INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(2592, 'Invasive ornamental plants: Problems, challenges and molecular tools to neutralize their invasiveness.', 'The spread of invasive plants is one of the most challenging ecological problems in the 21st Century, causing a $35 billion loss per year to the economy in the United States alone. More than 50% of all invasive plants and 85% of invasive woody species were introduced originally for ornamental and landscape use. Because many nonnative plants are commercially important and widely utilized for various purposes, completely banning their use and prohibiting their imports are unpractical solutions for control. On the other hand, the methods currently used to control the spread of nonnative plants are ineffective, expensive, or environmentally problematic. Recent advances in plant biotechnology may enable us to create sterile cultivars of these nonnative ornamental crops of commercial value. The use of sterile cultivars should reduce or eliminate the undesirable spread of some nonnative invasive plants into natural areas.', 'en_US'),
(2593, 'Phytoremediation-A novel and promising approach for environmental clean-up.', 'Phytoremediation is an eco friendly approach for remediaton of contaminated soil andwater using plants. Phytoremediation is comprised of two components, one by the root colonizing microbes and the other by plants themselves, which degrade the toxic compounds to further non-toxic metabolites. Various compounds, viz. organic compounds, xenobiotics, pesticides and heavy metals, are among the contaminants that can be effectively remediated by plants. Plant cell cultures, hairy roots and algae have been studied for their ability to degrade a number of contaminants. They exhibit various enzymatic activities for degradation of xenobiotics, viz. dehalogenation, denitrification leading to breakdown of complex compounds to simple and non-toxic products. Plants and algae also have the ability to hyper accumulate various heavy metals by the action of phytochelatins and metal lothioneins forming complexes with heavy metals and translocate them into vacuoles. Molecular cloning and expression of heavy metal accumulator genes and xenobiotic degrading enzyme coding genes resulted in enhanced remediation rates, which will be helpful in making the process for large-scale application to remediate vast areas of contaminated soils. A few companies worldwide are also working on this aspect of bioremediation, mainly by transgenic plants to replace expensive physical or chemical remediation techniques. Selection and testing multiple hyperaccumulator plants, protein engineering of phytochelatin and membrane transporter genes and their expression would enhance the rate of phytoremediation, making this process a successful one for bioremediation of environmental contamination. Recent years have seen major investments in the R&D, which have also resulted in competition of filing patents by several companies for economic gains. The details of science & technology related to phytoremediation have been discussed with a focus on future trends and prospects of global relevance.', 'en_US'),
(2594, 'Domestic import regulations for genetically modified organisms and their compatibility with WTO rules.', 'While the estimated global area of transgenic or genetically modified (GM) crops continues to increase the vast majority of acreage (99 per cent) remains confined to just four countries, namely the US, Argentina, Canada and China. In most developing countries it is still not legal to plant GM crops on a commercial basis, largely due to hold-ups in the approval process.  Even countries that have in the past moved rapidly on the adoption of GM organisms (GMOs), including China and Argentina, are now slowing down the approval processes. While the regulatory blockages are usually justified on biosafety grounds, trade concerns appear to play an increasing role with countries fearing export losses in markets such as the EU, Japan and Korea where the import regulations for GMOs continue to be tightened. The ongoing trade dispute between the US and the EU''s continued de facto moratorium on the approval of new GMOs is also adding to the prevailing uncertainty in the international commodities market.In this context, the first part of this paper will outline regulations affecting the import of GMOs and GM products in selected countries, including import restrictions, risk assessment provisions and labelling requirements. While most of the attention will focus on some of the major OECD countries, including the EU, the US and Australia/New Zealand, the paper will also review regulations in key developing countries in Asia, Latin America and Africa. The second part will look at possible conflicts between national import regulations and WTO rules, in particular regarding the current and proposed EU regulations. To this end, the section will briefly outline the relevant WTO agreements; assess the trade-restrictiveness of mandatory traceability and labelling requirements; evaluate whether GMO regulations covering substantially equivalent GM products might be trade-discriminatory; look at the role of precaution as a justification for an import ban on GMOs, and briefly discuss the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety and how its provisions might impact on a possible dispute at the WTO.', 'en_US'),
(2595, 'Effects of transgenic Cry1A+CpTI cotton and Cry1Ac toxin on the parasitoid, Campoketis chlorideae (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae).', 'The effect of transgenic double genes, Cry1A+CpTI cotton and Cry1Ac toxin on the parasitoid, Campoketis chlorideae Uchida of cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner), was investigated in the laboratory. Helicoverpa armigera larvae when in the first, second and third instar could not survive if fed on transgenic cotton leaves. Consequently, C. chlorideae larvae could not complete their development if parasitizing on such hosts. After H. armigera larvae were reared on transgenic or traditional cotton leaves for 12-48 hours, they were parasitized by C. chlorideae females. Parasitized larvae continued to feed on transgenic or traditional cotton for 12?48 h. The present results showed that the body weight of larvae of the parasitoids were significantly reduced when parasitized hosts fed on transgenic cotton leaves compared to those fed on traditional cotton. Duration of egg and larvae stage were significantly prolonged, pupal and adult weight of C. chloridae was decreased when the host larvae fed on transgenic cotton leaves longer than 48 h. The development duration of C. chlorideae pupae on the hosts fed on transgenic cotton leaves in each treatment was not significantly different from those of controls. The longevity of parasitoid females and males fed with a solution containing Cry1Ac toxin was not significantly different with that of the control.', 'en_US'),
(2596, 'Effects of transgenic plants on soil microorganisms.', 'The rapid development of agricultural biotechnology and release of new transgenic plants for agriculture has provided many economic benefits, but has also raised concern over the potential impact of transgenic plants on the environment. Considerable research has now been conducted on the effects of transgenic plants on soil microorganisms. These effects include unintentional changes in the chemical compositions of root exudates, and the direct effects of transgenic proteins on nontarget species of soil microorganisms. Most studies to date suggest that transgenic plants that have been released cause minor changes in microbial community structures that are often transient in duration. However, due to our limited knowledge of the linkage between microbial community structure and function, more work needs to be done on a case-by-case basis to further evaluate the effects of transgenic plants on soil microorganisms and soil ecosystem functions. This review summarizes the results of a variety of experiments that have been conducted to specifically test the effects of transgenic plants on soil microorganisms, and particularly examines the types of methods that are being used to study microbial interactions with transgenic plants.', 'en_US'),
(2597, 'Effects of Bt maize-fed prey on the generalist predator Poecilus cupreus L. (Coleoptera: Carabidae).', 'We investigated the effects of transgenic maize (Zea mays) expressing Bacillus thuringienses toxin (Bt maize) on larval and adult Poecilus cupreus carabid beetles in laboratory studies. In no-choice trials, neonate P. cupreus larvae were fed exclusively with Spodoptera littoralis caterpillars, which had been raised on Bt maize. S. littoralis raised on conventional maize or high quality Calliphora sp. pupae were fed to the beetle larvae in two control treatments. Bt-maize-fed caterpillar prey increased mortality to 100 within 40days. The experiment was repeated with 10-day-old beetle larvae. Bt treatment resulted in fewer pupae than in both controls, and in a higher mortality than in the Calliphora control. S. littoralis was suitable as exclusive prey in no-choice tests, at least for 40days, although prey quality seemed to be low compared to Calliphora pupae. The observed effects are most likely indirect effects due to further reduced nutritional prey quality. However, direct effects cannot be excluded. In the second part of the study, exposure of P. cupreus to Bt intoxicated prey was examined in paired-choice tests. Adult beetles were offered a choice between different prey conditions (frozen and thawed, freshly killed or living), prey types (S. littoralis caterpillars, Calliphorasp. pupae, cereal aphids) and prey treatments (raised on Bt or conventional maize). Living prey was preferred to frozen and dead prey. Caterpillars were only preferred to fly pupae and aphids when living. Prey treatment seemed to be least important for prey selection. The tests showed that P. cupreus ingested caterpillars readily and there was no evidence of them avoiding Bt containing prey, which means exposure in the field could occur. The presented protocols are a first step towards ecological risk assessment for carabid beetles.', 'en_US'),
