lines was the result of introducing a gene encoding the enzyme phosphinothricin-N-acetyltransferase (PAT) isolated from the common aerobic soil actinomycete, <i>Streptomyces hygroscopicus</i>. The PAT enzyme catalyzes the acetylation of phosphinothricin, detoxifying it into an inactive compound. The PAT enzyme is not known to have any toxic properties.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The PAT enzyme was used as a selectable marker enabling identification of transformed plants during tissue culture regeneration, and as a field selection method to obtain 100% hybrid seed.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The canola lines MS1 and RF1, and the hybrid MS1xRF1, were field tested in Canada from 1991 to 1994. Agronomic characteristics such as vegetative vigour, overwintering capacity, flowering period, and seed germination and dormancy were within the normal range of expression found in unmodified canola varieties. As expected, seed production of the hybrid line was greater than that of the unmodified counterparts. Flowers of the MS1 line had undeveloped anthers, slightly smaller petals and did not produce fertile pollen, but nectar production remained unchanged and normal insect pollination was observed. Stress adaptation was evaluated, including susceptibilities to major insect pests and diseases, and was determined to fall within the ranges currently displayed by commercial varieties. It was demonstrated that the transformed canola lines did not exhibit weedy characteristics, or negatively affect beneficial or non-target organisms. Canola lines MS1, RF1 and their progeny were not expected to impact on threatened or endangered species.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;"><i>Brassica napus</i> may outcross (up to 30% of the time) with plants of the same species, and potentially with plants of related species <i>B. rapa, B. juncea, B. carinata, B. nigra, Diplotaxis muralis, Raphanus raphanistrum</i>, and <i>Erucastrum gallicum</i>. Previous studies have demonstrated that cross breeding is most likely to occur with <i>B. rapa</i>. Due to the ability of canola to outcross with related plants, the formation of glufosinate-tolerant hybrids is possible. However, the glufosinate-tolerance trait is not expected to provide a competitive advantage to hybrid plants unless grown in managed environments routinely subjected to glufosinate applications. Additionally, multiple barriers, including the male-sterility of the canola line MS1, ensured that gene flow from this transformed line into wild or cultivated sexually compatible plants was extremely unlikely. In the event that a glufosinate-tolerant hybrid survived, the herbicide-tolerant individual could be easily controlled using mechanical and/or other available chemical means.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The human consumption of canola products is limited to the refined oil. Refined edible canola oil consists of purified triglycerides (96-97%) and does not contain any detectable protein, hence no amounts of the introduced proteins were detected in the refined oil of MS1 or RF1 canola. Furthermore, processing would destroy the enzymatic activity of the introduced gene products. As such, there will be no human exposure to these proteins as a result of the consumption of refined oil from these transgenic lines.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The analysis of nutrients from transgenic canola lines MS1 and RF1 and non-transgenic canola did not reveal any significant differences in the levels crude protein, crude fat, crude fibre, ash and gross energy in either whole seed or processed meal. The fatty acid composition of oils extracted from both transgenic and non-transgenic canola was statistically the same, and within the normal range for canola oil. It was determined that the consumption of refined oil from MS1, RF1 or hybrids derived from these lines would have no significant impact on the nutritional quality of the food supply.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Potential toxicity and allergenicity of the transformed canola lines was further investigated through examination of the amino acid sequences and physiochemical characteristics of the novel proteins RNAse (<i>barnase</i>), RNAse inhibitor (<i>barstar</i>), and PAT (<i>bar</i>). No significant homologies between the amino acid sequences of these novel proteins and those of known toxins or allergens were detected. It was concluded that these proteins, and thus MS1, RF1 and MS1xRF1 hybrid canola lines, possessed little or no potential for allergenicity or toxicity.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 11:17:59'),
(37, 65, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Argentine or oilseed rape (<i>Brassica napus</i>) was grown as a commercial crop in over 50 countries, with a combined harvest of 48.9 million metric tonnes in 2006. The major producers of rapeseed are China, Canada, India, Germany, France, the United Kingdom and Australia. Canola is a genetic variation of <i>B. napus</i> that was developed through conventional breeding to contain low levels of the natural rapeseed toxins, glucosinolate and erucic acid. Canola is grown for its seed, which represents a major source of edible vegetable oil and is also used in livestock feeds.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The only food use of canola is as a refined oil. Typically, canola oil is used by itself as a salad oil or cooking oil, or blended with other vegetable oils in the manufacture of margarine, shortenings, cooking and salad oils. Canola meal, a byproduct of the oil production process, is added to livestock feed rations. An increasing amount of oil is being used for biodiesel production, especially in Europe.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The canola lines MS1 and RF2 were developed using genetic engineering techniques to provide a pollination control system for the production of hybrid oilseed rape (MS1xRF2) expressing male sterility and tolerance to glufosinate ammonium. The novel hybridization system involves the use of two parental lines, a male sterile line MS1 and a fertility restorer line RF2. The transgenic MS1 plants do not produce viable pollen grains and cannot self-pollinate. In order to completely restore fertility in the hybrid progeny, line MS1 must be pollinated by a modified plant containing a fertility restorer gene, such as line RF2. The resultant F1 hybrid seed, derived from the cross between MS1 x RF2, generates hybrid plants that produce pollen and are completely fertile.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The male-sterile trait was introduced in MS1 by inserting the <i>barnase</i> gene, isolated from <i>Bacillus amyloliquefaciens</i>, a common soil bacterium that is frequently used as a source for industrial enzymes. The <i>barnase</i> gene encodes for a ribonuclease enzyme (RNAse) that is expressed only in the tapetum cells of the pollen sac during anther development. The RNAse affects RNA production, disrupting normal cell functioning and arresting early anther development, thus leading to male sterility.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The transgenic line RF2 was produced by genetically engineering plants to restore fertility in the hybrid line. Transgenic RF2 plants contain the <i>barstar</i> gene, also isolated from <i>Bacillus amyloliquefaciens</i>. The <i>barstar</i> gene codes for a ribonuclease inhibitor (barstar enzyme) expressed only in the tapetum cells of the pollen sac during anther development. The ribonuclease inhibitor (barstar enzyme) specifically inhibits <i>barnase</i> RNAse expressed by the MS1 line. Together, the RNAse and the ribonuclease inhibitor form a very stable one-to-one complex, in which the RNAse is inactivated. As a result, when pollen from the restorer line RF2 is crossed to the male sterile line MS1, the resultant progeny express the RNAse inhibitor in the tapetum cells of the anthers, allowing hybrid plants to develop normal anthers and restoring fertility.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Both transgenic lines MS1 and RF2 were also engineered to express tolerance to glufosinate ammonium, the active ingredient in phosphinothricin herbicides (Basta&reg;, Rely&reg;, Finale&reg;, and Liberty&reg;). Glufosinate chemically resembles the amino acid glutamate and acts to inhibit an enzyme, called glutamine synthetase, which is involved in the synthesis of glutamine. Essentially, glufosinate acts enough like glutamate, the molecule used by glutamine synthetase to make glutamine, that it blocks the enzyme&#39;s usual activity. Glutamine synthetase is also involved in ammonia detoxification. The action of glufosinate results in reduced glutamine levels and a corresponding increase in concentrations of ammonia in plant tissues, leading to cell membrane disruption and cessation of photosynthesis resulting in plant withering and death.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Glufosinate tolerance in these canola lines was the result of introducing a gene encoding the enzyme phosphinothricin-N-acetyltransferase (PAT) isolated from the common aerobic soil actinomycete, <i>Streptomyces hygroscopicus</i>. The PAT enzyme catalyzes the acetylation of phosphinothricin, detoxifying it into an inactive compound. The PAT enzyme is not known to have any toxic properties.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The PAT enzyme was used as a selectable marker enabling identification of transformed plants during tissue culture regeneration, and as a field selection method to obtain 100% hybrid seed.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The canola lines MS1 and RF2, and the hybrid MS1xRF2, were field tested in Canada from 1991 to 1994. Agronomic characteristics such as vegetative vigour, overwintering capacity, flowering period, and seed germination and dormancy were within the normal range of expression found in unmodified canola varieties. As expected, seed production of the hybrid line was greater than that of the unmodified counterparts. Flowers of the MS1 line had undeveloped anthers, slightly smaller petals and did not produce fertile pollen, but nectar production remained unchanged and normal insect pollination was observed. Stress adaptation was evaluated, including susceptibilities to major insect pests and diseases, and was determined to fall within the ranges currently displayed by commercial varieties. It was demonstrated that the transformed canola lines did not exhibit weedy characteristics, or negatively affect beneficial or non-target organisms. Canola lines MS1, RF2 and their progeny were not expected to impact on threatened or endangered species.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;"><i>Brassica napus</i> may outcross (up to 30% of the time) with plants of the same species, and potentially with plants of related species <i>B. rapa, B. juncea, B. carinata, B. nigra, Diplotaxis muralis, Raphanus raphanistrum</i>, and <i>Erucastrum gallicum</i>. Previous studies have demonstrated that cross breeding is most likely to occur with <i>B. rapa</i>. Due to the ability of canola to outcross with related plants, the formation of glufosinate-tolerant hybrids is possible. However, the glufosinate-tolerance trait is not expected to provide a competitive advantage to hybrid plants unless grown in managed environments routinely subjected to glufosinate applications. Additionally, multiple barriers, including the male-sterility of the canola line MS1, ensured that gene flow from this transformed line into wild or cultivated sexually compatible plants was extremely unlikely. In the event that a glufosinate-tolerant hybrid survived, the herbicide-tolerant individual could be easily controlled using mechanical and/or other available chemical means.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The human consumption of canola products is limited to the refined oil. Refined edible canola oil consists of purified triglycerides (96-97%) and does not contain any detectable protein, hence no amounts of the introduced proteins were detected in the refined oil of MS1 or RF2 canola. Furthermore, processing would destroy the enzymatic activity of the introduced gene products. As such, there will be no human exposure to these proteins as a result of the consumption of refined oil from these transgenic lines.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The analysis of nutrients from transgenic canola lines MS1 and RF2 and non-transgenic canola did not reveal any significant differences in the levels crude protein, crude fat, crude fibre, ash and gross energy in either whole seed or processed meal. The fatty acid composition of oils extracted from both transgenic and non-transgenic canola was statistically the same, and within the normal range for canola oil. It was determined that the consumption of refined oil from MS1, RF2 or hybrids derived from these lines would have no significant impact on the nutritional quality of the food supply.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Potential toxicity and allergenicity of the transformed canola lines was further investigated through examination of the amino acid sequences and physiochemical characteristics of the novel proteins RNAse (<i>barnase</i>), RNAse inhibitor (<i>barstar</i>), and PAT (<i>bar</i>). No significant homologies between the amino acid sequences of these novel proteins and those of known toxins or allergens were detected. It was concluded that these proteins, and thus MS1, RF2 and MS1xRF2 hybrid canola lines, possessed little or no potential for allergenicity or toxicity.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 16:55:16'),
(38, 54, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Potato (<i>Solanum tuberosum</i> L.) is grown commercially in over 150 countries with a combined harvest of over 315 million metric tonnes in 2006. The major producers of potatoes are China, Russia, India, the United States, Ukraine, Poland and Germany. Potatoes are the fourth most important food crop in the world, providing more edible food than the combined world output of fish and meat. They are grown for the fresh and processed food industries, especially the frozen food sector. In North America, potato tubers are used primarily for French fries, chips, and dehydrated flakes. Other food uses of the crop include consumption of fresh tubers, and in the production of flour, starch and alcohol.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Colorado potato beetle (CPB; <i>Leptinotarsa decemlineata</i> [Say]) is the most destructive insect pest of potatoes in North America. The adult and all larval stages feed primarily on foliage and occasionally on stems. When the population of beetles is high, plants can be completely defoliated. Extensive feeding at any time during the growing season can reduce yield, as a reduction in leaf surface area decreases the plant&rsquo;s ability to produce and store nutrients, which affects tuber size and number.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Commercial production of potatoes is nearly impossible without using insecticides to control CPB. Thirty-four percent of total insecticide use on potatoes is for control of CPB, more than used on any other insect potato pest. There are several insecticide classes that are available for CPB control including organophosphates, carbamates, pyrethroids, chlorinated hydrocarbons, insect growth regulators, chloronicotinyl, spinosads and abamectins. Colorado potato beetle has shown a tremendous ability to develop resistance to insecticides, including the arsenicals, organochlorines, carbamates, organophosphates, and pyrethroids. Cross-resistance to organophosphates and carbamates, and multiple resistance to organophosphates, carbamates, and pyrethroids has also been reported.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Potato virus Y (PVY), the type member of the potyvirus group, is known to infect over 342 plant species in 69 genera and 27 families. PVY naturally infects solanaceous plants (<i>e.g.</i>, potato, pepper, tomato and tobacco) worldwide and is particularly prevalent in warmer climates. This rod-shaped RNA virus can cause serious damage to potato production, reducing yields from 10% to 80%, and is reported as one of the major causes for the rejection of seed potatoes in virus-free certification programs. PVY has been characterized into many strains but generally falls into three main groups, PVY-O (ordinary), PVY-N (necrotic) and PVY-C (stipple streak). Strains are characterized on the basis of the plant symptoms produced in a set of selected potato and tobacco cultivars. Disease severity depends on PVY strain, host tolerance, time of infection and environmental factors. In potato, PVY is transmitted to the new crop via seed tubers and in a non-persistent manner by the green peach aphid (<i>Myzus persicae</i>) and other aphid vectors. Infection occurs when aphids acquire the virus from an infected plant and carry the virus to another, introducing it into the host as they feed. Primary symptoms caused by PVY may be mild or hardly detectable, which causes problems particularly in seed potato production.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Traditionally, control of PVY has been achieved using a variety of approaches, including: the use of certified virus-free tubers for planting; the elimination of potato volunteers and weeds; destroying cull piles (which can serve as reservoirs of infected plant material); and the use of resistant cultivars.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The transgenic Shepody NewLeaf&reg; Y potato lines, SEMT15-02 and SEMT15-15, and Russet Burbank NewLeaf&reg; Y RBMT15-101, were produced using recombinant DNA techniques and contain two novel genes, whose individual expression results in resistance to attack by CPB and resistance to infection by PVY-O. Resistance to attack by CPB was accomplished by introducing the <i>cry3A</i> gene from <i>Bacillus thuringiensis</i> subsp. <i>tenebrionis</i>, which encodes an insecticidal crystalline Cry3A delta-endotoxin protein. The insecticidal activity of Cry3A protein is due to its selective binding to specific sites localized on the brush border midgut epithelium of susceptible insect species. Following binding, cation-specific pores are formed that disrupt midgut ion flow and thereby cause gut paralysis, ultimately leading to bacterial sepsis and death. Delta-endotoxins, such as the Cry3A protein expressed in CPB resistant potato lines, exhibit highly selective insecticidal activity against a narrow range of coleopteran insects such as CPB, elm leaf beetle and yellow mealworm. Their specificity of action is directly attributable to the presence of specific receptors in the target insects. There are no receptors for delta-endotoxins of <i>B. thuringiensis</i> on the surface of mammalian intestinal cells, therefore, livestock animals and humans are not susceptible to these proteins.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Pathogen-derived resistance to PVY was conferred by introducing the coat protein (CP) gene from PVY-O. The coat protein forms a protective coat around the RNA genome of the virus and comprises 95% by mass of the virus particle. Although the exact mechanism is not fully understood, these transgenic potato lines exhibit resistance to infection and subsequent disease caused by PVY through a process that is related to viral cross-protection.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">RBMT15-101, SEMT15-02 and SEMT15-15 potato lines were tested in field trials in both the United States and Canada, and data collected from the trials demonstrated that these potato lines grew normally and exhibited the characteristics normally associated with Russet Burbank or Shepody cultivars, except for resistance to attack by CPB and infection with PVY. Transgenic NewLeaf&reg; Y potato lines did not pose a plant pest risk, negatively affect beneficial or nontarget organisms, or exhibit enhanced weediness potential.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Generally, varieties of <i>S. tuberosum</i> are capable of crossbreeding with each other. However, transgenic NewLeaf&reg; Y potato line RBMT15-101 was derived from the male sterile &lsquo;Russet Burbank&rsquo; potato, which does not produce pollen. As a result, it is not possible for RBMT15-101 to cross-pollinate with other potato varieties, or with any related wild relatives.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The reproductive characteristics of SEMT15-02 and SEMT15-15 were unchanged by the genetic modification and the frequency of cross-pollination should be no different than for conventional potato varieties. The chances for successful hybridization between transformed Shepody NewLeaf&reg; Y potato lines and most wild relatives are unlikely as potatoes (<i>Solanum tuberosum</i>) only form natural hybrids with Solanum species that bear tubers. In Canada, there are no tuber producing wild relatives of Solanum. In the United States, tuber-bearing Solanum species include <i>S. jamesii, S. fendleri</i>, and <i>S. pinnatisectum</i>; however, the possibility of cultivated potato crossing with these species is remote because of geographical isolation and other biological barriers to natural hybridization. No natural hybrids have been observed between these species and cultivated <i>S. tuberosum</i>.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Regulatory authorities in Canada and the United States have mandatory requirements for developers of <i>Bt</i> potatoes to implement specific Insect Resistant Management (IRM) Programs. The potential exists for <i>Bt</i>-resistant CPB populations to develop as acreages planted with transgenic CPB-resistant potatoes expand. Hence, these IRM programs are designed to reduce this potential and prolong the effectiveness of plant-expressed <i>Bt</i> toxins, and the microbial <i>Bt</i> spray formulations that contain these same toxins.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The food and livestock feed safety of NewLeaf&reg; Y potato lines was established based on several standard criteria, including analyses of key nutrients, total solids, sugars, vitamin C, soluble protein and proximates (<i>e.g.</i>, total protein, moisture, fat, ash, crude fibre, carbohydrates and calorie content). These analyses of macro- and micronutrients revealed only small differences between transgenic and non-transgenic control lines and in each case the level was within the normal range of variation reported for commercial potatoes.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The glycoalkaloids, solanine and chaconine, are naturally occurring toxicants found in potato tubers, particularly green tubers that have been exposed to sunlight. Analyses of total glycoalkaloid (TGA) levels in each of the transgenic lines demonstrated that in each case the levels were within the standard levels previously established for potatoes.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Neither of the Cry3A protein nor PVY CP shares amino acid sequence homology with any known protein toxins. Previous studies on the acute oral toxicity of Cry3A protein have established that this protein does not result in any adverse effects when fed to laboratory mice at doses up to 5220 mg/kg body weight. Toxicity testing was not required for the PVY CP because of the long history of exposure of human beings to this protein through the consumption of PVY-infected potatoes.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The Cry3A protein and PVY CP do not possess characteristics typical of known protein allergens. There were no regions of homology when the amino acid sequences of these introduced proteins were compared to the amino acid sequences of known protein allergens, and unlike known protein allergens, the Cry3A protein was rapidly degraded by simulated gastric or intestinal fluids. It was determined that these two proteins were highly unlikely to be allergenic.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 12:09:04'),
(39, 53, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Potato (<i>Solanum tuberosum</i> L.) is grown commercially in over 150 countries with a combined harvest of over 315 million metric tonnes in 2006. The major producers of potatoes are China, Russia, India, the United States, Ukraine, Poland and Germany. Potatoes are the fourth most important food crop in the world, providing more edible food than the combined world output of fish and meat. They are grown for the fresh and processed food industries, especially the frozen food sector. In North America, potato tubers are used primarily for French fries, chips, and dehydrated flakes. Other food uses of the crop include consumption of fresh tubers, and in the production of flour, starch and alcohol. Colorado potato beetle (CPB; <i>Leptinotarsa decemlineata</i> [Say]) is the most destructive insect pest of potatoes in North America. The adult and all larval stages feed primarily on foliage and occasionally on stems. When the population of beetles is high, plants can be completely defoliated. Extensive feeding at any time during the growing season can reduce yield, as a reduction in leaf surface area decreases the plant&rsquo;s ability to produce and store nutrients, which affects tuber size and number. Commercial production of potatoes is nearly impossible without using insecticides to control CPB. Thirty-four percent of total insecticide use on potatoes is for control of CPB, more than used on any other insect potato pest. There are several insecticide classes that are available for CPB control including organophosphates, carbamates, pyrethroids, chlorinated hydrocarbons, insect growth regulators, chloronicotinyl, spinosads and abamectins. Colorado potato beetle has shown a tremendous ability to develop resistance to insecticides, including the arsenicals, organochlorines, carbamates, organophosphates, and pyrethroids. Cross-resistance to organophosphates and carbamates, and multiple resistance to organophosphates, carbamates, and pyrethroids has also been reported. Potato leafroll virus (PLRV) is a spherical RNA virus belonging to the luteovirus group and is transmitted in a persistent manner by aphids, primarily the green peach aphid (<i>Myzus persicae</i>). When an aphid picks up the virus from an infected plant, the virus circulates through the aphid, entering the salivary glands. The virus is then transmitted when the aphid probes (feeds on) other potato plants. Although acquisition of the virus by an aphid is rapid (few minutes of feeding), it generally requires 24-48 hours before the aphid can transmit it to another plant. This delay provides a window of opportunity to limit virus spread through the timely application of insecticides for green peach aphid control. Aphids are the only vector of PLRV transmission and infectious aphids remain so throughout their lifespan. The symptoms of PLRV infection include rolling upward of the top leaves and the presence of net necrosis (small brown strands of discoloured tissue extending throughout the stem end of the tuber after a month in storage) in the tubers of some cultivars. The transgenic Russet Burbank NewLeaf&reg; Plus potato lines, RBMT21-129, RBMT21-350 and RBMT22-082, were produced using recombinant DNA techniques and contain two novel genes, whose individual expression results in resistance to attack by CPB and resistance to infection by PLRV. Resistance to attack by CPB was accomplished by introducing the <i>cry3A</i> gene from <i>Bacillus thuringiensis</i> subsp. <i>tenebrionis</i>, which encodes an insecticidal crystalline Cry3A delta-endotoxin protein. The insecticidal activity of Cry3A protein is due to its selective binding to specific sites localized on the brush border midgut epithelium of susceptible insect species. Following binding, cation-specific pores are formed that disrupt midgut ion flow and thereby cause gut paralysis, ultimately leading to bacterial sepsis and death. Delta-endotoxins, such as the Cry3A protein expressed in CPB resistant potato lines, exhibit highly selective insecticidal activity against a narrow range of coleopteran insects such as CPB, elm leaf beetle and yellow mealworm. Their specificity of action is directly attributable to the presence of specific receptors in the target insects. There are no receptors for delta-endotoxins of <i>B. thuringiensis</i> on the surface of mammalian intestinal cells, therefore, livestock animals and humans are not susceptible to these proteins. Introducing DNA sequences corresponding to the ORF-1 and ORF-2 regions from PLRV conferred resistance to PLRV infection. These two ORFs encode the putative viral helicase and replicase domains that are required for viral RNA synthesis. The introduced viral sequences do not result in the formation of any infectious particles, nor does their expression result in any disease pathology. These transgenic potato cultivars exhibit the trait of resistance to infection and subsequent disease caused by PLRV through an incompletely understood process that has been termed &quot;replicase-mediated resistance&quot;, which may involve silencing of viral gene translation. The transgenic NewLeaf&reg; Plus potato lines were tested in field trials in the United States and Canada. Data collected from these trials demonstrated these potato lines grew normally and exhibited the expected morphology, reproductive, and physical characteristics of &lsquo;Russet Burbank&rsquo; potatoes. Susceptibility to diseases and insects, other than CPB and PLRV, remained unchanged. Transgenic NewLeaf&reg; Plus potato lines did not pose a plant pest risk, or exhibit enhanced weediness potential. Dietary toxicity studies were performed using the Cry3A protein on four beneficial insects (honeybee, ladybird beetle, green lacewing and parasitic wasp) in addition to nontarget species such as earthworms, mice and bobwhite quail. The results demonstrated that Cry3A did not negatively affect beneficial or nontarget organisms under study. These NewLeaf&reg; Plus potato lines were not expected to impact on threatened or endangered species. Generally, varieties of <i>S. tuberosum</i> are capable of crossbreeding with each other. However, transgenic NewLeaf&reg; Plus potato lines were derived from the male sterile &lsquo;Russet Burbank&rsquo; potato, which does not produce pollen. As a result, it is not possible for these transgenic potatoes to cross-pollinate other potato varieties or related species. As a rule, successful hybridization between potatoes and Solanum species is only possible with other tuber-bearing species. In Canada, there are no tuber producing wild relatives of Solanum. In the United States, tuber-bearing Solanum species include <i>S. jamesii, S. fendleri</i>, and <i>S. pinnatisectum</i>; however, the possibility of cultivated potato crossing with these species is remote because of geographical isolation and other biological barriers to natural hybridization. No natural hybrids have been observed between these species and cultivated <i>S. tuberosum</i>. Regulatory authorities in Canada and the United States have mandatory requirements for developers of <i>Bt</i> potatoes to implement specific Insect Resistant Management (IRM) Programs. The potential exists for <i>Bt</i>-resistant CPB populations to develop as acreages planted with transgenic CPB-resistant potatoes expand. Hence, these IRM programs are designed to reduce this potential and prolong the effectiveness of plant-expressed <i>Bt</i> toxins, and the microbial <i>Bt</i> spray formulations that contain these same toxins. The food and livestock feed safety of NewLeaf&reg; Plus potatoes was established based on several standard criteria. As part of the safety assessment, the nutritional composition of these transgenic potatoes was found to be equivalent to conventional potatoes as shown by the analyses of key nutrients including proximates (<i>e.g.</i>, total protein, moisture, fat, ash, crude fibre, carbohydrates and calorie content), total solids, sugars, vitamin C, soluble protein, and natural glycoalkaloid toxicants. The glycoalkaloids, solanine and chaconine, are naturally occurring toxicants found in potato tubers, particularly green tubers that have been exposed to sunlight. Analyses of total glycoalkaloid (TGA) levels in each of the transgenic lines demonstrated that in each case the levels were within the standard levels previously established for potatoes. Neither of the Cry3A nor PLRV replicase proteins shares amino acid sequence homology with any known protein toxins. Previous studies on the acute oral toxicity of Cry3A protein have established that this protein does not result in any adverse effects when fed to laboratory mice at doses up to 5220 mg/kg body weight. Toxicity testing was not required for the PLRV replicase because of the long history of exposure of human beings to this protein through the consumption of PLRV-infected potatoes. The Cry3A and PLRV replicase proteins do not possess characteristics typical of known protein allergens. There were no regions of homology when the amino acid sequences of these introduced proteins were compared to the amino acid sequences of known protein allergens, and unlike known protein allergens, the Cry3A protein was rapidly degraded by simulated gastric or intestinal fluids. It was determined that these two proteins were highly unlikely to be allergenic.</p>\n\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 12:08:23');
INSERT INTO `gmcropdatabase_events_execsummaries` (`id`, `eventId`, `description`, `status`, `created`, `updated`) VALUES
(40, 10, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Potato (<i>Solanum tuberosum</i> L.) is grown commercially in over 150 countries with a combined harvest of over 315 million metric tonnes in 2006. The major producers of potatoes are China, Russia, India, the United States, Ukraine, Poland and Germany. Potatoes are the fourth most important food crop in the world, providing more edible food than the combined world output of fish and meat. They are grown for the fresh and processed food industries, especially the frozen food sector. In North America, potato tubers are used primarily for French fries, chips, and dehydrated flakes. Other food uses of the crop include consumption of fresh tubers, and in the production of flour, starch and alcohol.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Colorado potato beetle (CPB; <i>Leptinotarsa decemlineata</i> [Say]) is the most destructive insect pest of potatoes in North America. The adult and all larval stages feed primarily on foliage and occasionally on stems. When the population of beetles is high, plants can be completely defoliated. Extensive feeding at any time during the growing season can reduce yield, as a reduction in leaf surface area decreases the plant&rsquo;s ability to produce and store nutrients, which affects tuber size and number.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Commercial production of potatoes is nearly impossible without using insecticides to control CPB. Thirty-four percent of total insecticide use on potatoes is for control of CPB, more than used on any other insect potato pest. There are several insecticide classes that are available for Colorado potato beetle control including organophosphates, carbamates, pyrethroids, chlorinated hydrocarbons, insect growth regulators, chloronicotinyl, spinosads and abamectins. Colorado potato beetle has shown a tremendous ability to develop resistance to insecticides, including the arsenicals, organochlorines, carbamates, organophosphates, and pyrethroids. Cross-resistance to organophosphates and carbamates, and multiple resistance to organophosphates, carbamates, and pyrethroids has also been reported.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The transgenic cultivars of &lsquo;Atlantic&rsquo; (ATBT04-6, ATBT04-27, ATBT04-30, ATBT04-31, ATBT04-36) and &lsquo;Superior&rsquo; (SPBT02-5, SPBT02-7) NewLeaf&reg; potatoes were genetically engineered to be resistant to attack by CPB. These lines were developed by introducing the <i>cry3A</i> gene, isolated from the common soil bacterium <i>Bacillus thuringiensis</i> subspecies <i>tenebrionis</i> (<i>Btt</i>), into the potato genome by <i>Agrobacterium</i>-mediated transformation.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The Cry3A protein expressed in these transgenic potato cultivars is identical to that found in nature and in commercial <i>Bt</i> spray formulations. Cry proteins, of which Cry3A is only one, act by selectively binding to specific sites localized on the lining of the midgut of susceptible insect species. Following binding, pores are formed that disrupt midgut ion flow causing gut paralysis and eventual death due to bacterial sepsis. Cry3A is insecticidal only when eaten by the larvae of coleopteran insects such as Colorado potato beetle and its specificity of action is directly attributable to the presence of specific binding sites in the target insects. There are no binding sites for delta-endotoxins of <i>B. thuringiensis</i> on the surface of mammalian intestinal cells, therefore, livestock animals and humans are not susceptible to these proteins.<br />\nOver several years of field-testing, these transgenic potatoes have been compared to non-transgenic &lsquo;Atlantic&rsquo; and &lsquo;Superior&rsquo; cultivars for differences in physical characteristics, disease susceptibility, and insect susceptibility. The field data reports indicated no obvious differences in the number of volunteers, emergence from seed potatoes, percent stand (emergence), overwintering capacity, and tuber yield and quality. Susceptibilities to diseases, other than to CPB, including early blight, late blight, verticillium, potato leaf roll virus, and potato virus Y were unchanged. Field observations confirmed that Colorado potato beetle was controlled at all stages of development throughout the growing season and also indicated that potato flea beetles (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae, <i>Epitrix cucumeris</i> Harris) were affected to some extent. Overall the field data reports and data on agronomic traits showed that the CPB-resistant potato lines did not otherwise differ from their non-transgenic counterparts.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Dietary toxicity studies were performed using the Cry3A protein on four beneficial insects (honeybee, ladybird beetle, green lacewing and parasitic wasp), and eight non-target insect species (southern corn rootworm, yellow fever mosquito, green peach aphid, European corn borer, tobacco hornworm, corn earworm, tobacco budworm and German cockroach). No negative effects were observed, except for slightly higher mortality and reduced honeydew production of green peach aphids, which as vectors of damaging potato viruses, are normally controlled in potato fields by chemical means. The transgenic Atlantic and Superior potato lines were not expected to impact on threatened or endangered species.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Generally, varieties of <i>S. tuberosum</i> are capable of cross-hybridization with each other, but genetic exchange with other Solanum species is usually unsuccessful. In Canada there are no tuber producing wild relatives of Solanum. In the United States, tuber-bearing Solanum species include <i>S. jamesii, S. fendleri</i>, and <i>S. pinnatisectum</i>, however, the possibility of cultivated potato crossing with these species is remote because of geographical isolation and other biological barriers to natural hybridization. No natural hybrids have been observed between these species and cultivated <i>S. tuberosum</i>.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Gene transfer from the transgenic Atlantic and Superior potato lines to other potato cultivars is unlikely. Since the reproductive characteristics of the CPB-resistant potato lines were unchanged by the genetic modification, they should be no different than the parent cultivars. Gene exchange between and CPB-resistant potatoes and other Solanum species is very unlikely and is limited to cross-pollination with other potatoes.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Regulatory authorities in Canada and the United States have mandatory requirements for developers of <i>Bt</i> potatoes to implement specific Insect Resistant Management (IRM) Programs. The potential exists for <i>Bt</i>-resistant CPB populations to develop as acreages planted with transgenic CPB-resistant potatoes expand. Hence, these IRM programs are designed to reduce this potential and prolong the effectiveness of plant-expressed <i>Bt</i> toxins, and the microbial <i>Bt</i> spray formulations that contain these same toxins.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Potatoes are considered to be a staple food in North America, constituting up to 37% of the total average vegetable intake. The genetic modification present in the ATBT04-6, ATBT04-27, ATBT04-30, ATBT04-31, ATBT04-36, SPBT02-5 and SPBT02-7 transgenic lines will not result in any change in the consumption pattern for potatoes. Due to their protection from CPB damage, the NewLeaf&reg; Atlantic and Superior cultivars are expected to replace some existing commercial potato cultivars in all potato product applications. Hence, they will provide an alternate or additional choice to consumers and food manufacturers.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The major components of CPB-resistant potato lines were analyzed for nutritional constituents, proximate composition (protein, fat, ash, total dietary fibre, carbohydrate, and calories), internal quality characteristics (hollow heart and brown center, internal brown spots, vascular discoloration, and blackspot bruise), and French fry quality characteristics and compared with those of non-transgenic &lsquo;Atlantic&rsquo; and &lsquo;Superior&rsquo; tubers. The analysis of nutrients from each of these transgenic potato lines and from non-transgenic potatoes did not reveal any significant differences in levels of crude protein, ash, or starch. Similarly, the levels of micronutrients and trace elements, including thiamine, niacin, riboflavin, vitamin C, calcium, iron and zinc, were comparable to those of unmodified counterpart potatoes. It was concluded that the consumption of products from CPB-resistant potatoes would have no significant impact on the nutritional quality of the food supply.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The glycoalkaloids, solanine and chaconine, are naturally occurring toxicants found in potato tubers, particularly green tubers that have been exposed to sunlight. Analyses of total glycoalkaloid levels in each of the transgenic lines demonstrated that in each case the levels were within the standards previously established for potatoes.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The potential for allergenicity and toxicity of the Cry3A protein was assessed based upon the physiochemical properties of known food allergens, such as stability to acid and/or proteolytic digestion, heat stability, and glycosylation. Cry3A did not demonstrate any characteristics normally associated with food allergens. Unlike known protein allergens, which are normally resistant to digestion, Cry3A was rapidly inactivated and degraded when subjected to typical mammalian acidic stomach conditions. The amino acid sequence of the Cry3A protein was not found to be homologous with those of known protein toxins or allergens. Additionally, the Cry3A protein has a history of safe use as demonstrated by its application in microbial <i>Bt</i> spray formulations in agriculture and forestry for more than 30 years with no evidence of adverse effects. These facts were sufficient to provide with reasonable certainty that the Cry3A protein, and thus the transgenic Atlantic and Superior potato lines, possessed little or no potential for allergenicity or toxicity.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 01:27:38'),
(41, 52, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Cotton (<i>Gossypium hirsutum</i> L.) is primarily grown for its seed bolls that produce fibres used in numerous textile products. The major producers of cotton seed and lint are China, the United States, India, Pakistan, Brazil, Uzbekistan and Turkey.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">About two thirds of the harvested cotton crop is seed, which is separated from the lint during ginning. The cotton seed is crushed to produce cottonseed oil, cottonseed cake (meal) and hulls. Cottonseed oil is used primarily as cooking oil, in shortening and salad dressing, and is used extensively in the preparation of snack foods such as crackers, cookies and chips. The meal and hulls are an important protein concentrate for livestock, and may also serve as bedding and fuel. Linters, or fuzz, which are not removed in ginning, are used in felts, upholstery, mattresses, twine, wicks, carpets, surgical cottons, and in industrial products such as rayon, film, shatterproof glass, plastics, sausage skins, lacquers, and cellulose explosives.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Effective weed management is critical to cotton production. The removal of weeds early in the growing season extremely important in cotton production. Young cotton seedlings grow slowly early in the season and are not very competitive. Early weed pressure has detrimental effects on final yield. Weeds can also be detrimental later in the growing season; weeds can interfere with harvesting, and can result in a reduction in lint quality due to trash or staining. Precautions such as pre-plant tillage or herbicide application are common approaches for reducing weed competition, as are multiple herbicide treatments. The broadleaf weeds are the most difficult to control because there are few herbicide options available and many producers will use as many as four herbicides per year in an effort to control weeds.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Cotton lines 1445 and 1698 were genetically engineered to express resistance to glyphosate, the active ingredient in the herbicide Roundup&reg;, allowing for its use as a weed control option. In order to obtain field tolerance to glyphosate herbicide, a bacterial gene encoding a glyphosate-tolerant form of the enzyme 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS) was introduced into the cotton genome by <i>Agrobacterium</i>-mediated transformation.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The EPSPS enzyme is present in all plants, bacteria, and fungi, and is part of an important biochemical pathway called the shikimate pathway, which is involved in the production of aromatic amino acids and other aromatic compounds. When conventional cotton plants are treated with glyphosate, the plants cannot produce the aromatic amino acids needed to grow and survive. EPSPS is not present in mammals, birds or aquatic life forms, which do not synthesize their own aromatic amino acids. For this reason, glyphosate has little toxicity to these organisms. The EPSPS enzyme is naturally present in foods derived from plant and microbial sources.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Cotton lines 1445 and 1698 were field tested in the United States from 1991 to 1994. Compared with non-transgenic control lines, susceptibilities to diseases such as bacterial blight, boll rot, Verticillium wilt, and Ascochyta blight were unchanged. Similarly, no differences were noted in the susceptibility of the transformed cotton lines to insect pests, such as aphids, fleahoppers, boll weevils, tobacco budworm, cotton bollworm, and thrips, when compared to non-transformed cotton lines. Reports demonstrated that the cotton lines 1445 and 1698 did not exhibit weedy characteristics, and had no effect on non-target organisms or the general environment. The transformed lines were not expected to impact on threatened or endangered species.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Cotton plants are primarily self-pollinating, but insects, especially bumblebees and honeybees, also distribute cotton pollen. Cotton can cross-pollinate with compatible species including <i>G. hirsutum</i> (wild or under cultivation), <i>G. barbadense</i> (cultivated Pima cotton), and <i>G. tomentosum</i>. Overall, the probability of gene transfer to wild species in unmanaged ecosystems is low due to the relatively isolated distribution of Gossypium species, different breeding systems, and genome incompatibility. Assuming proximity, synchronicity of flowering and availability of insects, transgenic cotton lines 1445 and 1698 may freely hybridize with other <i>G. hirsutum</i> varieties.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Human consumption of cotton products is limited to refined cottonseed oil and cellulose from processed linters of cottonseed. Processed linters are essentially pure cellulose, and are subjected to heat and solvent treatment that would be expected to remove and destroy DNA. It is generally accepted that the refined oil does not contain protein as the refining process includes heat, solvent and alkali treatments that would remove and destroy any DNA and protein present. It was concluded that there was little potential for human dietary exposure to the novel proteins expressed in these transgenic cotton lines.<br />\n<br />\nA compositional comparison of cottonseed oil from each line was made to commercial non-transgenic cottonseed oil. Parameters measured included proximate analysis (protein, fat, ash, carbohydrates, crude fibre, and moisture), amino acid and fatty acid composition, and levels of tocopherols. Protein concentrations in the transgenic lines were slightly higher than in the control lines, but still fell within the normal range for cotton. Small differences were also seen in the fatty acid composition of the seed oil, and in total lipid content, however these differences were minor and values remained within the expected range. It was also determined that the transgenic lines contained levels of gossypol and cyclopropenoid fatty acids, toxic substances naturally found in cotton, within the normal range of variation reported for conventional cotton cultivars. Based on these data it was determined that the refined oil and processed linters derived from transgenic cotton lines 1445 and 1698 were nutritionally and compositionally comparable to that from conventional cotton and not likely to impact the nutritional quality of the food supply.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The assessment of the potential allergenicity of the CP4 EPSPS protein was based on an examination of its physiochemical properties, as compared with the characteristics of known protein allergens, amino acid sequence homology with known allergens, and its abundance in food. Data were presented to show that, unlike allergenic proteins, CP4 EPSPS was rapidly degraded in simulated gastric fluids and was inactivated by heat treatment. An amino acid sequence comparison did not reveal any homologies between known protein allergens or toxins and the CP4-EPSPS protein. In addition, refined cottonseed oil and cellulose from linters are devoid of protein and, given that most allergens are proteins, the consumption of these products is unlikely to result in an allergic reaction. These data supported the conclusion that the CP4-EPSPS protein, and thus 1445 and 1698 cotton, possessed little or no potential for allergenicity.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 12:08:07'),
(42, 29, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Cotton (<i>Gossypium hirsutum</i> L.) is primarily grown for its seed bolls that produce fibres used in numerous textile products. The major producers of cotton seed and lint are China, the United States, India, Pakistan, Brazil, Uzbekistan and Turkey.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">About two thirds of the harvested cotton crop is seed, which is separated from the lint during ginning. The cotton seed is crushed to produce cottonseed oil, cottonseed cake (meal) and hulls. Cottonseed oil is used primarily as cooking oil, in shortening and salad dressing, and is used extensively in the preparation of snack foods such as crackers, cookies and chips. The meal and hulls are an important protein concentrate for livestock, and may also serve as bedding and fuel. Linters, or fuzz, which are not removed in ginning, are used in felts, upholstery, mattresses, twine, wicks, carpets, surgical cottons, and in industrial products such as rayon, film, shatterproof glass, plastics, sausage skins, lacquers, and cellulose explosives.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Effective weed management is critical to cotton production. The removal of weeds early in the growing season extremely important in cotton production. Young cotton seedlings grow slowly early in the season and are not very competitive. Early weed pressure has detrimental effects on final yield. Weeds can also be detrimental later in the growing season; weeds can interfere with harvesting, and can result in a reduction in lint quality due to trash or staining. Precautions such as pre-plant tillage or herbicide application are common approaches for reducing weed competition, as are multiple herbicide treatments. The broadleaf weeds are the most difficult to control because there are few herbicide options available. Many producers will use as many as four herbicides per year in an effort to control weeds.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The BXN&trade; cotton line was genetically engineered to express tolerance to oxynil herbicides, including bromoxynil and ioxynil. Oxynil herbicides act by blocking electron flow during the light reaction of photosynthesis, inhibiting cellular respiration in dicotyledonous plants. Oxynil herbicides applied at rates recommended for effective weed control are toxic to conventional cotton varieties. The modified cotton line BXN&trade; contains the <i>bxn</i> gene for oxynil tolerance, and allows farmers to use oxynil herbicides for weed control in the cultivation of cotton.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The <i>bxn</i> gene was isolated from the bacterium <i>Klebsiella pneumoniae</i> subspecies ozaenae and codes for the enzyme nitrilase, which hydrolyses ioxynil and bromoxynil into non-toxic compounds. The nitrilase encoding gene was introduced into the cotton genome using <i>Agrobacterium</i>-mediated transformation, and the bacterial form of the enzyme expressed in this transgenic cotton line functions the same as that found in monocot plants such as corn, wheat and barley.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Transgenic BXN&trade; cotton was field tested in the United States at a total of 57 sites in 13 states. Field tests were also conducted in Argentina, Bolivia and South Africa in accordance with national regulatory requirements. Based on data from these trials, it was concluded that the transformed cotton line did not exhibit weedy characteristics, and would not negatively affect beneficial or non-target organisms. The transgenic BXN&trade; cotton line was not expected to impact on threatened or endangered species.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Cotton plants are primarily self-pollinating, but insects, especially bumblebees and honeybees, also distribute cotton pollen. Cotton can cross-pollinate with compatible species including <i>G. hirsutum</i> (wild or under cultivation), <i>G. barbadense</i> (cultivated Pima cotton), and <i>G. tomentosum</i>. Overall, the probability of gene transfer to wild species in unmanaged ecosystems is low due to the relatively isolated distribution of Gossypium species, different breeding systems, and genome incompatibility. Assuming proximity, synchronicity of flowering and availability of insects, transgenic BXN cotton may freely hybridize with other <i>G. hirsutum</i> varieties.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Human consumption of cotton products is limited to refined cottonseed oil and cellulose from processed linters of cottonseed. Processed linters are essentially pure cellulose, and are subjected to heat and solvent treatment that would be expected to remove and destroy DNA. It is generally accepted that the refined oil does not contain protein as the refining process includes heat, solvent and alkali treatments that would remove and destroy any DNA and protein present. The refined cottonseed oil from the transgenic BXN&trade; line was tested for the presence of the nitrilase protein, which was undetectable. It was concluded that there was little potential for human dietary exposure to the novel protein expressed in this transgenic cotton line.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Compositional comparison of cottonseed oil, cottonseed and meal from BXN&trade; cotton was made to the same materials from commercial non-transgenic cotton. Parameters measured included proximate analysis (moisture, crude fat/oil, protein, and ash) of cottonseed meal; fibre analysis (crude fibre, acid detergent, and neutral detergent fibres) of cottonseed; fatty acid composition of refined cottonseed oil; and amino acid profiles of cottonseed meal. No significant differences between the transgenic lines and the traditionally bred lines were observed for any of these parameters. It was also determined that the transgenic BXN&trade; cotton contained levels of gossypol and cyclopropenoid fatty acids, toxic substances naturally found in cotton, within the normal range of variation reported for conventional cotton cultivars.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Refined cottonseed oil and cellulose from linters are devoid of protein and, given that most allergens are proteins, their consumption is unlikely to result in an allergic reaction. The potential for cottonseed oil or linters from BXN&trade; cotton to constitute a source of allergens is therefore extremely low. In addition, the nitrilase enzyme does not display the properties of known allergens, such as glycosylation and protease stability. Further, an amino acid sequence comparison did not reveal any homologies between known protein allergens or toxins and the nitrilase enzyme. These data, along with the presence of the nitrilase protein in monocot food sources such as corn and barley, supported the conclusion that the nitrilase enzyme, and thus BXN&trade; cotton, possessed little or no potential for allergenicity or toxicity.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 11:52:12'),
(43, 34, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Cotton (<i>Gossypium hirsutum</i> L.) is primarily grown for its seed bolls that produce fibres used in numerous textile products. The major producers of cotton seed and lint are China, the United States, India, Pakistan, Brazil, Uzbekistan and Turkey.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">About two thirds of the harvested cotton crop is seed, which is separated from the lint during ginning. The cotton seed is crushed to produce cottonseed oil, cottonseed cake (meal) and hulls. Cottonseed oil is used primarily as cooking oil, in shortening and salad dressing, and is used extensively in the preparation of snack foods such as crackers, cookies and chips. The meal and hulls are an important protein concentrate for livestock, and may also serve as bedding and fuel. Linters, or fuzz, which are not removed in ginning, are used in felts, upholstery, mattresses, twine, wicks, carpets, surgical cottons, and in industrial products such as rayon, film, shatterproof glass, plastics, sausage skins, lacquers, and cellulose explosives.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Effective weed management is critical to cotton production. The removal of weeds early in the growing season extremely important in cotton production. Young cotton seedlings grow slowly early in the season and are not very competitive. Early weed pressure has detrimental effects on final yield. Weeds can also be detrimental later in the growing season; weeds can interfere with harvesting, and can result in a reduction in lint quality due to trash or staining. Precautions such as pre-plant tillage or herbicide application are common approaches for reducing weed competition, as are multiple herbicide treatments. The broadleaf weeds are the most difficult to control because there are few herbicide options available. Many producers will use as many as four herbicides per year in an effort to control weeds.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Tobacco budworm (<i>Heliothis virescens</i>), pink bollworm (<i>Pectinophora gossypiella</i>), and cotton bollworm (<i>Helicoverpa zea</i>) are three of the most destructive pests in cotton. In the United States alone the combined costs of control and yield loss attributed to these pests is up to $476 million per year. In Egypt, China and Brazil, pink bollworm commonly causes cotton losses of up to 20 percent.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">More insecticides are applied to conventionally grown cotton than to any other single crop. Each year cotton producers around the world use nearly $2.6 billion worth of pesticides, which include pesticides such as aldicarb, phorate, methamidophos and endosulfan. Cotton pests, such as the tobacco budworm, have developed some resistance to many of the insecticides used to control them. In regions where insecticide-resistant populations have developed budworm damage can reduce yields by 29%, despite an average of six insecticide applications each growing season.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The cotton lines 31807 and 31808 were genetically engineered to resist attack from the major lepidopteran pests of cotton and to tolerate herbicides in the oxynil family, including bromoxynil and ioxynil. Oxynil herbicides act by blocking electron flow during the light reaction of photosynthesis, inhibiting cellular respiration in dicotyledonous plants. Oxynil herbicides applied at rates recommended for effective weed control are toxic to conventional cotton varieties. These transgenic cotton lines contain the <i>bxn</i> gene for oxynil tolerance, and the <i>cry1Ac</i> gene from <i>Bacillus thuringiensis</i>, which codes for the insect control protein Cry1Ac, a delta-endotoxin. These genes were introduced into the cotton genome by <i>Agrobacterium</i>-mediated transformation.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The Cry1Ac protein produced by the transgenic cotton is almost identical to that found in nature and in commercial <i>Bt</i> spray formulations. Cry proteins, of which Cry1Ac is only one, act by selectively binding to specific sites localized on the lining of the midgut of susceptible insect species. Following binding, pores are formed that disrupt midgut ion flow, causing gut paralysis and eventual death due to bacterial sepsis. Cry1Ac is insecticidal only when eaten by the larvae of lepidopteran insects (moths and butterflies), and its specificity of action is directly attributable to the presence of specific binding sites in the target insects. There are no binding sites for delta-endotoxins of <i>B. thuringiensis</i> on the surface of mammalian intestinal cells, therefore, livestock animals and humans are not susceptible to these proteins.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The <i>bxn</i> gene, conferring tolerance to oxynil compounds, was isolated from the bacterium <i>Klebsiella pneumoniae</i> subspecies ozaenae and codes for the enzyme nitrilase, which hydrolyses ioxynil and bromoxynil into non-toxic compounds. The nitrilase enzyme in cotton lines 31807 and 31808 is a bacterial version of an enzyme that is widespread in nature, found in monocot plants such as corn, wheat and barley.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The transgenic cotton lines 31807 and 31808 were field tested in the United States. Based on data from these trials it was concluded that the transformed cotton lines 31807 and 31808 did not exhibit weedy characteristics and had no effect on non-target organisms or the general environment. The transformed lines were not expected to impact on threatened or endangered species.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Cotton plants are primarily self-pollinating, but insects, especially bumblebees and honeybees, also distribute cotton pollen. Cotton can cross-pollinate with compatible species including <i>G. hirsutum</i> (wild or under cultivation), <i>G. barbadense</i> (cultivated Pima cotton), and <i>G. tomentosum</i>. Overall, the probability of gene transfer to wild species in unmanaged ecosystems is low due to the relatively isolated distribution of Gossypium species, different breeding systems, and genome incompatibility. Assuming proximity, synchronicity of flowering and availability of insects, transgenic cotton lines 31087 and 31808 may freely hybridize with other <i>G. hirsutum</i> varieties.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Regulatory authorities in the United States have mandatory requirements for developers of <i>Bt</i> cotton to implement specific Insect Resistant Management (IRM) Programs. The potential for <i>Bt</i>-resistant insect populations to develop increases as acreages planted with transgenic <i>Bt</i> cotton hybrids expand. Hence, these IRM programs are designed to reduce this potential and prolong the effectiveness of plant-expressed <i>Bt</i> toxins, and the microbial <i>Bt</i> spray formulations that contain these same toxins.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Human consumption of cotton products is limited to refined cottonseed oil and cellulose from processed linters of cottonseed. Processed linters are essentially pure cellulose, and are subjected to heat and solvent treatment that would be expected to remove and destroy DNA. It is generally accepted that the refined oil does not contain protein as the refining process includes heat, solvent and alkali treatments that would remove and destroy any DNA and protein present. The refined cottonseed oil from the transgenic lines was tested for the presence of the nitrilase and Cry1Ac proteins, which were undetectable. It was concluded that there was little potential for human dietary exposure to the novel proteins expressed in these transgenic cotton lines.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Compositional comparison of cottonseed oil, cottonseed and meal from lines 31807 and 31808 was made to the same materials from commercial non-transgenic cotton. Parameters measured included proximate analysis (moisture, crude fat/oil, protein, and ash) of cottonseed meal; fibre analysis (crude fibre, acid detergent, and neutral detergent fibres) of cottonseed; fatty acid composition of refined cottonseed oil; and amino acid profiles of cottonseed meal. No significant differences between the transgenic lines and the traditionally bred lines were observed for any of these parameters. It was also determined that the transgenic cotton contained levels of gossypol and cyclopropenoid fatty acids, toxic substances naturally found in cotton, within the normal range of variation reported for conventional cotton cultivars.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Refined cottonseed oil and cellulose from linters are devoid of protein and, given that most allergens are proteins, their consumption is unlikely to result in an allergic reaction. The potential for cottonseed oil or linters from 31807 or 31808 cotton to constitute a source of allergens is therefore extremely low. The presence of the nitrilase protein in monocot food sources such as corn and barley further supported the conclusion that the nitrilase enzyme posed little risk of toxicity. It was concluded that the nitrilase and Cry1Ac proteins, and thus 31807 and 31808 cotton, possessed little or no potential for allergenicity or toxicity.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 11:54:50'),
(44, 61, '<p style="text-align: justify;">The tomato is a vine-like herb of the nightshade family (Solanaceae) that also includes potatoes, peppers and eggplants. Botanically this vegetable is a fruit (a berry), which although being a perennial plant in the tropics, is grown as an annual plant in northern climates. The tomato is a native of the Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador area of the Andes Mountains. Its antiquity is uncertain in regard to cultivation but it was being cultivated when Europeans discovered America. However, it was not generally cultivated in the United States until 1835 because, until then, it was widely believed to be poisonous.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Tomatoes are propagated from seeds. In temperate regions seeds are generally started in greenhouses, hotbeds, or cold frames; the plants are set out in the fields when danger of frost is past. Fresh tomatoes are harvested by hand, while those destined for canning or for processing into soups, sauces and ketchups are harvested by machine. The numerous varieties differ greatly in plant form and fruit type, the latter ranging from a small currant size through cherry, plum, and pear forms to the large, nearly round fruits, 10 cm (4 in) or more in diameter, which are the most widely grown. All forms include red- and yellow-fruited varieties.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Tomatoes are a valuable source of food minerals and vitamins, and are low in calories. One medium-sized tomato provides 57% of the recommended daily allotment (RDA) of vitamin C, 25% RDA vitamin A, and 8% RDA iron, yet it has only 35 calories. Tomatoes are also rich in the anti-oxidant lycopene, a carotenoid that has been found to protect cells from oxidants that have been linked to cancer. In laboratory tests, lycopene was found to be twice as powerful as beta-carotene in neutralizing free radicals. Lycopene has been linked to risk reduction for a number of types of cancers, including prostate, lung and stomach, pancreatic, cervical, colorectal, oral and esophageal cancers.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">In the fresh market industry the tomato fruit is often picked at the mature green or breaker stages for long-distance shipping, and is then subsequently ripened by treatment with the gas, ethylene (12 to 18 h at 20&ordm;C). For processing tomatoes the ethylene-producing compound, ethephon or Ethrel, is applied prior to harvest when only 10% of the fruit is ripe; this accelerates and concentrates fruit-ripening and facilitates once-over machine harvest.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Pectin is a building block in plant cell walls and is what gives tomatoes their firmness. Fruit softening during ripening is due to the breakdown of cell wall pectin by an enzyme called polygalacturonase (PG). The FLAVR SAVR&trade; tomato line was genetically engineered to express delayed softening by insertion of an additional copy of the PG encoding gene in the &ldquo;antisense&rdquo; orientation, resulting in reduced translation of the endogenous PG messenger RNA (mRNA). The antisense PG gene is essentially a reverse copy of part of the native tomato PG gene that suppresses the expression of endogenous PG enzyme prior to the onset of fruit ripening. The mechanism of decreased PG activity in FLAVR SAVR&trade; tomato is likely linked to the hybridization of antisense and sense mRNA transcripts, resulting in a decreased amount of free positive sense mRNA available for protein translation. Reduced PG expression decreases the breakdown of pectin and leads to fruit with slowed cell wall breakdown, better viscosity characteristics and delayed softening. FLAVR SAVR&trade; tomatoes have improved harvest and processing properties that allow the transgenic tomatoes to remain longer on the vine to develop their natural flavour, maintain firmness for shipping and produce a thicker consistency in processing. The measured level of endogenous PG activity in transgenic FLAVR SAVR tomato was found to be less than 1% of PG activity found in the unmodified parental line.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">FLAVR SAVR&trade; tomatoes were field tested in the United States from 1988 to 1992. Field trials demonstrated that the variation in agronomic characteristics among the FLAVR SAVR&trade; tomato lines did not differ significantly from the natural variation found in commercial cultivars of tomato. These reports indicated that FLAVR SAVR&trade; tomatoes did not exhibit weedy characteristics, and had no observable effect on nontarget organisms or the general environment. The transformed tomato line was not expected to impact on threatened or endangered species.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Cultivated tomatoes are self-fertile, and almost exclusively self-pollinating. Their unique flower and anther morphology makes tomato an essentially cleistogamous plant, in which self-pollination and fertilization occur within an unopened flower. A low crossing rate between tomato varieties was demonstrated and attributed to the limited availability of pollen and poor foraging activity of insect pollinators.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Several related species are found as weeds in tomato fields, however, commercial tomato is generally sexually incompatible with these weedy relatives. Two Solanum species, <i>S. lycopersicoides</i> and <i>S. rickii</i>, neither of which is a weed pest in the United States, can be crossed with commercial tomato only under specific, controlled conditions requiring human intervention. The cherry tomato, <i>L. esculentum</i> var. cerasiforme can be crossed with tomato, <i>L. esculentum</i> var. esculentum. However, it would be very unlikely for the FLAVR SAVR&trade; tomato line to hybridize with cherry tomatoes in the United States since the rate of outcrossing in tomatoes is low and cherry tomatoes are not common in areas devoted to the large-scale cultivation of tomatoes. It was concluded that the chance of genetic exchange among tomato crops was small and outcrossing to other species, even more remote. In the event that an outcrossing event involving pollen from the transgenic FLAVR SAVR&trade; tomato line did occur, it was unlikely that the delayed-ripening trait would increase the plant&rsquo;s weediness or probability of survival.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Tomatoes are consumed in both fresh (whole and sliced or diced in a variety of foods) and processed (soups, ketchup, paste, prepared sauces) forms, and the genetic modification introduced into the transgenic tomato line was not expected to result in any changes in consumption patterns. FLAVR SAVR&trade; tomatoes were expected to provide an alternate or additional choice to consumers and food manufacturers.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The analysis of nutrients from FLAVR SAVR&trade; tomatoes and non-transgenic control lines did not reveal any significant differences in the levels of macro- and micronutrients, pH, total acidity, total solids, or sugars. Levels of glycoalkaloids (alpha-tomatine) present in mature tomatoes from the transgenic tomato line were within the range reported for conventional tomato varieties.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">As the antisense PG gene did not encode for any new protein there was no expectation of toxic or allergenic potential related to the genetic modification. Additional data from three 28-day rat feeding trials comparing transgenic and non-transgenic tomatoes demonstrated no biologically significant changes in body weight, organ weight, food consumption, hematologic parameters, and clinical chemistry findings that were specific to the transgenic line.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 16:53:23'),
(45, 59, '<p style="text-align: justify;">The tomato is a vine-like herb of the nightshade family (Solanaceae) that also includes potatoes, peppers and eggplants. Botanically this vegetable is a fruit (a berry), which although being a perennial plant in the tropics, is grown as an annual plant in northern climates. The tomato is a native of the Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador area of the Andes Mountains. Its antiquity is uncertain in regard to cultivation but it was being cultivated when Europeans discovered America. However, it was not generally cultivated in the United States until 1835 because, until then, it was widely believed to be poisonous.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Tomatoes are propagated from seeds. In temperate regions seeds are generally started in greenhouses, hotbeds, or cold frames; the plants are set out in the fields when danger of frost is past. Fresh tomatoes are harvested by hand, while those destined for canning or for processing into soups, sauces and ketchups are harvested by machine. The numerous varieties differ greatly in plant form and fruit type, the latter ranging from a small currant size through cherry, plum, and pear forms to the large, nearly round fruits, 10 cm (4 in) or more in diameter, which are the most widely grown. All forms include red- and yellow-fruited varieties.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Tomatoes are a valuable source of food minerals and vitamins, and are low in calories. One medium-sized tomato provides 57% of the recommended daily allotment (RDA) of vitamin C, 25% RDA vitamin A, and 8% RDA iron, yet it has only 35 calories. Tomatoes are also rich in an anti-oxidant called lycopene, a carotenoid that has been found to protect cells from oxidants that have been linked to cancer. In laboratory tests, lycopene was found to be twice as powerful as beta-carotene in neutralizing free radicals. Lycopene has been linked to risk reduction for a number of types of cancers, including prostate, lung and stomach, pancreatic, cervical, colorectal, oral and esophageal cancers.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">In the fresh market industry the tomato fruit is often picked at the mature green or breaker stages for long-distance shipping, and is then subsequently ripened by treatment with the gas, ethylene (12 to 18 h at 20&ordm;C). For processing tomatoes the ethylene-producing compound, ethephon or Ethrel, is applied prior to harvest when only 10% of the fruit is ripe; this accelerates and concentrates fruit ripening and facilitates once-over machine harvest.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Pectin is a building block in plant cell walls and is what gives tomatoes their firmness. Fruit softening during ripening is due to the breakdown of cell wall pectin by an enzyme called polygalacturonase (PG). Tomato lines B, Da, and F were genetically engineered to express delayed softening by inserting a truncated version of the PG encoding gene in either the sense (lines Da and F) or the &ldquo;antisense&rdquo; (line B) orientation. The presence of the partial PG gene, in either sense or antisense orientation, suppresses the expression of endogenous PG enzyme at the onset of fruit ripening.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">In the case of line B, the mechanism of action is likely linked to the hybridization of antisense and sense messenger-RNA (mRNA) transcripts, resulting in a decreased amount of free positive sense mRNA available for protein translation. For lines Da and F, which contain the truncated PG gene in the sense orientation, reduced PG expression may be due to coordinate suppression of transcription of both the endogenous gene and the introduced truncated gene.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">In any event, reduced PG expression decreases the breakdown of pectin and leads to fruit with slowed cell wall breakdown, better viscosity characteristics and delayed softening. Tomato lines B, Da and F have improved harvest and processing properties that allow the transgenic tomatoes to remain longer on the vine to develop their natural flavour, maintain their firmness for shipping and produce a thicker consistency in processing.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Tomato lines B, Da and F were field tested in the United States from 1991 to 1994. The agronomic characteristics of lines B, Da and F were evaluated extensively in laboratory, greenhouse, and field experiments. It was determined that tomato lines B, Da and F did not exhibit weedy characteristics, nor did they have any effect on non-target organisms or the general environment. The transformed tomato lines were not expected to impact on threatened or endangered species.<br />\n<br />\nCultivated tomatoes are self-fertile, and almost exclusively self-pollinating. Their unique flower and anther morphology makes tomato an essentially cleistogamous plant, in which self-pollination and fertilization occur within an unopened flower. A low crossing rate between tomato varieties was demonstrated and attributed to the limited availability of pollen and poor foraging activity of insect pollinators.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Several related species are found as weeds in tomato fields, however, commercial tomato is generally sexually incompatible with these weedy relatives. Two Solanum species, <i>S. lycopersicoides</i> and <i>S. rickii</i>, neither of which is a weed pest in the United States, can be crossed with commercial tomato only under specific, controlled conditions requiring human intervention. The cherry tomato, <i>L. esculentum</i> var. cerasiforme can be crossed with tomato, <i>L. esculentum</i> var. esculentum. However, it would be very unlikely for these transgenic tomato lines to hybridize with cherry tomatoes in the United States since the rate of outcrossing in tomatoes is low and cherry tomatoes are not common in areas devoted to the large-scale cultivation of tomatoes. It was concluded that the chance of genetic exchange among tomato crops was small and outcrossing to other species, even more remote. In the event that an outcrossing event involving pollen from the transgenic tomato lines did occur, it was unlikely that the delayed-ripening trait would increase the plant&rsquo;s weediness or probability of survival.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The transgenic line F was used to develop the hybrid lines 1401F, H282F, 11013F and 7913F, which, along with the parental transgenic line, were evaluated in comparison with the non-transgenic parental lines during the course of the food safety assessment.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The analysis of nutrients from the novel 1401F hybrid line and the non-transgenic 1401 line did not reveal any significant differences in the levels of macro- and micronutrients in either fresh tomatoes or processed tomato paste. An extensive analysis of fresh fruit and tomato paste samples derived from tomato line F was made and results compared to the range of values produced by non-modified, commercial tomato varieties. Results for the bulk components (soluble sugars, structural carbohydrate, moisture, ash, fat, dietary fibre, protein and oil) and for mineral (Na, K, Ca, Mg, P, Fe) and vitamin (A, E, B1, B2, niacin, B6, folate, C) content fell within the range expected of commercial tomato fruit and fruit purees. Analysis of known anti-nutritional factors and potential toxins, including lectins, glycoalkaloids (alpha-tomatine, solanine, chaconine) and biogenic amines (tyramine, nicotine and serotonin), showed that similar levels were present in both modified and unmodified fruit and tomato paste.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The reduced synthesis of native PG was not judged to have any potential for human toxicity or allergenicity. Polygalacturonase is a natural component of all food plants. The partial PG gene present in the transformed tomato lines was identical to the corresponding endogenous tomato gene and did not encode for any new protein products, and therefore was not expected to have any toxic properties.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 12:10:59');
INSERT INTO `gmcropdatabase_events_execsummaries` (`id`, `eventId`, `description`, `status`, `created`, `updated`) VALUES
(46, 43, '<p style="text-align: justify;">The tomato is a vine-like herb of the nightshade family (Solanaceae) that also includes potatoes, peppers and eggplants. Botanically this vegetable is a fruit (a berry), which although being a perennial plant in the tropics, is grown as an annual plant in northern climates. The tomato is a native of the Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador area of the Andes Mountains. Its antiquity is uncertain in regard to cultivation but it was being cultivated when Europeans discovered America. However, it was not generally cultivated in the United States until 1835 because, until then, it was widely believed to be poisonous. Tomatoes are propagated from seeds. In temperate regions seeds are generally started in greenhouses, hotbeds, or cold frames; the plants are set out in the fields when danger of frost is past. Fresh tomatoes are harvested by hand, while those destined for canning or for processing into soups, sauces and ketchups are harvested by machine. The numerous varieties differ greatly in plant form and fruit type, the latter ranging from a small currant size through cherry, plum, and pear forms to the large, nearly round fruits, 10 cm (4 in) or more in diameter, which are the most widely grown. All forms include red- and yellow-fruited varieties. Tomatoes are a valuable source of food minerals and vitamins, and are low in calories. One medium-sized tomato provides 57% of the recommended daily allotment (RDA) of vitamin C, 25% RDA vitamin A, and 8% RDA iron, yet it has only 35 calories. Tomatoes are also rich in an anti-oxidant called lycopene, a carotenoid that has been found to protect cells from oxidants that have been linked to cancer. In laboratory tests, lycopene was found to be twice as powerful as beta-carotene in neutralizing free radicals. Lycopene has been linked to risk reduction for a number of types of cancers, including prostate, lung and stomach, pancreatic, cervical, colorectal, oral and esophageal cancers. In the fresh market industry the tomato fruit is often picked at the mature green or breaker stages for long-distance shipping, and is then subsequently ripened by treatment with the gas, ethylene (12 to 18 h at 20&ordm;C). For processing tomatoes the ethylene-producing compound, ethephon or Ethrel, is applied prior to harvest when only 10% of the fruit is ripe; this accelerates and concentrates fruit ripening and facilitates once-over machine harvest. Tomato line 1345-4 was developed using recombinant DNA techniques to express the trait of delayed ripening of tomato fruit. The transgenic line contains a truncated version of the tomato 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxyllic acid (ACC) synthase gene, normally found in tomato. This endogenous enzyme is responsible for the conversion of s-adenosylmethionine to ACC, which is the immediate precursor of ethylene, a phytohormone known to play a key role in fruit ripening. The presence of the truncated ACC synthase gene suppresses the normal expression of the native ACC synthase gene, and while not completely understood, the mechanism of &ldquo;downregulation&rdquo; is likely linked to the coordinate suppression of transcription of both the endogenous gene and the introduced truncated ACC synthase gene. The <i>in situ</i> accumulation of ethylene in the transgenic tomatoes was only about 1/50 the level found in the unmodified parental line and the fruit does not fully ripen unless an external source of ethylene is applied. Tomato line 1345-4 was field tested in the United States from 1992 to 1994. The agronomic characteristics of line 1345-4 were evaluated extensively in laboratory, greenhouse, and field experiments. Line 1345-4 retained the agronomic characteristics of the parental tomato, and field reports on seed germination rates, yield characteristics, disease and pest susceptibilities, and fruit compositional analyses determined that this line was comparable to the unmodified parental line, with the exception of reduced ACC synthase activity. Field trial reports demonstrated that transgenic tomato line 1345-4 did not exhibit weedy characteristics, and had no effect on non-target organisms or the general environment. The transformed tomato line was not expected to impact on threatened or endangered species. Cultivated tomatoes are self-fertile, and almost exclusively self-pollinating. Their unique flower and anther morphology makes tomato an essentially cleistogamous plant, in which self-pollination and fertilization occur within an unopened flower. A low crossing rate between tomato varieties was demonstrated and attributed to the limited availability of pollen and poor foraging activity of insect pollinators. Several related species are found as weeds in tomato fields, however, commercial tomato is generally sexually incompatible with these weedy relatives. Two Solanum species, <i>S. lycopersicoides</i> and <i>S. rickii</i>, neither of which is a weed pest in the United States, can be crossed with commercial tomato only under specific, controlled conditions requiring human intervention. The cherry tomato, <i>L. esculentum</i> var. cerasiforme can be crossed with tomato, <i>L. esculentum</i> var. esculentum. However, it would be very unlikely for tomato line 1345-4 to hybridize with cherry tomatoes in the United States since the rate of outcrossing in tomatoes is low and cherry tomatoes are not common in areas devoted to the large-scale cultivation of tomatoes. It was concluded that the chance of genetic exchange among tomato crops was small and outcrossing to other species, even more remote. In the event that an outcrossing event involving pollen from the transgenic tomato line 1345-4 did occur, it was unlikely that the delayed-ripening trait would increase the plant&rsquo;s weediness or probability of survival. Tomatoes are consumed in both fresh (whole and sliced or diced in a variety of foods) and processed (soups, ketchup, paste, prepared sauces) forms, and the genetic modification introduced into the transgenic tomato line was not expected to result in any changes in consumption patterns. The analysis of nutrients from the novel 1345-4 line and the non-transgenic parental line did not reveal any significant differences in the levels of macro- and micronutrients. Levels of glycoalkaloids present in mature tomatoes from the transgenic line 1345-4 were within the range reported for conventional tomato varieties. The reduced synthesis of native ACC synthase was judged not to have any potential for additional human toxicity or allergenicity. The truncated ACC synthase gene was not expressed in line 1345-4 and should not have any toxic or allergenic properties.</p>\r\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-11-18 17:26:26'),