(2598, 'Effects of Bt maize on the herbivore Spodoptera littoralis (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and the parasitoid Cotesia marginiventris (Hymenoptera: Braconidae).', 'Recent studies have shown that transgenic insect resistant plants can have negative effects on non-target herbivores as well as on beneficial insects. The study of tritrophic interactions gives insight into the complex mechanisms of food webs in the field and can easily be incorporated into a tiered risk assessment framework. We investigated the effects of transgenic maize (Zea mays) expressing insecticidal proteins derived from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt maize) on Spodoptera littoralis, a non-target herbivore, and on the hymenopteran parasitoid Cotesia marginiventris. In a laboratory study, S. littoralis larvae were reared for their whole lifespan on a mixture of leaves and stems from 2?4-week old Bt maize plants. S. littoralis survival, developmental times and larval weights were significantly affected by Bt maize diet. However, adult moths, which survived development on Bt maize, were the same size as the adults from the control group C. marginiventris survival, developmental times and cocoon weights were significantly negatively affected if their S. littoralis host larva had been fed Bt maize. ELISA tests confirmed that S. littoralis larvae ingest high amounts of Cry1A(b) toxin while feeding on Bt maize. In S. littoralis pupae and in C. marginiventris cocoon silk, only traces of the toxin could be detected. No toxin was found in S. littoralis and C. marginiventris adults. Thus the toxin is not accumulating in the trophic levels and in fact appears to be excreted. Our results suggest that the effects on C. marginiventris when developing in susceptible S. littoralis larvae are indirect (host mediated). The biological relevance of those results and the significance of this study in risk assessment are discussed.', 'en_US'),
(2599, 'Adult dispersal of Ostrinia nubilalis Hübner (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) and its implications for resistance management in Bt-maize.', 'Dispersal of European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis Hübner was examined by release and recapture of the dye marked adults and by capture of the feral adults in and around the large 50 ha center pivot irrigated fields of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) maize. Pheromone and black light traps were used to catch the adults. In 1999, 15 094 marked males and 7993 marked females were released, and in 2001, 13 942 marked males and 9977 marked females were released. In 1999, maximum mean recapture beyond the release point was 1.95 and 1.67% for males and females, but in 2001, the recapture rate was 9.97 and 4.37% for males and females. Few males (3.8%) and females (2.07%) were recaptured in neighbourhood maize fields. An exponential decay function explained recapture of marked adults across the dispersal distance. More than 90% of marked adults were recaptured within 300 m of the release point. Large numbers of feral adults were captured throughout the study fields. Feral adult dispersal could be fitted to a linear model. Virgin females (20% marked and 8% feral) were captured throughout the study fields. The recapture of marked insects suggests that the dispersal was limited. However, capture of feral adults throughout Bt-maize fields indicate that the actual dispersal may be more extensive than indicated by recapture of marked adults. Potential refuge sources for the feral adults were 587?1387 m from the edge of the study fields. It is not clear if the dispersal recorded in this study is extensive enough to support the current resistance management strategy for corn borers. There appears to be some dispersal of corn borers from the non-transgenic ''refuge'' fields into the transgenic fields that allows some genetic mixing of the two populations.', 'en_US'),
(2600, 'Assessing genetically modified crops to minimize the risk of increased food allergy: A review.', 'The first genetically modified (GM) crops approved for food use (tomato and soybean) were evaluated for safety by the United States Food and Drug Administration prior to commercial production. Among other factors, those products and all additional GM crops that have been grown commercially have been evaluated for potential increases in allergenic properties using methods that are consistent with the current understanding of food allergens and knowledge regarding the prediction of allergenic activity. Although there have been refinements, the key aspects of the evaluation have not changed. The allergenic properties of the gene donor and the host (recipient) organisms are considered in determining the appropriate testing strategy. The amino acid sequence of the encoded protein is compared to all known allergens to determine whether the protein is a known allergen or is sufficiently similar to any known allergen to indicate an increased probability of allergic cross-reactivity. Stability of the protein in the presence of acid with the stomach protease pepsin is tested as a risk factor for food allergenicity. In vitro or in vivo human IgE binding are tested when appropriate, if the gene donor is an allergen or the sequence of the protein is similar to an allergen. Serum donors and skin test subjects are selected based on their proven allergic responses to the gene donor or to material containing the allergen that was matched in sequence. While some scientists and regulators have suggested using animal models, performing broadly targeted serum IgE testing or extensive pre- or post-market clinical tests, current evidence does not support these tests as being predictive or practical. Based on the evidence to date, the current assessment process has worked well to prevent the unintended introduction of allergens in commercial GM crops.', 'en_US'),
(2601, 'Suggestions for the assessment of the allergenic potential of genetically modified organisms.', 'The prevalence of allergic diseases has been increasing continuously and, accordingly, there is a great desire to evaluate the allergenic potential of components in our daily environment (e.g., food). Although there is almost no scientific evidence that genetically modified organisms (GMOs) exhibit increased allergenicity compared with the corresponding wild type significant concerns have been raised regarding this matter. In principle, it is possible that the allergenic potential of GMOs may be increased due to the introduction of potential foreign allergens, to potentially upregulated expression of allergenic components caused by the modification of the wild type organism or to different means of exposure. According to the current practice, the proteins to be introduced into a GMO are evaluated for their physiochemical properties, sequence homology with known allergens and occasionally regarding their allergenic activity. We discuss why these current rules and procedures cannot predict or exclude the allergenicity of a given GMO with certainty. As an alternative we suggest to improve the current evaluation by an experimental comparison of the wild-type organism with the whole GMO regarding their potential to elicit reactions in allergic individuals and to induce de novo sensitizations. We also recommend that the suggested assessment procedures be equally applied to GMOs as well as to natural cultivars in order to establish effective measures for allergy revention.', 'en_US'),
(2602, 'Natural enemies and the evolution of resistance to transgenic insecticidal crops by pest insects: The role of egg mortality.', 'We explore the influence of egg mortality dynamics on the rate at which target pests evolve resistance to high-dose transgenic insecticidal crops. We develop a two-patch deterministic population genetic model in which pests can develop in either toxic or nontoxic (refuge) fields, and their eggs are subject to varying levels and forms of egg mortality. The three standard forms of egg mortality are studied: density independence (DI), positive density dependence (PDD), and inverse density dependence (IDD). Resistance is modeled as a single locus with a fully recessive allele that confers complete resistance with no fitness cost. Insect movement and oviposition is modeled as follows: males move panmictically before mating and females may either stay in their natal patch to oviposit or move after mating before oviposition. While our simulations show that both the magnitude and form of egg mortality can influence the rate of resistance evolution, important caveats apply. Higher levels of DI egg mortality can lead to substantial delays in resistance evolution, but this effect is dependent on the presence of intraspecific competition among larvae. The rate of resistance evolution is affected by the form of density dependence (DI versus PDD versus IDD), but these effects are dependent on at least some females ovipositing in their natal field. If this condition is met, the rate of resistance evolution is fastest when eggs are subject to PDD mortality and slowest when eggs are subject to IDD egg mortality. DI egg mortality produces intermediate rates of resistance evolution.', 'en_US'),