(48, 56, '<p style="text-align: justify;">The tomato is a vine-like herb of the nightshade family (Solanaceae) that also includes potatoes, peppers and eggplants. Botanically this vegetable is a fruit (a berry), which although being a perennial plant in the tropics, is grown as an annual plant in northern climates. The tomato is a native of the Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador area of the Andes Mountains. Its antiquity is uncertain in regard to cultivation but it was being cultivated when Europeans discovered America. However, it was not generally cultivated in the United States until 1835 because, until then, it was widely believed to be poisonous.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Tomatoes are propagated from seeds. In temperate regions seeds are generally started in greenhouses, hotbeds, or cold frames; the plants are set out in the fields when danger of frost is past. Fresh tomatoes are harvested by hand, while those destined for canning or for processing into soups, sauces and ketchups are harvested by machine. The numerous varieties differ greatly in plant form and fruit type, the latter ranging from a small currant size through cherry, plum, and pear forms to the large, nearly round fruits, 10 cm (4 in) or more in diameter, which are the most widely grown. All forms include red- and yellow-fruited varieties.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Tomatoes are a valuable source of food minerals and vitamins, and are low in calories. One medium-sized tomato provides 57% of the recommended daily allotment (RDA) of vitamin C, 25% RDA vitamin A, and 8% RDA iron, yet it has only 35 calories. Tomatoes are also rich in an anti-oxidant called lycopene, a carotenoid that has been found to protect cells from oxidants that have been linked to cancer. In laboratory tests, lycopene was found to be twice as powerful as beta-carotene in neutralizing free radicals. Lycopene has been linked to risk reduction for a number of types of cancers, including prostate, lung and stomach, pancreatic, cervical, colorectal, oral and esophageal cancers.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Tomatoes are subject to damage from many insects, nematodes, and fungal, viral, and bacterial pathogens. Tobacco budworm (<i>Heliothis virescens</i>) and tomato fruitworm (<i>Helicoverpa zea</i>) are destructive pests of tomato. Insect-resistant tomato line 5345 was developed using recombinant DNA techniques to express the insecticidal protein, Cry1Ac, encoded by the <i>cry1Ac</i> gene from the soil bacterium <i>Bacillus thuringiensis</i> subsp. <i>kurstaki</i> strain HD73. Insecticidal activity is caused by the selective binding of Cry1Ac protein to specific sites localized on the brush border midgut epithelium of susceptible lepidopteran species. Following binding, cation-specific pores are formed that disrupt midgut ion flow thereby causing gut paralysis and eventual death from bacterial sepsis. Delta-endotoxins, such as the Cry1Ac protein expressed in tomato line 5345, exhibit highly selective insecticidal activity against a narrow range of lepidopteran pests. The specificity of action is directly attributable to the presence of specific receptors in the target insects. There are no receptors for delta-endotoxins of <i>B. thuringiensis</i> on the surface of mammalian intestinal cells, therefore, livestock animals and humans are not susceptible to these proteins.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Tomato line 5345 was field tested in the United States from 1994 to 1997. Field trials were conducted to evaluate agronomic characteristics including plant height at crop maturity, yield, and maturity dates and to assess inheritance and segregation of novel traits, as well as protein toxin expression data. Comparisons with non-transformed tomato lines determined that the agronomic traits for line 5345 were well within the range of unmodified tomato lines. The only significant consistent difference between the insect resistant tomato line 5345 and the unmodified parent variety was in the expression of the insecticidal protein Cry1Ac. Field data reports demonstrated that tomato line 5345 did not exhibit weedy characteristics, and had no effect on non-target organisms or the general environment. The transformed tomato line was not expected to impact on threatened or endangered species.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Cultivated tomatoes are self-fertile, and almost exclusively self-pollinating. Their unique flower and anther morphology makes tomato an essentially cleistogamous plant, in which self-pollination and fertilization occur within an unopened flower. A low crossing rate between tomato varieties was demonstrated and attributed to the limited availability of pollen and poor foraging activity of insect pollinators.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Several related species are found as weeds in tomato fields, however, commercial tomato is generally sexually incompatible with these weedy relatives. Two Solanum species, <i>S. lycopersicoides</i> and <i>S. rickii</i>, neither of which is a weed pest in the United States, can be crossed with commercial tomato only under specific, controlled conditions requiring human intervention. The cherry tomato, <i>L. esculentum</i> var. cerasiforme can be crossed with tomato, <i>L. esculentum</i> var. esculentum. However, it would be very unlikely for tomato line 5345 to hybridize with cherry tomatoes in the United States since the rate of outcrossing in tomatoes is low and cherry tomatoes are not common in areas devoted to the large-scale cultivation of tomatoes. It was concluded that the chance of genetic exchange among tomato crops was small and outcrossing to other species, even more remote. In the event that an outcrossing event involving pollen from the transgenic tomato line 5345 did occur, it was unlikely that the insect-resistance trait would increase the plant&rsquo;s weediness.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Tomatoes are consumed in both fresh (whole and sliced or diced in a variety of foods) and processed (soups, ketchup, paste, prepared sauces) forms, and the genetic modification introduced into the transgenic tomato line was not expected to result in any changes in consumption patterns.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Compositional analyses were conducted to compare transgenic line 5345 tomato fruit with fruit obtained from control non-transgenic plants grown and processed under the same conditions. The measured parameters included total solids, protein, ash, carbohydrates, calories, vitamin A, vitamin C, and folic acid. There were no statistically significant differences for any of these parameters between insect-resistant 5345 tomatoes and control tomatoes.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Tomatoes produce naturally occurring glycoalkaloids, alpha-tomatine being the most common. The level of alpha-tomatine decreases as the fruit matures so that the amounts in vine-ripened red tomatoes are negligible. The level of alpha-tomatine present in mature tomatoes from the transgenic line 5345 was within the range reported for conventional tomato varieties.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The potential for toxicity and allergenicity of the Cry1Ac protein was assessed by an examination of its physiochemical characteristics and amino acid sequence homology to known protein toxins and allergens. Unlike known protein allergens, the Cry1Ac protein was readily digested under conditions simulating the gastric and intestinal environment, and it was denatured upon heat treatment. There were no amino acid sequence homologies with known allergens or protein toxins. The Cry1Ac protein has a history of safe use, as demonstrated by its use in microbial <i>Bt</i> spray formulations in agriculture for more than 30 years with no evidence of adverse effects.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 12:10:13'),
(49, 55, '<p style="text-align: justify;">The major producers of rice were China, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Viet Nam, Thailand and Myanmar. Rice is grown primarily for its grain, which is the staple food for half of the world&rsquo;s population, and has many uses in the food and industrial sectors, including use in livestock feed.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Harvested rice, or rough rice, is encased by an inedible hull or husk, which is removed before milling. The hulls are utilized as fuels, mulch, abrasives and animal feed products. Brown rice is what remains after the hulls are removed. The light brown colour of brown rice is due to the presence of bran layers and the rice germ surrounding the rice kernel. Brown rice can be milled into regular white or &lsquo;polished rice&rsquo;, where white rice is distinguished by the fact that the hulls, bran layers and rice germ are removed. The bran and rice germs are high in protein and nutrients and are used in specialty foods such as rice bran oil and also in livestock feed. Both brown and white rice kernels can be parboiled and/or milled into rice flour for use in breakfast cereals, baby foods and desserts and numerous other food products. Rice kernels are also used to produce beer and rice wine.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Weeds are a significant pest problem in rice production in the United States. The best approach to controlling weeds in rice involves a combination of good cultural (certified seed, variety selection), mechanical (crop rotations, preparation of seedbed), and chemical practices. In order to obtain high yield potential, high rates and often multiple applications of herbicides are required for weed control. Over the years, herbicide tolerant weeds have developed and resulted in the rapid decline in the effectiveness of several herbicides (<i>e.g.</i>, Londax&reg;; common name bensulfuron methyl) against these resistant weeds. The use of integrated weed management strategies will be the key to delaying the development of resistance in rice weeds.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Rice lines LLRICE06 and LLRICE62 were genetically engineered to express tolerance to glufosinate ammonium, the active ingredient in phosphinothricin herbicides (Basta&reg;, Rely&reg;, Finale&reg;, and Liberty&reg;). Glufosinate chemically resembles the amino acid glutamate and acts to inhibit an enzyme, called glutamine synthetase, which is involved in the synthesis of glutamine. Essentially, glufosinate acts enough like glutamate, the molecule used by glutamine synthetase to make glutamine, that it blocks the enzyme&#39;s usual activity. Glutamine synthetase is also involved in ammonia detoxification. The action of glufosinate results in reduced glutamine levels and a corresponding increase in concentrations of ammonia in plant tissues, leading to cell membrane disruption and cessation of photosynthesis resulting in plant withering and death.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Glufosinate tolerance in these rice lines is the result of introducing a gene encoding the enzyme phosphinothricin-N-acetyltransferase (PAT) isolated from the common aerobic soil actinomycete, <i>Streptomyces hygroscopicus</i>, the same organism from which glufosinate was originally isolated. The PAT enzyme catalyzes the acetylation of phosphinothricin, detoxifying it into an inactive compound. The PAT enzyme is not known to have any toxic properties. The PAT encoding gene (<i>bar</i>) was introduced into the rice genome by direct gene delivery transformation, and the resulting rice lines displayed field tolerance to phosphinothricin-containing herbicides.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">LLRICE06 and LLRICE62 were tested in field trials in the United States (1997-1998). These tests demonstrated that the transformed lines did not exhibit weedy characteristics, or negatively affect beneficial or nontarget organisms, and were not expected to impact on threatened or endangered species.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Cultivated rice is primarily self-pollinating, but may cross-pollinate with other cultivated rice varieties although rates are less than one percent. Factors limiting cross-pollination in rice include flower morphology, inability of pollen to remain viable longer than a few minutes, and a lack of insect vectors for pollen spread. In the United States, the only wild species known to be compatible with cultivated rice are <i>O. rufipogon</i>, which has been found in a single location in the Everglades of Florida, and red rice, a wild variant of cultivated <i>O. sativa</i>. Due to the relative isolation of <i>O. rufipogon</i>, it is unlikely to hybridize with cultivated rice.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Cultivated rice may cross-pollinate with red rice, given suitable conditions, and form glufosinate-tolerant hybrids. However, the glufosinate-tolerance trait is not expected to provide a competitive advantage to hybrid plants unless grown in managed environments that are routinely subjected to glufosinate applications. In the event that a glufosinate-tolerant hybrid survived, the herbicide-tolerant individual would be easily controlled using mechanical and other available chemical means. The use of good cultural practices, crop and herbicide rotations, are also effective strategies for controlling the establishment of herbicide tolerant weeds.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The food and livestock feed safety of rice lines LLRICE06 and LLRICE62 was established based on several standard criteria. As part of the safety assessment, the nutritional composition of rice was found to be equivalent to conventional varieties as shown by the analyses of grain, straw, and various processed fractions for key nutrients including proximates (moisture, ash, fat, protein, total dietary fibre, and carbohydrates), amino acid and fatty acid profiles and mineral content (calcium, phosphorus and iron). Assays were completed for anti-nutritional factors normally concentrated in the bran fraction of rice, such as phytic acid, trypsin inhibitor, and lectins. The levels of trypsin inhibitor and lectins in LLRICE06 and conventional rice were reported to be below the limit of detection, and the phytic acid content was the same for both transgenic and conventional varieties. The nutritional equivalence of LLRICE06 and LLRICE62 and conventional rice was confirmed in a 42-day feeding trial with male broiler chickens.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The potential for toxicity and allergenicity of the PAT protein was assessed by examining its physiochemical characteristics, amino acid sequence homology to known protein allergens, and susceptibility to <i>in vitro</i> digestion under conditions simulating the mammalian digestive tract. In each case, the PAT protein did not exhibit the characteristics commonly associated with food allergens. There were no amino acid sequence homologies with known allergens or toxins and the protein was readily digested in simulated gastric fluids. These studies were sufficient to provide a reasonable certainty that PAT protein has no allergenic potential.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">There are reports of allergenic proteins within the rice endosperm. Laboratory studies determined there were no differences in the content of these allergenic proteins between rice lines LLRICE06 and LLRICE62 and conventional rice. These transgenic rice lines were also analyzed for the Osborne fraction, which contains prolamine proteins known to be related to Celiac disease. These proteins were investigated in brown rice samples and results showed there were no differences between rice lines LLRICE06 and LLRICE62 and conventional rice.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 12:09:38'),
(50, 31, '<p style="text-align: justify;">The major producers of papaya are Brazil, Mexico, Nigeria, India, Indonesia, Ethiopia and the Democratic Republic of Congo. Papaya is grown primarily for the fresh market and processed food industry, and also has industrial applications.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Papaya is a tropical fruit crop that is normally consumed fresh and is valued as a health food due to the high content of vitamins C and A. The pulp is eaten fresh, made into juice, preserves, and desserts. Immature pulp is used as a vegetable and in some regions young leaves are consumed like spinach. Papaya is used in traditional medicine with seed used as a vermifuge and leaves boiled for treatment against malaria, as examples. When the fruit is green and hard it is rich in white latex. As it ripens, it becomes light- or deep-yellow externally and the thick wall of succulent flesh becomes aromatic, yellow, orange or various shades of salmon or red. The dried latex, or milk, of immature fruit yields papain, a proteolytic enzyme similar in action to pepsin, which is used as a meat tenderizer, in breweries (to clarify beer), and in pharmacy. Papain is also used in bathing hides, degumming silk and softening wool.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Hawaii, partly because of its distance from other papaya-growing areas, is less afflicted with disease problems than Florida and Puerto Rico, but still has to combat a number of major and minor maladies. Most serious of all is the papaya ringspot potyvirus (PRSV), which is common in Florida, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Trinidad, and first seen in Hawaii in 1959. It is transmitted mechanically or by the green peach aphid, <i>Myzus persicae</i>, and other aphids including the green citrus aphid, <i>Aphis spiraecola</i>, in Puerto Rico. Papaya plants infected by PRSV lose their photosynthetic capacity and as a result display stunted growth, deformed and inedible fruit, and eventually, plant mortality. When plants are infected at the early stages they will not produce mature fruit. If they are infected at a later stage, fruit production is reduced and of poor quality because of ringspots on the fruit and a decrease in sugar concentration. PRSV is very difficult to control and once a plant has become infected there is no remedy, but measures to avoid spread include the destruction of affected plants, control of aphids by pesticides, and elimination of all members of the Cucurbitaceae (alternate hosts for the virus) from the vicinity.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Papaya lines 55-1 and 63-1 were developed using recombinant DNA techniques to resist infection by PRSV by inserting virus-derived sequences that encode the PRSV coat protein (CP). The introduced viral sequences do not result in the formation of any infectious particles, nor does their expression result in any disease pathology.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">These transgenic papayas exhibit &ldquo;pathogen-derived resistance&rdquo; to infection and subsequent disease caused by PRSV through a process that is related to viral cross-protection. Although the exact mechanism by which the viral protection occurs is unknown, most evidence suggests that expression of viral CP by a plant interferes with one of the first steps in viral replication, uncoating (removal of CP) from the incoming virus (Register &amp; Nelson, 1992). Other modes of action of cross-protection have also been suggested (Matthews, 1991).</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Papaya lines 55-1 and 63-1 were tested in field trials in the United States (1991&ndash;1996). These tests demonstrated that 55-1 and 63-1 plants exhibited the typical agronomic characteristics of conventional papaya varieties, with the addition of resistance to PRSV infection. Papaya lines 55-1 and 63-1 were comparable to conventional papaya varieties and did not exhibit weedy characteristics, and had no effect on nontarget organisms or the general environment.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Papaya plants have different mating systems and may be either dioecious (male and female flowers are on separate plants) or gynodioecious (plants with perfect flowers/ hermaphrodite and plants with only female flowers). Commercial papaya lines are mostly gynodioecious as the hermaphroditic plants are generally self-pollinating. A low rate of out-crossing still occurs since the plants produce copious pollen during most of the year. The degree of cross-pollination among papaya varieties is dependent on the mating system and type of commercial production. In nature, pollination of papaya occurs through bees, butterflies, and wind.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Papaya is usually described as sexually incompatible with other members of the Carica genus of which there are 23 described species. Initial steps have been taken to develop methods for somatic hybridization of <i>C. papaya</i> with <i>C. stipulata</i> and with <i>C. pubescens</i>, but no hybrid plants have been regenerated to date. The exact origin of papaya is unknown but thought to be native to tropical America, possibly southern Mexico or northwestern South America. Distribution now extends throughout tropical America, South-East Asia, India, Oceania, and Africa. Commercial production of papaya in the United States is primarily in Hawaii with secondary production in Puerto Rico and southern Florida.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The food and livestock feed safety of papaya lines 55-1 and 63-1 was established based on several standard criteria. As part of the safety assessment, the nutritional composition of papaya fruit was found to be equivalent to conventional varieties by the analyses of vitamins A and C, and total soluble solids, which is a measure of sugar content. The latex of green papaya tissues contains a toxin called benzyl isothiocyanate (BITC) that has been linked to incidents of spontaneous abortions in pregnant women and with a higher incidence of prostate cancer in Japanese men over the age of 70. Because ripe papaya fruits have no latex they also have virtually no BITC content. The levels of BITC in transgenic papaya and conventional papaya varieties were measured and found to be much lower in ripe fruit compared to immature fruit. There were no differences between transgenic papaya and conventional papaya from either immature or ripe fruit.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The PRSV coat protein does not possess characteristics typical of known protein allergens or toxins such as heat stability and resistance to digestion by simulated gastric fluids. Comparisons of the deduced amino acid sequence of the plant-expressed PRSV CP did not reveal any homology to known protein allergens and toxins. Furthermore, PRSV-infected papaya fruit naturally contains higher levels of the viral CP than expressed in these transgenic papayas, and there has been no evidence of adverse effects linked to the consumption of virus-infected fruit.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 11:53:22'),
(51, 46, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Sugar beet is a botanical variety of <i> B. vulgaris</i> ssp.<i> vulgaris</i>, as are other comestible and fodder beets, and is a member of the goosefoot (Chenopodiaceae) family. It is an important source of sugar (sucrose), accounting for approximately 40 percent of global production.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Sucrose is present in limited quantities in many plants, including various palms and the sugar maple, but sugar beet and sugarcane are the only commercially important sources. More than half of the world sugar supply is obtained from sugarcane, which is grown in tropical and subtropical climates. The rest is supplied by the sugar beet, which is grown in temperate countries. Sugar is manufactured from the roots of the sugar beet; the leaves and tops are removed after harvesting and used as livestock feed. The roots are cut into cossettes, or chips, from which the juice is extracted. The juice is then processed to yield sugar and beet molasses. The pulp remaining after the extraction of the juice is a rich feed for domestic animals. Beet molasses is also fed to livestock; no table molasses is made from beets because of difficulties in purification. The sugar that is produced from the sugar beet is identical to the sugar that is derived from sugarcane.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Sucrose is used as a sweetening agent for foods and in the manufacture of candies, cakes, puddings, preserves, soft and alcoholic beverages, and many other foods. Sugar is used not only as a constituent in home-produced and industrially produced foods, but also as the raw material for fermentation products such as ethyl alcohol, butyl alcohol, glycerin, citric acid, and levulinic acid. Sugar is an ingredient in some transparent soaps, and it can be converted to esters and ethers, some of which yield tough, insoluble, and infusible resins.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">GTSB77 sugar beet was developed to allow for the use of glyphosate, the active ingredient in the herbicide Roundup&reg;, as a weed control option. This genetically engineered sugar beet line contains a form of the plant enzyme 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS) that allows it to survive the otherwise lethal application of glyphosate. The EPSPS gene put into GTSB77 was isolated from a strain of the common soil bacterium <i>Agrobacterium tumefaciens</i> called CP4 and the form of EPSPS enzyme produced by this gene is tolerant to glyphosate.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The EPSPS enzyme is part of an important biochemical pathway in plants called the shikimate pathway, which is involved in the production of aromatic amino acids and other aromatic compounds. When conventional plants are treated with glyphosate, the plants cannot produce the aromatic amino acids needed to grow and survive. EPSPS is present in all plants, bacteria, and fungi. It is not present in animals, which do not synthesize their own aromatic amino acids. Because the aromatic amino acid biosynthetic pathway is not present in mammals, birds or aquatic life forms, glyphosate has little if any toxicity for these organisms. The EPSPS enzyme is naturally present in foods derived from plant and microbial sources.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">This transgenic sugar beet line was field tested in the United States from 1996 to 1998. GTSB77 was evaluated extensively and no differences were found in the agronomic characteristics, such as plant emergence, seed yield and germination, and disease susceptibility of line GTSB77 compared to non-transformed beet varieties and standard commercial sugar beet varieties. It was demonstrated that the transformed sugar beet line did not negatively affect beneficial or non-target organisms, and it was not expected to impact on threatened or endangered species.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Sugar beet outcrosses, and is largely wind pollinated. It is normally a biennial, developing a large succulent root in the first year and a seed stalk the second. Certain conditions such as low temperatures after planting and longer day length may induce bolting so that a seed stalk is produced during the first growing season. Beet is also highly sensitive to frost and a poor competitor with other plants. During the reproductive phase, large amounts of pollen are produced, which the wind may carry over long distances. The genus Beta is divided into four sections and sugar beet can cross freely with all members of the section Beta to produce fertile progeny. Hybrids between sugar beet and members of the other three sections do not naturally occur without human intervention and hybridization with other members of the Chenopodiaceae family is unlikely. During production of GTSB77, for purposes other than seed production, plants are harvested before the natural onset of the reproductive phase in the same manner that conventional cultivars are grown. Since it is uncommon for sugar beets to bolt, except in fields or plots grown specifically for seed production, there is little opportunity for uncontrolled pollen flow due to adequate isolation distances enforced by seed certification agencies.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The ability of sugar beet to outcross with related plants means that the formation of glyphosate-tolerant hybrids is possible. However, the glyphosate-tolerance trait is not expected to provide a competitive advantage to hybrid plants unless grown in managed environments routinely subjected to glyphosate applications. In the event that a glyphosate-tolerant hybrid survived, the herbicide-tolerant individual could be easily controlled using mechanical and/or other available chemical means. GTSB77 is considered unlikely to increase the weediness potential of any other cultivated plant or native wild species with which it may interbreed.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">As used for human consumption, sugar beet is generally converted directly to refined white sugar (which is composed almost entirely of sucrose) through extensive purification processes. The CP4 EPSPS protein introduced into GTSB77 sugar beet was expressed at low levels in the sugar beet tuber, and was not detectable in refined sugar or molasses derived from sugar beet GTSB77. Consequently, there is no anticipated human exposure to this protein as a result of consumption of refined sugar derived from GTSB77 sugar beet.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Sugar beet pulp is a by-product of the refining process and is normally dried and pelleted for use as a livestock feed. In recent years, it has been purified and used as an additive, at levels of less than 1%, in some specific foods, such as food fibre for breakfast cereals. While no direct analysis of these proteins was undertaken in soluble fibre derivatives, it was expected that they would be at negligible concentrations due to the processing steps involved.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Detailed compositional analyses were carried out to establish the nutritional adequacy of glyphosate-tolerant sugar beet GTSB77. The effect of glyphosate use on the composition of sugar beet was also examined. The transgenic GTSB77 line was compared with non-transgenic sugar beets in an analysis of numerous compositional components, including crude ash, crude fibre, crude protein, carbohydrate and dry matter in both tops and roots (both raw and processed). Additional quality components were measured in roots including, invert sugar content, polarization (% sucrose), sodium, potassium and amino nitrogen. No biologically meaningful differences in any compositional or quality parameters relevant to food were identified between non-transgenic, control sugar beet and sugar beet GTSB77. The transgenic GTSB77 sugar beets were tested both untreated and treated with glyphosate at recommended agronomic application rates. It was concluded that glyphosate-tolerant sugar beet GTSB77 is equivalent to other commercially available sugar beet varieties with respect to composition and nutritional quality.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The presence of naturally occurring toxins and allergens in glyphosate-tolerant sugar beet line GTSB77 was investigated. Saponins are the only known toxicants found in sugar beet and are actively eliminated in sugar processing. It was concluded that saponin levels in sugar beet GTSB77, both treated and untreated with glyphosate, are not a human health risk since: saponins are, in general, at very low levels in sugar beet tissues; sugar beet processing aims to eliminate saponins and other extraneous material from refined sugar products; and saponin levels in both glyphosate-treated and untreated GTSB77 do not differ significantly across seasons and sites, and fall within the range described for traditional sugar beet varieties in the literature.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The potential toxicity and allergenicity of the CP4 EPSPS protein was assessed. No significant homologies between the amino acid sequence of CP4 EPSPS and those of known toxins or allergens were detected. The protein did not display the characteristics usually associated with allergenic substances, and was readily degraded under conditions simulating the mammalian digestive environment. Acute oral gavage studies, in which mice were fed high doses of the CP4 EPSPS protein, did not reveal any toxic effects and provided further support to the conclusion that this protein, and thus the transgenic GTSB77 sugar beet line, possessed little or no potential for toxicity.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 12:05:19'),
(52, 30, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Yellow crookneck squash (<i>Cucurbita pepo</i> L.), together with pumpkins, gourds, and other squash, were grown in 87 countries in 2004, with a combined harvest of 19 million metric tonnes. The major producers of these vegetables were China, India, Ukraine, the United States, Egypt, Mexico, the Islamic Republic of Iran, and Cuba. Yellow crookneck squash is grown primarily for the fresh market and the processed squash industry, which includes frozen foods, dehydrated and canned products.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Squashes, pumpkins and gourds are mostly annual, warm season species in the genus Cucurbita. They are closely related to cucumber, muskmelon and watermelon. There are four major species in the Cucurbita genus: pepo, mixta, moschata, and maxima, and one minor species, ficifolia, which is a perennial plant that grows in the Andes. The terms pumpkin and squash have no precise botanical meaning and may refer to any of the above New World species. Squashes are also called vine crops because, originally, the cultivars in this family all grew on vines. While most of these crops still grow on vines, some of the newest cultivars have a bush growth habit, making them easier to grow in smaller spaces. The fruits come in an astonishing assortment of shapes and sizes, from tiny, marble-sized pumpkins of the Caribbean islands to giant gourds more than seven feet long. All of the New World species, except ficifolia, are annuals.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Viral diseases are a limiting factor to squash production, particularly during summer and fall months. Mosaic viruses include the cucumber mosaic cucumovirus (CMV), zucchini yellow mosaic potyvirus (ZYMV), and watermelon mosaic potyvirus (WMV2). It is often hard to differentiate virus infections from one another based on visual symptoms, which include mosaic patterns (light green, dark green) in leaves, puckering, leaf distortion, stunting, shortened internodes and misshapen fruit. Aphids vector each of the viruses mentioned above and CMV is also seed-transmitted. Often two or more viruses are detected in a single plant, and the viruses generally overwinter in weed hosts. Preventative control measures include avoiding late season planting and removing weeds around fields. Insect control has not proven effective. Other than removal of virus-infected plants, there are no other effective control measures for these crops once infected.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The ZW20 squash line was developed using recombinant DNA techniques to resist infection by ZYMV and WMV2 by inserting virus-derived sequences that encode the coat proteins (CPs) from each of these viruses. The introduced viral sequences do not result in the formation of any infectious particles, nor does their expression result in any disease pathology.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">This transgenic squash exhibits &ldquo;pathogen-derived resistance&rdquo; to infection and subsequent disease caused by ZYMV and WMV2 through a process that is related to viral cross-protection. Although the exact mechanism by which the viral protection occurs is unknown, most evidence suggests that expression of viral CP by a plant interferes with one of the first steps in viral replication, uncoating (removal of CP) from the incoming virus (Register &amp; Nelson, 1992). Other modes of action of cross-protection have also been suggested (Matthews, 1991).</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Squash line ZW20 was tested in field trials in the United States (1990&ndash;1993). These tests demonstrated that ZW20 plants exhibited the typical agronomic characteristics of conventional crookneck squash, with the addition of resistance to ZYMV and WMV2 infection. ZW20 was comparable to conventional squash varieties and did not exhibit weedy characteristics, and had no effect on nontarget organisms or the general environment.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Squash (C. pepo) and all other species of Cucurbita are monoecious, such that the male and female flowers are separate structures but still on the same plant. Pollination requires an insect vector, usually a bee, to transmit the pollen from the male flower to the female flower. Squash varieties, including ZW20, will cross-pollinate with other varieties within the same species, such as zucchini squash and acorn squash.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">There are several related species to cultivated squash, which include <i>C. mixta, C. moschata</i>, and <i>C. maxima</i> and wild populations of <i>C. pepo</i> referred to as free living <i>Cucurbita pepo</i> (FLCP). There is no evidence that squash can naturally cross-pollinate with relatives from <i>C. mixta, C. moschata</i>, and <i>C. maxima</i>, despite the fact that they have been grown side by side under cultivation for many generations. Cultivated squash can cross-pollinate with FLCP and form fertile hybrids. Observations of FCLP plants indicate that disease resistance traits have not be transferred to FCLP. If virus resistance genes from ZW20 were transferred to FLCP plants, the selective pressure in natural populations of FLCP plants to maintain the virus resistance gene would be minimal. Evidence supports the conclusion that FLCP populations are not under significant environmental stress from viral infection.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The food and livestock feed safety of squash line ZW20 was established based on several standard criteria. As part of the safety assessment, the nutritional composition of squash fruit was found to be equivalent to conventional varieties by the analyses of protein, moisture, fat, ash, total dietary fibre, carbohydrates, calories, sugar profile (fructose, glucose, sucrose, lactose, maltose), vitamin C, beta-carotene, vitamin A, calcium, iron, and sodium. Cucurbit plants, such as squash, produce alkaloids classified as cucurbitacins, which are bitter-tasting compounds that discourage feeding by herbivores. A standard test in plant breeding for the presence of cucurbitacins involves tasting the product to determine its bitterness and is able to detect levels between 1&ndash;10 ppb. The transgenic squash line ZW20 and the parent variety were both non-bitter, indicating that the cucurbitacin level in each was less than 10 ppb.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The ZYMV and WMV2 coat proteins do not possess characteristics typical of known protein allergens or toxins such as heat stability and resistance to digestion by simulated gastric fluids. Comparisons of the deduced amino acid sequence of the plant-expressed ZYMV and WMV2 CPs did not reveal any homology to known protein allergens and toxins. Furthermore, ZYMV- and WMV2-infected squash naturally contains higher levels of viral CP than expressed in this transgenic squash, and there has been no evidence of adverse effects linked to the consumption of virus-infected squash.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 11:52:50');
INSERT INTO `gmcropdatabase_events_execsummaries` (`id`, `eventId`, `description`, `status`, `created`, `updated`) VALUES
(53, 38, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Yellow crookneck squash (<i>Cucurbita pepo</i> L.), together with pumpkins, gourds, and other squash, were grown in 87 countries in 2004, with a combined harvest of 19 million metric tonnes. The major producers of these vegetables were China, India, Ukraine, the United States, Egypt, Mexico, the Islamic Republic of Iran and Cuba. Yellow crookneck squash is grown primarily for the fresh market and the processed squash industry, which includes frozen foods, dehydrated and canned products.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Squashes, pumpkins and gourds are mostly annual, warm season species in the genus Cucurbita. They are closely related to cucumber, muskmelon and watermelon. There are four major species in the Cucurbita genus: pepo, mixta, moschata, and maxima, and one minor species, ficifolia, which is a perennial plant that grows in the Andes. The terms pumpkin and squash have no precise botanical meaning and may refer to any of the above New World species. Squashes are also called vine crops because, originally, the cultivars in this family all grew on vines. While most of these crops still grow on vines, some of the newest cultivars have a bush growth habit, making them easier to grow in smaller spaces. The fruits come in an astonishing assortment of shapes and sizes, from tiny, marble-sized pumpkins of the Caribbean islands to giant gourds more than seven feet long. All of the New World species, except ficifolia, are annuals.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Viral diseases, such as mosaic viruses, are a limiting factor to squash production, particularly during summer and fall months. Mosaic viruses include the cucumber mosaic cucumovirus (CMV), zucchini yellow mosaic potyvirus (ZYMV), and watermelon mosaic potyvirus (WMV2). It is often hard to differentiate virus infections from one another based on visual symptoms, which include mosaic patterns (light green, dark green) in leaves, puckering, leaf distortion, stunting, shortened internodes and misshapen fruit. Aphids vector each of the viruses mentioned above and CMV is also seed-transmitted. Often two or more viruses are detected in a single plant, and the viruses generally overwinter in weed hosts. Preventative control measures include avoiding late season planting and removing weeds around fields. Insect control has not proven effective. Other than removal of virus-infected plants, there are no other effective control measures for these crops once infected.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The CZW-3 squash line was developed using recombinant DNA techniques to resist infection by CMV, ZYMV, and WMV2 by inserting virus-derived sequences that encode the coat proteins (CPs) from each of these viruses. The introduced viral sequences do not result in the formation of any infectious particles, nor does their expression result in any disease pathology.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">This transgenic squash exhibits &ldquo;pathogen-derived resistance&rdquo; to infection and subsequent disease caused by CMV, ZYMV, and WMV2 through a process that is related to viral cross-protection. Although the exact mechanism by which the viral protection occurs is unknown, most evidence suggests that expression of viral CP by a plant interferes with one of the first steps in viral replication, uncoating (removal of CP) from the incoming virus (Register &amp; Nelson, 1992). Other modes of action of cross-protection have also been suggested (Matthews, 1991).</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">CZW-3 squash was tested in field trials in the United States (1993&ndash;1996). These tests demonstrated that CZW-3 plants exhibited the typical agronomic characteristics of conventional crookneck squash, with the addition of resistance to CMV, ZYMV and WMV2 infection. CZW-3 was comparable to conventional squash varieties and did not exhibit weedy characteristics, and had no effect on nontarget organisms or the general environment.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Squash (<i>C. pepo</i>) and all other species of Cucurbita are monoecious, such that the male and female flowers are separate structures but still on the same plant. Pollination requires an insect vector, usually a bee, to transmit the pollen from the male flower to the female flower. Squash varieties, including CZW-3, will cross-pollinate with other varieties within the same species, such as zucchini squash and acorn squash.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">There are several related species to cultivated squash, which include <i>C. mixta, C. moschata</i>, and <i>C. maxima</i> and wild populations of <i>C. pepo</i> referred to as free living Cucurbita pepo (FLCP). There is no evidence that squash can naturally cross-pollinate with relatives from <i>C. mixta, C. moschata</i>, and <i>C. maxima</i>, despite the fact that they have been grown side by side under cultivation for many generations. Cultivated squash can cross-pollinate with FLCP and form fertile hybrids. Observations of FCLP plants indicate that disease resistance traits have not be transferred to FCLP. If virus resistance genes from CZW-3 were transferred to FLCP plants, the selective pressure in natural populations of FLCP plants to maintain the virus resistance gene would be minimal. Evidence supports the conclusion that FLCP populations are not under significant environmental stress from viral infection.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The food and livestock feed safety of squash line CZW-3 was established based on several standard criteria. As part of the safety assessment, the nutritional composition of squash fruit was found to be equivalent to conventional varieties by the analyses of protein, moisture, total fat, ash, dietary fibre, total carbohydrates, calories, sugar profile (fructose, glucose, sucrose, lactose, maltose), vitamin C, beta-carotene, vitamin A, calcium, iron, and sodium. Cucurbit plants, such as squash, produce alkaloids classified as cucurbitacins, which are bitter-tasting compounds that discourage feeding by herbivores. A standard test in plant breeding for the presence of cucurbitacins involves tasting the product to determine its bitterness and is able to detect levels between 1 &ndash;10 ppb. The transgenic squash line CZW-3 and the parent variety were both non-bitter, indicating that the cucurbitacin level in each line was less than 10 ppb.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The CMV, ZYMV, and WMV2 coat proteins do not possess characteristics typical of known protein allergens or toxins such as heat stability and resistance to digestion by simulated gastric fluids. Comparisons of the deduced amino acid sequence of the plant-expressed CMV, ZYMV, and WMV2 CPs did not reveal any homology to known protein allergens and toxins. Furthermore, CMV-, ZYMV-, and WMV2-infected squash naturally contains higher levels of viral CP than expressed in this transgenic squash, and there has been no evidence of adverse effects linked to the consumption of virus-infected squash.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 11:55:38'),
(54, 62, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Carnations (<i>Dianthus carophyllus</i> L.) are among the most extensively grown cut flowers with more than 10 billion carnations produced around the world each year. Carnations are cultivated by growers, flower auctions, flower wholesalers, retailers and plant breeders worldwide.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Carnations are sold to consumers as cut flowers, but are also sold as cuttings or plants. Flowers are cut with great care to ensure that the consumer receives a flower that will last as long as possible. However, once a flower has been cut, it starts to deteriorate and is susceptible to premature inrolling (wilting) of the petals. The deterioration is a serious problem for carnations and is caused by the plants own production of ethylene, a natural plant hormone that triggers the aging process and leads to petal wilting. To ensure that the flowers have an acceptable vase-life, growers chemically treat all carnations with a solution of silver thiosulfate (STS) or other chemicals such as amino-oxyacetic acid (AOA). These chemicals can double the usual vase-life by reducing the plant&#39;s sensitivity to ethylene and thereby slowing down wilting and subsequent plant death. The most widely used of these chemicals, STS, is a polluting metal salt and is both toxic and a skin irritant.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The enzyme 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxyllic acid (ACC) synthase, normally found in carnations, is responsible for the conversion of s-adenosylmethionine to ACC, which is the immediate precursor of ethylene. The transgenic carnation line 66 was developed using recombinant DNA techniques to display suppressed ACC synthase activity, and thus reduced ethylene synthesis and therefore longer vase life, by inserting an additional truncated copy of the ACC synthase encoding gene. The presence of the truncated ACC synthase gene suppresses the normal expression of the native ACC synthase gene, and while not completely understood, the mechanism of &ldquo;downregulation&rdquo; is likely linked to the coordinate suppression of transcription of both the endogenous gene and the introduced truncated ACC synthase gene.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Carnation line 66 was field tested in the United States, United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and Australia. Results demonstrated that genetically modified carnations had a vase life in water of 22 days, without requiring chemical treatment with STS or AOA. In the same study, non-genetically modified carnations only had a vase life in water of 10 days, and required treatment with STS or AOA to guarantee a vase life in water of at least 8 days.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The biology of carnation is such that there are no reasonable means for the genetically modified plants to escape from cultivation and become established as populations in the wild, or for gene dispersal from the genetically modified carnation to occur. The commercial standard carnation varieties are generally male sterile and rarely produce anthers; and if they do, little pollen is produced and this can only be transferred by insects. In commercial carnation production, outcrossing is unlikely as flowers are cut before opening. Should flowers open, only certain insects are easily able to access nectaries in flowers and there are very few opportunities for this to occur during transit and sale. Furthermore, carnations plants require 6 weeks for seed development. A genetically modified cut carnation flower lasts only 3-4 weeks, which is not enough time for seed set.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Many Dianthus species occur as common wildflowers in Canada and the United States. There has never been any evidence of hybridization between carnation and these species, nor after decades of cultivation have carnations been found in the wild. Carnation has no weedy characteristics and is not closely related to known weeds. The risk of transferring genetic traits from transgenic carnation line 66 to species in unmanaged environments was insignificant.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 16:53:48'),
(55, 64, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Carnations (<i>Dianthus carophyllus</i> L.) are among the most extensively grown cut flowers with more than 10 billion carnations produced around the world each year. Carnations are cultivated by growers, flower auctions, flower wholesalers, retailers and plant breeders worldwide and are sold as cut flowers, cuttings or plants.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Plant breeders are always in search of developing a new flower variety with a novel colour. However, for some flower varieties, no amount of traditional breeding will achieve blue, violet, or mauve flowers, due to the inability of the plant to form certain pigments. There are two major types of flower pigments: the flavonoids, which contribute to a range of colours from yellow to red to blue, and; the carotenoids, which are common pigments in flowers with colours ranging from yellow to orange. The flavonoids include the anthocyanin pigments, cyanidin (red), pelargonidin (brick red), and delphinidin (blue). Carnations, roses, lilies, chrysanthemums and gerberas, which represent 75 percent of worldwide flower sales, do not produce the blue pigment called delphinidin.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Transgenic lines 4, 11, 15, and 16 were developed using recombinant DNA techniques to produce flowers with a unique violet/mauve colour by introducing two genes from petunia (<i>Petunia hybrida</i>) that function together in the biosynthesis of the anthocyanin pigment delphinidin. The transgenic lines were derived from the parent cultivar &lsquo;White Unesco&rsquo;, which is a white coloured carnation that was selected for a mutation in the dihydroflavonol reductase (DFR) encoding gene that did not allow for expression of a functional enzyme, and thus did not produce the anthocyanin type pigments that give rise to blue and red coloured flowers. The two genes introduced into the transgenic carnation lines included a functional dihydroflavonol reductase encoding gene and a gene encoding the enzyme flavonoid 3&rsquo;, 5&rsquo;-hydroxylase (F3&rsquo;, 5&rsquo;H), a member of the NADPH-Cytochrome P450 reductase family. Expression of the F3&rsquo;, 5&rsquo;H encoding gene allows for the production of blue coloured delphinidin anthocyanin pigments, which are not normally found in carnations.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The biology of carnation is such that there are no reasonable means for the genetically modified plants to escape from cultivation and become established as populations in the wild, or for gene dispersal from the genetically modified carnation to occur. The commercial standard carnation varieties are generally male sterile and rarely produce anthers; and if they do, little pollen is produced and this can only be transferred by insects. In commercial carnation production, outcrossing is unlikely as flowers are cut before opening. Should flowers open, only certain insects are easily able to access nectaries in flowers and there are very few opportunities for this to occur during transit and sale. Furthermore, carnations plants require 6 weeks for seed development. A genetically modified cut carnation flower lasts only 3-4 weeks, which is not enough time for seed set.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Many Dianthus species occur as common wildflowers. There has never been any evidence of hybridization between carnation and these species, nor after decades of cultivation have carnations been found in the wild. Carnation has no weedy characteristics and is not closely related to known weeds. The risk of transferring genetic traits from transgenic carnation lines 4, 11, 15, 16, to species in unmanaged environments was insignificant.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 16:54:38'),
(56, 28, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Maize is grown primarily for its kernel, which is largely refined into products used in a wide range of food, medical, and industrial goods. Only a small amount of whole maize kernel is consumed by humans. Maize oil is extracted from the germ of the maize kernel and maize is also a raw material in the manufacture of starch. A complex refining process converts the majority of this starch into sweeteners, syrups and fermentation products, including ethanol. Refined maize products, sweeteners, starch, and oil are abundant in processed foods such as breakfast cereals, dairy goods, and chewing gum.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">In the United States and Canada maize is typically used as animal feed, with roughly 70% of the crop fed to livestock, although an increasing amount is being used for the production of ethanol. The entire maize plant, the kernels, and several refined products such as glutens and steep liquor, are used in animal feeds. Silage made from the whole maize plant makes up 10-12% of the annual corn acreage, and is a major ruminant feedstuff. Livestock that feed on maize include cattle, pigs, poultry, sheep, goats, fish and companion animals.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Industrial uses for maize products include recycled paper, paints, cosmetics, car parts and pharmaceuticals.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The European corn borer (ECB), <i>Ostrinia nubilalis</i>, is the most damaging insect pest of maize in the United States and Canada; losses resulting from ECB damage and control costs exceed $1 billion each year. An average of one ECB cavity per maize stalk across an entire field can reduce yield by as much as 5% when caused by first generation larvae, and 2.5% when caused by second generation larvae, with annual yield losses estimated at 5 to 10 %.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Despite consistent losses to ECB, chemical insecticides are utilized on a relatively small acreage (less than 20%). Historically, this reluctance stems from the difficulties in identifying and managing ECB in maize crops: ECB larval damage is hidden, heavy infestations are unpredictable, insecticides are costly, timing of insecticide application is difficult and multiple applications may be required to guarantee ECB control.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Weeds are also a major production problem in maize cultivation. Even a light infestation of weeds can reduce yields by 10 to 15%; severe infestations can reduce yields by 50% or more. Typically, weeds are managed using a combination of cultural (<i>e.g.</i>, seed bed preparation, clean seed, variety selection) and chemical controls. Depending on the production area and the prevalent weed species, herbicides may be incorporated into the soil before planting (pre-plant), applied after planting but before emergence (pre-emergence), or applied after the maize plants emerge (post-emergence). Ideally, for maize production, weeds should be controlled for the full season. However, the most critical period for weed control is usually about six to eight weeks after crop emergence, during the 4th to 10th leaf stages. This critical period in the life cycle of maize must be kept weed free in order to prevent yield loss.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The transgenic maize line TC1507 was genetically engineered to resist ECB, Southwestern corn borer, fall armyworm, and black cutworm by producing its own insecticide. Two novel genes, <i>cry1Fa2</i> and <i>pat</i> were introduced into the maize hybrid line Hi-II using a microprojectile bombardment (biolistic) transformation technique.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The <i>cry1Fa2</i> gene, isolated from the common soil bacterium <i>Bacillus thuringiensis</i> (<i>Bt</i>) var. <i>aizawai</i>, produces the insect control protein Cry1F, a delta-endotoxin. Cry proteins, of which Cry1F is only one, act by selectively binding to specific sites localized on the lining of the midgut of susceptible insect species. Following binding, pores are formed that disrupt midgut ion flow, causing gut paralysis and eventual death due to bacterial sepsis. Cry1F is lethal only when eaten by the larvae of lepidopteran insects (moths and butterflies), and its specificity of action is directly attributable to the presence of specific binding sites in the target insects. There are no binding sites for the delta-endotoxins of <i>B. thuringiensis</i> on the surface of mammalian intestinal cells, therefore, livestock animals and humans are not susceptible to these proteins.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">In addition to the <i>cry1Fa2</i> gene, TC1507 was developed to allow for the use of glufosinate ammonium, the active ingredient in phosphinothricin herbicides (Basta&reg;, Rely&reg;, Liberty&reg;, and Finale&reg;), as a weed control option, and as a breeding tool for selecting plants containing the <i>cry1Fa2</i> gene. Glufosinate chemically resembles the amino acid glutamate and acts to inhibit an enzyme, called glutamine synthetase, which is involved in the synthesis of glutamine. Essentially, glufosinate acts enough like glutamate, the molecule used by glutamine synthetase to make glutamine, that it blocks the enzyme&#39;s usual activity. Glutamine synthetase is also involved in ammonia detoxification. The action of glufosinate results in reduced glutamine levels and a corresponding increase in concentrations of ammonia in plant tissues, leading to cell membrane disruption and cessation of photosynthesis resulting in plant withering and death.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Glufosinate tolerance in TC1507 maize is the result of introducing a gene encoding the enzyme phosphinothricin-N-acetyltransferase (PAT) isolated from the common aerobic soil actinomycete, <i>Streptomyces viridochromogenes</i>, the same organism from which glufosinate was originally isolated. The PAT enzyme catalyzes the acetylation of phosphinothricin, detoxifying it into an inactive compound. The PAT enzyme is not known to have any toxic properties.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 11:51:37'),
(57, 63, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Carnations (<i>Dianthus carophyllus</i> L.) are among the most extensively grown cut flowers with more than 10 billion carnations produced around the world each year. Carnations are cultivated by growers, flower auctions, flower wholesalers, retailers and plant breeders worldwide and are sold as cut flowers, cuttings or plants.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Plant breeders are always in search of developing a new flower variety with a novel colour. However, for some flower varieties, no amount of traditional breeding will achieve blue, violet, or mauve flowers, due to the inability of the plant to form certain pigments. There are two major types of flower pigments: the flavonoids, which contribute to a range of colours from yellow to red to blue, and; the carotenoids, which are common pigments in flowers with colours ranging from yellow to orange. The flavonoids include the anthocyanin pigments, cyanidin (red), pelargonidin (brick red), and delphinidin (blue). Carnations, roses, lilies, chrysanthemums and gerberas, which represent 75 percent of worldwide flower sales, do not produce the blue pigment called delphinidin.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Transgenic lines 959A, 988A, 1226A, 1351A, 1363A, and 1400A were developed using recombinant DNA techniques to produce flowers with a unique deep purple colour by introducing two genes that function together in the biosynthesis of the anthocyanin pigment delphinidin. The transgenic lines were derived from the parent cultivar &lsquo;White Unesco&rsquo;, which is a white coloured carnation that was selected for a mutation in the dihydroflavonol reductase (DFR) encoding gene that did not allow for expression of a functional enzyme, and thus did not produce the anthocyanin type pigments that give rise to blue and red coloured flowers. The two genes introduced into the transgenic carnation lines included a functional dihydroflavonol reductase encoding gene isolated from petunia (<i>Petunia hybrida</i>) and a gene encoding the enzyme flavonoid 3&rsquo;, 5&rsquo;-hydroxylase (F3&rsquo;, 5&rsquo;H), a member of the NADPH-Cytochrome P450 reductase family, isolated from Viola. Expression of the F3&rsquo;, 5&rsquo;H encoding gene (<i>bp40</i>) allows for the production of blue coloured delphinidin anthocyanin pigments, which are not normally found in carnations.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The biology of carnation is such that there are no reasonable means for the genetically modified plants to escape from cultivation and become established as populations in the wild, or for gene dispersal from the genetically modified carnation to occur. The commercial standard carnation varieties are generally male sterile and rarely produce anthers; and if they do, little pollen is produced and this can only be transferred by insects. In commercial carnation production, outcrossing is unlikely as flowers are cut before opening. Should flowers open, only certain insects are easily able to access nectaries in flowers and there are very few opportunities for this to occur during transit and sale. Furthermore, carnations plants require 6 weeks for seed development. A genetically modified cut carnation flower lasts only 3-4 weeks, which is not enough time for seed set.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Many Dianthus species occur as common wildflowers. There has never been any evidence of hybridization between carnation and these species, nor after decades of cultivation have carnations been found in the wild. Carnation has no weedy characteristics and is not closely related to known weeds. The risk of transferring genetic traits from transgenic carnation lines to species in unmanaged environments was not judged to be significant.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 16:54:15'),
(58, 76, '<p style="text-align: justify;">This product was not subject to regulation in any jurisdiction except Canada since the development of this herbicide-tolerant line did not employ recombinant DNA technologies. In Canada, regulatory approval was required for use in human food and livestock feed, but not for environmental release as these lines were not intended for cultivation in Canada.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Harvested rice, or rough rice, is encased by an inedible hull or husk, which is removed before milling. The hulls are utilized as fuels, mulch, abrasives and animal feed products. Brown rice is what remains after the hulls are removed. The light brown colour of brown rice is due to the presence of bran layers and the rice germ surrounding the rice kernel. Brown rice can be milled into regular white or &lsquo;polished rice&rsquo;, where white rice is distinguished by the fact that the hulls, bran layers and rice germ are removed. The bran and rice germs are high in protein and nutrients and are used in specialty foods such as rice bran oil and also in livestock feed. Both brown and white rice kernels can be parboiled and/or milled into rice flour for use in breakfast cereals, baby foods and desserts and numerous other food products. Rice kernels are also used to produce beer and rice wine.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Weeds are a significant production problem in rice cultivation. Weeds of rice producing areas, such as the United States, include red rice (<i>Oryza</i> spp.), barnyard grass, sprangletop, fall panicum, large crabgrass, rice flatsedge, yellow nutsedge, and smartweed. These are typically managed using a combination of cultural practices (e.g., dry <i>vs</i> wet tillage, using clean seed, crop rotations) and chemical controls (herbicides such as molinate and propanil).</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Rice lines CL121, CL141, and CFX51, were developed through a combination of accelerated mutagenesis and traditional cross-breeding to exhibit tolerance to imidazolinone containing herbicides, such as imazethapyr. Imidazolinone herbicides are active against the acetolactate synthase (ALS) enzyme in plants, which catalyzes the first reaction in the biosynthesis of branched-chain amino acids. Imidazolinone inhibits the production of these essential amino acids (valine, leucine and isoleucine), resulting in a decrease in protein synthesis and the eventual death of the plant. ALS is also active in the glycolytic pathway of plant metabolism, by which sugars are broken down to produce acids and release energy.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The original mutant line, 93AS3510, was used as a parental line in a breeding program with Cocodrie, Maybelle, and Cypress rice varieties to create lines CL121, CL141, and CFX51, respectively.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 16:59:13'),
(59, 4, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Argentine or oilseed rape (<i>Brassica napus</i>) was grown as a commercial crop in over 50 countries, with a combined harvest of 48.9 million metric tonnes in 2006. The major producers of rapeseed are China, Canada, India, Germany, France, the United Kingdom and Australia. Canola is a genetic variation of <i>B. napus</i> that was developed through conventional breeding to contain low levels of the natural rapeseed toxins, glucosinolate and erucic acid. Canola is grown for its seed, which represents a major source of edible vegetable oil and is also used in livestock feeds.<br />\nThe only food use of canola is as a refined oil. Typically, canola oil is used by itself as a salad oil or cooking oil, or blended with other vegetable oils in the manufacture of margarine, shortenings, cooking and salad oils. Canola meal, a byproduct of the oil production process, is added to livestock feed rations. An increasing amount of oil is being used for biodiesel production, especially in Europe.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The removal of weeds early in the growing season is extremely important in canola production. Young canola seedlings are not very competitive and early weed pressure has detrimental effects on final yield. Precautions such as pre-plant tillage or herbicide application are common approaches for reducing weed competition. Once established, canola forms a dense canopy and is very competitive, making weed control less of a concern.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Line Oxy-235 (ACS-BN&Oslash;11-5) was developed to allow the use of oxynil herbicides, ioxynil and bromoxynil, as weed control options in canola. Bromoxynil is very effective on broadleaf weeds that are common in canola fields and the deployment of transgenic bromoxynil-tolerant canola will allow the post-emergence control of these weeds without crop injury.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Transgenic Oxy-235 contains a single copy of the <i>bxn</i> gene isolated from the bacterium <i>Klebsiella pneumoniae</i> (sub. sp <i>ozaenae</i>), which encodes a nitrilase enzyme that hydrolyzes oxynil herbicides to non-phytotoxic compounds. Constitutive expression of the <i>bxn</i> gene was regulated via the 35S promoter from cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) and levels of nitrilase enzyme were detected in samples of leaf (1000 ng/mg total protein) and seed (The Oxy-235 line was field tested in Canada from 1992 to 1996 and assessed for a number of agronomic characteristics, including seed yield, days to maturity, silique shattering, and overwintering capacity. In comparison with non-transgenic commercial canola varieties, all of these parameters were within the normal range of expression. Stress adaptation was evaluated, including resistance to major <i>B. napus</i> pests such as the fungal pathogen <i>Leptosphaeria maculans</i> (blackleg) and the susceptibility of Oxy-235 was within the ranges currently displayed by commercial varieties. The only significant difference between Oxy-235 canola and the parental non-transformed variety was that Oxy-235 exhibited field tolerance to ioxynil and bromoxynil.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">As the nitrilase protein was not found in the refined oil produced from transgenic canola Oxy-235, it can be concluded that there will be no human exposure to this proteins. The genetic modification of Oxy-235 canola will not result in any change in the consumption pattern for this product.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Further studies were conducted to assess the potential toxicity of the introduced nitrilase protein. These included an acute oral toxicity study in mice, amino acid sequence comparisons with known protein toxins, an evaluation of the prior human history of ingestion of similar enzymes and the potential toxicity of bromoxynil metabolites. None of these studies indicated a potential for human toxicity. Similarly, studies on digestive fate (stability to pepsin digestion) and similarity to known allergens demonstrated that the nitrilase enzyme is rapidly degraded (&lt;= 15 s upon exposure to simulated gastric fluid) and has no homology with known allergens.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 12:35:57'),
(60, 86, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Clearfield&trade; sunflower hybrid X81359 was not subject to regulation in any jurisdiction except Canada since the development of this herbicide-tolerant line did not employ recombinant DNA technologies. In Canada, regulatory approval is required for use in human food and livestock feed, and for environmental release. X8159 is not intended for cultivation in Canada.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Sunflower (<i>Helianthus annuus</i> L.) was grown as a commercial crop in 67 countries, with a combined harvest 31 million metric tonnes in 2006. The major producers of sunflower in 2004 were Russia, Ukraine, Argentina, China, Romania and France. Sunflower is cultivated as an oilseed crop, as well as for the production of edible seeds for human consumption. Sunflower oil is used in cooking and in the production of margarine, salad dressings and baby formula. Industrial uses of sunflower oil include soaps, hydraulic fluids, paints and plastics. The byproduct of oil extraction, sunflower meal, is used as a livestock feed (CFIA, 2005a).</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Weeds are a major production problem in sunflower cultivation. Sunflower is a poor competitor during the early growth stages until canopy closure and weeds during these growth stages compete for light, water and nutrients. Weeds can be managed using a combination of cultural practices (<i>e.g.</i>, inter-row cultivation), integrated weed management (<i>e.g.</i>, weed scouting, economic thresholds) and the use of herbicides. Herbicides can be applied before the crop emerges (<i>e.g.</i>, ethalfluraline, trifluralin), or after (<i>e.g.</i>, imazamethabenz, clethodim, fluazifop-p-butyl). The build-up of weed populations can be stemmed by applying herbicides on summer-fallowed fields, and by practicing crop rotation, which allows the use of different herbicides. Rotating among herbicide groups also prevents the development of herbicide-resistant biotypes.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Clearfield&trade; sunflower hybrid X81359 was developed to allow the use of imidazolinone herbicides as a post-emergence weed control option in sunflower production. The mode of action of imidazolinone herbicides consists of inhibiting the activity of acetohydroxyacid synthase (AHAS), an enzyme in plants active in glycolysis and in the biosynthesis of the branched-chain amino acids isoleucine, leucine and valine. The result of the inhibition of AHAS activity is a decrease in protein synthesis, and an accumulation of toxic levels of alpha-ketoglutarate, all of which causes the eventual death of the plant. While unmodified sunflower is not tolerant to imidazolinone, X81359 has been modified to survive an otherwise lethal application of this herbicide. The tolerance to imidazolinone herbicides in X81359 is due to a naturally occurring mutation in the AHAS gene in a wild population of <i>Helianthus annus</i>. This trait was introduced into X81359 using conventional plant breeding techniques.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The livestock safety of X81350 was based on the evaluation of the similarity of AHAS, in structure and function, to the enzyme naturally present in food and livestock feeds and the lack of toxicity or allergenicity of the modified AHAS. The nutritional equivalence and wholesomeness of X81350 compared to conventional sunflower was demonstrated by the analysis of key nutrients in the grain including proximates (<i>e.g.</i>, crude protein, crude fat, crude fibre, ash, moisture), amino acids (valine, leucine and isoleucine), and fatty acids, as well as by the composition in anti-nutritional factors (phytic acid and trypsin inhibitor).</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 17:08:07'),
(61, 83, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Tobacco (<i>Nicotina tabacum</i>) was grown commercially in 127 countries in 2004, with a combined production of 6.5 million metric tonnes. The major producers of tobacco were China, Brazil, India, the United States, Zimbabwe, Turkey and Indonesia. This cultivated plant is thought to be a hybrid of <i>N. sylvestris</i> and <i>N. tomentosiformis</i>. All Nicotiana species are characterized by the presence of nicotine and other alkaloids.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Tobacco is processed into cigarettes, cigars, snuff, and chewing tobacco. Tobacco is widely regarded as being highly addictive due to the presence of high (20000 ppm to 30000 ppm) levels of nicotine in conventional varieties. It is generally agreed that reducing the level of nicotine delivered by tobacco products will reduce dependence on tobacco, which is commonly regarded as large contributor to cancerous diseases and premature mortality worldwide.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The transgenic tobacco line Vector 21-41 was developed to reduce nicotine levels below those thought to be addictive. Vector 21-41 routinely contains 20 fold less nicotine than conventional varieties and also produces 15 fold less mutagenic and carcinogenic Tobacco Specific Nitrosamines. An antisense strategy was used to downregulate expression of the enzyme responsible for the production of nicotinic acid, a nicotine precursor. Specifically the antisense configuration of <i>NtQPT1</i> a gene coding for quinolinic acid phosphoribosyltransferase (QPTase) was inserted into Burley 21 LA (a low-alkaloid variety) via <i>Agrobacterium</i>-mediated transformation.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Vector 21-41 was field tested in the U.S. and Argentina. Vector 21-41 did not prove to be substantially different than the parental line: Burley 21 LA or Burley 21, in terms of agronomic performance. Vector 21-41 did exhibit susceptibility to fungal diseases such as blue mold and insects, but this was not substantially different from the parental line and could be controlled by conventional practices.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">In field trials, Vector 21-41 leaves had 700 to 1500 ppm nicotine, while conventional varieties grown in the same conditions produced 10000 to 30000 ppm nicotine. The percentage of reducing sugars was increased in Vector 21-41 compared to conventional varieties almost two-fold.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Due to the nature of the tobacco plant and cultivation methods currently used, it was not thought that Vector 21-41 posed an undue environmental risk. Tobacco is usually a self-pollinating plant, being possessed of tubular flowers and not prone to wind pollination. As well, out-crossing with related species is rare and these species are not generally found in areas where tobacco is grown.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Cultivation of tobacco is not conducive to outcrossing. Most growers do not save tobacco seed, preferring to rely on certified seed for planting. As well, in commercial production, the flowers are removed prior to anthesis, pollen shed or seed development to encourage leaf growth. Vegetative reproduction in tobacco is rare in field conditions.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">An antibiotic resistance marker gene (<i>nptII</i>) encoding the enzyme neomycin phosphotransferase II (NPTII), which inactivates aminoglycoside antibiotics such as kanamycin and neomycin, was also introduced into the genome of these plants. This gene was derived from a bacterial transposon (Tn5 transposable element from <i>Escherichia coli</i>) and was included as a selectable marker to identify transformed plants during tissue culture regeneration and multiplication. The expression of the <i>nptII</i> gene in these plants has no agronomic significance and the safety of the NPTII enzyme as a food additive was evaluated by the United States Food and Drug Administration in 1994 (US FDA, 1994).</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Vector 21-41 is not expected to impact biodiversity or to become a weed nuisance. The transformation does not convey any competitive advantage to the plant nor does it allow the production of tobacco outside areas currently under tobacco cultivation. It has no known adverse effects on animals or insects feeding on the plant.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 17:07:27'),
(62, 87, '<p style="text-align: justify;">AP602CL (Clearfield&trade;) spring wheat was not subject to regulation in any jurisdiction except Canada since the development of this herbicide-tolerant line did not employ recombinant DNA technologies. In Canada, regulatory approval is required for use in human food and livestock feed, and for environmental release.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Commercial wheat is comprised mainly of two species: common, or bread wheat (<i>T. aestivum </i>L.) and durum wheat (<i>T. durum</i> Desf.). Bread wheat is classified into several types, based on vernalisation requirement (winter and spring types) and kernel hardness. The hard types of bread wheat are high in protein, especially gliadins and glutenins. The high levels of these protein fractions in the flour impart elasticity to bread dough and allow it to expand during leavening and baking. Soft wheats are low in protein, and have low levels of gliadin and glutenin; these qualities are desirable in products such as cakes and pastries, and in unleavened breads. Durum wheat produces very hard, almost vitreous kernels due to its high protein content. This wheat is milled into semolina for the production of pasta and couscous.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Harvested wheat consists of a naked kernel, unlike other cereals such as rice, barley or oats that retain their hull (<i>i.e.</i>, the palea and lemma). The wheat kernel is loosely enclosed within the palea and lemma of each spikelet; these are eliminated as chaff during threshing. The wheat kernel is milled into white flour by removing the bran, aleurone layers and the germ prior to grinding; whole-wheat flour retains these fractions. By-products of wheat milling include: bran, germ, shorts and middlings. Some of these by-products are used as human food (<i>i.e.</i>, bran, germ), and others, as livestock feed. Grain that does not meet the grade for food use can be used as animal feed, mainly for poultry and swine, but also for cattle. Wheat can also be fed as forage, either as pasture prior to stem elongation, or as ensilage. Wheat is also used in the brewing and distilling industries.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Weeds are a major production problem in wheat cultivation. Weeds compete for light, water and nutrients, and can also cause lodging and problems with harvesting. The seeds of several weed species are almost impossible to clean out of harvested wheat (<i>e.g.</i>, <i>Avena fatua</i> L. wild oats), causing loss of quality and downgrading of the crop. Weeds can be managed using a combination of cultural practices (<i>e.g.</i>, seed bed preparation, use of clean [certified] seed, narrow row spacing, fertilizer banding), integrated weed management (<i>e.g.</i>, weed scouting, economic thresholds) and the use of herbicides. Depending on the weed species present, herbicides can be applied before the crop emerges (<i>e.g.</i>, amitrole, glyphosate, trifluralin), or after (<i>e.g.</i>, 2-4D, bromoxynil, dicamba, fenoxaprop-p-ethyl, MCPA, metsulfuron methyl). The build-up of weed populations can be stemmed by applying herbicides on summer-fallowed fields, and by practicing crop rotation, which allows the use of different herbicides. Rotating among herbicide groups also prevents the development of herbicide-resistant biotypes.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">AP602CL (Clearfield&trade;) spring wheat was developed to allow the use of imazamox, an imidazolinone herbicide, as a weed control option in spring wheat production. The mode of action of imazamox consists of inhibiting the activity of acetohydroxyacid synthase (AHAS), an enzyme in plants active in glycolysis and in the biosynthesis of the branched-chain amino acids isoleucine, leucine and valine. The result of the inhibition of AHAS activity is a decrease in protein synthesis, and in an accumulation of toxic levels of alpha-ketoglutarate, all of which cause the eventual death of the plant. While unmodified wheat is not tolerant to imazamox, the line AP602CL has been modified to survive an otherwise lethal application of this herbicide. AP602CL was developed using chemically induced seed mutagenesis and whole plant selection procedures. The herbicide tolerance is due to a mutation in the AHAS gene, which codes for an alteration in the binding site for imazamox in the AHAS enzyme.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Depending on the species, plants contain single or multiple copies of the AHAS genes. The genome of <i>T. aestivum</i> is believed to contain an AHAS multigene family.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Modifications of AHAS genes in various plant species can result in herbicide tolerant phenotypes and typically consist of one amino acid substitution, sufficient to alter the binding site for imidazolinones such that the herbicide no longer inhibits the AHAS enzyme. Several modified AHAS plants have been isolated.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">AP602CL was selected from a population of <i>T. aestivum </i> derived by chemical-induced mutagenesis of seed of the wheat variety Gunner. One mutant, tolerant to imidazoline was selected and designated AP602CL. Tolerance to imadazoline was demonstrated by comparison of the activity of the AHAS enzyme extracted from AP602CL to that of wild type plants.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The novel tolerance to imadazoline is under control of the native AHAS promoter and is believed to be constitutively expressed. Sequence information for the modified AHAS gene in AP602CL was submitted.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The levels of valine, leucine and isoleucine produced in wheat are regulated by feedback inhibition of AHAS. Modified AHAS shows similar feedback inhibition to that of unmodified AHAS. AHAS is not known to be an allergen and modified AHAS also does not exhibit characteristics associated with allergens. The protein components of AHAS are not altered in comparison with unmodified Gunner wheat.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 17:08:38');
INSERT INTO `gmcropdatabase_events_execsummaries` (`id`, `eventId`, `description`, `status`, `created`, `updated`) VALUES
(63, 75, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Maize is used as a raw material for the manufacture of starch, the majority of which is converted by a complex refining process into sweeteners, syrups and fermentation products, including ethanol. Maize oil is extracted from the germ of the maize kernel. In the United States and Canada, only a small proportion of the whole kernel is consumed by humans, while refined maize products, sweeteners, starch, and oil are abundant in processed foods such as breakfast cereals, dairy goods, and chewing gum.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">In the United States and Canada, maize is typically used as animal feed with roughly 70% of the crop fed to livestock, although an increasing proportion is now being used for the production of ethanol. The entire maize plant, kernels, and several refined products such as glutens and steep liquor, are used in animal feeds. Silage made from the whole maize plant makes up 10-12% of the annual maize acreage, and is a major ruminant feedstuff. Livestock that feed on maize include cattle, pigs, poultry, sheep and goats, fish and companion animals.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Industrial uses for maize products include recycled paper, paints, cosmetics and car parts. Refined maize products are also used in bioproducts such as antibiotics.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;"><i>Diabrotica virgifera</i>, western corn root worm (Family Coleoptera), is a major pest of maize in the US maize-growing belt. The larvae feed on maize roots, the damage from which causes nutrient and water depletion and ultimately lodging, making harvesting difficult. In the year 2000, over 14 million acres of United States maize was treated with chemical insecticides for this major pest. The corn root worm is estimated to cost the maize industry in the United States one billion dollars per year due to pesticide costs and crop damage.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Maize line MON 863 was produced using recombinant-DNA techniques to express the <i>cry3Bb1</i> gene encoding a Coleopteran-specific insecticidal protein from <i>Bacillus thuringiensis</i> (subsp. kumamotoensis) in order to control infestation with corn root worm. This gene was introduced into the publicly available inbred line, A634, by particle acceleration (biolistic) transformation.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The <i>cry3Bb1</i> gene encodes the insect control protein Cry3Bb1, a delta-endotoxin. Cry proteins, of which Cry3Bb1 is only one, act by selectively binding to specific sites localized on the lining of the midgut of susceptible insect species. Following binding, pores are formed that disrupt midgut ion flow, causing gut paralysis and eventual death due to bacterial sepsis. Cry3Bb1 is lethal only when eaten by Coleopteran species, including corn root worm, and its specificity of action is directly attributable to the presence of specific binding sites in the target insects. There are no binding sites for the delta-endotoxins of <i>B. thuringiensis</i> on the surface of mammalian intestinal cells, therefore, livestock animals and humans are not susceptible to these proteins.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">MON 863 was tested in field trials in the United States. Data collected from these trials indicated that MON 863 was not different from other maize varieties in terms of agronomic characteristics, aside from resistance to corn root worm</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Maize does not have any closely related species growing in the wild in continental United States and Canada. Cultivated maize can naturally cross with annual teosinte (Zea mays ssp. mexicana) when grown in close proximity, however, these wild maize relatives are native to Central America and are not naturalized in Canada or the United States. Additionally, reproductive characteristics such as pollen production, viability, and dispersal were unchanged in MON 863. Gene exchange between MON 863 and maize relatives was determined to be negligible in managed ecosystems, with no potential for transfer to wild species in Canada and the United States.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">MON 863 lines expressing the Cry3Bb1 protein were compared to their non-transformed counterpart for relative abundance of beneficial arthropods. Field studies demonstrated that Cry3Bb1 had neither a direct nor an indirect effect on the beneficial arthropod populations. In summary, it was determined that when compared with currently commercialized maize varieties, MON 863 maize did not present an increased risk to or impact on interacting organisms, including humans, with the exception of specific coleopteran insect species.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The authorization for environmental release and livestock feed approval in Canada was granted for 1 year only. Renewal of the authorization was contingent on the submission of a new beneficial insect study as the original study on green lacewings was not considered of an optimal design. The new information was submitted in 2004 and the authorization renewed.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Regulatory authorities in Canada and United States have mandatory requirements for developers of <i>Bt</i> maize to implement specific Insect Resistant Management (IRM) Programs. As for other Bt maize varieties, farmers growing MON 863 are required to plant 20% of their acreage to non-Bt varieties.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Nutritional and anti-nutritional factors in MON 863 were examined and found to be within the normal range of unmodified maize varieties, though there were some differences from the parental line. The Cry3Bb1 protein was found in oral gavage studies to have a No Observed Adverse Effect Level (NOAEL) over 3200 mg/kg which exceeds the expected dietary exposure for humans by approximately 58000X. This level exceeded the livestock dietary exposure by 1000X.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Cry3Bb1 did not exhibit amino acid sequence homology or protein structure homology to known toxins or allergens. In addition, it was found that the Cry3Bb1 protein expressed by MON 863 maize lines digests rapidly in simulated gastric environments, was easily inactivated by heat and was not glycosylated. All these indicated that the Cry3Bb1 protein did not have potential for being an allergen or toxin.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 16:58:51'),
(64, 77, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Cotton (<i>Gossypium hirsutum</i> L.) was grown commercially in over 80 countries with a combined production of 44.2 million metric tonnes of cotton seed and 24.8 million metric tonnes of cotton lint in 2006. The major producers of cotton seed and lint were China, the United States, India, Pakistan, Brazil, Uzbekistan and Turkey. Cotton is primarily grown for its seed bolls that produce fibres used in numerous textile products. About two thirds of the harvested cotton crop is seed, which is separated from the lint during ginning. The cotton seed is crushed to produce cottonseed oil, cottonseed cake (meal), and hulls. Cottonseed oil is used primarily as cooking oil, in shortening and salad dressing, and is used extensively in the preparation of snack foods such as crackers, cookies and chips. The meal and hulls are an important protein concentrate for livestock, and may also serve as bedding and fuel. Linters, or fuzz, which are not removed in ginning, are used in felts, upholstery, mattresses, twine, wicks, carpets, surgical cottons, and in industrial products such as rayon, film, shatterproof glass, plastics, sausage skins, lacquers, and cellulose explosives.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Tobacco budworm (<i>Heliothis virescens</i>), pink bollworm (<i>Pectinophora gossypiella</i>), and cotton bollworm (<i>Helicoverpa zea</i>) are three of the most destructive pests of cotton. In the United States alone, the budworm/bollworm complex reduced total cotton yield 1.39% in 2003, while total yield loss to arthropod pests was 4.16%. No other pest caused greater than 1% yield reduction in 2003. Almost 74% of the United States cotton crop was infected with the budworm/bollworm complex in 2003. The combined costs of control and yield loss attributed to these pests has been as high as US$476 million per year. In Egypt, China and Brazil, pink bollworm commonly causes cotton losses of up to 20 percent. More insecticides are applied to conventionally grown cotton than any other single crop. Each year cotton producers around the world use nearly US$2.6 billion worth of pesticides such as aldicarb, phorate, methamidophos and endosulfan. Cotton pests, such as the tobacco budworm, have developed some resistance to many of the insecticides used to control them. In regions where insecticide-resistant populations have developed, budworm damage can reduce yields by 29%, despite an average of six insecticide applications each growing season.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Event MON 15985 (tradename Bollgard II&reg;) was derived from the hybrid cotton variety DP50B, which was a cross between DP50 and transgenic cotton line MON 531, by biolistic transformation with plasmid DNA containing the cry2Ab2 gene originally isolated from <i>Bacillus thuringiensis</i> subsp. <i>kurstaki</i>. As a result, event MON 15985 expresses both the Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab2 insecticidal proteins. MON 15985 is intended to protect cotton from feeding by a range of Lepidopteran species including tobacco budworm (<i>Heliothis virescens</i>), pink bollworm (<i>Pectinophora gossypiella</i>), cotton bollworm (<i>Helicoverpa zea</i>), cabbage looper (<i>Trichoplusia ni</i>), saltmarsh caterpillar (<i>Estigmene acrea</i>), cotton leaf perforator (<i>Bucculatrix thurbeiella</i>), soybean looper (<i>Pseudoplusia includens</i>), beet armyworm (<i>Spodoptera exigua</i>), fall armyworm (<i>Spodoptera frugiperda</i>), yellowstriped armyworm (<i>Spodoptera ornithogoll</i>i) and European corn borer (<i>Ostrinia nubilalis</i>). Monsanto has proposed cotton line MON 15985, with its two insecticidal proteins, as a means to provide more effective insect resistance management.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">As with other <i>B. thuringiensis</i>-derived delta-endotoxins, the Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab2 proteins exert their insecticidal activity by binding to specific receptors located on the brush border midgut epithelium of susceptible insect species. Following binding, cation-specific pores are formed that disrupt midgut ionic equilibrium leading to gut paralysis and eventual death due to bacterial sepsis. Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab2 are highly selective and are only active against Lepidopteran insects. These proteins do, however, interact with different receptor sites in the target insects and it is expected that &ldquo;stacking&rdquo; these traits will result in increased protection against insect attack and a delay in the development of resistant insect populations.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">In addition to the <i>cry</i> genes conferring insect resistance, MON 15985 also contains the <i>nptII</i> and <i>aad</i> selectable marker genes (derived from the parental cotton line containing event 531) and the beta-D-glucuronidase (GUS) encoding <i>uidA</i> gene from <i>Escherichia coli</i>. This latter gene was introduced as a visually scorable marker gene to identify transformed plantlets in tissue culture. The GUS enzyme can be used to catalyze a colorimetric reaction resulting in the production of a blue colour in transformed cells.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">This product description will focus on those aspects of the risk assessment pertaining to the <i>cry2Ab2</i> and <i>uidA</i> gene products. For additional information on the safety assessment of the <i>cry1Ac</i> and <i>nptII</i> gene products, the reader is directed to the product description for line MON 531.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 17:04:39'),