(2603, 'Interactions among western corn rootworm (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), yellow foxtail, and corn.', 'Field studies at sites with two contrasting soil types investigated effects from the presence of yellow foxtail [Setaria pumila (Poir.) Roem. and Schult.], established in bands parallel to corn rows, on western corn rootworm (Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte) survival, corn root injury, lodging, biomass production, and yield. Results suggested that the presence of foxtail as an alternate host influenced the degree and progression of corn rootworm damage and adult emergence in a given locality. Rootworm adults emerged later from foxtail band areas and had smaller head capsule size than did individuals from areas without foxtail, consistent with earlier findings that foxtail in the diet of western corn rootworm was a poor nutritional substitute for corn. Lodging was reduced in the presence of yellow foxtail in some cases, but corn stover biomass and yield also were lower. Influences, if any, of soil type on rootworm survival were unclear because of differences in planting date between the two sites. Foxtail may function as a buffer to reduce rootworm damage to corn and serves as an alternate host that should be considered in the development of resistance management strategies for transgenic corn modified for rootworm resistance.', 'en_US'),
(2604, 'Uptake of Bt endotoxins by nontarget herbivores and higher order arthropod predators: molecular evidence from a transgenic corn agroecosystem.', 'The planting of transgenic crops expressing Bacillus thuringiensis endotoxins is widespread throughout the world; the prolific increase in their application exposes nontarget organisms to toxins designed to control pests. To date, studies have focused upon the effects of Bt endotoxins on specific herbivores and detritivores, without consideration of their persistence within arthropod food webs. Here, we report the first quantitative field evaluation of levels of Bt endotoxin within nontarget herbivores and the uptake by higher order arthropods. Antibody-based assays indicated significant quantities of detectable Cry1Ab endotoxin within nontarget herbivores which feed on transgenic corn (including the corn flea beetle, Chaetocnema pulicaria, Japanese beetle, Popillia japonica and southern corn rootworm, Diabrotica undecimpunctata howardi). Furthermore, arthropod predators (Coccinellidae, Araneae, and Nabidae) collected from these agroecosystems also contained significant quantities of Cry1Ab endotoxin indicating its movement into higher trophic levels. This uptake by predators is likely to have occurred by direct feeding on plant material (in predators which are facultatively phytophagous) or the consumption of arthropod prey which contained these proteins. These data indicate that long-term exposure to insecticidal toxins occurs in the field. These levels of exposure should therefore be considered during future risk assessments of transgenic crops to nontarget herbivores and arthropod predators.', 'en_US'),
(2605, 'Genetically modified foods: the effect of information.', 'Purpose ? This paper examines the attitudes of young Greek University students towards genetically modified (GM) foods and studies the effect of appropriate information in shaping this attitude. Design/methodology/approach ? A questionnaire was distributed to 433 Greek students of the Technological Educational Institute of Athens during the academic year 2003-2004. Results were processed by SPSS 11.0. Findings ? The survey reveals that although Greek University students are more informed than the general population about genetic modification issues, still a large proportion (48 per cent) are unaware of what is exactly a GM plant and 55.3 per cent believe that GM foods may impose risks for public health and the environment. However, after reading a short informative statement the ''negative'' attitude of respondents is decreased by 15.5 percentage units and the ''positive'' attitude is increased by 13.2 percentage units. These results show that appropriate information could affect the acceptability of a technological innovation. Future research is required to investigate how scientists could intervene in order to make the GM issue clear on a scientific basis. Originality/value ? The findings of this study could be useful to those who are seeking to elucidate the complex issue of GM food acceptance and have an interest in establishing communication between the scientific community and the public, such as regulatory authorities, the industry or academics.', 'en_US'),
(2606, 'Variations in maize pollen emission and deposition in relation to microclimate.', 'The coexistence of genetically modified (GM) crops with conventional crops has become a subject of debate and inquiry. Maize (Zea mays L.) is one of the most cultivated crop plants in the world and there is a need to assess the risks of cross-pollination. Concentration and deposition rate downwind from different-sized maize crops were measured during three flowering seasons, together with micrometeorological conditions in the surrounding environment. Pollen release started once the air vapor pressure deficit (VPD) increases above 0.2 to 0.5 kPa. Moreover, the dynamics of release was correlated with the dynamics of VPD surrounding the tassels. Horizontal deposition appeared to follow a power law over short distance downwind from the source, and the dispersal distance increased with the source canopy height and the roughness length of the downwind canopy. This work also provides a data set containing both pollen measurements and contrasting weather conditions to validate dispersal models and further investigate maize pollen dispersal processes.', 'en_US'),
(2607, 'Modern food biotechnology, human health and development: an evidence-based study.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2608, 'Biotechnology, Agriculture, and Food Security in Southern Africa.', 'In 2002?2003, when a number of southern African countries suffering from food shortages rejected food aid in the form of genetically modified grain, a highly polarized debate over biotechnology came to the surface. Pro-biotech and anti-biotech camps forcefully argued about the role of modern biotechnology in Africa''s economic development, often excluding African policymakers from the dialogue and leaving the public uncertain about where the truth lay. In response, the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and the Food, Agriculture, and Natural Resources Policy Analysis Network (FANRPAN) embarked on a multistakeholder initiative aimed at raising awareness, promoting dialogue, and catalyzing consensus-building mechanisms to improve the institutions and policies governing agricultural biotechnology and to assess its implications for food security in southern Africa. The result of this initiative, this book brings together experts from within and outside Africa to discuss the current status of biotechnology in southern Africa, the conceptual framework for multistakeholder dialogues, the political and ethical issues surrounding biotechnology, food safety and consumer issues, biosafety, intellectual property rights, and trade involving genetically modified foods.', 'en_US'),
(2609, 'Food safety and consumer choice policy', 'Agricultural biotechnology has the potential to help address a wide range of public health, nutritional, agricultural, and environmental problems in developed and developing countries, as described in a wide variety of scientific (NRC 1985), government (Glickman 1999), industry (Council for Biotechnology Information n.d.), and international (Persley and Lantin 2000; FAO 2003) sources. Despite this potential, the commercialization of the first generation of crops based on these technologies has met with concern and protests from consumer and public interest groups (Consumer''s Union n.d.), environmental groups (NRDC 2000), and some governments (EC 2000) and scientists (Union of Concerned Scientists n.d.). This conflict has grown to such proportions that it has resulted in the banning or slowing of the commercialization or use of these products in some countries (Economist 1999), disrupted the distribution of food aid in drought-stricken southern Africa (Economist 2002), reduced U.S. exports of major commodities (Economist 2000), affected the value of Wall Street stocks for major agricultural biotechnology companies (Financial Times 2000), and become a major issue of contention in the regulation of international trade (Financial Times 2003). Many of the proponents of agricultural biotechnology have suggested that the issue should be resolved through the application of sound science (Prakash and Bruhn 2000) and that it would be unethical to ban the use of or inhibit the potential benefits associated with this technology for addressing serious problems related to public health, nutrition, poverty, and the environment (Leisinger 2000; Pinstrup-Andersen and