(65, 82, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Cotton (<i>Gossypium hirsutum</i> L.) was grown commercially in over 80 countries with a combined production of 44.2 million metric tonnes of cotton seed and 24.8 million metric tonnes of cotton lint in 2006. The major producers of cotton seed and lint were China, the United States, India, Pakistan, Brazil, Uzbekistan and Turkey. Cotton is primarily grown for its seed bolls that produce fibres used in numerous textile products.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">About two thirds of the harvested cotton crop is seed, which is separated from the lint during ginning. The cotton seed is crushed to produce cottonseed oil, cottonseed cake (meal), and hulls. Cottonseed oil is used primarily as a cooking oil, in shortening, margarine and salad dressing, and is used extensively in the preparation of snack foods such as crackers, cookies and chips. The meal and hulls are an important protein concentrate for livestock, and may also serve as bedding and fuel. Linters, or fuzz, which are not removed in ginning, are used in felts, upholstery, mattresses, twine, wicks, carpets, surgical cottons, and in industrial products such as rayon, film, shatterproof glass, plastics, sausage skins, lacquers, and cellulose explosives.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Effective weed management is critical to cotton production. Weed control is more difficult in cotton than in other row crops, such as corn or soybean; cotton grows slowly early in the growing season and is thus less competitive with weeds. Competition from weeds has negative impacts on crop establishment, and ultimately, on crop yield. Weeds can also be detrimental later in the growing season, interfering with harvesting, and resulting in a reduction in lint quality due to trash and possible staining. Weed control strategies include pre-plant tillage, crop rotation, and the use of herbicides. Annual grasses and some small seed broadleaf weeds typically are controlled with preplant incorporated herbicides (e.g., trifluralin, norflurazon, pendimethalin) while most broadleaf species are controlled with postemergence herbicides (e.g., fluometuron, pendimethalin, pyrithiobac sodium). Crop rotation (e.g., with soybean) prevents the build-up of problem weeds, and herbicide resistant biotypes by allowing the use of different herbicides.<br />\nThe cotton line LLCotton25 was developed to allow the use of glufosinate ammonium (trade name Liberty&reg;), as a weed control option in cotton production. The herbicidal mode of action of glufosinate ammonium is related to the activity of glutamine synthetase (GS), the enzyme required for the synthesis of the amino acid glutamine. L-phosphinothricin, the active ingredient of glufosinate ammonium, is a structural analog of glutamate, and acts as a competitive inhibitor. After application of the herbicide, L-phosphinothricin competes with glutamine for its active sites on GS. The results of the inhibition of GS are an accumulation of ammonia in the plant, a reduction in the synthesis of glutamine, and an inhibition of photosynthesis. This causes the death of plant cells, and eventually, the entire plant. This genetically engineered cotton line LLCotton25 contains the bar gene, which codes for the production of the enzyme phosphinothricin acetyl-transferase (PAT). This enzyme acetylates glufosinate ammonium, rendering it inactive in the plant. The expression of the bar gene in LLCotton25 allows it to survive the otherwise lethal application of glufosinate ammonium. The <i>bar</i> gene was isolated from <i>Streptomyces hygroscopius</i>, a gram-positive soil bacterium.<br />\nLLCotton25 was developed by <i>Agrobacterium</i>-mediated transformation of the cotton variety &lsquo;Coker312&rsquo; with a plasmid vector containing the <i>bar</i> gene. Whole plants were treated with glufosinate ammonium and successful transformants were detected by selecting plants that had not exhibited the phytotoxic effects of glufosinate ammonium<br />\nLLCotton25 was field tested in the United States and Puerto Rico at 43 locations over three years (1999-2001). The data from these field trials showed that LLCotton25 did not differ significantly, in terms of plant morphology, growth, agronomic performance, and susceptibility to diseases and pests, from the nontransformed parent &lsquo;Coker 312.&rsquo; LLCotton25 did not exhibit any increased tendency towards weediness, compared to the unmodified parental line. This was demonstrated by nonsignificant differences in parameters such as seed germination, seedling vigour, time to first bloom, and plant maturity, which affect the reproductive fitness and competitiveness of a plant. The impact on beneficial and nontarget organisms from the cultivation of LLCotton25 was similar to that of its unmodified parental line and conventional cotton cultivars. These results also led to the conclusion that the cultivation of LLCotton25 would not be expected to impact threatened or endangered species.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Cotton plants are primarily self-pollinating, but insects, especially bumblebees and honeybees, also distribute cotton pollen. Cotton can cross-pollinate with compatible species including <i>G. hirsutum</i> (wild or under cultivation) and <i>G. barbadense</i> (cultivated Pima cotton), and is genetically compatible with <i>G. tomentosum</i>. Overall, the probability of gene transfer to wild species in unmanaged ecosystems is low due to the relatively isolated distribution of <i>Gossypium</i> species, different breeding systems, and genomic incompatibility. Assuming proximity, synchronicity of flowering and presence of insects, LLCotton25 could freely hybridize with other <i>G. hirsutum</i> varieties and wild plants.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The food and livestock safety of LLCotton25 was established based on: the fact that PAT protein constitutes a small amount of the total protein in LLCotton25, so there is little dietary exposure; the determination that the introduced gene and the novel protein are unlikely to be toxic or allergenic; and,<i> in vitro</i>, <i>in vivo</i> and other safety studies (e.g., intravenous and feeding studies) conducted in the laboratory using PAT protein. The nutritional equivalence of LLCotton25, compared to its untransformed parent line, was demonstrated by the analysis of key nutrients, including: protein, crude fat, ash, crude fibre, ADF, NDF, amino acid, fatty acids, minerals, vitamin E, as well as anti-nutrients. The equivalence of LLCotton25 to conventional cotton, in terms of livestock feed, was confirmed in feeding studies conducted with broiler chickens.</p>\n\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 17:06:56'),
(66, 91, '<p style="text-align: justify;">This product was not subject to regulation in any jurisdiction except Canada since the development of this herbicide-tolerant line did not employ recombinant DNA technologies. In Canada, regulatory approval was required for use in human food and livestock feed, but not for environmental release as these lines were not intended for cultivation in Canada.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Harvested rice, also known as rough rice or paddy rice, is encased by an inedible hull, which is removed prior to milling. Rice hulls are used as fuel, mulch, abrasives, and in animal feed products. Brown rice is what remains after the hulls are removed. The light brown colour of brown rice is due to the presence of bran layers and the rice germ surrounding the rice kernel. Brown rice is further milled to remove the bran and germ to yield white rice, or &lsquo;polished rice.&rsquo; The bran and germ are high in protein and other nutrients, and are used in specialty foods, such as rice bran oil, and in livestock feed. Rough rice may be parboiled prior to milling: this involves soaking, steaming and drying the rice. Parboiling improves milling yield and also preserves some of the B vitamin content of the milled rice. Both brown and white rice kernels can be processed into rice flour for use in breakfast cereals, baby foods, desserts and other food products. Rice kernels are also used to produce beer and wine.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Weeds are a significant production problem in rice cultivation. Weeds of rice producing areas, such as the United States, include red rice (<i>Oryza</i> spp.) and barnyard grass (<i>Echinochloa crus-galli</i> (L.) Beauv.). These are typically managed using a combination of cultural practices (e.g., dry <i>vs</i> wet tillage, using clean seed, crop rotations) and chemical controls (herbicides such as molinate and propanil).</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The rice line PWC16 was developed to allow the use of imazethapyr, an imidazolinone herbicide, as a weed control option in rice production. The mode of action of imazethapyr consists of inhibiting the activity of acetohydroxyacid synthase (AHAS), an enzyme in plants active in glycolysis and in the biosynthesis of the branched-chain amino acids isoleucine, leucine and valine. The result of the inhibition of AHAS activity is a decrease in protein synthesis, and in an accumulation of toxic levels of alpha-ketoglutarate, all of which causes the eventual death of the plant. While unmodified rice is not tolerant to imazethapyr, the line PWC16 has been modified to survive an otherwise lethal application of this herbicide. PWC16 was developed using chemically induced seed mutagenesis and whole plant selection procedures. The herbicide tolerance is due to a mutation in the AHAS gene, which codes for an alteration in the binding site for imazethalpyr in the AHAS enzyme.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Cultivated rice is primarily self-pollinating; however, it may cross-pollinate with other cultivated rice varieties, although the rates are less than one percent. Factors limiting cross-pollination include flower morphology (short style and stigma, short anthers), inability of the pollen to remain viable longer than a few minutes, and a lack of insect vectors for pollen spread. In the United States, the only wild species known to be compatible with cultivated rice are <i>O. rufipogon</i>, which has been found in a single location in the Everglades of Florida, and red rice (<i>O. sativa</i> ssp.). Due to the relative isolation of <i>O. rufipogon</i>, it is unlikely to hybridize with cultivated rice. Cross-pollination may, however, occur with red rice under suitable conditions, form imazethapyr-tolerant hybrids. Although PWC16 is not intended for cultivation in Canada, any unintentional release would not be of concern since there are no species that are sexually compatible with rice, and due to environmental conditions, the plants would not persist.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Data submitted on the vegetative vigour, time to maturity and seed production of PWC16 were found to be within the normal range of expression of these traits displayed by unmodified rice varieties. It was determined that the tolerance to imazethapyr in PWC16 will not render it weedy, invasive of natural habitats, or allow it to grow outside of its adapted environment, since none of the reproductive or growth characteristics were modified.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The food and livestock safety of PWC16 rice was established based on: the evaluation of the similarity of AHAS, in structure and function, to the enzyme naturally present in food and livestock feeds; the fact that the modified AHAS constitutes a small amount of the protein in PWC16 rice, so there is little dietary exposure; the lack of toxicity or allergenicity of AHAS from plants; and, studies on the function of this enzyme in PWC16 compared to its unmodified counterpart. The nutritional equivalence and wholesomeness of PWC16 was demonstrated by the analysis of key nutrients, including proximates (protein, crude fat, crude fibre, ash and carbohydrates), amino acid and fatty acid composition, vitamins, as well as anti-nutrients.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 17:10:43'),
(67, 135, '<p style="text-align: justify;">MON89034 X NK603 (OECD identifier: MON-89&Oslash;34-3 X MON-&Oslash;&Oslash;6&Oslash;3-6) maize is an F1 hybrid resulting from the hybridization of maize inbred MON89034 (MON-89&Oslash;34-3) with NK603 (MON-&Oslash;&Oslash;6&Oslash;3-6). This stacked maize hybrid is a product of traditional plant breeding, and therefore is not automatically subject to regulation in all jurisdictions as are transgenic plants resulting from recombinant DNA technologies. Certain jurisdictions may request notification in advance of the release of a stacked hybrid, or may request information to conduct an environmental and food safety assessment. Examples of jurisdictions that require either notification or information about stacked hybrids prior to their release into the environment, and for use in human food and livestock feed are Canada and Japan.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The stacked hybrid MON89034 X NK603 expresses two novel insecticidal proteins and a protein providing tolerance to the herbicide glyphosate. MON 89034 produces the Cry1A.105 and Cry2Ab2 proteins derived from <i>Bacillus thuringiensis</i>, which are active against lepidopteran insect pests. Tolerance to glyphosate is provided by the CP4 EPSPS protein, produced by the <i>cp4 epsps</i> gene from NK603. The novel traits of each parent line have been combined, through traditional plant breeding, to produce this new hybrid. For a full description of each parent line please refer to the individual product descriptions in the crop database for MON89034 and NK603.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The inserted genes and their gene products have a history of safe use, and have undergone review and approval by several regulatory agencies. No interactions among the gene products or negative synergistic effects are expected in the stacked hybrid. The Cry1A.105 and Cry2Ab2 proteins are not enzymes and therefore do not affect plant metabolism. The CP4 EPSPS has high affinity for its substrates phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) and shikimate-3-phosphate, which are part of the shikimate metabolic pathway. These proteins are therefore not expected to interact within, nor affect the metabolism of the stacked hybrid.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 17:34:23'),
(68, 93, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Cotton (<i>Gossypium hirsutum</i> L.) was grown commercially in over 80 countries with a combined production of 44.2 million metric tonnes of cotton seed and 24.8 million metric tonnes of cotton lint in 2006. The major producers of cotton seed and lint were China, the United States, India, Pakistan, Brazil, Uzbekistan and Turkey. Cotton is primarily grown for its seed bolls that produce fibres used in numerous textile products.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">About two thirds of the harvested cotton crop is seed, which is separated from the lint during ginning. The cotton seed is crushed to produce cottonseed oil, cottonseed cake (meal), and hulls. Cottonseed oil is used primarily as a cooking oil, in shortening, margarine and salad dressing, and is used extensively in the preparation of snack foods such as crackers, cookies and chips. The meal and hulls are an important protein concentrate for livestock, and may also serve as bedding and fuel. Linters, or fuzz, which are not removed in ginning, are used in felts, upholstery, mattresses, twine, wicks, carpets, surgical cottons, and in industrial products such as rayon, film, shatterproof glass, plastics, sausage skins, lacquers, and cellulose explosives.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Tobacco budworm (<i>Heliothis virescens</i>), pink bollworm (<i>Pectinophora gossypiella</i>), and cotton bollworm (<i>Helicoverpa zea</i>) are three of the most destructive pests of cotton. These insects cause damage to squares and bolls (tobacco budworm, cotton bollworm) and staining of lint (pink bollworm). Species such as the soybean looper (<i>Pseudoplusia includens</i>) and beet armyworm (<i>Spodoptera exigua</i>) cause feeding damage to leaves. Insect damage to the plant also increases susceptibility to diseases (<i>e.g.</i>, boll rot), and ultimately results in the losses of yield and crop quality. In the United States alone the combined costs of control and yield loss attributed to these pests is approximately $476 million per year. In Egypt, China and Brazil, pink bollworm commonly causes cotton losses of up to 20 percent.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Methods of insect control in cotton include the use of insecticides and integrated pest management methods, such as scouting and the use of economic thresholds, prior to application. In 2004, 64% of the cotton acreage in the United States was treated with insecticides; those most commonly used were malathion, acephate and aldicarb. However, the effectiveness of many insecticides has been reduced due to the development of resistance in some insect pests, such as the tobacco budworm.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The cotton line 3006-210-23 was genetically engineered to resist attack from lepidopteran insect pests such as the cotton bollworm, pink bollworm, tobacco budworm, beet armyworm, and soybean looper. This insect resistance is conferred by the <i>cry</i>1Ac gene, originally isolated from the common soil bacterium <i>Bacillus thuringiensis</i> (Bt) var. <i>kurstaki</i>. The <i>cry</i>1Ac gene produces the insect control protein Cry1Ac, a delta-endotoxin, in the plant tissues. Cry proteins, of which Cry1Ac is only one, act by selectively binding to specific sites localized on the lining of the midgut of susceptible insect species. Following binding, pores are formed that disrupt midgut ion flow, causing gut paralysis and eventual death due to bacterial sepsis. Cry1Ac is insecticidal only when eaten by the larvae of lepidopteran insects (moths and butterflies), and its specificity of action is directly attributable to the presence of specific binding sites in the target insects. There are no binding sites for delta-endotoxins of <i>B. thuringiensis</i> on the surface of mammalian intestinal cells, therefore, livestock animals and humans are not susceptible to these proteins. The <i>cry</i>cry1Ac gene was introduced into the cotton line &lsquo;Germain&rsquo;s Acala GC510&rsquo; by <i>Agrobacterium</i>-mediated transformation.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The cotton line 3006-210-23 was field tested in the United States from 1999 to 2002, and in Puerto Rico in 2000-01. Agronomic characteristics such as yield, boll size, plant vigour, growth, morphology, germination and flowering were found to be within the range for commercial cotton lines. Susceptibility to diseases was not altered compared to conventional cotton varieties. The cotton line 3006-210-23 did not demonstrate morphological or growth characteristics such as those observed in weedy and invasive plant species.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The effect of the cultivation of line 3006-210-23 on non-target organisms was investigated during field testing. Non-lepidopteran insects were not detrimentally affected by this cotton line; this was not unexpected, given the insecticidal specificity of the Cry proteins. Insecticidal effects on the monarch butterfly, a lepidopteran, although not directly assessed in the field, were not expected given the very low expression of the Cry protein in the pollen. Based on the results from dietary studies of monarch butterfly larvae with Cry1Ac protein, the estimated concentration of Cry1Ac necessary for a 50% reduction in larval growth is 10 times the concentration in pollen from line 3006-210-23. This, combined with the low volume of pollen produced, would result in very little risk to non-target lepidopterans, such as the monarch butterfly. While cotton is mostly self-pollinated, any cross-pollination would be achieved by non-lepidopteran insects, such as bees, which are unaffected by Cry proteins. Other non-target organisms, such as arthropods, mammals, birds, and aquatic organisms were not negatively affected by the cultivation of line 3006-210-23. It was concluded that, compared to conventional cotton varieties, the cultivation of line 3006-210-23 would pose no greater risk to interacting organisms, with the exception of specific lepidopteran insect pests of cotton.<br />\nThe potential for introgression of the insect resistance trait from line 3006-210-23 cotton into other cotton plants, or to wild relatives of cotton, was investigated. Cotton plants are primarily self-pollinating, but insects, especially bumblebees and honeybees, also distribute cotton pollen. Cotton can cross-pollinate with compatible species including <i>G. hirsutum</i> (wild or under cultivation) and <i>G. barbadense</i> (cultivated Pima cotton), and is genetically compatible with <i>G. tomentosum</i>. Overall, the probability of gene transfer to wild species in unmanaged ecosystems is low due to the relatively isolated distribution of <i>Gossypium</i> species, different breeding systems, and genomic incompatibility. Assuming proximity, synchronicity of flowering and presence of insects, the cotton line 3006-210-23 could freely hybridize with other <i>G. hirsutum</i> varieties and wild plants. In the event of the formation of hybrids, there would no competitive advantage conferred on any hybrid progeny in the absence of infestations by Lepidopteran insect species.<br />\nThe food and livestock safety of the cotton line 3006-210-23 was based on: the equivalence of the Cry1Ac protein to the bacterially produced protein which has a history of safe use as Bt insecticidal treatments; the lack of amino acid sequence homology of both the Cry1Ac and PAT proteins to known toxins and allergens; results of feeding studies with mammals, birds, aquatic organisms and non-target arthropods, demonstrating the lack of toxicity of the Cry1Ac protein to organisms other than lepidopteran insects; the rapid digestibility of the proteins in simulated gastric fluids; the very low levels of expression of both novel proteins in all plant tissues, including seed and oil; and the equivalence in nutritional components and anti-nutrients, of the seed and oil compared to conventional cotton cultivars.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 17:11:40'),
(69, 79, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Commercial wheat is comprised mainly of two species: common, or bread wheat (<i>T. aestivum</i> L.) and durum wheat (<i>T. durum</i> Desf.). Bread wheat is classified into several types, based on vernalisation requirement (winter and spring types) and kernel hardness. The hard types of bread wheat are high in protein, especially gliadins and glutenins. The high levels of these protein fractions in the flour impart elasticity to bread dough and allow it to expand during leavening and baking. Soft wheats are low in protein, and have low levels of gliadin and glutenin. These wheats are milled into flour for use in bakery products such as cakes, pastries, and unleavened breads. Durum wheat produces very hard, almost vitreous kernels due to its high protein content. This wheat is milled into semolina for the production of pasta and couscous.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Harvested wheat consists of a naked kernel, unlike other cereals such as rice, barley or oats that retain their hull (<i>i.e.</i>, the palea and lemma) after harvest. The wheat kernel is loosely enclosed within the palea and lemma of each spikelet; these are eliminated as chaff during threshing. The wheat kernel is milled into white flour by removing the bran, aleurone layers and the germ prior to grinding; whole-wheat flour retains these fractions. By-products of wheat milling include: bran, germ, shorts and middlings. Some of these by-products are used as human food (<i>i.e.</i>, bran, germ), and others, as livestock feed. Grain that does not meet the grade for food use can be used as animal feed, mainly for poultry and swine, but also for cattle. Wheat can also be fed as forage, either as pasture prior to stem elongation, or as ensilage. Wheat is also used in the brewing and distilling industries.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Weeds are a major production problem in wheat cultivation. Weeds compete for light, water and nutrients, and can also cause lodging and problems with harvesting. The seeds of several weed species are almost impossible to clean out of harvested wheat (<i>e.g.</i>, <i>Avena fatua</i> L. wild oats), causing loss of quality and downgrading of the crop. Weeds can be managed using a combination of cultural practices (<i>e.g</i>., seed bed preparation, use of clean [certified] seed, narrow row spacing, fertilizer banding), integrated weed management (<i>e.g.</i>, weed scouting, economic thresholds) and the use of herbicides. Depending on the weed species present, herbicides can be applied before the crop emerges (<i>e.g.</i>, amitrole, glyphosate, trifluralin), or after (<i>e.g.</i>, 2-4D, bromoxynil, dicamba, fenoxaprop-p-ethyl, MCPA, metsulfuron methyl). The build-up of weed populations can be stemmed by applying herbicides on summer-fallowed fields, and by practicing crop rotation, which allows the use of different herbicides. Rotating among herbicide groups also prevents the development of herbicide-resistant biotypes.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Roundup Ready&reg; wheat (MON 71800) was developed to allow the use of glyphosate, the active ingredient in the herbicide Roundup&reg;, as a weed control option in spring wheat production. This genetically engineered spring wheat contains a novel form of the plant enzyme 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS) that allows MON 71800 to survive an otherwise lethal application of glyphosate. The EPSPS gene introduced into MON 71800 was isolated from a strain of the common soil bacterium <i>Agrobacterium tumefaciens</i> strain CP4, and the novel form of the EPSPS enzyme produced by this gene is tolerant to glyphosate.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The EPSPS enzyme is part of the shikimate pathway, an important biochemical pathway in plants involved in the production of aromatic amino acids and other aromatic compounds. When conventional plants are treated with glyphosate, the plants cannot produce the aromatic amino acids needed for growth and survival. EPSPS is present in all plants, bacteria, and fungi. It is not present in animals, since these organisms are unable to synthesize their own aromatic amino acids. Because the aromatic amino acid pathway is not present in mammals, birds, or aquatic life forms, glyphosate has little, if any, toxicity for these organisms. The EPSPS enzyme is naturally present in foods derived from plant and microbial sources. MON 71800 was developed by introducing two CP4 EPSPS genes into the spring wheat variety &lsquo;Bobwhite&rsquo; using <i>Agrobacterium</i>-mediated transformation.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The food and livestock safety of MON 71800 wheat was based on the safety assessment of the CP4 EPSPS protein and the level of expression of the protein in the grain. The CP4 EPSPS proteins constitutes a small amount of the total protein in MON 71800 so there is little dietary exposure. The lack of toxicity or allergenicity of CP4 EPSPS was demonstrated from the results of laboratory and safety studies. The nutritional equivalence and wholesomeness of MON 71800 wheat compared to conventional wheat was demonstrated by the analysis of key nutrients in the grain including proximates (<i>e.g.</i>, crude protein, crude fat, crude fibre, ash, moisture), total dietary fibre, sugars, starch, amino acid and fatty acid composition, B vitamins and vitamin E, minerals, as well the composition in the anti-nutrient phytic acid.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 17:05:55'),
(70, 90, '<p style="text-align: justify;">AP205CL (Clearfield&trade;) spring wheat was not subject to regulation in any jurisdiction except Canada since the development of this herbicide-tolerant line did not employ recombinant DNA technologies. In Canada, regulatory approval is required for use in human food and livestock feed, and for environmental release.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Commercial wheat is comprised mainly of two species: common, or bread wheat (<i>T. aestivum </i>L.) and durum wheat (<i>T. durum</i> Desf.). Bread wheat is classified into several types, based on vernalisation requirement (winter and spring types) and kernel hardness. The hard types of bread wheat are high in protein, especially gliadins and glutenins. The high levels of these protein fractions in the flour impart elasticity to bread dough and allow it to expand during leavening and baking. Soft wheats are low in protein, and have low levels of gliadin and glutenin; these qualities are desirable in products such as cakes and pastries, and in unleavened breads. Durum wheat produces very hard, almost vitreous kernels due to its high protein content. This wheat is milled into semolina for the production of pasta and couscous.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Harvested wheat consists of a naked kernel, unlike other cereals such as rice, barley or oats that retain their hull (<i>i.e.</i>, the palea and lemma). The wheat kernel is loosely enclosed within the palea and lemma of each spikelet; these are eliminated as chaff during threshing. The wheat kernel is milled into white flour by removing the bran, aleurone layers and the germ prior to grinding; whole-wheat flour retains these fractions. By-products of wheat milling include: bran, germ, shorts and middlings. Some of these by-products are used as human food (<i>i.e.</i>, bran, germ), and others, as livestock feed. Grain that does not meet the grade for food use can be used as animal feed, mainly for poultry and swine, but also for cattle. Wheat can also be fed as forage, either as pasture prior to stem elongation, or as ensilage. Wheat is also used in the brewing and distilling industries.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Weeds are a major production problem in wheat cultivation. Weeds compete for light, water and nutrients, and can also cause lodging and problems with harvesting. The seeds of several weed species are almost impossible to clean out of harvested wheat (<i>e.g.</i>, <i>Avena fatua</i> L. wild oats), causing loss of quality and downgrading of the crop. Weeds can be managed using a combination of cultural practices (<i>e.g.</i>, seed bed preparation, use of clean [certified] seed, narrow row spacing, fertilizer banding), integrated weed management (<i>e.g.</i>, weed scouting, economic thresholds) and the use of herbicides. Depending on the weed species present, herbicides can be applied before the crop emerges (<i>e.g.</i>, amitrole, glyphosate, trifluralin), or after (<i>e.g.</i>, 2-4D, bromoxynil, dicamba, fenoxaprop-p-ethyl, MCPA, metsulfuron methyl). The build-up of weed populations can be stemmed by applying herbicides on summer-fallowed fields, and by practicing crop rotation, which allows the use of different herbicides. Rotating among herbicide groups also prevents the development of herbicide-resistant biotypes.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">AP205CL (Clearfield&trade;) spring wheat was developed to allow the use of imazamox, an imidazolinone herbicide, as a weed control option in spring wheat production. The mode of action of imazamox consists of inhibiting the activity of acetohydroxyacid synthase (AHAS), an enzyme in plants active in glycolysis and in the biosynthesis of the branched-chain amino acids isoleucine, leucine and valine. The result of the inhibition of AHAS activity is a decrease in protein synthesis, and in an accumulation of toxic levels of alpha-ketoglutarate, all of which cause the eventual death of the plant. While unmodified wheat is not tolerant to imazamox, the line AP205CL has been modified to survive an otherwise lethal application of this herbicide. AP205CL was developed using chemically induced seed mutagenesis and whole plant selection procedures. The herbicide tolerance is due to a mutation in the AHAS gene, which codes for an alteration in the binding site for imazamox in the AHAS enzyme.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">AP250CL spring wheat has been field tested in the United States, specifically in North Dakota, Minnesota and Colorado, from 2000 to 2002. Data collected from replicated field trials demonstrated that AP250CL did not differ significantly from the parental line in terms of vegetative vigour, time to maturity, seed production (yield), disease resistance, and tendency to weediness.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The potential for transfer of the herbicide tolerant trait from AP305CL wheat to other nonmodified wheat plants, or to wild relatives of wheat, has been investigated. Common wheat (<i>T. aestivum</i>) is primarily self-pollinating. While outcrossing can occur by wind-pollination, the rates are usually low (&lt; 10%). Factors that influence the success of cross-pollination in wheat are: the synchronicity of flowering among the plants; population density; genotype; and the viability of the pollen, which is influenced by environmental conditions such as temperature, humidity and wind intensity. Under the most ideal conditions, outcrossing will occur to nearby plants, and does not usually occur 3 m beyond the source plant. Nevertheless, given the variability of outcrossing rates among genotypes, an isolation distance of 30 m is required for certified seed production.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Wild species closely related to <i>T. aestivum</i> in the continental United States and Canada are <i>Aegilops cylindria</i> Host (jointed goat grass) and <i>Agropyron repens</i> (L.) Beauv. (quackgrass). Both of these are introduced species, native to Eurasia, and are considered weedy and invasive in Canada and the United States. Jointed goat grass is an annual, found in most of the United States, but not in Canada. It is considered a noxious weed in British Columbia due to the proximity of populations in Washington, Idaho and Montana, but is also found in other states contiguous to Canada,<i> i.e.</i>, North Dakota, Michigan, Ohio and New York. It would not be expected to become established in Canada except in southwestern British Columbia and southwestern Ontario (Darbyshire, 2003). Hybridization of jointed goat grass with wheat can occur under field conditions and has been reported in Oregon. The hybridization was successful to the first backgross generation with jointed goat grass as the female plant. This has raised concerns of possible introgression of wheat into jointed goat grass populations (Morrison et al., 2002). Quackgrass is a perennial species found extensively in Canada and the United States. Reports of hybridization between wheat and quackgrass have been reported; however, these have not been successfully reproduced by manual pollination (CFIA, 1999). Due to the doubtful nature of any hybridizations between wheat and quackgrass, gene introgression into quackgrass populations is not expected to occur.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The food and livestock safety of AP250CL wheat was based on an evaluation of the similarity of AHAS, in structure and function, to the enzyme naturally present in food and livestock feeds, and the lack of toxicity or allergenicity of the modified AHAS. The nutritional equivalence and wholesomeness of AP250CL wheat compared to conventional wheat was demonstrated by the analysis of key nutrients in the grain including proximates (e.g., crude protein, crude fat, crude fibre, ash, moisture), branched chain amino acids (valine, leucine and isoleucine), fatty acid composition, B vitamins (thiamine, niacin, panthothenic acid, and pyridoxine), vitamin E, and minerals (phosphorus, magnesium, zinc and iron), as well the composition in anti-nutrients (phytic acid and trypsin inhibitor).</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 17:10:16');
INSERT INTO `gmcropdatabase_events_execsummaries` (`id`, `eventId`, `description`, `status`, `created`, `updated`) VALUES
(71, 88, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Teal 11A (Clearfield&trade;) spring wheat was not subject to regulation in any jurisdiction except Canada since the development of this herbicide-tolerant line did not employ recombinant DNA technologies. In Canada, regulatory approval was required for use in human food and livestock feed, and for environmental release.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Commercial wheat is comprised mainly of two species: common, or bread wheat (<i>T. aestivum</i> L.) and durum wheat (<i>T. durum</i> Desf.). Bread wheat is classified into several types, based on vernalisation requirement (winter and spring types) and kernel hardness. The hard types of bread wheat are high in protein, especially gliadins and glutenins. The high levels of these protein fractions in the flour impart elasticity to bread dough and allow it to expand during leavening and baking. Soft wheats are low in protein, and have low levels of gliadin and glutenin; these qualities are desirable in products such as cakes and pastries, and in unleavened breads. Durum wheat produces very hard, almost vitreous kernels due to its high protein content. This wheat is milled into semolina for the production of pasta and couscous.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Harvested wheat consists of a naked kernel, unlike other cereals such as rice, barley or oats that retain their hull (<i>i.e.</i>, the palea and lemma). The wheat kernel is loosely enclosed within the palea and lemma of each spikelet; these are eliminated as chaff during threshing. The wheat kernel is milled into white flour by removing the bran, aleurone layers and the germ prior to grinding; whole-wheat flour retains these fractions. By-products of wheat milling include: bran, germ, shorts and middlings. Some of these by-products are used as human food (<i>i.e.</i>, bran, germ), and others, as livestock feed. Grain that does not meet the grade for food use can be used as animal feed, mainly for poultry and swine, but also for cattle. Wheat can also be fed as forage, either as pasture prior to stem elongation, or as ensilage. Wheat is also used in the brewing and distilling industries.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Weeds are a major production problem in wheat cultivation. Weeds compete for light, water and nutrients, and can also cause lodging and problems with harvesting. The seeds of several weed species are almost impossible to clean out of harvested wheat (<i>e.g.</i>, Avena fatua L. wild oats), causing loss of quality and downgrading of the crop. Weeds can be managed using a combination of cultural practices (<i>e.g.</i>, seed bed preparation, use of clean [certified] seed, narrow row spacing, fertilizer banding), integrated weed management (<i>e.g.</i>, weed scouting, economic thresholds) and the use of herbicides. Depending on the weed species present, herbicides can be applied before the crop emerges (<i>e.g.</i>, amitrole, glyphosate, trifluralin), or after (<i>e.g.</i>, 2-4D, bromoxynil, dicamba, fenoxaprop-p-ethyl, MCPA, metsulfuron methyl). The build-up of weed populations can be stemmed by applying herbicides on summer-fallowed fields, and by practicing crop rotation, which allows the use of different herbicides. Rotating among herbicide groups also prevents the development of herbicide-resistant biotypes.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Teal 11A (Clearfield&trade;) spring wheat was developed to allow the use of imazamox and imazethapyr, both imidazolinone herbicides, as weed control options in spring wheat production. The mode of action of imazamox and imazethapyr consists of inhibiting the activity of acetohydroxyacid synthase (AHAS), an enzyme in plants active in glycolysis and in the biosynthesis of the branched-chain amino acids isoleucine, leucine and valine. The result of the inhibition of AHAS activity is a decrease in protein synthesis, and in an accumulation of toxic levels of alpha-ketoglutarate, all of which causes the eventual death of the plant. While unmodified wheat is not tolerant to either imazamox or imazethapyr, the line Teal 11A has been modified to survive an otherwise lethal application of these herbicides. Teal 11A was developed using chemically induced seed mutagenesis and whole plant selection procedures. The herbicide tolerance is due to a mutation in the AHAS gene, which codes for an alteration in the binding site for imazamox in the AHAS enzyme.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Teal 11A spring wheat has been field tested in Canada in Saskatchewan and the United States, in Minnesota and North Dakota, from 1999 to 2001. Data collected from replicated field trials demonstrated that Teal 11A did not differ significantly from the parental line in terms of vegetative growth, time to maturity, seed production (yield), disease resistance, and tendency to weediness.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The potential for transfer of the herbicide tolerant trait from Teal 11A wheat to other nonmodified wheat plants, or to wild relatives of wheat, has been investigated. Common wheat (<i>T. aestivum</i>) is primarily self-pollinating. While outcrossing can occur by wind-pollination, the rates are usually low (Wild species closely related to <i>T. aestivum</i> in the continental United States and Canada are <i>Aegilops cylindria</i> Host (jointed goatgrass) and <i>Agropyron repens</i> (L.) Beauv. (quackgrass). Both of these are introduced species, native to Eurasia, and are considered weedy and invasive in Canada and the United States. Jointed goatgrass is an annual, found in most of the United States, but not in Canada. It is considered a noxious weed in British Columbia due to the proximity of populations in Washington, Idaho and Montana, but is also found in other states contiguous to Canada, <i>i.e.</i>, North Dakota, Michigan, Ohio and New York. It would not be expected to become established in Canada except in southwestern British Columbia and southwestern Ontario (Darbyshire, 2003). Hybridization of jointed goatgrass with wheat can occur under field conditions and has been reported in wheat fields in Oregon. The hybridization was successful to the first backgross generation with jointed goat grass as the female plant. This has raised concerns of possible introgression of wheat into jointed goatgrass populations (Morrison et al., 2002). Quackgrass is a perennial species found extensively in Canada and the United States. Reports of hybridization between wheat and quackgrass have been reported; however, these have not been successfully reproduced by manual pollination (CFIA, 1999). Due to the doubtful nature of any hybridization between wheat and quackgrass, gene introgression into quackgrass populations is not expected to occur.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The food and livestock safety of Teal 11A wheat was based on an evaluation of the similarity of AHAS, in structure and function, to the enzyme naturally present in food and livestock feeds, and the lack of toxicity or allergenicity of the modified AHAS. The nutritional equivalence and wholesomeness of Teal 11A wheat compared to conventional wheat was demonstrated by the analysis of key nutrients in the grain including proximates (<i>e.g.</i>, crude protein, crude fat, crude fibre, ash, moisture), amino acids, fatty acids, B vitamins (thiamine, niacin, panthothenic acid, and pyridoxine), and minerals (phosphorus, magnesium, zinc and iron), as well the composition in the anti-nutrients phytic acid and trypsin inhibitor.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 17:09:09'),