Schioler 2000). Many of the critics have called into question the adequacy of the scientific knowledge (Wolfenbarger and Phifer 2000; Clark and Lehman 2001) about this technology, questioned its benefits and raised concerns regarding its potential risks (PSRAST 1998), and claimed that regulatory decisions have been based more on politics than on science (Eichenwald, Kolata, and Petersen 2001; Ferrara 2001). In contrast to the first generation of genetically modified (GM) crops, which have been designed to address production problems, the second-generation crops currently under development will include a much wider range of alterations. One set will involve changes of potential interest to consumers in developed and developing countries, such as changes in the levels and types of specific fatty acids, vitamins, minerals, phytochemicals, and antinutrients (e.g., phytate). A second set of genetic modifications will focus on agronomic, environmental, and nutritional traits relevant specifically in developing countries, such as drought and saline resistance, insect protection, antiviral and antifungal properties, and enhanced iron, zinc, folate, or pro?vitamin A content, among others. In general, the genetic, metabolic, and food compositional changes in these future crops are expected to be more complex than those of the first-generation crops and may pose more complex regulatory questions (FDA 2001; Kuiper et al. 2001). The purpose of this chapter is to describe the food safety and consumer issues raised by GM foods, with a particular focus on the choices and trade-offs relevant to southern Africa. Although the ultimate focus of the chapter is on the choices and policy trade-offs relevant to southern Africa, it begins with a detailed analysis of how GM foods are regulated in the United States by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). This is because FDA policies remain the authoritative position of the U.S. government as applied to the United States and, to a large extent, as projected into international and bilateral discussions and negotiations. Therefore, it is important that developing countries become very knowledgeable concerning FDA policies and their scientific, legal, and political bases so that they can engage in those discussions and negotiations on a more equal footing. In addition, an examination of how the scientific, legal, and political considerations were addressed in the U.S. context holds lessons for southern African countries as they ponder the most appropriate institutional and procedural mechanisms for them to use to reach judgments and develop policies of their own. The second section of this chapter builds on the first by placing the scientific considerations in the southern African context. This section highlights the significant differences between the U.S. and southern African contexts, the even greater scientific uncertainties in the southern African context as compared to the U.S. context, and the implications for research and policy development. The third and final section provides a framework for discussing policy options and trade-offs under conditions of high complexity and uncertainty, such as in GM agriculture.', 'en_US'),
(2610, 'Factors affecting the potential for gene flow from transgenic crops of Lupinus angustifolius L. in Western Australia.', 'Australian sweet lupins (Lupinus angustifolius L.) and their naturalised wild progenitor occur widely throughout the agricultural zone of Western Australia. Before unrestricted release of transgenic lupins is allowed, an assessment is needed of the likely level of gene flow between the wild and cultivated lupins. Three sets of data were collected to evaluate the likelihood of outcrossing and gene flow. These were the level of outcrossing between adjacent lupin crops, the spatial distribution of crops and wild lupins, and the relative flowering times of the crops and wild lupins. The level of outcrossing within the first 1.5 m of adjacent crops, assessed over 1.56 million plants, was 1 cross in 3600 plants. No crossing was detected at distances greater than 2.25 m (outcrossing rate less than 1 in 148 000). The distribution of 216 crops and 237 wild populations in Western Australia rarely overlapped. Only 5 wild populations were detected in the area where crops were found. No crops occurred in the areas where the remaining wild lupins (232 populations) were found. The crops were all early flowering, whereas the 3 selected wild populations, representing 3 different (medium, high, and very high rainfall) climatic zones, all flowered later. We conclude that the likelihood of gene flow from a transgenic lupin crop to wild lupin populations is extremely low. This is consistent with the fact that reverse gene flow from wild lupins carrying dominant genes for blue flowers and bitter seeds has never been found in farmers'' fields, despite 35 years of lupin cropping where areas of over 1 000 000 ha per year have been grown in Western Australia.', 'en_US'),
(2611, 'Science policy and agricultural biotechnology in Canada.', 'This paper examines Canadian science and technology (S&T) policies in the 1990s and the growth of the agriculture biotechnology sector. Drawing from several different data sources, we show that advances in biotechnology have made a substantive contribution to the agri-food landscape as evident by the growth in biotechnology companies, as well as the number of approved genetically modified field trials and canola biotechnology patents issued to inventors. We also show that Canadian inventors do not appear to have harvested a substantive number of enabling canola biotechnology patents as compared to U.S. and European inventors.', 'en_US'),
(2612, 'Proposals for nutritional assessments of feeds from genetically modified plants.', 'The cultivation of genetically modified plants (GMP) increased from 1.7 to 81 million. ha from 1996 to 2004 (James, 2004). Scientists and farmers, but also consumers, are asking for a nutritional assessment, including safety aspects, of feeds from those plants. Substantial equivalence was created as a framework for the compositional assessment of feeds from GMP of the so-called first generation (without substantial changes of composition or without output traits) and is widely accepted.  However, comprehensive studies are necessary for feeds from GMP of the second generation, with substantial changes in composition and nutritional value or so-called output-traits.The paper summarizes proposals for the nutritional assessment of feeds from GMP of the first generation and discusses experimental designs for assessing feeds from GMP of the second generation.', 'en_US'),
(2613, 'Stakeholder attitudes towards the risks and benefits of genetically modified crops in South Africa.', 'The attitudes and interests of stakeholders involved in national public debates on the risks and benefits of genetically modified crops are having a significant influence on public opinion as well as public policy outcomes related to the use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in agriculture in developed and developing countries. This article discusses the results of a perception survey conducted with South African stakeholders involved in the GMO debate in 2000 and uses them to explain GMO policy in South Africa in 2004. The results suggest that academia, government, producer and consumer organizations and industry in South Africa strongly believe in the benefits of GM crops, while non-governmental organizations and churches do not. Instead, the latter emphasize the potential risks that, they claim, the government does not address with its permissive policy toward GMOs. The paper concludes that South Africa has become an African leader in promoting as well as in opposing modern biotechnology in agriculture. At the same time, the domestic debate on GMOs continues to be very polarized. The South African government may reassume public leadership by designing a biotechnology policy that aims at minimizing the risks and maximizing the benefits of the technology not just in terms of economic growth but also environmental conservation and poverty alleviation.', 'en_US'),
(2614, 'Genetic diversity and gene flow among pearl millet crop/weed complex: a case study.', 'Weedy plants with intermediate (domesticated × wild) phenotypes occur in most pearl millet fields in West Africa, even in the absence of wild populations. They are usually found, in high numbers, both inside and outside of drills. Questions pertaining to the evolutionary dynamics of diversity within the pearl millet complex (domesticated?weedy?wild forms) were addressed in this study. The diversity of the different components of this complex sampled in two pearl millet fields in two villages of southwestern Niger was assessed at both molecular (AFLP) and morphological levels. Results show that, in both fields, weedy plants found outside of drills are morphologically distinct from weedy plants found inside drills, despite their close similarity at AFLP markers. The data suggest some introgression from the wild to the weedy population but nevertheless that the gene flow between the parapatric wild and domesticated populations is very low. This challenges the traditional view that regular hybridization between domesticated and wild pearl millets explains the abundance of these weedy plants despite farmers'' seed selection. The level of genetic differentiation between fields from the two villages was low when considering domesticated and weedy plants. This could be explained by high gene flow resulting from substantial seed exchanges between farmers. The fact that it is very difficult for farmers to keep their own selected seeds, and the consequent substantial seed exchanges between them, is probably the main factor accounting for the maintenance and dispersal of weedy pearl millets in the region, even in areas where no wild forms have been observed.', 'en_US'),
(2615, 'Gender differences in consumers'' acceptance of genetically modified foods.', 'Research has shown that women are less accepting of genetically engineered products than men. We expect two mechanisms to be at work here. First, in consumer behaviour theory, more knowledge is assumed to lead to more acceptance. We assumed that for genetically engineered foods, this general principle does not apply since long-term consequences are not known yet. The well-informed consumer is likely to be comparatively more concerned with this lack of knowledge. We call this the information paradox. Theory on the topic is relatively recent. The results of this study will help to distinguish consumer behaviour with regard to new types of food as compared with traditional foods. Second, we assumed that there is a gender factor included in attitudes toward foods. In general, women still plan food and household purchases. A tentative attitude and an accompanying reluctance toward food innovation are adopted when buying food for children. We call this the gender paradox. In this exploratory study we use data from the Eurobarometer. Eurobarometer surveys have been executed since 1973 by the European Commission among the adult population of European Union member countries (n > 10 000), monitoring the evolution of public opinion. Analysis of these surveys shows that gender differences exist in the acceptance of genetically modified (GM) foods in Europe. Women tend to be less accepting toward genetically modified foods. This supports our gender hypothesis. However, no evidence was found to support the assumed information paradox. It seems that knowledge leads to acceptance, also of GM foods, but more so for men than for women.', 'en_US'),
(2616, 'Effects of Bt maize on Frankliniella tenuicornis and exposure of thrips predators to prey-mediated Bt toxin.', 'As a part of a risk assessment procedure, the impact of Bt maize expressing Cry1Ab toxin on the thrips Frankliniella tenuicornis (Uzel) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) was investigated, and the potential risks for predators feeding on thrips on Bt maize were evaluated. The effects of Bt maize on F. tenuicornis were assessed by measuring life-table parameters when reared on Bt and non-Bt maize. The content of Cry1Ab toxin in different stages of F. tenuicornis reared on Bt maize and the persistence of the toxin in adults where determined in order to evaluate the possible exposure of predators when feeding on thrips. In addition, Chrysoperla carnea (Stephens) (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) was used as a model predator to assess how the behaviour of prey and predator may influence the exposure of a natural enemy to the Bt toxin. Life-table parameter results showed that F. tenuicornis was not affected when it was reared on Bt maize. This indicates that the potential for prey quality-mediated effects on predators is low. Bt content was highest in thrips larvae and adults, and negligible in the non-feeding prepupal and pupal stages. The persistence of the Cry1Ab toxin in adult F. tenuicornis was short, resulting in a decrease of 97% within the first 24 h. Predation success by young C. carnea larvae varied among the thrips stages, indicating that exposure of predators to Bt toxin can additionally depend on the prey stage. When combining the current knowledge of the susceptibility of major thrips predators with our findings showing no potential for prey quality-mediated effects, relatively low toxin content in thrips as well as short persistence, it can be concluded that the risks for predators when feeding on thrips in or next to Bt maize fields are negligible.', 'en_US'),
(2617, 'An algorithm for estimating potential deposition of corn pollen for environmental assessment.', 'The safety and impact on the environment of transgenic crops are important issues, and studies have shown that pollen from transgenic Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) corn (Zea mays L.) may kill nontarget insects. To develop an algorithm for assessing the environmental effect of transgenic crops, we arranged a field experiment in Tsukuba, Japan. Pollen dispersal and deposition were measured inside and outside a cornfield throughout the flowering period. Weather conditions such as wind speed and direction were measured at the same time. Pollen dispersal peaked 1 week after the start of flowering and continued for 12 days thereafter. The variation in daily pollen dispersal was similar at all observation points. Both pollen dispersal and deposition decreased exponentially with distance from the cornfield on all days. We estimated potential pollen deposition with a quasi-mechanistic model that incorporates the effects of wind direction, wind speed, and flowering intensity. The daily potential deposition was summed over the flowering period, and then the relationship between distance from the cornfield and the integrated potential deposition was estimated. It was possible to show the effective area of the environmental risk zone posed by genetically modified pollen by combining the distance/deposition relationship with the dose/response relationship derived from a laboratory assay. The algorithm described here can be applied to various wind-pollinated plants to estimate both potential and integrated pollen deposition.', 'en_US'),
(2618, 'Lack of stable inheritance of introgressed transgene from oilseed rape in wild radish.', 'Hybridization of Brassica napus L. (oilseed rape) and Raphanus raphanistrum L. (wild radish) has been demonstrated, and may be the first step towards introgression of transgenes in this wild relative. If wild radish were to display a new adaptive advantage by expressing the transgene, this could modify the ecological balance of species within the agro-ecosystem. To determine if transgenes remained stable in the hybrid, the frequency of herbicide resistance was studied over four advanced generations of hybrid progeny (G8 to G11) that were subjected to herbicide selection pressure. It is expected that hemizygous resistant plants containing an herbicide resistance transgene back-crossed to wild radish would have 50% resistant progeny. In each of the G8 to G11 generations, only 18% of the progeny from resistant plants were resistant. The chromosome complement of herbicide-susceptible progenies, analyzed at G9, was not different from that of wild populations of wild radish. Herbicide-resistant G9 progeny showed higher chromosome instability, and one third of the progeny contained a supernumerary chromosome. These results suggest that in the presence of herbicide selection pressure, the transgene for herbicide resistance would be maintained despite a lack of stabilized introgression. In the absence of selection, the frequency of resistance in the population is expected to decline.', 'en_US'),
(2619, 'Genetically modified crops and agricultural landscapes: spatial patterns of contamination.', 'A crucial question facing the global agri-food system is whether genetically modified (GM) crops can co-exist with traditional crops. The purpose of this paper is to clarify how the presence of GM crops and changes in the probability of genetic transfer between crops on an agricultural landscape can result in non-GM crop contamination. To investigate this issue, we develop and analyze a spatial simulation model of GM crop introduction and expansion. The GM crop has certain well-defined transfer characteristics related to space and location relative to other crops, and these help determine the rate at which individual fields become ''contaminated'' by the GM crop. We find that in many cases, careful attention needs to be paid to the spatial arrangement of GM crops in relation to non-GM crops in order to ensure that GM contamination is not ubiquitous. The relative ease of system-wide cross-pollination of farmland by GM crops indicates that significant external costs could be imposed on a typical farmer because of the inability to certify produce for sale in potentially lucrative GM-free markets. The analysis suggests that the potential for market failure in this industry may justify a need for government action, and that innovative and flexible regulatory structures will be needed to handle the wide range of co-mingling risks posed by differing crops.', 'en_US'),