(72, 92, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Cotton (<i>Gossypium hirsutum</i> L.) was grown commercially in over 80 countries with a combined production of 44.2 million metric tonnes of cotton seed and 24.8 million metric tonnes of cotton lint in 2006. The major producers of cotton seed and lint were China, the United States, India, Pakistan, Brazil, Uzbekistan and Turkey. Cotton is primarily grown for its seed bolls that produce fibres used in numerous textile products.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">About two thirds of the harvested cotton crop is seed, which is separated from the lint during ginning. The cotton seed is crushed to produce cottonseed oil, cottonseed cake (meal), and hulls. Cottonseed oil is used primarily as a cooking oil, in shortening, margarine and salad dressing, and is used extensively in the preparation of snack foods such as crackers, cookies and chips. The meal and hulls are an important protein concentrate for livestock, and may also serve as bedding and fuel. Linters, or fuzz, which are not removed in ginning, are used in felts, upholstery, mattresses, twine, wicks, carpets, surgical cottons, and in industrial products such as rayon, film, shatterproof glass, plastics, sausage skins, lacquers, and cellulose explosives.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Tobacco budworm (<i>Heliothis virescens</i>), pink bollworm (<i>Pectinophora gossypiella</i>), and cotton bollworm (<i>Helicoverpa zea</i>) are three of the most destructive pests of cotton. These insects cause damage to squares and bolls (tobacco budworm, cotton bollworm) and staining of lint (pink bollworm). Species such as the soybean looper (<i>Pseudoplusia includens</i>) and beet armyworm (<i>Spodoptera exigua</i>) cause feeding damage to leaves. Insect damage to the plant also increases susceptibility to diseases (<i>e.g.</i>, boll rot), and ultimately results in the losses of yield and crop quality. In the United States alone the combined costs of control and yield loss attributed to these pests is approximately $476 million per year. In Egypt, China and Brazil, pink bollworm commonly causes cotton losses of up to 20 percent.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Methods of insect control in cotton include the use of insecticides and integrated pest management methods, such as scouting and the use of economic thresholds, prior to application. In 2004, 64% of the cotton acreage in the United States was treated with insecticides; those most commonly used were malathion, acephate and aldicarb. However, the effectiveness of many insecticides has been reduced due to the development of resistance in some insect pests, such as the tobacco budworm.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The cotton line 281-24-236 was genetically engineered to resist attack from Lepidopteran insect pests such as the tobacco budworm, cotton bollworm, beet armyworm, and soybean looper. This insect resistance is conferred by the <i>cry</i>1F gene, originally isolated from the common soil bacterium <i>Bacillus thuringiensis</i> (Bt) var. <i>aizawai</i>. The <i>cry</i>1F gene produces the insect control protein Cry1F, a delta-endotoxin, in the plant tissues. Cry proteins, of which Cry1F is only one, act by selectively binding to specific sites localized on the lining of the midgut of susceptible insect species. Following binding, pores are formed that disrupt midgut ion flow, causing gut paralysis and eventual death due to bacterial sepsis. Cry1F is insecticidal only when eaten by the larvae of lepidopteran insects (moths and butterflies), and its specificity of action is directly attributable to the presence of specific binding sites in the target insects. There are no binding sites for delta-endotoxins of <i>B. thuringiensis</i> on the surface of mammalian intestinal cells, therefore, livestock animals and humans are not susceptible to these proteins. The <i>cry</i>1F gene was introduced into the cotton line &lsquo;Germain&rsquo;s Acala GC510&rsquo; by <i>Agrobacterium</i>-mediated transformation.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The cotton line 281-24-236 was field tested in the United States from 2000 to 2002, and in Puerto Rico in 2000-01. Agronomic characteristics such as yield, boll size, plant vigour, growth, morphology, germination and flowering were found to be within the range for commercial cotton lines. Susceptibility to diseases was not altered compared to conventional cotton varieties. The cotton line 281-24-236 did not demonstrate morphological or growth characteristics such as those observed in weedy and invasive plant species.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The effect of the cultivation of line 281-24-236 on non-target organisms was investigated during field testing. Non-lepidopteran insects were not detrimentally affected by this cotton line; this was not unexpected, given the insecticidal specificity of the Cry proteins. Insecticidal effects on the monarch butterfly, a lepidopteran, although not directly assessed in the field, were not expected given the very low expression of the Cry protein in the pollen. Based on the results from dietary studies of monarch butterfly larvae with Cry1F protein, the estimated concentration of Cry1F necessary for a 50% reduction in larval growth is several hundred thousand-fold the concentration in pollen from line 281-24-236. This, combined with the low volume of pollen produced, would result in very little risk to non-target lepidopterans, such as the monarch butterfly. While cotton is mostly self-pollinated, any cross-pollination would be achieved by non-lepidopteran insects, such as bees, which are unaffected by Cry proteins. Other non-target organisms, such as arthropods, mammals, birds, and aquatic organisms were not negatively affected by the cultivation of line 281-24-236. It was concluded that, compared to conventional cotton varieties, the cultivation of line 281-24-236 would pose no greater risk to interacting organisms, with the exception of specific lepidopteran insect pests of cotton.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The potential for introgression of the insect resistance trait from line 281-24-236 cotton into other cotton plants, or to wild relatives of cotton, was investigated. Cotton plants are primarily self-pollinating, but insects, especially bumblebees and honeybees, also distribute cotton pollen. Cotton can cross-pollinate with compatible species including <i>G. hirsutum</i> (wild or under cultivation) and <i>G. barbadense</i> (cultivated Pima cotton), and is genetically compatible with <i>G. tomentosum</i>. Overall, the probability of gene transfer to wild species in unmanaged ecosystems is low due to the relatively isolated distribution of <i>Gossypium</i> species, different breeding systems, and genomic incompatibility. Assuming proximity, synchronicity of flowering and presence of insects, the cotton line 281-24-236 could freely hybridize with other <i>G. hirsutum</i> varieties and wild plants. In the event of the formation of hybrids, there would no competitive advantage conferred on any hybrid progeny in the absence of infestations by Lepidopteran insect species.<br />\nThe food and livestock safety of the cotton line 281-24-236 was based on: the equivalence of the Cry1F protein to the bacterially produced protein which has a history of safe use as Bt insecticidal treatments; the lack of amino acid sequence homology of both the Cry1F and PAT proteins to known toxins and allergens; results of feeding studies with mammals, birds, aquatic organisms and non-target arthropods, demonstrating the lack of toxicity of the Cry1F protein to organisms other than lepidopteran insects; the rapid digestibility of the proteins in simulated gastric fluids; the very low levels of expression of both novel proteins in all plant tissues, including seed and oil; and the equivalence in nutritional components and anti-nutrients, of the seed and oil compared to conventional cotton cultivars.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 17:11:13'),
(73, 94, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Sugar beet (<i>Beta vulgaris</i> L. ssp. <i>vulgaris</i> var. <i>altissima</i>) had a global harvest of 256 million metric tonnes in 2006. The major producers of sugar beet in 2004 were France, the United States, Germany, Russian Federation, Turkey, Ukraine and Poland. Sugar beet is a botanical variety of <i>B. vulgaris</i> ssp. <i>vulgaris</i>, as are other comestible and fodder beets, and is a member of the goosefoot (Chenopodiaceae) family. It is an important source of sugar (sucrose), accounting for approximately 40 percent of global production.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Sucrose is present in limited quantities in many plants, including various palms and the sugar maple, but sugar beet and sugarcane are the only commercially important sources. More than half of the world sugar supply is obtained from sugarcane, which is grown in tropical and subtropical climates. The rest is supplied by the sugar beet, which is grown in temperate countries. Sugar is manufactured from the roots of the sugar beet; the leaves and tops are removed after harvesting and used as livestock feed. The roots are cut into cossettes, or chips, from which the juice is extracted. The juice is processed to yield sugar and beet molasses, and the remaining pulp is used for domestic animal feed. Beet molasses is also fed to livestock; table molasses is not made from sugar beets because of difficulties in purification. The sugar (sucrose) that is produced from the sugar beet is identical to that derived from sugarcane. It is widely used as a sweetener for foods, in preserves, and in the manufacture of candies, baked goods, and soft and alcoholic beverages. Sugar is also used as the raw material for fermentation products such as ethyl alcohol, butyl alcohol, glycerin, citric acid, and levulinic acid. Sugar is an ingredient in some transparent soaps, and it can be converted to esters and ethers, some of which yield tough, insoluble, and infusible resins.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Effective weed management is critical to sugar beet production. Weeds cause significant losses in sugar beet yield and crop quality, and also cause harvesting problems. The low growth habit of the sugar beet plant renders it more susceptible to competition from weeds compared to other crops, such as corn or soybean. Many weed species grow taller than sugar beet and thus aggressively compete for light, water and nutrients. The economic threshold for weed control in sugar beet production is therefore quite low, given the high value of the crop, and the significant losses caused by the presence of weeds. Weeds control strategies include the use of herbicides alone, and herbicides in combination with hand weeding. Sugar beet herbicides can be applied prior to crop emergence (<i>e.g.</i>, triallate, EPTC, ethofumesate), and post-emergence (<i>e.g.</i>, ethofumesate, triflusulfuron, desmedipham, phenimedipham, sethoxydim).<br />\nH7-1 sugar beet was developed to allow for the use of glyphosate, the active ingredient in the herbicide Roundup&reg;, as a weed control option. This genetically engineered sugar beet line contains a form of the plant enzyme 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS) that allows it to survive the otherwise lethal application of glyphosate. The EPSPS gene that was introduced into H7-1 was isolated from the common soil bacterium <i>Agrobacterium tumefaciens</i>, strain CP4 and the form of EPSPS enzyme produced by this gene is tolerant to glyphosate.<br />\nThe EPSPS enzyme is part of the shikimate pathway, an important biochemical pathway in plants involved in the production of aromatic amino acids and other aromatic compounds. When conventional plants are treated with glyphosate, the plants cannot produce the aromatic amino acids needed for growth and survival. EPSPS is present in all plants, bacteria, and fungi. It is not present in animals, which do not synthesize their own aromatic amino acids. Because the aromatic amino acid biosynthetic pathway is not present in mammals, birds or aquatic life forms, glyphosate has little if any toxicity for these organisms. The EPSPS enzyme is naturally present in foods derived from plant and microbial sources.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The sugar beet line H7-1 was field tested in the United States from 1998 to 2002, and in Europe (France and Germany) in 1998-99. H7-1 was evaluated extensively and no differences were found in agronomic performance, disease and insect resistance, leaf morphology, seed germination and dormancy, seedling and plant vigour, bolting, flowering onset, and seed harvest date when compared to conventional sugar beet cultivars. Field observations demonstrated that the cultivation of H7-1 did not negatively affect beneficial and non-target organisms, compared to that of conventional sugar beet.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Sugar beet is an outcrossing species, and is mainly wind pollinated. It is a biennial, developing a rosette of leaves and a large taproot in the first year, and bolting (<i>i.e.</i>, forming an inflorescence bearing stem) in the second year. Bolting is induced only after the plant has undergone vernalisation at the end of the first season. Certain environmental conditions, such as low temperatures and longer daylength, may induce bolting in the first year. Large amounts of pollen are produced during the reproductive phase; this pollen can be wind-borne over long distances. Sugar beet is also very sensitive to frost, and is a poor competitor with other plants.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The genus <i>Beta</i> is comprised of four sections: i) Beta, to which sugar beet belongs; ii) Corollinae; iii) Nanae; and iv) Procumbentes. All species within the Beta section (<i>e.g.,</i> <i>B. vulgaris</i> ssp. <i>maritima</i>, <i>B. macrocarpa</i>) are cross-compatible and produce fertile progeny. Hybrids between sugar beet and members of the other three sections do not occur naturally, and cross-breeding with other members of the Chenopodiaceae is unlikely. As with conventional sugar beet cultivars, H7-1 plants are harvested prior to the initiation of the bolting phase. Since sugar beets are usually not allowed to bolt, except in fields or plots grown for seed production, there is little opportunity for uncontrolled pollen flow. Sugar beets grown for seed production are also isolated from other sugar beet fields to minimize pollen flow. This is usually achieved by the use of isolation distances enforced by seed certification agencies.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The development of glyphosate-tolerant hybrids is possible due to the ability of sugar beet to outcross with related plants. However, the glyphosate tolerance trait is not expected to provide a competitive advantage to hybrid plants unless grown in managed environment routinely subjected to glyphosate applications. In the event that a glyphosate-tolerant hybrid survived, it could be controlled using mechanical and/or other available chemical means. H7-1 is considered unlikely to increase the weediness potential of any other cultivated plant or native wild species with which it may interbreed. H7-1 also does not possess growth and reproductive characteristics that would render it weedier than conventional sugar beet.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Sugar beet intended for human consumption is generally converted directly to refined white sugar through extensive purification processes. The levels of CP4 EPSPS protein introduced into H7-1 sugar beet were not measured in refined sugar. CP4 EPSPS was expressed at very low levels in the roots, and since refined sugar does not contain detectable levels of protein, there would be virtually no human exposure to CP4 EPSPS. Consequently, there is no anticipated human exposure to this protein as a result of consumption of refined sugar derived from H7-1 sugar beet.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Detailed analyses were carried out to establish the nutritional value of H7-1 sugar beet. The transgenic H7-1 line was compared with non-transgenic sugar beets in an analysis of numerous compositional components, including crude ash, crude fibre, crude protein, carbohydrate and dry matter in both tops and roots (processed). Additional quality components were measured in processed roots including, invert sugar content, polarization (% sucrose), sodium, potassium and alpha-amino nitrogen. No biologically meaningful differences in any compositional or quality parameters relevant to food were identified between non-transgenic, control sugar beet and sugar beet H7-1. It was concluded that glyphosate-tolerant sugar beet H7-1 is equivalent to other commercially available sugar beet varieties with respect to composition and nutritional quality.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The presence of naturally occurring toxins and allergens in glyphosate-tolerant sugar beet line H7-1 was investigated. Saponins are the only known toxicants found in sugar beet and are actively eliminated in sugar processing. These are also considered antinutrients since they impart a bitter taste to animal feed and reduce intake. Levels of saponin in H7-1 did not differ significantly from those of the control lines, and were within the range observed for conventional sugar beet cultivars.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The potential toxicity and allergenicity of the CP4 EPSPS protein was assessed. No significant homologies between the amino acid sequence of CP4 EPSPS and those of known toxins or allergens were detected. The protein did not display the characteristics usually associated with allergenic substances, and was readily degraded under conditions simulating the mammalian digestive environment. Acute oral gavage studies, in which mice were fed high doses of the CP4 EPSPS protein, did not reveal any toxic effects and provided further support to the conclusion that this protein, and thus the transgenic H7-1 sugar beet line, possessed little or no potential for toxicity.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 17:16:06'),
(74, 78, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Maize, or corn (<i>Zea mays</i> L.) is grown commercially in over 100 countries with a combined harvest of nearly 700 million metric tonnes in 2006. The top five producers of maize in 2005 were the United States, China, Brazil, Argentina, and Mexico, accounting for 70% of world production. Maize is grown primarily for its kernel (grain), the majority of which is used for animal feed, but with significant amounts refined into products used in a wide range of food, medical, and industrial goods.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Maize is a raw material for the manufacture of starch, the majority of which is converted by a complex refining process into sweeteners, syrups, and fermentation products, including ethanol. Maize oil is extracted from the germ of the maize kernel. Only a small proportion of the whole kernel is consumed by humans, while refined maize products such as sweeteners, starch, and oil are abundant in processed foods (<i>e.g.</i>, breakfast cereals, dairy goods, chewing gum).</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">In the United States maize is typically used as animal feed, with roughly 70% of the crop fed to livestock, however a growing amount is now being used for the production of ethanol. The entire maize plant, the kernels, and several refined products such as glutens and steep liquor, are used in animal feeds. Silage made from the whole maize plant makes up 10-12% of the annual corn acreage, and is a major ruminant feedstuff. Livestock that feed on maize include cattle, pigs, poultry, sheep, goats, fish and companion animals.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Industrial uses for maize products include recycled paper, paints, cosmetics, car parts. Refined maize products are also used in bioproducts such as antibiotics.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The European corn borer (ECB), <i>Ostrinia nubilalis</i>, is the most damaging insect pest of maize in the United States with losses from ECB damage and control costs exceeding $1 billion each year. An average of one ECB cavity per maize stalk across an entire field can reduce yield by as much as 5% when caused by first generation larvae, and 2.5% when caused by second generation larvae, with annual yield losses estimated at 5 to 10 %. Despite consistent losses to ECB, chemical insecticides are utilized on a relatively small acreage (less than 20%). Historically, this reluctance stems from the difficulties in identifying and managing ECB in maize crops: ECB larval damage is hidden, heavy infestations are unpredictable, insecticides are costly, timing of insecticide application is difficult and multiple applications may be required to guarantee ECB control.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Weeds are also a major production problem in maize cultivation. Even a light infestation of weeds can reduce yields by 10 to 15%; severe infestations can reduce yields by 50% or more. Typically, weeds are managed using a combination of cultural (<i>e.g.</i>, seed bed preparation, clean seed, variety selection) and chemical controls. Depending on the production area and the prevalent weed species, herbicides may be incorporated into the soil before planting (pre-plant), applied after planting but before emergence (pre-emergence), or applied after the maize plants emerge (post-emergence). Ideally, for maize production, weeds should be controlled for the full season. However, the most critical period for weed control is usually about six to eight weeks after crop emergence, during the 4th to 10th leaf stages. This critical period in the life cycle of maize must be kept weed free in order to prevent yield loss.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The transgenic maize line DAS-06275-8 (hereafter referred to as <b>TC-6275</b>) was genetically engineered to resist ECB, Southwestern corn borer (SWCB), fall armyworm (FAW), and black cutworm (BCW, and to a limited extent, corn earworm (CEW), by producing its own insecticide. TC-6275 was also developed to express tolerance to the herbicide glufosinate ammonium. Two novel genes, a truncated cry1F gene and the bar gene were introduced into the maize hybrid line Hi-II using <i>Agrobacterium</i>-mediated transformation.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The cry1F gene, isolated from the common soil bacterium <i>Bacillus thuringiensis</i> (<i>Bt</i>) var. <i>aizawai</i>, produces the insect control protein Cry1F, a delta-endotoxin. Cry proteins, of which Cry1F is only one, act by selectively binding to specific sites localized on the lining of the midgut of susceptible insect species. Following binding, pores are formed that disrupt midgut ion flow, causing gut paralysis and eventual death due to bacterial sepsis. Cry1F is lethal only when eaten by the larvae of lepidopteran insects (moths and butterflies), and its specificity of action is directly attributable to the presence of specific binding sites in the target insects. There are no binding sites for the delta-endotoxins of <i>B. thuringiensis</i> on the surface of mammalian intestinal cells, therefore, livestock animals and humans are not susceptible to these proteins.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">TC-6275 maize also was developed to allow for the use of glufosinate ammonium as a weed control option, and as a breeding tool for selecting plants containing the <i>cry</i>1F gene. The herbicidal mode of action of glufosinate ammonium is related to the activity of glutamine synthetase (GS), the enzyme required for the synthesis of the amino acid glutamine. L-phosphinothricin, the active ingredient of glufosinate ammonium, is a structural analog of glutamate, and acts as a competitive inhibitor. After application of the herbicide, L-phosphinothricin competes with glutamine for its active sites on GS. The results of the inhibition of GS are an accumulation of ammonia in the plant, a reduction in the synthesis of glutamine, and an inhibition of photosynthesis. This causes the death of plant cells, and eventually, the entire plant. TC-6275 maize contains the bar gene, which codes for the production of the enzyme phosphinothricin acetyl-transferase (PAT). This enzyme acetylates L-phosphinothricin rendering it inactive in the plant. The PAT enzyme is not known to have any toxic properties. The <i>bar</i> gene was isolated from the soil bacterium <i>Streptomyces hygroscopius</i>, the same organism from which L-phosphinothricin was originally isolated.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">TC-6275 was tested in field trials in the United States and Puerto Rico from 1999 to 2003. Data collected from these trials demonstrated that TC-6275 was not different from conventional maize varieties. TC-6275 grew normally and exhibited the expected morphology, reproductive and physiological characteristics of maize. TC-6275 was also shown not to have unexpected pest or disease susceptibility compared to conventional maize.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Maize does not have any closely related species growing in the wild in continental United States. Cultivated maize can naturally cross with annual teosinte (<i>Zea mays</i> ssp. <i>mexicana</i>) when grown in close proximity, however, these wild maize relatives are native to Central America and are not naturalized in the United States. Gene exchange between TC-6275 and maize relatives was determined to be negligible in managed ecosystems, with no potential for transfer to wild species in the United States.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">TC-6275 maize was compared to its non-transgenic counterpart, a near-isogenic maize line, for the relative abundance of beneficial arthropods, such as ladybird beetles, minute pirate bugs and ichneumonids. Field studies demonstrated that Cry1F expressed in TC-6275 had neither a direct nor an indirect effect on the beneficial arthropod populations. In summary, it was determined that when compared with currently commercialized maize varieties, TC-6275 maize did not present an increased risk to or impact on interacting organisms, including humans, with the exception of specific lepidopteran insect species.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Regulatory authorities in the United States have mandatory requirements for developers of <i>Bt</i> maize to implement specific Insect Resistant Management (IRM) Programs. The potential exists for <i>Bt</i>-resistant ECB populations to develop as acreages planted with transgenic <i>Bt</i> hybrids expand. Hence, these IRM programs are designed to reduce this potential and prolong the effectiveness of plant-expressed <i>Bt </i>toxins, and the microbial <i>Bt</i> spray formulations that contain these same toxins.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The food and livestock feed safety of TC-6275 maize was established based on several standard criteria. As part of the safety assessment, the nutritional composition of TC-6275 grain was found to be equivalent to conventional maize as shown by the analyses of key nutrients including proximates (<i>e.g. </i>, protein, fat, fibre, ash and carbohydrate), amino acid composition, fatty acid profiles, minerals, and vitamins. Similar compositional analyses were conducted on TC-6275 forage, which was also found to be compositionally equivalent to forage from conventional maize.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The low potential for toxicity of plant-expressed Cry1F protein was demonstrated by the lack of amino acid sequence homology with known protein toxins, by <i>in vitro</i> studies showing that the protein was rapidly degraded in simulated gastric fluids, and from results of acute oral toxicity studies demonstrating no acute toxicity when Cry1F protein was fed to laboratory mice. In the latter study, mice were fed high doses of Cry1F protein with no negative consequences. The doses of Cry1F were 26,000-fold greater than levels to which humans would be exposed, based on the typical consumption of foods derived from TC-6275 maize grain.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The potential allergenicity of Cry1F was assessed by examining: physiochemical characteristics; amino acid sequence homology to known protein allergens; and digestibility in simulated gastric fluids. The Cry1F protein has a history of safe use, demonstrated by its use in microbial <i>Bt</i> spray formulations in agriculture and forestry for more than 30 years with no evidence of adverse effects. This fact, combined with the lack of amino acid sequence homology between Cry1F protein and known allergens, and the rapid degradation of Cry1F protein in simulated gastric fluids, were sufficient to provide with reasonable certainty that Cry1F has no allergenic potential.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The PAT protein in TC-6275 was also evaluated for its potential for toxicity and allergenicity. A sequence homology search revealed no similarity to known toxins and allergens. Results of previous in vitro digestibility studies on PAT protein reveal that it is rapidly digested in simulated gastric fluid. These results, and those of other studies previously submitted to regulatory authorities in support of the safety of PAT, demonstrate its low potential for toxicity and allergenicity.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 17:05:27'),
(75, 132, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Maize, or corn (<i>Zea mays</i> L.) is grown commercially in over 100 countries with a combined harvest of nearly 700 million metric tonnes in 2006. The top five producers of maize in 2005 were the United States, China, Brazil, Argentina, and Mexico, accounting for 70% of world production. Maize is grown primarily for its kernel (grain), the majority of which is used for animal feed, but with significant amounts refined into products used in a wide range of food, medical, and industrial goods.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">In the United States maize is typically used as animal feed, with roughly 70% of the crop fed to livestock, although an increasing share is now being used to produce ethanol for fuel. The entire maize plant, the kernels, and several refined products such as glutens and steep liquor, are used in animal feeds. Silage made from the whole maize plant is a major ruminant feedstuff. Livestock that feed on maize include cattle, pigs, poultry, sheep, goats, fish and companion animals. Industrial uses for maize products include recycled paper, paints, cosmetics, car parts.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">MON 89034 was developed as a second generation insect-resistant maize product to provide enhanced benefits for the control of lepidopteran insect pests. MON 89034 produces the Cry1A.105 and Cry2Ab2 proteins derived from <i>Bacillus thuringiensis</i>, which are active against lepidopteran insect pests. MON 89034 is intended to serve farmers&#39; needs for controlling a wider spectrum of lepidopteran pests and help assure the durability of insect-resistant maize. MON 89034 provides control of <i>Ostrinia</i> species such as European corn borer (ECB) and Asian corn borer, and <i>Diatraea</i> species such as southwestern corn borer (SWCB) and sugarcane borer. MON 89034 also provides a high level control of fall armyworm (FAW) throughout the season and improved protection from damage caused by corn earworm (CEW). In addition to the wider spectrum of insect control, the combination of the Cry1A.105 and Cry2Ab2 insecticidal proteins in a single plant provides a much more effective insect resistance management (IRM) tool. The results of mathematical modeling indicate that biotechnology-derived plants expressing two Cry proteins will have significantly greater durability than plants producing either of the single proteins if the cross-resistance between the Cry proteins is low and the mortality of susceptible insects caused by each of the individual proteins is at least 90%. Comparative biophysical studies indicate that the Cry1A.105 and Cry2Ab2 proteins have important differences in their mode of action, specifically in the way in which they bind to the lepidopteran midgut. Therefore, the probability of cross-resistance between these two proteins is low. Furthermore, <i>in vitro</i> and <i>in planta</i> studies with Cry1A.105 and Cry2Ab2 demonstrate that both proteins are highly active against the primary lepidopteran pests of corn (ECB, SWCB, CEW, and FAW), particularly ECB, achieving close to or greater than the critical 95% level of control in all cases.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">MON 89034 was produced by <i>Agrobacterium</i>-mediated transformation of corn with PVZMIR245, which is a binary vector containing 2 T-DNAs. The first T-DNA, designated as T-DNA I, contained the <i>cry1A.105</i> and the <i>cry2Ab2</i> expression cassettes. The second T-DNA, designated as T-DNA II, contained the <i>nptII</i> (neomycin phosphotransferase II) expression cassette. During transformation, both T-DNAs were inserted into the genome. The nptII gene was used as the selectable marker which was needed for selection of the transformed cells. Once the transgenic cells were identified, the selectable marker gene was no longer needed and traditional breeding was used to isolate plants that only contained the <i>cry1A.105</i> and <i>cry2Ab2</i> expression cassettes (T-DNA I). Molecular characterization of MON 89034 by Southern blot analyses demonstrated that the DNA inserted into the corn genome is present at a single locus and contains one functional copy of the <i>cry1A.105</i> and the <i>cry2Ab2</i> expression cassettes. All genetic elements are present in the inserted DNA as expected with the exception that the e35S promoter, which regulates expression of the <i>cry1A.105</i> gene, has been modified and that the Right Border sequence present in PV-ZMIR245 was replaced by a Left Border sequence in MON 89034. No backbone plasmid DNA or <i>nptII</i> sequences were detected.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">As the selectable marker gene employed in the transformation process was removed during development of the final event, the two insecticidal proteins are the only new proteins expressed in this plant. This was confirmed by a molecular analysis that identified only the genes coding for the insecticidal proteins as being present in the final event, with no evidence for presence of the selecable marker gene. A review of the potential toxicity and allergenicity of these two proteins was made, in addition to a comparison of the composition of the grain and forage from this transgenic event with non-transgenic maize. Agronomic characters were evaluated in field trials, also in comparison to non-transgenic maize. No evidence was found to suggest that this product would pose a greater risk to human or animal health, or to the environment.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The food and livestock feed safety of MON89034 maize grain and forage was established based on several standard criteria. As part of the safety assessment, the nutritional composition of MON89034 grain was found to be equivalent to conventional maize as shown by the analyses of key nutrients including proximates (i.e., moisture, crude protein, crude fat, ash and carbohydrates), acid detergent fibre, neutral detergent fibre, total dietary fibre, amino acid composition, fatty acid profiles, minerals (e.g., calcium, phosphorus, magnesium), and vitamins (i.e., folic acid, niacin, vitamin E), as well as antinutrient compounds. Similar compositional analyses were conducted on MON89034 forage harvested at the late dough to early dent stages.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 17:33:11'),
(76, 89, '<p style="text-align: justify;">This product was not subject to regulation in any jurisdiction except Canada since the development of this herbicide-tolerant line did not employ recombinant DNA technologies. In Canada, regulatory approval is required for environmental release, as well as for use as human food and livestock feed.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Lentil (<i>Lens culinaris</i> Medik.) was grown as a crop in 51 countries in 2004, with a combined harvest of 3.8 million metric tonnes. The major producers of lentils in 2004 were India, Canada, Turkey, Australia, Nepal, the United States and China. Lentil is a member of the Leguminosae (Fabaceae) family and is a nutritionally important food crop. The plant produces pods which bear one or two flattened, lens shaped seeds. The seeds are consumed as an important source of dietary protein, especially in India, Southwest Asia and the Mediterranean (CFIA, 2003).</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Weeds are a significant production problem in lentil cultivation. Lentil seedlings are small, are slow to establish, and thus compete poorly with weeds. In Canada, perennial weeds such as Canada thistle (<i>Cirsium arvense</i> (L.) Scop.) and sow thistle (<i>Sonchus arvensis</i> L.) are especially troublesome and their elimination is recommended prior to cultivation. Volunteer cereals (<i>e.g.</i>, wheat, barley) from previous rotations are difficult to control in the crop, and to clean from the harvested seeds. Weed control measures include planting lentils on weed-free fields, crop rotation to reduce weed populations, early seeding to increase the competitiveness of the seedlings prior to weed seed germination, and the use of herbicides. Post-emergence herbicides such as metribuzin and diclofop-methyl are used to control annual broadleaf and grassy weeds.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The lentil line RH44 was developed to allow the use of imidazolinone herbicides as a weed control option in lentil production. The mode of action of imidazolinones consists of inhibiting the activity of acetohydroxyacid synthase (AHAS), an enzyme in plants active in glycolysis and in the biosynthesis of the branched-chain amino acids isoleucine, leucine and valine. The result of the inhibition of AHAS activity is a decrease in protein synthesis, and in an accumulation of toxic levels of alpha-ketoglutarate, all of which causes the eventual death of the plant. While unmodified lentil is not tolerant to imidazolinone, the line RH44 has been modified to survive an otherwise lethal application of this herbicide. RH44 was developed using chemically induced seed mutagenesis and whole plant selection procedures. The herbicide tolerance is due to a mutation in the AHAS gene, which codes for an alteration in the binding site for imazethalpyr in the AHAS enzyme.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">RH44 lentil was field tested in Canada from 1999 to 2002 in the provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. These trials were conducted, in part, to compare the agronomic performance and disease susceptibility of RH44 with its unmodified counterpart, and other conventional lentil cultivars.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The potential for transfer of the herbicide tolerant trait from RH44 lentil to other unmodified lentil plants, or to wild relatives of lentil, has been investigated. Lentil (<i>L. culinaris</i>) is predominantly self-pollinating, with less than one percent cross-pollinaiton (CFIA, 2003). As such, an isolation distance of only 3 metres is required for pedigreed seed production in Canada (Canadian Seed Growers Association, 2000). The potential for introgression of the herbicide tolerance trait into unmodified lentil plants is therefore negligible.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Lentil can successfully hybridize with its wild progenitor <i>Lens orientalis</i>. This wild relative of lentil grows in the Near East, and from the western Mediterranean area to Ethiopia. Introgression of the herbicide tolerance trait from RH44 plants into <i>L. orientalis</i> is therefore possible in these regions. Neither <i>L. orientalis</i>, nor any other wild relative of lentil grow in Canada.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Lentil does not exhibit characteristics that would render it weedy. While some lentil pods shatter at harvest, these seeds do not normally volunteer in any subsequent crop. In Canada, seeds that germinate in the fall do not survive the winter. Those seeds that do germinate the following spring compete poorly with other crops and weeds. Unlike legumes species such as alfalfa or red clover, lentil seed does not exhibit dormancy characteristics such as hard seed.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The food and livestock feed safety of RH44 lentil was based on: the evaluation of the similarity of AHAS, in structure and function, to the enzyme naturally present in food and livestock feeds; the lack of toxicity or allergenicity of AHAS from plants; and, studies on the function, heat stability, and gastric digestibility of this enzyme in RH44 compared to its unmodified counterpart. The nutritional equivalence and wholesomeness of RH44 was demonstrated by the analysis of key nutrients, including proximates (protein, crude fat, crude fibre, ash and carbohydrates), amino acid and fatty acid composition, vitamins, minerals, as well as the anti-nutritional compounds phytic acid and trypsin inhibitor.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 17:09:40');
INSERT INTO `gmcropdatabase_events_execsummaries` (`id`, `eventId`, `description`, `status`, `created`, `updated`) VALUES
(77, 80, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Creeping bentgrass (<i>Agrostis stolonifera</i> L.) is a perennial grass (Familiy Poaceae) grown in pastures, as a turfgrass in golf courses, and also for revegetation and soil stabilization. It is a cool-season grass that has become naturalized in many temperate and cold regions of the world. It is considered a native grass in the United States and Canada; however, some populations have become naturalized from sources native to Eurasia.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The success of creeping bentgrass as a pasture grass, turfgrass, and soil stabilizer is due to its growth habit. Creeping bentgrass is a prostrate grass, forming numerous stolons that spread along the ground. Creeping bentgrass reproduces by seed, but also vegetatively by the formation of stolons. New tillers grow from meristematic points on the nodes of the stolons; from each new tiller there is the formation of new stolons. This vegetative growth results in the formation of sod, <i>i.e.</i>, a fairly continuous mat of vegetation. Creeping bentgrass is resistant to grazing and mowing since the growing points of the tillers and stolons are near the ground. Grazing and mowing suppresses the apical dominance of the main culm (stem), which stimulates the formation of new stolons at the base. Fibrous roots grow from each new tiller; these roots stabilize and add biomass to the soil.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Grasses grown for turf, especially in golf courses, are intensively managed. Part of this management includes the use of herbicides for the establishment and maintenance of the turf. Creeping bentgrass is used in putting greens, tees, and fairways. Roundup Ready&reg; creeping bentgrass (ASR368) was developed to allow the use of glyphosate, the active ingredient in the herbicide Roundup&reg;, as a weed control option in the production of creeping bentgrass in golf courses. This genetically engineered grass contains a novel form of the plant enzyme 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS). This enzyme allows ASR368 to survive an otherwise lethal application of glyphosate. The EPSPS gene introduced into ASR368 was isolated from a strain of the common soil bacterium <i>Agrobacterium tumefaciens</i> strain CP4; the novel form of the EPSPS enzyme produced by this gene is tolerant to glyphosate.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The EPSPS enzyme is part of the shikimate pathway, an important biochemical pathway in plants involved in the production of aromatic amino acids and other aromatic compounds. When conventional plants are treated with glyphosate, the plants cannot produce the aromatic amino acids needed for growth and survival. EPSPS is present in all plants, bacteria, and fungi. It is not present in animals, since these organisms are unable to synthesize their own aromatic amino acids. Because the aromatic amino acid pathway is not present in mammals, birds, or aquatic life forms, glyphosate has little, if any, toxicity for these organisms. The EPSPS enzyme is naturally present in foods derived from plant and microbial sources. ASR368 creeping bentgrass was developed by introducing two CP4 EPSPS genes into the <i>A. stolonifera</i> line B9906R using microprojectile bombardment (<i>i.e. </i>, particle acceleration, biolistics transformation).</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The livestock feed safety of ASR368 creeping bentgrass was based on: a history of safe consumption of the CP4 EPSPS enzyme in previously approved glyphosate tolerant crops; the lack of toxicity or allergenicity of CP4 EPSPS; and by direct laboratory and safety studies of the CP4 EPSPS protein. The nutritional equivalence and wholesomeness of ASR368 compared to the nonmodified parental line was demonstrated by the compositional analysis of the forage, including proximates (crude protein, crude fat, crude fibre, ash, and moisture), acid detergent fibre, neutral detergent fibre, and minerals.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 17:06:20'),