(2620, 'Impact des cotonniers génétiquement modifiés sur la biodiversité de la faune entomologique: Le cas du coton Bt en Afrique du Sud', 'For the last three years, CIRAD (Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement, France) and the University of Pretoria led field research to evaluate the impact of transgenic Bt cotton, expressing the Cry1Ac toxin, on arthropod biodiversity in South Africa. The diversity and the density of insect populations were estimated at different crop development stages using traps, sweep-nets, and direct observations on the cotton plants. In untreated plots, the insect diversity in Bt cotton did not show major changes. The toxin was efficient in controlling one of the major bollworm species, Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner), and reduced the population density of specific larval parasitoids. Predators were present in comparable numbers in both cotton types, except for ladybirds. The toxin did not affect pollinators. In small-scale farming fields, where pesticides are still sprayed for controlling sucking insects, the introduction of Bt cotton did not help meet the expected reduction in insecticide use.Au cours des trois dernières années, le Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement (Cirad, France) et l''université de Pretoria ont conduit en Afrique du Sud des études sur l''impact de la mise en culture de cotonniers génétiquement modifiés, exprimant une toxine de Bacillus thuringiensis (coton Bt), sur la biodiversité de la faune entomologique. La diversité et la densité des populations d''insectes présentes à différents stades phénologiques de la culture ont été estimées par piégeage, fauchage et dénombrement sur la plante. En l''absence de traitements insecticides, la diversité de l''entomofaune est peu affectée par la mise en culture du coton Bt. L''efficacité de la toxine sur l''un des principaux insectes cibles, la noctuelle Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner), conduit logiquement à une réduction de l''effectif des parasitoïdes liés aux larves de ce ravageur. Par contre, les espèces prédatrices se rencontrent en nombres similaires sur l''un et l''autre cultivar, à l''exception remarquable des coccinelles, moins abondantes sur coton Bt. La densité des pollinisateurs n''est pas affectée par la toxine. En parcelles paysannes, où sont maintenues les interventions chimiques dirigées contre les insectes piqueurs, l''intérêt annoncé du coton Bt pour une réduction de l''usage des pesticides s''est révélé décevant.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(2621, 'Response of Danaus plexippus to pollen of two new Bt corn events via laboratory bioassay.', 'Laboratory bioassays were conducted to evaluate the response of first instar larvae of the monarch butterfly, Danaus plexippus L. (Lepidoptera: Danaidae), a non-target species, to pollen from corn, Zea mays L. (Commelinales: Poaceae), from two new corn hybrids genetically modified to express different types of insecticidal proteins derived from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner (Bacillales: Bacillaceae) (Bt). One hybrid expresses both Cry1Ab and Cry2Ab2 proteins (MON 810 × MON 84006), active against lepidopteran pests, and the other expresses Cry3Bb1 protein (MON 863), targeted against coleopteran pests. First instar larvae were placed on milkweed leaves (Asclepias syriaca L.) (Gentianales: Asclepiadaceae) dusted with doses of either Bt pollen or its nonexpressing (isoline) pollen counterpart ranging from 50 to 3200 grains cm2 of milkweed leaves, or no pollen at all. Larvae were exposed to pollen for 4 days, then moved to pollen-free leaves and observed for another 6 days. Survival was observed after 2, 4, and 10 days. Weight gain was estimated after 4 and 10 days, leaf consumption after 2 and 4 days, and larval development after 10 days. Exposure to pollen of the Cry1Ab/Cry2Ab2-Bt expressing hybrid reduced larval survival approximately 7.5?23.5% at the dose ranges tested relative to a no pollen control. Larval weight gain and consumption were reduced for larvae exposed to pollen of this hybrid and a small minority of larvae (3.1%) never developed past the third instar after 10 days of observation. Exposure to pollen of the Cry3Bb1-Bt expressing hybrid had no negative effects on larval mortality, weight gain, consumption, or development relative to the consumption of Bt-free corn pollen. The relevance of these findings to the risk that these Bt corn hybrids pose to monarch populations is discussed.', 'en_US'),
(2622, 'European Review of Agricultural Economics 2005 32(2):269-288; Preference heterogeneity and GM food in the UK.', 'This study uses mixed logit models to reconsider the findings of choice experiment surveys with a focus on heterogeneity among consumers. The motivation is that these techniques allow the researcher to segment the market better. This is critical because it is not the average attitude or preference that is important, but the size of the groups who will be prepared to accept the product under certain circumstances. The causes of heterogeneity within the sample are investigated and the proportions of consumers willing to buy GM foods at various discounts are simulated.', 'en_US'),
(2623, 'Environmental impact of genetically modified cotton in South Africa.', 'This paper presents the results of a large-scale study designed to monitor the impact arising from the introduction of insect-resistant Bt cotton in the Makhathini Flats, Republic of South Africa. Bt cotton provides a degree of resistance to cotton bollworm complex (Lepidoptera). Data were collected on the use of insecticides (type and quantity) as well as the farm-level economics of production from over 2200 farmers in three growing seasons (1998/1999, 1999/2000 and 2000/2001), and the results are discussed within the context of environmental impact brought about by insecticide. Over the three seasons of the study it was clear that Bt cotton provided benefits in terms of higher yield and gross margin relative to farmers growing conventional (non-Bt) cotton, and the benefits were particularly apparent for the smallest producers. Bt growers also used significantly less insecticide than growers of non-Bt cotton. Once quantities of insecticide applied to Bt and non-Bt cotton were converted into a Biocide Index and an Environmental Impact Quotient (EIQ) in order to allow for differences in terms of toxicity and persistence in the environment, it was apparent that the growing of Bt had a less negative impact on the environment. While this points to beneficial impacts on agricultural sustainability there are wider concerns regarding the vulnerability of resource-poor farmers in an area with limited (as yet) marketing options for their product and options for livelihood diversification both within and outside agriculture. Cotton producers in Makhathini are vulnerable as they rely on just one company for inputs (including credit) and for their market. While Bt cotton provides benefits it does not in itself address some of the structural limitations that farmers face.', 'en_US'),
(2624, 'Considerations for the recovery of recombinant proteins from plants.', 'The past 5 years have seen the commercialization of two recombinant protein products from transgenic plants, and many recombinant therapeutic proteins produced in plants are currently undergoing development. The emergence of plants as an alternative production host has brought new challenges and opportunities to downstream processing efforts. Plant hosts contain a unique set of matrix contaminants (proteins, oils, phenolic compounds, etc.) that must be removed during purification of the target protein. Furthermore, plant solids, which require early removal after extraction, are generally in higher concentration, wider in size range, and denser than traditional bacterial and mammalian cell culture debris. At the same time, there remains the desire to incorporate highly selective and integrative separation technologies (those capable of performing multiple tasks) during the purification process from plant material. The general plant processing and purification scheme consists of isolation of the plant tissue containing the recombinant protein, fractionation of the tissue along with particle size reduction, extraction of the target protein into an aqueous medium, clarification of the crude extract, and finally purification of the product. Each of these areas will be discussed here, focusing on what has been learned and where potential concerns remain. We also present details of how the choice of plant host, along with location within the plant for targeting the recombinant protein, can play an important role in the ultimate ease of recovery and the emergence of regulations governing plant hosts. Major emphasis is placed on three crops, canola, corn, and soy, with brief discussions of tobacco and rice.', 'en_US'),
(2625, 'The new EU regulatory framework for GM food (Part I) procedural aspects: safety assessment, authorisation and administrative review.', 'On 18 April 2004, a little more than a year before the publication of this article, the core provisions of the new regulatory framework for genetically modified food products entered into force.This article is of a descriptive nature. It goes into the new framework as far as food is concerned. Feed will not be discussed. This article is published in 2 parts. Part 1 deals mainly with the new authorisation procedure. In this context some attention will first be given to the developments that led to the new framework and at the end of part 1 to administrative review. The main topics discussed in part 2 are the traceability requirements and labelling. Further some attention will be given to emergency measures, legal protection and transitory measures.', 'en_US'),