(78, 95, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Maize, or corn (<i>Zea mays</i> L.) is grown commercially in over 100 countries with a combined harvest of nearly 700 million metric tonnes in 2006. The top five producers of maize in 2005 were the United States, China, Brazil, Argentina, and Mexico, accounting for 70% of world production. Maize is grown primarily for its kernel (grain), the majority of which is used for animal feed, but with significant amounts refined into products used in a wide range of food, medical, and industrial goods.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Maize is a raw material for the manufacture of starch, the majority of which is converted by a complex refining process into sweeteners, syrups, and fermentation products, including ethanol. Maize oil is extracted from the germ of the maize kernel. Only a small proportion of the whole kernel is consumed by humans (<i>e.g.</i>, corn meal, grits, oil), while refined maize products such as sweeteners, starch, and oil are abundant in processed foods (<i>e.g.</i>, breakfast cereals, dairy goods, chewing gum). Maize is also processed into masa, which is used for tortillas, tacos and corn chips.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">In the United States maize is typically used as animal feed, with roughly 70% of the crop fed to livestock, however a growing amount is now being used for the production of ethanol. The entire maize plant, the kernels, and several refined products such as glutens and steep liquor, are used in animal feeds. Silage made from the whole maize plant makes up 10-12% of the annual corn acreage, and is a major ruminant feedstuff. Livestock that feed on maize include cattle, pigs, poultry, sheep, goats, fish and companion animals.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Industrial uses for maize products include recycled paper, paints, cosmetics, car parts. Refined maize products are also used in bioproducts such as antibiotics.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Corn rootworm (<i>Diabrotica</i> spp.) is considered one of the most damaging insects pests of maize. The species of corn rootworm most prevalent in the United States are the northern corn rootworm (<i>Diabrotica barberi</i>) and the western corn rootworm (<i>D. virgifera</i>). The larvae of these beetles (coleopterans) feed on the corn roots. Feeding damage to the roots impedes the absorption of water and nutrients. Corn rootworms also feed on the brace roots and cause plant lodging. Adults feed on the silks thus interfering with pollination and seed set. Crop rotation is a recommended practice to reduce the population of these insects; thus, corn should not follow corn in a rotation. The protection offered by insecticides is limited: these will protect the crop from rootworm damage, but will only reduce a small percentage of the beetles from emerging.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The transgenic maize line DAS-59122-7 was genetically engineered to resist the Coleopteran insects western corn rootworm (<i>Diabrotica virgifera</i>), northern corn rootworm (<i>D. barberi</i>), and Mexican corn rootworm (<i>D. virgifera zeae</i>) by producing insecticidal proteins (delta-endotoxins). Three novel genes, <i>cry</i>34Ab1, <i>cry</i>35Ab1, and <i>pat</i> were introduced into the maize hybrid line Hi-II using <i>Agrobacterium</i>-mediated transformation.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The <i>cry</i>34Ab1 and <i>cry</i>35Ab1 genes, isolated from the common soil bacterium <i>Bacillus thuringiensis</i> (<i>Bt</i>) strain PS149B1, produce the insect control proteins (delta-endotoxins) Cry34Ab1 and Cry35Ab1. Cry proteins, of which Cry34Ab1 and Cry35Ab1 are only two among many, act by selectively binding to specific sites localized on the lining of the midgut of susceptible insect species. Following binding, pores are formed that disrupt midgut ion flow, causing gut paralysis and eventual death due to bacterial sepsis. Cry34Ab1 and Cry35Ab1 are both lethal only when eaten by the larvae of coleopteran insects (<i>i.e.</i>, beetles), and its specificity of action is directly attributable to the presence of specific binding sites in the target insects. There are no binding sites for the delta-endotoxins of <i>B. thuringiensis</i> on the surface of mammalian intestinal cells, therefore, livestock animals and humans are not susceptible to these proteins.<br />\nThe <i>pat</i> gene introduced into DAS-59122-7 maize allows the use of glufosinate ammonium as a breeding tool for selecting plants containing the <i> cry</i>34Ab1 and <i>cry</i>35Ab1 genes. The herbicidal mode of action of glufosinate ammonium is related to the activity of glutamine synthetase (GS), the enzyme required for the synthesis of the amino acid glutamine. L-phosphinothricin, the active ingredient of glufosinate ammonium, is a structural analog of glutamate, and acts as a competitive inhibitor. After application of the herbicide, L-phosphinothricin competes with glutamine for its active sites on GS. The results of the inhibition of GS are an accumulation of ammonia in the plant, a reduction in the synthesis of glutamine, and an inhibition of photosynthesis. This causes the death of plant cells, and eventually, the entire plant. The <i>pat</i> gene codes for the production of the enzyme phosphinothricin acetyl-transferase (PAT). This enzyme acetylates L-phosphinothricin rendering it inactive in the plant. The PAT enzyme is not known to have any toxic properties. The <i>pat</i> gene was isolated from the soil bacterium <i>Streptomyces viridochromogenes</i>, the same organism from which L-phosphinothricin was originally isolated.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The food and livestock feed safety of DAS-59122-7 maize was established based on several standard criteria. As part of the safety assessment, the nutritional composition of DAS-59122-7 grain was found to be equivalent to conventional maize as shown by the analyses of key nutrients including proximates (e.g., moisture, protein, fat, fibre, ash, carbohydrate, acid detergent fibre, and neutral detergent fibre), amino acid composition, fatty acid profiles, minerals, and vitamins (<i>e.g.</i>, vitamin A, E, folic acid) as well as antinutrients compounds and secondary metabolites. Similar compositional analyses were conducted on DAS-59122-7 forage.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 17:16:40'),
(79, 96, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Maize, or corn (<i>Zea mays</i> L.) is grown commercially in over 100 countries with a combined harvest of nearly 700 million metric tonnes in 2006. The top five producers of maize in 2005 were the United States, China, Brazil, Argentina, and Mexico, accounting for 70% of world production. Maize is grown primarily for its kernel (grain), the majority of which is used for animal feed, but with significant amounts refined into products used in a wide range of food, medical, and industrial goods.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Maize is a raw material for the manufacture of starch, the majority of which is converted by a complex refining process into sweeteners, syrups, and fermentation products, including ethanol. Maize oil is extracted from the germ of the maize kernel. Only a small proportion of the whole kernel is consumed by humans (<i>e.g.</i>, corn meal, grits, oil), while refined maize products such as sweeteners, starch, and oil are abundant in processed foods (<i>e.g</i>., breakfast cereals, dairy goods, chewing gum). Maize is also processed into masa, which is used for tortillas, tacos and corn chips.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">In the United States maize is typically used as animal feed, with roughly 70% of the crop fed to livestock, however a growing amount is now being used for the production of ethanol. The entire maize plant, the kernels, and several refined products such as glutens and steep liquor, are used in animal feeds. Silage made from the whole maize plant makes up 10-12% of the annual corn acreage, and is a major ruminant feedstuff. Livestock that feed on maize include cattle, pigs, poultry, sheep, goats, fish and companion animals.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Industrial uses for maize products include recycled paper, paints, cosmetics, car parts. Refined maize products are also used in bioproducts such as antibiotics.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Corn rootworm (<i>Diabrotica</i> spp.) is considered one of the most damaging insects pests of maize. The species of corn rootworm most prevalent in the United States are the northern corn rootworm (<i>Diabrotica barberi</i>) and the western corn rootworm (<i>D. virgifera</i>). The larvae of these beetles (coleopterans) feed on the corn roots. Feeding damage to the roots impedes the absorption of water and nutrients. Corn rootworms also feed on the brace roots and cause plant lodging. Adults feed on the silks thus interfering with pollination and seed set. Crop rotation is a recommended practice to reduce the population of these insects; thus, corn should not follow corn in a rotation. The protection offered by insecticides is limited: these will protect the crop from rootworm damage, but will only reduce a small percentage of the beetles from emerging.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Weeds are also a major production problem in maize cultivation. Typically, weeds are managed using a combination of cultural (<i>e.g.</i>, seed bed preparation, clean seed, variety selection) and chemical controls. Depending on the production area and the prevalent weed species, herbicides may be incorporated into the soil before planting (pre-plant), applied after planting but before emergence (pre-emergence), or applied after the maize plants emerge (post-emergence). Ideally, for maize production, weeds should be controlled for the full season. However, the most critical period for weed control is usually about six to eight weeks after crop emergence, during the 4th to 10th leaf stages. This critical period in the life cycle of maize must be kept weed free in order to prevent yield loss.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The transgenic maize line MON 88017 was genetically engineered to resist the western corn rootworm (<i>Diabrotica virgifera</i>) and northern corn rootworm (<i>D. barberi</i>) by producing an insecticidal protein, and to express tolerance to the herbicide glyphosate. Two novel genes, a variant of the <i>cry</i> 3Bb1 gene and <i>cp4 epsps</i>, were introduced into the maize line LH198 using <i>Agrobacterium</i> -mediated transformation.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The <i>cry</i>3Bb1gene, isolated from the soil bacterium <i>Bacillus thuringiensis</i> (Bt) subspecies <i>kumamotoensis</i> strain EG4691, produces the insect control protein (delta-endotoxin) Cry3Bb1. Cry proteins, of which Cry3Bb1 is only one, act by selectively binding to specific sites localized on the lining of the midgut of susceptible insect species. Following binding, pores are formed that disrupt midgut ion flow, causing gut paralysis and eventual death due to bacterial sepsis. Cry3Bb1 is lethal only when eaten by the larvae of coleopteran insects (<i>i.e. </i>, beetles), and its specificity of action is directly attributable to the presence of specific binding sites in the target insects. There are no binding sites for the delta-endotoxins of <i>B. thuringiensis</i> on the surface of mammalian intestinal cells, therefore, livestock animals and humans are not susceptible to these proteins.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The <i>cp4 epsps</i> gene, isolated from <i>Agrobacterium tumefaciens</i> strain CP4, codes for a form of the enzyme 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS) which is tolerant to glyphosate. The EPSPS enzyme is part of the shikimate pathway, an important biochemical pathway in plants involved in the production of aromatic amino acids and other aromatic compounds. When conventional plants are treated with glyphosate, the plants cannot produce the aromatic amino acids needed for growth and survival. EPSPS is present in all plants, bacteria, and fungi. It is not present in animals, which do not synthesize their own aromatic amino acids. Because the aromatic amino acid biosynthetic pathway is not present in mammals, birds or aquatic life forms, glyphosate has little if any toxicity for these organisms. The EPSPS enzyme is naturally present in foods derived from plant and microbial sources.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The food and livestock feed safety of MON 88017 maize grain and forage was established based on several standard criteria. As part of the safety assessment, the nutritional composition of MON 88017 grain was found to be equivalent to conventional maize as shown by the analyses of key nutrients including proximates (<i>i.e. </i>, moisture, crude protein, crude fat, ash and carbohydrates), acid detergent fibre, neutral detergent fibre, total dietary fibre, amino acid composition, fatty acid profiles, minerals (<i>e.g. </i>, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium), and vitamins (<i>i.e.</i>, folic acid, niacin, vitamin E), as well as antinutrient compounds. Similar compositional analyses were conducted on MON88017 forage harvested at the late dough to early dent stages.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 17:17:54'),
(80, 97, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Cotton (<i>Gossypium hirsutum</i> L.) was grown commercially in over 80 countries with a combined production of 44.2 million metric tonnes of cotton seed and 24.8 million metric tonnes of cotton lint in 2006. The major producers of cotton seed and lint were China, the United States, India, Pakistan, Brazil, Uzbekistan and Turkey. Cotton is primarily grown for its seed bolls that produce fibres used in numerous textile products.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">About two thirds of the harvested cotton crop is seed, which is separated from the lint during ginning. The cotton seed is crushed to produce cottonseed oil, cottonseed cake (meal), and hulls. Cottonseed oil is used primarily as a cooking oil, in shortening, margarine and salad dressing, and is used extensively in the preparation of snack foods such as crackers, cookies and chips. The meal and hulls are an important protein concentrate for livestock, and may also serve as bedding and fuel. Linters, or fuzz, which are not removed in ginning, are used in felts, upholstery, mattresses, twine, wicks, carpets, surgical cottons, and in industrial products such as rayon, film, shatterproof glass, plastics, sausage skins, lacquers, and cellulose explosives.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Effective weed management is critical to cotton production. Weed control is more difficult in cotton than in other row crops, such as corn or soybean: cotton grows slowly early in the growing season and is thus less competitive with weeds. Competition from weeds has negative impacts on crop establishment, and ultimately, crop yield. Weeds can also be detrimental later in the growing season, interfering with harvesting, and resulting in a reduction in lint quality due to trash and possible staining. Weed control strategies include pre-plant tillage, crop rotation, and the use of herbicides. Annual grasses and some small seed broadleaf weeds are typically controlled with preplant incorporated herbicides (e.g., trifluralin, norflurazon, pendimethalin) while most broadleaf species are controlled with postermergence herbicides (<i>e.g.</i>, fluometuron, pendimethalin, pyrithiobac sodium). Crop rotation (<i>e.g.</i>, with soybean) prevents the build-up of problem weeds and herbicide biotypes by allowing the use of different herbicides.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Roundup Ready&reg; Flex cotton (MON 88913) was developed to allow the use of glyphosate, the active ingredient in the herbicide Roundup&reg;, as a weed control option in cotton production. This genetically engineered cotton contains a novel form of the plant enzyme 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS) that allows MON 88913 to survive otherwise lethal applications of glyphosate. The EPSPS gene introduced into MON 88913 was isolated from a strain of the common soil bacterium <i>Agrobacterium tumefaciens</i> strain CP4; the EPSPS enzyme expressed by this gene is tolerant to glyphosate. MON 88913 cotton contains two copies of the EPSPS gene to confer tolerance to glyphosate later in the growing season, specifically after the fifth true leaf stage.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The EPSPS enzyme is part of the shikimate pathway, an important biochemical pathway in plants involved in the production of aromatic amino acids and other aromatic compounds. When conventional plants are treated with glyphosate, the plants cannot produce the aromatic amino acids needed for growth and survival. EPSPS is present in all plants, bacteria, and fungi. It is not present in animals, since these organisms are unable to synthesize their own aromatic amino acids. Because the aromatic amino acid pathway is not present in mammals, birds, or aquatic life forms, glyphosate has little, if any, toxicity for these organisms. The EPSPS enzyme is naturally present in foods derived from plant and microbial sources. MON 88913 was developed by introducing two CP4 EPSPS genes into the cotton variety &lsquo;Coker 312&rsquo; using <i>Agrobacterium</i>-mediated transformation.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">MON 88913 cotton was field tested at several locations in the United States and Puerto Rico from 2000 to 2003. Vegetative and reproductive growth, seed dormancy, emergence and germination, plant maturity, boll and seed yield, and fibre quality were found to be within the range for commercial cotton lines. Susceptibility to diseases and insects was not altered compared to conventional cotton varieties. MON 88913 did not demonstrate morphological, growth or seed dormancy characteristics such as those observed in weedy and invasive plant species.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The potential for introgression of the glyphosate-tolerance trait from MON 88913 cotton into other cotton plants, or to wild relatives of cotton, was investigated. Cotton plants are primarily self-pollinating, but insects, especially bumblebees and honeybees, also distribute cotton pollen. Cotton can cross-pollinate with compatible species including <i>G. hirsutum</i> (wild or under cultivation) and <i>G. barbadense</i> (cultivated Pima cotton), and is genetically compatible with <i>G. tomentosum</i>. Overall, the probability of gene transfer to wild species in unmanaged ecosystems is low due to the relatively isolated distribution of <i>Gossypium</i> species, different breeding systems, and genomic incompatibility. Assuming proximity, synchronicity of flowering and presence of insects, MON 88913 cotton could freely hybridize with other <i>G. hirsutum</i> varieties and wild plants. In the event of the formation of hybrids, there would no competitive advantage conferred on any hybrid progeny in the absence of herbicidal applications of glyphosate.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The food and livestock feed safety of MON 88913 cottonseed, cottonseed meal, and refined cottonseed oil was established based on several standard criteria. As part of the safety assessment, the nutritional composition of MON 88913 cottonseed, cottonseed meal and refined cottonseed oil was found to be equivalent to those components from conventional cotton as shown by the analyses of key nutrients including proximates (<i>i.e.</i>, moisture, crude protein, crude fat, ash, carbohydrates) acid detergent fibre, neutral detergent fibre and total dietary fibre, amino acid composition, fatty acid profiles, minerals (<i>e.g.</i>, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium), and vitamins E, as well as the antinutritional compounds gossypol, cyclopropenoid fatty acids and aflatoxins.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The potential for toxicity and allergenicity of the CP4 EPSPS protein in MON 88913 was assessed from the following data and information: characterization of the protein demonstrating the lack of similarity to know toxins and allergens; data confirming the in vitro digestibility of CP4 EPSPS in simulated gastric fluids; the lack of acute oral toxicity in mice; and levels of natural toxicants. This information supports the lack of toxicity and allergenicity of MON 88913 compared to conventional cotton varieties.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 17:18:23'),
(81, 109, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Alfalfa (<i>Medicago sativa</i> L.), also known as lucerne, is an herbaceous perennial legume (family Leguminosae) grown as a forage crop worldwide. In 2006, the world production of alfalfa was estimated at 436 million metric tonnes. The United States, Argentina and France are among the major alfalfa producing countries. The principal use of alfalfa is for ruminant livestock feed, mainly for the production of meat and milk. Alfalfa is also processed commercially as dehydrated pellets, and meal, and as compacted hay. Alfalfa is also an important source of nectar for honeybees.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Alfalfa is grown mainly for hay and ensilage, either alone or in combination with temperate grass species such as bromegrass (<i>Bromus inermis</i> Leyss.) or timothy (<i>Phleum pratense</i> L.). It is valued as a forage crop due to its high nutrient content, digestibility and intake. Nutritional quality is maximized when the herbage is harvested at the first bloom stage; since regrowth occurs from buds at the base (<i>i.e.</i>, crown) of the plant, several cuts may be harvested per growing season. In pure stands, the protein content per hectare of alfalfa is higher than that of grain and oilseed crops. Alfalfa forage is also an excellent source of vitamins and minerals, especially calcium and vitamin A. The cultivation of alfalfa improves soil fertility and conservation. Alfalfa is a legume, and is thus to fix atmospheric nitrogen through a symbiotic association with the soil bacterium <i>Sinorhizobium (<i>Rhizobium</i>) meliloti</i>. Alfalfa adds significant amounts of nitrogen to the soil, thus reducing the nitrogen requirement for subsequent crops in a rotation. The cultivation of alfalfa reduces soil erosion since tillage is only required to prepare the seedbed, and stands of alfalfa can be maintained for several years. Soil organic matter and structure are improved from the cultivation of alfalfa due to its extensive and deep root system. Alfalfa is also grown in pastures and rangeland, and for erosion control.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Weeds can reduce forage yield and quality in alfalfa production. The most critical period for the management of weeds is during crop establishment; alfalfa seedlings develop slowly and thus compete poorly with weeds. Weeds can be managed using a combination of cultural practices such preparation of a firm seed bed, sowing clean high quality seed, the use of pre-plant incorporated herbicides prior to seeding, and crop rotation to reduce the population of persistent weeds. Alfalfa can be sown along with a companion crop, usually a cereal such as oats (<i>Avena sativa</i>) or spring wheat (<i>Triticum aestivum</i>). The companion crop will germinate and establish sooner than the alfalfa, thus preventing weeds from becoming established. The use of a cover crop requires careful management to minimize competition for moisture, light and nutrients; poor stands can result if the species of cover crop is too competitive, if it is seeded too densely, harvested too late in the growing season, or if it lodges. Direct seeding of alfalfa, without a companion crop, usually results in a more vigorous stand in the year of establishment; however, proper weed control measures to minimize competition from weeds are required until the plants are well established. A combination of pre-emergence (<i>e.g.</i>, EPTC, benefin, trifluralin) and post-emergence (<i>e.g.</i>, 2,4-DB, sethoxydim, fluazifop-p-butyl) herbicides is usually recommended for the establishment of vigorous stands.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Events J101 and J163 were developed to allow the use of glyphosate, the active ingredient in the herbicide Roundup&reg;, as a weed control option in the production of pure stands of alfalfa, either as forage, or for seed. These genetically engineered lines each contain a novel form of the plant enzyme 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS). This enzyme allows the plant to survive an otherwise lethal application of glyphosate. The EPSPS gene introduced into J101 and J163 was isolated from a strain of the common soil bacterium <i>Agrobacterium tumefaciens</i> strain CP4.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The EPSPS enzyme is part of the shikimate pathway, an important biochemical pathway in plants involved in the production of aromatic amino acids and other aromatic compounds. When conventional plants are treated with glyphosate, the plants cannot produce the aromatic amino acids needed for growth and survival. EPSPS is present in all plants, bacteria, and fungi. It is not present in animals, since these organisms are unable to synthesize their own aromatic amino acids. Because the aromatic amino acid pathway is not present in mammals, birds, or aquatic life forms, glyphosate has little, if any, toxicity for these organisms. The EPSPS enzyme is naturally present in foods derived from plant and microbial sources. Events J101 and J163 were developed by introducing the CP4 EPSPS gene into the proprietary <i>M. sativa</i> clone &lsquo;R2336&rsquo; using <i>Agrobacterium</i>-mediated transformation.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Events J101 and J163 were field tested at several locations in the United States 1998 to 2004. Vegetative and reproductive growth, seed dormancy, emergence and germination, plant maturity, were found to be within the range of conventional alfalfa lines. Susceptibility to diseases and insects was not altered compared to conventional alfalfa. The cultivation of alfalfa populations containing either event J101 or J163 is therefore not expected to result in altered interactions with insects and diseases, including becoming new hosts for plant diseases and insects. Neither of these events demonstrated altered morphological, growth or seed dormancy characteristics such as those observed in aggressively weedy and invasive plant species.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The potential for introgression of the glyphosate-tolerance trait from events J101 and J163 into other alfalfa plants, or to wild relatives of alfalfa, was investigated. Alfalfa is an outcrossing species and pollination is achieved by bee species such as the leaf cutter bee (<i>Megachile rotundata</i>), honeybee (<i>Apis mellifera</i>), and bumble bee (<i>Bombus</i> spp.). Alfalfa outcrosses and hybridizes with subspecies within the <i>M. sativa</i> complex (<i>M. sativa</i> subsp. <i>sativa</i> (cultivated alfalfa), subsp. <i>falcata</i> , subsp. <i>glutinosa</i>, subsp. <i>coerulea</i>, subsp. x <i>tunetana</i>, subsp. x <i>varia</i>, subsp. x <i>polychroa</i>, and subsp. x <i>hemicycla</i>. There have been reports of natural, but limited hybridization with <i>M. glomerata</i>; this species is indigenous to southern Europe and North Africa, and is not present in North America. <i>M. lupulina</i> (black medick) is a related species found in Europe, Asia, North Africa and North America. Black medick is an annual and does not hybridize with <i>M. sativa</i>.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The development of glyphosate-tolerant hybrids is therefore possible if alfalfa populations containing events J101 or J163 are grown in the vicinity of members of the <i>M. sativa</i> complex, and, to a limited extent, <i>M. glomerata</i>. These hybrids will develop where members of the <i>M. sativa</i> complex are indigenous (southern Europe, Asia, the Middle East and North Africa), as well as in North America where the <i>M. sativa</i> complex has become established. Introgression of the trait into <i>M. glomerata</i> would occur only in areas where this species is indigenous (southern Europe and North Africa). The glyphosate tolerance trait is not expected to provide a competitive advantage to hybrid plants unless these are growing in managed environments routinely subjected to glyphosate applications. Glyphosate-tolerant hybrids could be managed with conventional weed control practices, including herbicides other than glyphosate.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The livestock feed safety of events J101 and J163 was assessed from the following data and information: the history of safe consumption of the CP4 EPSPS enzyme in previously approved glyphosate-tolerant crops; the lack of toxicity or allergenicity of CP4 EPSPS, based on amino acid homology investigations; and the results of previous safety studies conducted with CP4 EPSPS. The nutritional equivalence and wholesomeness of J101 and J163, compared to a nontransgenic near-isogenic alfalfa populations and conventional alfalfa varieties, was demonstrated by the compositional analysis of the forage, including proximates (crude protein, fat, ash, and moisture), acid detergent fibre, neutral detergent fibre, amino acids, minerals, and levels of coumestrol.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 17:21:17'),
(82, 110, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Cotton (<i>Gossypium hirsutum</i> L.) was grown commercially in over 80 countries with a combined production of 44.2 million metric tonnes of cotton seed and 24.8 million metric tonnes of cotton lint in 2006. The major producers of cotton seed and lint were China, the United States, India, Pakistan, Brazil, Uzbekistan and Turkey. Cotton is primarily grown for its seed bolls that produce fibres used in numerous textile products.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">About two thirds of the harvested cotton crop is seed, which is separated from the lint during ginning. The cotton seed is crushed to produce cottonseed oil, cottonseed cake (meal), and hulls. Cottonseed oil is used primarily as a cooking oil, in shortening, margarine and salad dressing, and is used extensively in the preparation of snack foods such as crackers, cookies and chips. The meal and hulls are an important protein concentrate for livestock, and may also serve as bedding and fuel. Linters, or fuzz, which are not removed in ginning, are used in felts, upholstery, mattresses, twine, wicks, carpets, surgical cottons, and in industrial products such as rayon, film, shatterproof glass, plastics, sausage skins, lacquers, and cellulose explosives.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Tobacco budworm (<i>Heliothis virescens</i>), pink bollworm (<i>Pectinophora gossypiella</i>), and cotton bollworm (<i>Helicoverpa zea</i>) are three of the most destructive pests of cotton. These insects cause damage to squares and bolls (tobacco budworm, cotton bollworm) and staining of lint (pink bollworm). Species such as the soybean looper (<i>Pseudoplusia includens</i>) and beet armyworm (<i>Spodoptera exigua</i>) cause feeding damage to leaves. Insect damage to the plant also increases susceptibility to diseases (<i>e.g.</i>, boll rot), and ultimately results in the losses of yield and crop quality.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Methods of insect control in cotton include the use of insecticides and integrated pest management methods, such as scouting and the use of economic thresholds, prior to application. In 2004, 64% of the cotton acreage in the United States was treated with insecticides; those most commonly used were malathion, acephate and aldicarb. However, the effectiveness of many insecticides has been reduced due to the development of resistance in some insect pests, such as the tobacco budworm.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The cotton line COT102 was genetically engineered to resist attack from lepidopteran insect pests such as the cotton bollworm (<i>Helicoverpa zea</i>), tobacco budworm (<i>Heliothis virescens</i>), pink bollworm (<i>Pectinophora gossypiella</i>), fall armyworm (<i>Spodoptera frugiperda</i>), beet armyworm (<i>Spodoptera exigua</i>), soybean looper (<i>Pseudoplusia includens</i>), and cabbage looper (<i>Trichoplusia ni</i>), and cotton leaf perforator (<i>Bucculatrix thurberiella</i>). This insect resistance is conferred by the <i>vip3A(a)</i> gene, originally isolated from the common soil bacterium <i>Bacillus thuringiensis</i> (Bt) strain AB88. The <i>vip3A(a)</i> gene produces the insect control protein VIP3A in the plant tissues. VIP3A is a member of a class of recently discovered insecticidal proteins: VIP (vegetative insecticidal proteins) proteins are expressed by the bacterium during the vegetative stage, as well as during sporulation, the stage at which the delta-endotoxins (<i>i.e.</i>, Cry proteins) are expressed. VIP proteins have an insecticidal mode of action similar to that of the delta-endotoxins: the ingestion by targeted insects leads to feeding cessation, loss of gut peristalsis, insect paralysis, and death. As with Cry proteins, VIP proteins also possess an active proteolytic core, which is activated by insect gut proteases, and binds to specific sites localized on the midgut lining of susceptible insect species. However, the VIP3A protein targets different molecules (<i>i.e.</i>, receptors) in the mid-gut lining, and the binding results in the formation of ion channels distinct from those formed by delta endotoxins, such as Cry1Ab. VIP proteins are not expected to affect other invertebrate and vertebrate organisms, including beneficial arthropods, birds and mammals. Only lepidopteran insect species possess VIP binding sites on the surface of their gut epithelia, therefore, livestock animals and humans are not susceptible to these proteins. Also, since only lepidopteran insect species are targeted by the VIP proteins, species of other insect orders, including beneficial and pest species, are not expected to be affected by this insecticidal protein.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">COT102 cotton was developed as an alternative and novel insect control option for lepidopteran pests of cotton. COT102 was also developed to help prevent and manage resistance to Cry proteins due to the different insecticidal mode of action of VIP proteins. The <i>vip3A</i> gene was introduced into the cotton line &lsquo;Coker 312&rsquo; by <i>Agrobacterium</i>-mediated transformation and the successfully transformed event was termed COT102. Also introduced into COT102 was the <i>aph4</i> gene, coding for hygromycin-B phosphotransferase (APH4), and used as a selectable marker.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The cotton line COT102 was field tested at several locations in the United States from 2000 to 2002. Characteristics such as yield, boll size, plant growth and morphology, seed germination, flowering and maturity were found to be similar to the parental line &lsquo;Coker 312,&rsquo; and also within the range of variability for commercial cotton cultivars. Susceptibility to diseases and non-lepidopteran insects was not altered compared to the parental line. COT102 did not demonstrate morphological, vegetative or reproductive growth characteristics such as those observed in weedy and invasive plant species.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The effect of the cultivation of COT102, specifically that of the insecticidal protein VIP3A, on non-target organisms was investigated during field testing, as well as in ecotoxicological studies. Non-target insects were not detrimentally affected by the insecticidal protein in COT102. VIP3A protein was found to be insecticidal to several lepidopteran species, many of which are pests of cotton; however, VIP3A did not demonstrate insecticidal activity towards lepidopterans such as the European Corn Borer (<i>Ostrinia nubilalis&gt;</i>) and the Monarch butterfly (<i>Danaus plexipus</i>). Non-target organisms, such as arthropods, mammals, birds, and aquatic organisms were not negatively affected by the VIP3A protein in COT102. The cultivation of COT102 would therefore pose no greater risk to interacting, non-target organisms, than conventional cotton cultivars, with the exception of specific lepidopteran insect pests.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The potential for introgression of the insect resistance trait from COT102 cotton into other cotton plants, or to wild relatives of cotton, was investigated. Cotton plants are primarily self-pollinating, but insects, especially bumblebees and honeybees, also distribute cotton pollen. Cotton can cross-pollinate with compatible species including <i>G. hirsutum</i> (wild or under cultivation) and <i>G. barbadense</i> (cultivated Pima cotton), and is genetically compatible with <i>G. tomentosum</i>. Overall, the probability of gene transfer to wild species in unmanaged ecosystems is low due to the relatively isolated distribution of <i>Gossypium</i> species, different breeding systems, and genomic incompatibility. Assuming proximity, synchronicity of flowering and presence of insects, COT012 could freely hybridize with other <i>G. hirsutum</i> varieties and wild plants. In the event of the formation of hybrids, there would no competitive advantage conferred on any hybrid progeny in the absence of infestations by certain Lepidopteran insect species.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The potential for toxicity and allergenicity of the novel proteins VIP3A and APH4 was determined from results of ecotoxicological studies using VIP3A on non-target organisms, from acute feeding studies using mice, from <i>in-vitro</i> digestibility studies using simulated mammalian gastric fluids, and from the expression levels of in COT102 tissues. No adverse effects were observed in the non-target organisms, which were fed the VIP3A protein at levels that far exceeding the estimated environmental exposure, based on the expression levels in tissues. No adverse effects were observed in the acute feeding studies with mice. The intestinal epithelial tissues of VIP3A-fed mice were studied and no changes were observed in these tissues, compared to mice fed a diet without the VIP3A protein. No observed effects were observed in mice exposed to a very high oral dose of the APH4 protein; the exposure level to non-target organisms is also very low due to the levels of APH4 in most tissues that were below the levels of detection. The VIP3A protein was completely hydrolyzed in simulated mammalian gut fluids, which further demonstrated the lack of toxicity and allergenicity of the protein. The results of these studies led to the conclusion that the novel proteins VIP3A and APH4 in event COT102 cotton are neither toxic to non-target organisms, including mammalian species.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 17:21:53'),
(83, 131, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Maize line 3272 (OECD identifier SYN-E3272-5) contains two novel genes. The first, the <i>amy797E</i> gene, encodes the thermostable AMY797E alpha-amylase enzyme. alpha-Amylase catalyses the hydrolysis of starch by cleaving the internal alpha-1,4-glucosidic bonds into dextrins, maltose and glucose. The chimeric <i>amy797E</i> gene is derived from three wild-type alpha-amylase genes from the archael order <i>Thermococcales</i>. The <i>amy797E</i> gene encoded protein was selected for further development due to its thermostability, catalytic activity and reduced dependency on calcium under acidic conditions. These properties are important for the commercial application of alpha-amylase in the enzymatic hydrolysis of starch in dry-grind ethanol production from maize. The second gene, <i>pmi (manA)</i>, derived from <i>Escherichia coli</i>, encodes the enzyme phosphomannose isomerase (PMI). The <i>pmi</i> gene is used as a selectable marker gene in the corn transformation process. Molecular and genetic analyses indicate that the transferred genes are stably integrated into the plant genome at one insertion site and are stably inherited from one generation to the next.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The majority of maize is grown for animal feed production and human food, however an increasing percentage is being used for the production of ethanol as a biofuel alternative to petroleum products from fossil sources. The hydrolysis of the large starch molecules in maize kernels is the first step in ehtanol production from maize and the themostable alpha-amylase in Event 3272 is intended to increase the efficiency of this process by operating at high temperatures. Although Event 3272 is not intended to be used directly for animal feed or human consumption, the residue remaining after starch hydrolysis and ethanol fermentation is used for animal feed, referred to as distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS). There is also a possibility that grains of Event 3272 will enter the human food and animal feed chain through adventitious presence in other lots of maize grown for these purposes. As such, the event has been reviewed for both human food and animal feed safety, with no indications that there is any increased risk form inclusion of this event in the food and feed chains. One possible outcome, that the thermostable alpha-amylase may remain active during processing and hydrolyse starch thereby increasing the glycemic index of the final food product. However, even if the final food&rsquo;s glycemic index was increased, the overall effect on the diet would be minimal given that glycemic index is heavily influenced by other dietary factors.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Event 3272 has been assessed for environmental impact and it was determined that there are no biologically meaningful differences between the event and isogenic non-transgenic counterparts with regards to plant pest potential, weediness or invasive potential. The novel proteins expressed in Event 3272 are not toxic in acute oral toxicity tests and show no homology to known toxins, indicating a minimal risk to non-target organisms in the environment exposed to the proteins in Event 3272. There are no phenotypic chracteristics in Event 3272 that would extend its range beyond that of conventional corn production and, together with the lack of any impact on non-target organisms, provides evidence to conclude that the potential impact of Event 3272 on the environment and biodiversity is equivalent to that of conventional maize varieties.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 17:32:39'),
(84, 115, '<p style="text-align: justify;">MON15985 x MON88913 (OECD identifier: MON-15985-7 x MON-88913-8) cotton is the product of the cross-breeding of the insect-resistant cotton line 15985 (MON-15985-7) with the herbicide-tolerant cotton line MON88913 (OECD: MON-88913-8). This stacked cotton line is a product of traditional plant breeding, and therefore is not automatically subject to regulation in all jurisdictions as are transgenic plants resulting from recombinant DNA technologies. Certain jurisdictions may request notification in advance of the release of a stacked hybrid, or may request information to conduct an environmental and food safety assessment. Examples of jurisdictions that require either notification or information about stacked hybrids prior to their release into the environment, and for use in human food and livestock feed are Japan and the Philippines.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The stacked cotton line 15985 X MON88913 expresses three novel proteins: the delta-endotoxins Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab, both of which confer resistance to the lepidopteran pests of cotton, such as the cotton bollworm, pink bollworm and tobacco budworm, and the CP4 EPSPS protein which confers tolerance to the herbicide glyphosate. The insecticidal proteins Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab are produced by the <i>cry1Ac</i> gene and <i>cry2Ab</i> genes respectively, both of which are from 15985. The CP4 EPSPS protein is produced by two <i>cp4 epsps</i> genes from MON88913 to confer tolerance to glyphosate later in the growing season, specifically after the fifth true leaf stage. The novel traits of each parental line have been combined, through traditional plant breeding, to produce this new cotton line. For a full description of each parental line please refer to the individual product descriptions in the crop database for 15985 and MON88913.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The inserted genes and their gene products have a history of safe use, and have undergone review and approval by several regulatory agencies. No interactions among the gene products or negative synergistic effects are expected in the stacked hybrid. Since neither Cry1Ac, nor Cry2Ab are enzymes, these proteins have no effect on plant metabolism. The CP4 EPSPS has high affinity for its substrates phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) and shikimate-3-phosphate, which are part of the shikimate metabolic pathway. CP4 EPSPS, Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab are therefore not expected to interact within, nor affect the metabolism of the stacked line.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 17:24:32');
INSERT INTO `gmcropdatabase_events_execsummaries` (`id`, `eventId`, `description`, `status`, `created`, `updated`) VALUES
(85, 120, '<p style="text-align: justify;">LLCotton25 x MON15985 (OECD identifier: ACS- GH&Oslash;&Oslash;1-3 x MON-15985-7) cotton is the product of the cross-breeding of the herbicide-tolerant cotton line LLCotton25 (OECD: ACS-GH&Oslash;&Oslash;1-3) with the insect-resistant cotton line 15985 (MON-15985-7). This stacked cotton line is a product of traditional plant breeding, and therefore is not automatically subject to regulation in all jurisdictions as are transgenic plants resulting from recombinant DNA technologies. Certain jurisdictions may request notification in advance of the release of a stacked hybrid, or may request information to conduct an environmental and food safety assessment. Examples of jurisdictions that require either notification or information about stacked hybrids prior to their release into the environment, and for use in human food and livestock feed are Japan and the Philippines.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The stacked cotton line LLCotton25 x MON15985 expresses three novel proteins: the enzyme phosphinothricin acetyl-transferase (PAT) and the delta-endotoxins Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab, both of which confer resistance to the lepidopteran pests of cotton, such as the cotton bollworm, pink bollworm and tobacco budworm. The insecticidal proteins Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab are produced by the <i>cry</i>1Ac and <i>cry</i>2Ab genes respectively, both of which were originally isolated from <i>Bacillus thuringiensis</i> and are derived from MON15985. The <i>bar</i> gene, which codes for the production of PAT, is derived from LLCotton25. This enzyme acetylates glufosinate ammonium, rendering it inactive in the plant. The expression of the <i>bar</i> gene in LLCotton25 allows it to survive the otherwise lethal application of glufosinate ammonium. The bar gene was isolated from <i>Streptomyces hygroscopius</i>, a gram-positive soil bacterium. The novel traits of each parental line have been combined, through traditional plant breeding, to produce this new cotton line. For a full description of each parental line please refer to the individual product descriptions in the crop database for LLCotton25 and MON15985.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The inserted genes and their gene products have a history of safe use, and have undergone review and approval by several regulatory agencies. No interactions among the gene products or negative synergistic effects are expected in the stacked hybrid. Since neither Cry1Ac, nor Cry2Ab are enzymes, these proteins have no effect on plant metabolism. PAT has high affinity for its substrate L-Phosphinothricin, the active ingredient in glufosinate ammonium. PAT, Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab are therefore not expected to interact within, nor affect the metabolism of the stacked line.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 17:27:24'),
(86, 119, '<p style="text-align: justify;">WideStrike&trade; x MON88913 (OECD identifier: DAS-21023-5 x DAS-24236-5 x MON-88913-8) was produced by crossing WideStrike&trade; insect resistant cotton with the herbicide-tolerant cotton line MON88913. This stacked cotton line is a product of traditional plant breeding, and therefore is not automatically subject to regulation in all jurisdictions as are transgenic plants resulting from recombinant DNA technologies. Certain jurisdictions may request notification in advance of the release of a stacked hybrid, or may request information to conduct an environmental and food safety assessment. Examples of jurisdictions that require either notification or information about stacked hybrids prior to their release into the environment, and for use in human food and livestock feed are Canada and Japan. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reviews stacked events when these are the result of stacking two or more plant-incorporated insecticidal proteins, such as WideStrikeTM cotton.</p>\r\n\r\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The stacked cotton line WideStrike&trade; X MON88913 expresses four novel proteins: the delta-endotoxins Cry1F and Cry1Ac, which confer resistance to the lepidopteran pests of cotton, such as the cotton bollworm, pink bollworm and tobacco budworm, the CP4 EPSPS protein, which confers tolerance to the herbicide glyphosate, and the PAT protein, which confers tolerance to glufosinate ammonium. The insecticidal proteins Cry1F and Cry1Ac are produced by the <i>cry</i>1F gene and <i>cry</i>1Ac genes respectively, both of which are from WideStrike&trade;. The cotton line WideStrike&trade; was produced by crossing line 281-24-236 (OECD identifier: DAS-24236-5) with line 3006-210-23 (OECD identifier: DAS-21023-5). The PAT protein in WideStrike&trade; is produced by the <i>pat</i> gene: this expressed novel protein was intended solely for use as a selectable marker during plant transformation. The CP4 EPSPS protein is from MON88913 which contains two copies of the <i>cp4 epsps</i> gene to confer tolerance to glyphosate later in the growing season, specifically after the fifth true leaf stage. For a full description of each parental line please refer to the individual product descriptions in the crop database for 281-24-236 and 3006-210-23 (the parental lines of WideStrike&trade; cotton) and MON88913.</p>\r\n\r\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The inserted genes and their gene products have a history of safe use, and have undergone prior review and approval by several regulatory agencies. No interactions among the gene products or negative synergistic effects are expected in this stacked line. Since neither Cry1F, nor Cry1Ac are enzymes, these proteins have no effect on plant metabolism. The CP4 EPSPS has a very high affinity for its substrates phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) and shikimate-3-phosphate, which are part of the shikimate metabolic pathway. The PAT protein has a very high affinity for L-Phosphinothricin, the active ingredient in the herbicide glufosinate ammonium. CP4 EPSPS, Cry1F, Cry1Ac, and PAT are therefore not expected to interact within, nor affect the metabolism of the stacked line.</p>\r\n\r\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The EPA conducted an environmental hazard assessment of WideStrike&trade; cotton. Data on the effects of the Cry1F and Cry1Ac were assessed separately, and in combination to detect possible synergistic effects. No synergistic effects were observed, nor any increase in the host range of non-target organisms, from the stacking of both Cry proteins. No harmful effects to aquatic and terrestrial wildlife were observed, and if was concluded that the cultivation of the stacked line would not be hazardous to non-target terrestrial, aquatic and soil organisms.</p>\r\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-09-02 13:41:41'),
(87, 117, '<p style="text-align: justify;">DAS-59122-7 X NK603 (OECD identifier: DAS-59122-7 x MON-&Oslash;&Oslash;6&Oslash;3-6) maize is an F1 hybrid resulting from the hybridization of the insect-resistant maize inbred line DAS-59122-7 and the herbicide-tolerant maize inbred line NK603 (MON-&Oslash;&Oslash;6&Oslash;3-6). This stacked maize hybrid is a product of traditional plant breeding, and therefore is not automatically subject to regulation in all jurisdictions as are transgenic plants resulting from recombinant DNA technologies. Certain jurisdictions may request notification in advance of the release of a stacked hybrid, or may request information to conduct an environmental and food safety assessment. Examples of jurisdictions that require either notification or information about stacked hybrids prior to their release into the environment, and for use in human food and livestock feed are Japan and the Philippines.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The stacked hybrid DAS-59122-7 X NK603 expresses four novel proteins: the insect control proteins (delta-endotoxins) Cry34Ab1 and Cry35Ab1, which are insecticidal to coleopterans such as the Corn Rootworm, together with phosphinothricin acetyl-transferase (PAT) and CP4 EPSPS which confer tolerance to the herbicides glufosinate ammonium and glyphosate, respectively. The CP4 EPSPS protein is produced by the <i>cp4 epsps</i> gene from NK603, and the insecticidal proteins Cry34Ab1 and Cry35Ab1, by the <i>cry</i>34Ab1 and <i>cry</i>35Ab1 genes from DAS-59122-7. The PAT protein is produced by the <i>pat</i> gene, also from DAS-59122-7. The novel traits of each parent line have therefore been combined, using traditional plant breeding methods, to produce this new hybrid. For a full description of each parent line please refer to the individual product descriptions in the crop database for DAS-59122-7 and NK603.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The inserted genes and their gene products have a history of safe use, and have undergone review and approval by several regulatory agencies. No interactions among the gene products or negative synergistic effects are expected in the stacked hybrid. The Cry34Ab1 and Cry35Ab1 proteins are not enzymes and therefore do not affect plant metabolism. The CP4 EPSPS has high affinity for its substrates phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) and shikimate-3-phosphate, which are part of the shikimate metabolic pathway. Similarly, the PAT protein has a very high affinity for L-Phosphinothricin, the active ingredient in the herbicide glufosinate ammonium. PAT, CP4 EPSPS, Cry34Ab1 and Cry35Ab1 are therefore not expected to interact within nor affect the metabolism of the stacked hybrid.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 17:25:26'),
(88, 116, '<p style="text-align: justify;">TC1507 X DAS-59122-7(OECD identifier: DAS-&Oslash;15&Oslash;7-1 X DAS-59122-7) maize is an F1 hybrid resulting from the hybridization of the lepidopteran-resistant inbred maize TC1507 with the coleopteran-resistant maize inbred DAS-59122-7 and marketed as Herculex&reg; XTRA. This stacked maize hybrid is a product of traditional plant breeding, and therefore is not automatically subject to regulation in all jurisdictions as are transgenic plants resulting from recombinant DNA technologies. Certain jurisdictions may request notification in advance of the release of a stacked hybrid, or may request information to conduct an environmental and food safety assessment. Examples of jurisdictions that require either notification or information about stacked hybrids prior to their release into the environment, and for use in human food and livestock feed are Japan and Korea.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The stacked hybrid TC1507 X DAS-59122-7 expresses four novel proteins: the delta-endotoxin Cry1F which confers resistance to the European Corn Borer and other lepidopterans, Cry34Ab1 and Cry35Ab1, which are also delta-endotoxins in this case insecticidal to coleopterans such as the Corn Rootworm, and the PAT protein which confers tolerance to the herbicide glufosinate ammonium. The Cry1F protein is produced by the <i>cry</i>1F gene and PAT is produced by the <i>pat</i> gene, both from TC1507. The Cry34Ab1 and Cry35Ab1 insecticidal proteins are produced by the <i>cry</i>34Ab1 and <i>cry</i>35Ab1 genes from DAS-59122-7, which also contains a copy of the <i>pat</i> gene. The novel traits of each parental line have been combined, through traditional plant breeding, to produce this new hybrid. For a full description of each parental line please refer to the individual product descriptions in the crop database for TC1507 and DAS-59122-7.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The inserted genes and their gene products have a history of safe use, and have undergone review and approval by several regulatory agencies. No interactions among the gene products or negative synergistic effects are expected in the stacked hybrid. The Cry1F, Cry34Ab1 and Cry35Ab1 proteins are not enzymes and therefore do not affect plant metabolism. The PAT enzyme has a high substrate affinity for L-Phosphinothricin, the active ingredient in glufosinate ammonium. These proteins are not expected to interact within, nor affect the metabolism of the stacked hybrid.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 17:24:57'),
(89, 118, '<p style="text-align: justify;">DAS-59122-7 X TC1507 X NK603 (OECD identifier: DAS-59122-7 X DAS-&Oslash;15&Oslash;7-1 X MON-00603-6) maize is a hybrid resulting from crossing the coleopteran-resistance maize line DAS-59122-7 with the lepidoteran-resistant maize line TC1507 and the herbicide-tolerant maize line NK603. This stacked maize hybrid is a product of traditional plant breeding, and therefore is not automatically subject to regulation in all jurisdictions as are transgenic plants resulting from recombinant DNA technologies. Certain jurisdictions may request notification in advance of the release of a stacked hybrid, or may request information to conduct an environmental and food safety assessment. Examples of jurisdictions that require either notification or information about stacked hybrids prior to their release into the environment, and for use in human food and livestock feed are Japan and Korea.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The stacked hybrid DAS-59122-7 X TC1507 X NK603 expresses five novel proteins: the insect control proteins (delta-endotoxins) Cry34Ab1 and Cry35Ab1, which are insecticidal to coleopterans such as the Corn Rootworm, and Cry1F which confers resistance to the European Corn Borer and other lepidopterans, together with the PAT protein which confers tolerance to the herbicide glufosinate ammonium, and the CP4 EPSPS protein which confers resistance to the herbicide glyphosate. The insecticidal proteins Cry34Ab1 and Cry35Ab1 are produced by the <i>cry</i>34Ab1 and <i>cry</i>35Ab1 genes from DAS-59122-7. The Cry1F insecticidal protein is produced by the <i>cry</i>1F gene from TC1507 and PAT is produced by the <i>pat</i> gene, contained in both DAS-59122-7 and TC1507. The CP4 EPSPS protein is produced by the <i>cp4 epsps</i> gene from NK603. The novel traits of each parental line have been combined, through traditional plant breeding, to produce this new hybrid. For a full description of each parental line please refer to the individual product descriptions in the crop database for DAS-59122-7, TC1507 and NK603.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The inserted genes and their gene products have a history of safe use, and have undergone review and approval by several regulatory agencies. No interactions among the gene products or negative synergistic effects are expected in the stacked hybrid. The Cry34Ab1, Cry35Ab1 and Cry1F proteins are not enzymes and therefore do not affect plant metabolism. Both the PAT and CP4 EPSPS have high substrate affinities: PAT for L-Phosphinothricin, the active ingredient in glufosinate ammonium, and CP4 EPSPS for phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) and shikimate-3-phosphate, which are part of the shikimate metabolic pathway. Since both PAT and CP4 EPSPS differ in substrates and in mode of action, these are not expected to interact within, nor affect the metabolism of the stacked hybrid.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 17:26:01'),
(90, 114, '<p style="text-align: justify;">MON810 X MON88017 (OECD identifier: MON-&Oslash;&Oslash;81&Oslash;-6 X MON-88&Oslash;17-3) maize is an F1 hybrid resulting from the hybridization of maize inbred MON 810 (MON-&Oslash;&Oslash;81&Oslash;-6) with MON88017 (MON-88&Oslash;17-3). This stacked maize hybrid is a product of traditional plant breeding, and therefore is not automatically subject to regulation in all jurisdictions as are transgenic plants resulting from recombinant DNA technologies. Certain jurisdictions may request notification in advance of the release of a stacked hybrid, or may request information to conduct an environmental and food safety assessment. Examples of jurisdictions that require either notification or information about stacked hybrids prior to their release into the environment, and for use in human food and livestock feed are Canada and Japan.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The stacked hybrid MON810 X MON88017 expresses three novel proteins: CP4 EPSPS which confers tolerance to the herbicide glyphosate, and the delta-endotoxins Cry1Ab, which confers resistance to the European Corn Borer and other lepidopterans, and Cry3Bb1 which confers resistance to Corn Rootworm. The insecticidal protein Cry1Ab, is produced by the <i>cry</i>1Ab gene from MON810. The insecticidal protein Cry3Bb1, is produced by the <i>cry</i>3Bb1 gene and the CP4 EPSPS protein is produced by the <i>cp4 epsps</i> gene both from MON88017. The novel traits of each parent line have been combined, through traditional plant breeding, to produce this new hybrid. For a full description of each parent line please refer to the individual product descriptions in the crop database for MON810 and MON88017.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The inserted genes and their gene products have a history of safe use, and have undergone review and approval by several regulatory agencies. No interactions among the gene products or negative synergistic effects are expected in the stacked hybrid. The Cry1Ab and Cry3Bb1 proteins are not enzymes and therefore do not affect plant metabolism. The CP4 EPSPS has high affinity for its substrates phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) and shikimate-3-phosphate, which are part of the shikimate metabolic pathway. These proteins are therefore not expected to interact within, nor affect the metabolism of the stacked hybrid</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 17:24:07'),
(91, 121, '<p style="text-align: justify;">BT11 X GA21 10 (OECD identifier: SYN-BT&Oslash;11-1 x MON-&Oslash;&Oslash;&Oslash;21-9) maize is an F1 hybrid resulting from the hybridization of the lepidoteran-resistant and herbicide-tolerant maize line BT11 (SYN-BT&Oslash;11-1) and the herbicide-tolerant maize line GA21 (MON-&Oslash;&Oslash;&Oslash;21-9). This stacked maize hybrid is a product of traditional plant breeding, and therefore is not automatically subject to regulation in all jurisdictions as are transgenic plants resulting from recombinant DNA technologies. Certain jurisdictions may request notification in advance of the release of a stacked hybrid, or may request information to conduct an environmental and food safety assessment. Examples of jurisdictions that require either notification or information about stacked hybrids prior to their release into the environment, and for use in human food and livestock feed are Japan and Korea.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The stacked hybrid BT11 X GA21 expresses three novel proteins: the delta-endotoxin Cry1Ab which confers resistance to the European Corn Borer and other lepidopterans, the PAT protein which confers tolerance to the herbicide glufosinate ammonium, and a modified EPSPS protein which confers tolerance to the herbicide glyphosate. The modified EPSPS protein is produced by the <i>mepsps</i> gene from GA21, the insecticidal protein Cry1Ab is produced by the <i>cry</i>1Ab gene and PAT is produced by the <i>pat</i> gene, both from BT11. The novel traits of each parental line have been combined, through traditional plant breeding, to produce this new hybrid. For a full description of each parental line please refer to the individual product descriptions in the crop database for BT11 and GA21.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The inserted genes and their gene products have a history of safe use, and have undergone review and approval by several regulatory agencies. No interactions among the gene products or negative synergistic effects are expected in the stacked hybrid. The Cry1Ab protein is not an enzyme and therefore does not affect plant metabolism. PAT has a high affinity for L-Phosphinothricin, the active ingredient in glufosinate ammonium. The modified EPSPS has high affinity for its substrates phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) and shikimate-3-phosphate, which are part of the shikimate metabolic pathway. PAT, EPSPS and Cry1Ab are therefore not expected to interact within, nor affect the metabolism of the stacked hybrid.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 17:27:49'),
(92, 122, '<p style="text-align: justify;">BW255-2 and BW238-3 (Clearfield&trade;) bread wheat was not subject to regulation in any jurisdiction except Canada since the development of this herbicide-tolerant line did not employ recombinant DNA technologies. In Canada, regulatory approval is required for use in human food and livestock feed, and for environmental release.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Commercial wheat is comprised mainly of two species: common, or bread wheat (<i>T. aestivum</i> L.) and durum wheat (<i>T. durum</i> Desf.). Bread wheat is classified into several types, based on the spring and winter forms of growth habit, and the hardness of the kernels. Winter wheat requires vernalisation to produce flowers, whereas spring wheat does not have this requirement. The hard types of bread wheat are high in protein, especially gliadins and glutenins. The high levels of these protein fractions in the flour impart elasticity to bread dough and allow it to expand during leavening and baking. Soft wheats are low in protein, and have low levels of gliadin and glutenin; these qualities are desirable in products such as cakes and pastries, and in unleavened breads. Durum wheat produces very hard, almost vitreous kernels due to its high protein content. This wheat is milled into semolina for the production of pasta and couscous.<br />\nHarvested wheat consists of a naked kernel, unlike other cereals such as rice, barley or oats that retain their hull (<i>i.e.</i>, the palea and lemma). The wheat kernel is loosely enclosed within the palea and lemma of each spikelet; these are eliminated as chaff during threshing. The wheat kernel is milled into white flour by removing the bran, aleurone layers and the germ prior to grinding; whole-wheat flour retains these fractions. By-products of wheat milling include: bran, germ, shorts and middlings. Some of these by-products are used as human food (<i>i.e.</i>, bran, germ), and others, as livestock feed. Grain that does not meet the grade for food use can be used as animal feed, mainly for poultry and swine, but also for cattle. Wheat can also be fed as forage, either as pasture prior to stem elongation, or as ensilage. Wheat is also used in the brewing and distilling industries.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Weeds are a major production problem in wheat cultivation. Weeds compete for light, water and nutrients, and can also cause lodging and problems with harvesting. The seeds of several weed species are almost impossible to clean out of harvested wheat (<i>e.g.</i>, <i>Avena fatua</i> L. wild oats), causing loss of quality and downgrading of the crop. Weeds can be managed using a combination of cultural practices (<i>e.g.</i>, seed bed preparation, use of clean [certified] seed, narrow row spacing, fertilizer banding), integrated weed management (<i>e.g.</i>, weed scouting, economic thresholds) and the use of herbicides. Depending on the weed species present, herbicides can be applied before the crop emerges (<i>e.g.</i>, amitrole, glyphosate, trifluralin), or after (<i>e.g.</i>, 2-4D, bromoxynil, dicamba, fenoxaprop-p-ethyl, MCPA, metsulfuron methyl). The build-up of weed populations can be stemmed by applying herbicides on summer-fallowed fields, and by practicing crop rotation, which allows the use of different herbicides. Rotating among herbicide groups also prevents the development of herbicide-resistant biotypes.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">BW255-2 and BW238-3 (Clearfield&trade;) bread wheat lines were developed to allow the use of imidazolinone herbicides, as a weed control option in spring wheat production. The mode of action of imidazolinone herbicides consists of inhibiting the activity of acetohydroxyacid synthase (AHAS), an enzyme in plants active in glycolysis and in the biosynthesis of the branched-chain amino acids isoleucine, leucine and valine. The result of the inhibition of AHAS activity is a decrease in protein synthesis and an accumulation of toxic levels of ?-ketoglutarate, which causes the eventual death of the plant. While unmodified wheat is not tolerant to imidazolinone herbicides, BW255-2 and BW238-3 have been modified to survive an otherwise lethal application. BW255-2 and BW238-3 were developed using chemically induced seed mutagenesis and whole plant selection procedures. The herbicide tolerance is due to a single point mutation in the AHAS gene, such that the resulting enzyme has a single amino acid substitution and is no longer affected by imidazolinone herbicides.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Events BW255-2 and BW238-3 have been field tested in multiple locations in Canada in 1999 and in the United States in 2003. Data collected from replicated field trials demonstrated that BW255-2 and BW238-3 did not differ significantly from the parental line in terms of vegetative vigour, time to maturity, seed production (yield), disease resistance, and tendency to weediness.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The potential for transfer of the herbicide tolerant trait from BW255-2 and BW238-3 wheat to other nonmodified wheat plants, or to wild relatives of wheat, has been investigated. Common wheat (<i>T. aestivum</i>) is primarily self-pollinating. While outcrossing can occur by wind-pollination, the rates are usually very low (&lt; 10%). Under the most ideal conditions, outcrossing will occur to nearby plants, but does not usually occur 3 m beyond the source plant. Given the variability of outcrossing rates among genotypes, an isolation distance of 30 m is required for certified seed production.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The potential for introgression of the novel trait into weedy relatives of wheat in Canada and the United States is also very low. Two species closely related to wheat are <i>Aegilops cylindria</i> Host (jointed goat grass) and <i>Agropyron repens</i> (L.) Beauv. (quackgrass). Both are introduced species and are considered weedy and invasive. Recent research has shown a possibility of hybridization between wheat and jointed goatgrass. Introgression of an herbicide tolerant trait from wheat into jointed goatgrass would confer an additional advantage to this weedy species.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The food and livestock safety of BW255-2 and BW238-3 wheat was based on: the evaluation of the similarity of AHAS, in structure and function, to the enzyme naturally present in food and livestock feeds; the lack of toxicity or allergenicity of the modified AHAS. The nutritional equivalence and wholesomeness of BW255-2 and BW238-3 wheat compared to conventional wheat was demonstrated by the analysis of key nutrients in the grain including proximates (<i>e.g.</i>, crude protein, crude fat, crude fibre, ash, moisture), branched chain amino acids (valine, leucine and isoleucine), essential amino acids (cystine, methionine, threonine and lysine) fatty acid composition, vitamins and minerals, as well the levels of anti-nutrients (phytic acid and trypsin inhibitor). Significant differences were observed between BW255-2 and BW238-3 and parental controls for some of the tested nutrients, but levels of all parameters measured were within the range of conventional bread wheat varieties.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 17:28:20'),
(93, 123, '<p style="text-align: justify;">This product was not subject to regulation in any jurisdiction except Canada since the development of this herbicide-tolerant line did not employ recombinant DNA technologies. In Canada, regulatory approval was required for use in human food and livestock feed, but not for environmental release as these lines were not intended for cultivation in Canada.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Rice (<i>Oryza sativa</i> L.) was grown as a commercial crop in more than 100 countries with a combined harvest of 630 million metric tonn in 2006. The major producers of rice were China, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Viet Nam, Thailand and Myanmar. Rice is grown primarily for its grain, which is the staple food for half of the world&rsquo;s population, and has many uses in the food and industrial sectors, including use in livestock feed.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Harvested rice, or rough rice, is encased by an inedible hull or husk, which is removed before milling. The hulls are utilized as fuels, mulch, abrasives and animal feed products. Brown rice is what remains after the hulls are removed. The light brown colour of brown rice is due to the presence of bran layers and the rice germ surrounding the rice kernel. Brown rice can be milled into regular white or &lsquo;polished rice&rsquo;, where white rice is distinguished by the fact that the hulls, bran layers and rice germ are removed. The bran and rice germs are high in protein and nutrients and are used in specialty foods such as rice bran oil and also in livestock feed. Both brown and white rice kernels can be parboiled and/or milled into rice flour for use in breakfast cereals, baby foods and desserts and numerous other food products. Rice kernels are also used to produce beer and rice wine.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Weeds are a significant production problem in rice cultivation. Weeds of rice producing areas, such as the United States, include red rice (<i>Oryza</i> spp.), barnyard grass, sprangletop, fall panicum, large crabgrass, rice flatsedge, yellow nutsedge, and smartweed. These are typically managed using a combination of cultural practices (e.g., dry <i>vs</i> wet tillage, using clean seed, crop rotations) and chemical controls (herbicides such as molinate and propanil).</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Rice lines IMINTA 1 and IMINTA 4 were developed through chemical mutagenesis of the rice variety IRGA 417 with sodium azide to exhibit tolerance to imidazolinone containing herbicides. Imidazolinone herbicides are active against the acetolactate synthase (ALS) enzyme in plants, which catalyzes the first reaction in the biosynthesis of branched-chain amino acids. Imidazolinone inhibits the production of these essential amino acids (valine, leucine and isoleucine), resulting in a decrease in protein synthesis and the eventual death of the plant. ALS is also active in the glycolytic pathway of plant metabolism, by which sugars are broken down to produce acids and release energy.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 17:28:40'),
(94, 124, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Rice (<i>Oryza sativa</i> L.) was grown as a commercial crop in more than 100 countries with a combined harvest of 630 million metric tonn in 2006. The major producers of rice were China, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Viet Nam, Thailand and Myanmar. Rice is grown primarily for its grain, which is the staple food for half of the world&rsquo;s population, and has many uses in the food and industrial sectors, including use in livestock feed.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Harvested rice, or rough rice, is encased by an inedible hull or husk, which is removed before milling. The hulls are utilized as fuels, mulch, abrasives and animal feed products. Brown rice is what remains after the hulls are removed. The light brown colour of brown rice is due to the presence of bran layers and the rice germ surrounding the rice kernel. Brown rice can be milled into regular white or &lsquo;polished rice&rsquo;, where white rice is distinguished by the fact that the hulls, bran layers and rice germ are removed. The bran and rice germs are high in protein and nutrients and are used in specialty foods such as rice bran oil and also in livestock feed. Both brown and white rice kernels can be parboiled and/or milled into rice flour for use in breakfast cereals, baby foods and desserts and numerous other food products. Rice kernels are also used to produce beer and rice wine.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Weeds are a significant pest problem in rice production in the United States. The best approach to controlling weeds in rice involves a combination of good cultural (certified seed, variety selection), mechanical (crop rotations, preparation of seedbed), and chemical practices. In order to obtain high yield potential, high rates and often multiple applications of herbicides are required for weed control. Over the years, herbicide tolerant weeds have developed and resulted in the rapid decline in the effectiveness of several herbicides (<i>e.g.</i>, Londax&reg;; common name bensulfuron methyl) against these resistant weeds. The use of integrated weed management strategies will be the key to delaying the development of resistance in rice weeds.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Rice line LLRICE601 was genetically engineered to express tolerance to glufosinate ammonium, the active ingredient in phosphinothricin herbicides (Basta&reg;, Rely&reg;, Finale&reg;, and Liberty&reg;). Glufosinate chemically resembles the amino acid glutamate and acts to inhibit an enzyme, called glutamine synthetase, which is involved in the synthesis of glutamine. Essentially, glufosinate acts enough like glutamate, the molecule used by glutamine synthetase to make glutamine, that it blocks the enzyme&#39;s usual activity. Glutamine synthetase is also involved in ammonia detoxification. The action of glufosinate results in reduced glutamine levels and a corresponding increase in concentrations of ammonia in plant tissues, leading to cell membrane disruption and cessation of photosynthesis resulting in plant withering and death.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Glufosinate tolerance in this rice line is the result of introducing a gene encoding the enzyme phosphinothricin-N-acetyltransferase (PAT) isolated from the common aerobic soil actinomycete, <i>Streptomyces hygroscopicus</i>, the same organism from which glufosinate was originally isolated. The PAT enzyme catalyzes the acetylation of phosphinothricin, detoxifying it into an inactive compound. The PAT enzyme is not known to have any toxic properties. The PAT encoding gene (<i>bar</i>) was introduced into the rice genome by direct gene delivery transformation, and the resulting rice lines displayed field tolerance to phosphinothricin-containing herbicides.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">LLRICE601 was tested in field trials in the United States (1998-2001). These tests demonstrated that the transformed lines did not exhibit weedy characteristics, or negatively affect beneficial or nontarget organisms, and were not expected to impact on threatened or endangered species. However a full petition for non-regulated status was not submitted at that time as the developer elected to submit two other lines for deregulation - LLRICE06 and LLRICE62. In 2006, contamination of cultivated rice with LLRICE601 was discovered and the developer elected to submit a petition for deregulation as an extension to the previously deregulated lines.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Cultivated rice is primarily self-pollinating, but may cross-pollinate with other cultivated rice varieties although rates are less than one percent. Factors limiting cross-pollination in rice include flower morphology, inability of pollen to remain viable longer than a few minutes, and a lack of insect vectors for pollen spread. In the United States, the only wild species known to be compatible with cultivated rice are <i>O. rufipogon</i>, which has been found in a single location in the Everglades of Florida, and red rice, a wild variant of cultivated <i>O. sativa</i>. Due to the relative isolation of <i>O. rufipogon</i>, it is unlikely to hybridize with cultivated rice.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Cultivated rice may cross-pollinate with red rice, given suitable conditions, and form glufosinate-tolerant hybrids. However, the glufosinate-tolerance trait is not expected to provide a competitive advantage to hybrid plants unless grown in managed environments that are routinely subjected to glufosinate applications. In the event that a glufosinate-tolerant hybrid survived, the herbicide-tolerant individual would be easily controlled using mechanical and other available chemical means. The use of good cultural practices, crop and herbicide rotations, are also effective strategies for controlling the establishment of herbicide tolerant weeds.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 17:29:10'),
(95, 111, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Maize, or corn (<i>Zea mays</i> L.) is grown commercially in over 100 countries with a combined harvest of nearly 700 million metric tonnes in 2006. The top five producers of maize in 2005 were the United States, China, Brazil, Argentina, and Mexico, accounting for 70% of world production. Maize is grown primarily for its kernel (grain), the majority of which is used for animal feed, but with significant amounts refined into products used in a wide range of food, medical, and industrial goods.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Maize is a raw material for the manufacture of starch, the majority of which is converted by a complex refining process into sweeteners, syrups, and fermentation products, including ethanol. Maize oil is extracted from the germ of the maize kernel. Only a small proportion of the whole kernel is consumed by humans (e.g., corn meal, grits, oil), while refined maize products such as sweeteners, starch, and oil are abundant in processed foods (e.g., breakfast cereals, dairy goods, chewing gum). Maize is also processed into masa, which is used for tortillas, tacos and corn chips.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">In the United States maize is typically used as animal feed, with roughly 70% of the crop fed to livestock, however a growing amount is now being used for the production of ethanol. The entire maize plant, the kernels, and several refined products such as glutens and steep liquor, are used in animal feeds. Silage made from the whole maize plant makes up 10-12% of the annual corn acreage, and is a major ruminant feedstuff. Livestock that feed on maize include cattle, pigs, poultry, sheep, goats, fish and companion animals.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Industrial uses for maize products include recycled paper, paints, cosmetics, car parts. Refined maize products are also used in bioproducts such as antibiotics.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The transgenic maize line LY038 was genetically engineered to increase the level of the amino acid lysine in the grain for animal feed, primarily for poultry and swine. Poultry and swine diets based on maize grain are usually supplemented with lysine. The use of LY038 as a feed ingredient is expected to reduce or eliminate the need for lysine supplementation. The maize line LY038 contains the <i>cordapA</i> gene from <i>Corynebacterium glutamicum</i> , which was introduced using micro-projectile bombardment of maize callus cells.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The <i>cordapA</i> gene isolated from <i>Corynebacterium glutamicum</i>, codes for the enzyme dihydrodipicolinate syntase (cDHDPS). This enzyme is active in the lysine metabolic pathway and mediates a critical rate-limiting step, that in maize, is controlled by feedback inhibition. DHDPS catalyzes the condensation of L-aspartate-4-semialdehyde and pyruvate , resultling in the synthesis of 2,3-dihydrodipicolinate, a substrate in the lysine metabolic pathway. The DHDPS encoded by <i>cordapA</i> is less sensitive to feedback inhibition than the native maize DHDPS. The reduction in feedback inhibition results in higher levels of free lysine accumulating in the grain of LY038, at levels higher than those typically found in conventional maize.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 01:22:10'),
(96, 112, '<p style="text-align: justify;">MON810 X LY038 (OECD identifier: MON-&Oslash;&Oslash;81&Oslash;-6 X REN-&Oslash;&Oslash;&Oslash;38-3) maize is a stacked event resulting from the hybridization of maize inbred MON 810 (MON-&Oslash;&Oslash;81&Oslash;-6) with LY038 (REN-&Oslash;&Oslash;&Oslash;38-3). This stacked maize hybrid is a product of traditional plant breeding, and therefore is not automatically subject to regulation in all jurisdictions as are transgenic plants resulting from recombinant DNA technologies. Certain jurisdictions may request notification in advance of the release of a stacked hybrid, or may request information to conduct an environmental and food safety assessment. Examples of jurisdictions that require either notification or information about stacked hybrids prior to their release into the environment, and for use in human food and livestock feed are the Philippines and Japan.<br />\n<br />\nThe stacked hybrid MON810 X LY038 expresses the novel proteins expressed in the parental lines used to breed this line. The insecticidal delta-endotoxin Cry1Ab, which confers resistance to the European Corn Borer and other lepidopterans, is produced by the <i>cry</i>1Ab gene from MON810. The maize line LY038 contains the <i>cordapA</i> gene from <i>Corynebacterium glutamicum</i> to increase the level of the amino acid lysine in the grain for animal feed, primarily for poultry and swine. The use of LY038 as a feed ingredient is expected to reduce or eliminate the need for lysine supplementation. The novel traits of each parent line have been combined, through traditional plant breeding, to produce this new hybrid. For a full description of each parent line please refer to the individual product descriptions in the crop database for MON810 and LY038.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The inserted genes and their gene products have a history of safe use, and have undergone review and approval by several regulatory agencies. No interactions among the gene products or negative synergistic effects are expected in the stacked hybrid. The Cry1Ab protein is not an enzyme and therefore does not affect plant metabolism. The <i>cordapA</i> gene isolated from <i>Corynebacterium glutamicum</i>, codes for the enzyme dihydrodipicolinate syntase (cDHDPS). This enzyme is active in the lysine metabolic pathway and mediates a critical rate-limiting step, that in maize, is controlled by feedback inhibition. DHDPS catalyzes the condensation of L-aspartate-4-semialdehyde and pyruvate , resultling in the synthesis of 2,3-dihydrodipicolinate, a substrate in the lysine metabolic pathway. The DHDPS encoded by <i>cordapA</i> is less sensitive to feedback inhibition than the native maize DHDPS. The reduction in feedback inhibition results in higher levels of free lysine accumulating in the grain of LY038, at levels higher than those typically found in conventional maize.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 17:22:35'),
(97, 125, '<p style="text-align: justify;">Soybean (<i>Glycine max</i>) was grown as a commercial crop in 84 countries in 2006 with a combined harvest of 220 million metric tonnes. The major producers of soybeans were the United States, Brazil, Argentina, China, India, Paraguay and Canada. Soybean is grown primarily for its seed which has many uses in the food and industrial sectors, and represents one of the major sources of edible vegetable oil and of proteins for livestock feed use.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">A major food use of soybean in North America and Europe is as purified oil, used in margarines, shortenings, and cooking and salad oils. It is also a major ingredient in food products such as tofu, tempeh, soya sauce, simulated milk and meat products, and is a minor ingredient in many processed foods. Soybean meal is used as a supplement in feed rations for livestock.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Weeds are a major production problem in soybean cultivation. Typically, weeds are managed using a combination of cultural (<i>e.g.</i> seed bed preparation, using clean seed, variety selection, and planting date) and chemical controls. Depending on the production area and the prevalent weed species, herbicides may be applied before planting (<i>e.g.</i> pendimethalin, trifluralin, metribuzin), after planting but before emergence (<i>e.g.</i> pendimethalin, linuron, imazethapyr), and/or after emergence (<i>e.g.</i> bentazon, acifluorfen, fomesafen). Commonly, several different herbicides are required to adequately control weeds in soybean fields.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The soybean line MON89788 was developed to allow for the use of glyphosate, the active ingredient in the herbicide Roundup&reg;, as a weed control option. This genetically engineered soybean line contains a form of the plant enzyme 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS) that allows MON89788 to survive the otherwise lethal application of glyphosate. The EPSPS gene put into MON89788 was isolated from a strain of the common soil bacterium <i>Agrobacterium tumefaciens</i> called CP4 and the form of EPSPS enzyme produced by this gene is tolerant to glyphosate. This gene is the same as that used in the first glyphosate-tolerant soybean line GTS-40-3-2, however a different promoter has been used in MON88788 &ndash; a chimeric promoter containing the Figwort Mosaic Virus 35S enhancer and the promoter from the <i>Arabidopsis thaliana tsf1</i> elongation factor EF-1 alpha.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The EPSPS enzyme is part of an important biochemical pathway in plants called the shikimate pathway, that is involved in the production of aromatic amino acids and other aromatic compounds. When conventional plants are treated with glyphosate, the plants cannot produce the aromatic amino acids needed to grow and survive. EPSPS is present in all plants, bacteria, and fungi. It is not present in animals, which do not synthesize their own aromatic amino acids. Because the aromatic amino acid biosynthetic pathway is not present in mammals, birds or aquatic life forms, glyphosate has little if any toxicity for these organisms. The EPSPS enzyme is naturally present in foods derived from plant and microbial sources.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">MON89788 was developed by introducing the CP4 EPSPS gene into a commercial soybean variety using <i>Agrobacterium tumefaciens</i>-mediated transformation of meristem-derived material from soybean variety A3244. A3244 is an elite maturity group III soybean variety which was developed and selected for transformation based on its superior agronomic performance over other soybean lines.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">MON89788 has been tested in field trials in the United States, starting in 2001. MON89788 soybean plants have been evaluated extensively to confirm that they exhibit the desired agronomic characteristics, that tolerance to glyphosate is stable under field conditions, and that they do not present a plant pest risk. The field tests weree conducted in agricultural settings under physical and reproductive confinement conditions.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">Soybean does not have any weedy relatives with which it can crossbreed in the continental United States and Canada. Cultivated soybean can naturally cross with the wild annual species <i>G. soja</i>, however <i>G. soja</i>, which occurs naturally in China, Korea, Japan, Taiwan and the former USSR, is not naturalized in North America. Additionally, soybean plants are almost completely self-pollinated and reproductive characteristics such as pollen production and viability were unchanged by the genetic modification resulting in MON89788. It was therefore concluded that the potential for transfer of the glyphosate tolerance trait from the transgenic line to soybean relatives through gene flow (outcrossing) was negligible in managed ecosystems, and that there was no potential for transfer to wild species in Canada and the continental United States.</p>\n\n<p style="text-align: justify;">The food and livestock feed safety of MON89788 soybean was established based on; the lack of any sequence homology between the CP4 EPSPS protein and known toxin sequences: the fact that CP4 EPSPS protein constitutes a small amount of the protein in MON89788 soybeans so there is little dietary exposure; the lack of toxicity or allergenicity of EPSPS proteins from plants, bacteria and fungi; and by direct laboratory studies of the CP4 EPSPS protein. The nutritional equivalence and wholesomeness of MON89788 soybeans compared to conventional (non-GM) soybeans was demonstrated by the analysis of key nutrients, including proximates (<i>e.g.</i> protein, fat, fibre, ash, and carbohydrates), amino acid and fatty acid composition, as well as anti-nutrients.</p>\n', 'Enabled', NULL, '2013-08-30 17:29:40');