(2626, 'Regulation on agricultural genetically modified organisms in Australia.', 'Until recently there were no specific regulatory controls on the development and release of agricultural genetically modified organisms (''GMOs'') or their products in Australia. A voluntary and self-regulatory system had existed since the mid-seventies but there were no direct legal repercussions where those ''regulations'' were not adhered to. Commercialisation of GMOs'' end products was also not specifically regulated. Some end products were subject to general regulation which applied regardless of whether genetic modification (''GM'') was used in their production. Other GM end products were not regulated at all. This Article concerns the regulatory background against which agricultural GMO commercialisers must act in Australia. It does not concern cloning of human beings and associated techniques, which are prohibited in Australia pursuant to the Prohibition of Human Cloning Act 2002(Cth) and complementary State legislation. The Article begins in Part 2 with a description of the new national regulatory scheme for GMOs. The recently introduced second level of regulation of agricultural GMOs, that of the individual States of Australia rather than national legislation, is then summarised in Part 3. Part 4 concerns end product regulation relevant to those wanting to commercialise agricultural GMOs in Australia. It explains how the most significant of those regimes for agricultural GMOs, food regulation, operates. Part 5 is the conclusion.', 'en_US'),
(2627, 'The Coexistence of genetically modified crops with other forms of farming: the regulation by EU member states in the light of EC law.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2628, 'The EU''s traceability and labeling and food and feed proposals for products of transgenic origin.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2629, 'Co-existence of GM and non GM crops: real world experience shows it is not a problem.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2630, 'Impact of Bt corn on rhizospheric and soil eubacterial communities and on beneficial mycorrhizal symbiosis in experimental microcosms.', 'A polyphasic approach has been developed to gain knowledge of suitable key indicators for the evaluation of environmental impact of genetically modified Bt 11 and Bt 176 corn lines on soil ecosystems. We assessed the effects of Bt corn (which constitutively expresses the insecticidal toxin from Bacillus thuringiensis, encoded by the truncated Cry1Ab gene) and non-Bt corn plants and their residues on rhizospheric and bulk soil eubacterial communities by means of denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis analyses of 16S rRNA genes, on the nontarget mycorrhizal symbiont Glomus mosseae, and on soil respiration. Microcosm experiments showed differences in rhizospheric eubacterial communities associated with the three corn lines and a significantly lower level of mycorrhizal colonization in Bt 176 corn roots. In greenhouse experiments, differences between Bt and non-Bt corn plants were detected in rhizospheric eubacterial communities (both total and active), in culturable rhizospheric heterotrophic bacteria, and in mycorrhizal colonization. Plant residues of transgenic plants, plowed under at harvest and kept mixed with soil for up to 4 months, affected soil respiration, bacterial communities, and mycorrhizal establishment by indigenous endophytes. The multimodal approach utilized in our work may be applied in long-term field studies aimed at monitoring the real hazard of genetically modified crops and their residues on nontarget soil microbial communities.', 'en_US'),
(2631, 'Survival of genetically modified and self-cloned strains of commercial baker''s yeast in simulated natural environments: environmental risk assessment.', 'Although genetic engineering techniques for baker''s yeast might improve the yeast''s fermentation characteristics, the lack of scientific data on the survival of such strains in natural environments as well as the effects on human health prevent their commercial use. Disruption of acid trehalase gene (ATH1) improves freeze tolerance, which is a crucial characteristic in frozen-dough baking. In this study, ATH1 disruptants constructed by genetic modification (GM) and self-cloning (SC) techniques were used as models to study such effects because these strains have higher freeze tolerance and are expected to be used commercially. Behavior of the strains in simulated natural environments, namely, in soil and water, was studied by measuring the change in the number of viable cells and in the concentration of DNA that contains ATH1 loci. Measurements were made using a real-time PCR method during 40 days of cultivation. Results showed that the number of viable cells of GM and SC strains decreased in a time-dependent manner and that the decrease rate was nearly equal to or higher than that for wild-type (WT) yeast. For all three strains (SC, GM, and WT) in the two simulated natural environments (water and soil), the DNA remained longer than did viable cells but the decrease patterns of either the DNA or the viable cells of SC and GM strains had tendencies similar to those of the WT strain. In conclusion, disruption of ATH1 by genetic engineering apparently does not promote the survival of viable cells and DNA in natural environments.', 'en_US'),
(2632, 'Food sovereignty or trade obstruction? Labelling of genetically engineered foods.', 'This paper examines labelling of Genetically Engineered Foods (GEFs) in the context of: trade issues, the food sovereignty movement, and consumer research. Labelling is explored as a middle ground between food sovereignty and the anti-labelling positions of GEF-producing countries. Surveys around the world concur that the majority of consumers want GEFs labelled. Psychological and neuroscience research implies that when we lack experience with a particular situation even experts view risks high where benefits are low and vice versa. Without direct consumer benefits, consumers will remain skeptical of GEFs and risk communication campaigns will do little to change consumers'' feelings.', 'en_US'),
(2633, 'HPV vaccines in plants: an appetising solution to control infection and associated cancers.', 'The cultivation of plants with specific properties has been the foundation of medicine for millennia. Modern biotechnology may one day extend their medicinal uses to include the delivery of vaccines. Because of their low production costs and facility of use, plant-derived vaccines provide an interesting perspective. The simple demands for solar light, water and minerals make plants an economic system for the production of heterologous proteins, supplying eukaryotic post-translational modifications (e.g. glycosylation, phosphorylation), eliminating the risks of contaminations with animal pathogens and allowing oral administration. Other advantages stem from the possibility to express the protein of interest in reservoir organs, of production on wide scale and to omit purification passages, particularly for oral administration. In this case, crushed seeds, endosperma, fruits could be used for direct administration (edible vaccine). The list of plant-derived antigens, potentially usable as vaccines, continues to lengthen and includes pathogenic viral and bacterial proteins. In this chapter recent advances in production of prophylactic and therapeutic plant vaccines against papillomaviruses are reported. Some aspects of the public debate on the genetically modified organism will be discussed too.', 'en_US'),
(2634, 'Biotechnology risks and project interdependence.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2635, 'Tree biotechnology: regulation and international trade.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2636, 'The coexistence of GM and non-GM arable crops in the EU:  Economic and market considerations.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2637, 'Food-grade corynebacteria for enzyme production.', 'The expression of genes coding for heterologous extracellular enzymes or proteins in corynebacteria has provided new capacities to these industrially important microorganisms, such as the use of the culture media as sources of essential amino acids and hydrolytic enzymes that can be used as complements in animal food or for the production of enzymes with industrial, clinical, or pharmaceutical applications. Using genetic manipulation techniques, several corynebacteria strains expressing genes coding for hydrolytic enzymes or proteins have been constructed in different laboratories. Such strains carry antibiotic resistance genes and consequently they cannot be used in the food industry due to the stringent regulations on genetically manipulated microorganisms. To solve this problem, here we describe a general method for the construction of engineered corynebacteria bearing a single copy of a gene coding for a hydrolytic enzyme or a desired protein in its chromosome where it is stably maintained with no selective pressure and lacking any antibiotic resistance gene.', 'en_US'),
(2638, 'Detection of genetically modified soy in processed foods sold commercially in Malaysia by PCR-based method', 'Regulations for the use and labeling of genetically modified organism (GMO) products and derived ingredients are being implemented worldwide, that demands reliable and accurate methods to detect GMO in raw materials and food products. In this study, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method was established for monitoring products derived from GMO that are sold in the markets in Malaysia, which specifically amplify the 35S promoter, nos (nopaline synthase-terminator), EPSPS (5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase) and RRS (CTP/CP4EPSPS). Using this method, we investigated the incidence of genetically modified soy (GM-soy) and specifically the presence of roundup ready soy (RRS). All the soybean samples were evidenced by presence of the lectin gene. Out of 85 samples examined, the 18 positive GM samples were raw bean (9), tofu (8) and tempe (1) (a traditional Malay food). The results demonstrate for the first time the presence of GM-soy in Malaysian food products, reinforcing the need for the development of accurate quantitative methods for routine analyses.', 'en_US'),
(2639, 'Social acceptance of plant-made vaccines: indications from a public survey.', 'The use of transgenic plants for production and oral delivery of vaccines has been shown effective in animal trials and Phase I human clinical testing. The use of edible plants for production of vaccines represents an interesting intersection between medical treatments and the use of genetically modified (GM) food crops. Public acceptance of GM foods is highly variable on a global scale, and similar issues of social acceptance will influence the commercial feasibility of a plant-made vaccine. The recipient of a plant-made vaccine may have to weigh the perceived benefits of vaccination against the perceived risks associated with consumption of GM plant materials. A public opinion survey of 706 respondents was conducted to gain an indication of the prospects for public acceptance of this technology and demonstrated strong potential support for a plant-made vaccine.', 'en_US'),
(2640, 'Issues in development and adoption of genetically modified (GM) wheats.', 'There are several contentious issues remaining in the development of genetically modified (GM) wheats. This paper summarizes current knowledge and critical issues for commercialization including evolution of GM wheats, agronomic competitiveness, consumer acceptance, traits, regulatory issues, segregation, identity preservation, production and marketing risks, and discusses the marketing system likely to evolve.', 'en_US'),
(2641, 'Biotech and planted trees: some economic and regulatory issues.', 'In recent years, the application of biotechnology to agriculture has resulted in a host of changes and innovations. Transgenic (genetically modified) crops are now common in much of North American agriculture. Transgenic forestry is not yet at that level of commercial application. However, there are numerous biotechnological innovations under development in forestry, many of them adapted from agriculture. This paper provides an introduction and background into transgenic trees and forestry. It then discusses some aspects of the economic potential and the regulatory system related to transgenic trees.', 'en_US'),
(2642, 'Consumer acceptance of genetically modified food products in the developing world.', 'Worldwide consumer response toward food products made from genetically modified (GM) ingredients has been largely negative. However, the majority of the previous studies on consumer attitudes towards food products were conducted in developed countries in Europe as well as Japan. The small number of studies conducted in developing nations obtain different results from those of the developed world. This paper considers the motivations for consumer attitudes towards genetically modified foods in developing nations. We conclude that the generally positive perception towards GM foods in developing nations stems from more urgent needs in terms of food availability and nutritional content. Additionally, perceived levels of risk may be smaller due to trust in government, positive perceptions of science, and positive media influences. This is contrary to the smaller benefits and higher perceived risks found in many developed countries, and hence, the rational for low or non-acceptance of GM foods in those countries.', 'en_US'),
(2643, 'Risk perceptions of urban Italian and United States consumers for genetically modified foods.', 'The effects of Italian and US consumers'' risk perceptions, knowledge and awareness of GM foods, and trust in government agencies on willingness to buy GM foods is examined. Results indicated that effects of risk perception of GM foods to human health and the environment are similar between urban consumers in Italy and the United States. However, Italian consumers were found to be more sensitive to the potential risks that GM foods may pose to human health and the environment, relative to the US consumer. In general, Italians were also less likely to purchase GM foods relative to US consumers.', 'en_US'),
(2644, 'Acceptance of genetically modified foods.', 'This study examines the role of product benefits and potential risks in consumer acceptance of genetically modified (GM) foods. The study analyzes consumer willingness to consume three meat products that confer specific benefits with an inherent risk. Results indicate that respondents who were provided both the product benefit and risk information were less likely to consume the three GM food products than those who were only provided the product benefit information. Results also suggest that males are consistently more likely to consume the three GM products than females. Those who take the time to read food labels were also consistently less likely to consume the three products considered in this study. Differences in social or political values (i.e., conservative or liberal) and trust in private and public entities were not significant factors affecting consumers'' willingness to accept GM foods.', 'en_US'),
(2645, 'Using a spatial and stage-structured invasion model to assess the spread of feral populations of transgenic oilseed rape.', 'The risk of roadside verge invasion by transgenic plants is favoured when a cultivated species can persist outside fields as feral populations. We chose oilseed rape as a model species to evaluate the spread of genetically modified herbicide tolerant (GMHT) feral populations under selection pressure (herbicide spraying) in the medium term. We developed a stepwise invasion model that combines stage-structured dynamics (via a leslie matrix) and seed dispersal (via a mixture of two kernels) within an integro-differential equation. Modelling choices were made to conform to our intention to obtain methodological insight about the necessity to integrate long-distance seed dispersal in models of gene flow among oilseed rape. We thus assumed that roadside verges are a one-dimensional and uniformly suitable habitat and that events of dispersal and demography are deterministic. We performed elasticity analyses of population growth rate and invasion speed to highlight the determinants of population demography and spread. Rare events of long-distance dispersal controlled population spread. The risk of road verge invasion by feral populations of GMHT oilseed rape under selection pressure is thus real and does exist, since it was proved experimentally that oilseed rape can be dispersed by vehicles. Models of oilseed rape should then include long-distance seed dispersal otherwise they would underestimate feral population spread. Population growth rate and invasion speed depended on the same demographic transitions, i.e. those including local recruitment (local production of new individuals), but not on the persistence of seeds in the seed bank. Therefore, plant sterilisation would be more efficient to limit feral population spread than selection of cultivars without seed dormancy. The assumptions made about habitat continuity and homogeneity were consistent in the framework of this stepwise approach. However, integrating habitat heterogeneity and stochasticity would improve this invasion model.', 'en_US'),
(2646, 'Strategic environmental assessments for genetically modified organisms.', 'Genetically modified crops appear to provide a promising option in finding sustainable solutions to end global hunger and poverty, but strategic decisions need to be made on how to spend limited agricultural research funds. Potentially, strategic environmental assessment (SEA) may be used as part of an environmental management system to introduce mainstreaming of environmental considerations in the policy research and priority-setting process of development organizations to help achieve international development goals. This paper sets out a possible biotechnology SEA process that integrates qualitative and quantitative assessments with a focus on risk assessment and management within the SEA and policy environmental assessment frameworks. It uses the International Association for Impact Assessment six performance criteria for SEAs: integration; sustainability; focus; accountability; participation; and iteration.', 'en_US'),
(2647, 'Insect communities on maize expressing a Bt-toxin.', 'The maize cultivar Monumental MON810 was used to examine the environmental impact of the plant-expressed Bacillus thuringiensis toxin Cry 1 Ab. The Bt-maize was planted on five plots and alternated with five similar plots seeded with the non-transgenic parental cultivar. The whole field was treated with Guardian EC herbicide before sowing and again after maize germination. Samples of plants were analyzed for Cry 1 Ab expression and the presence of insects in 2 or 3-week intervals. The toxin was present in leaves and stems throughout the season and efficiently prevented maize attack by the European corn borer, Ostrinia nubialis, which occurred only on the non-Bt maize. Aphids, thrips and Orius bugs dominated among the plant-dwelling non-target insects. Their occurrence was not affected by toxin expression. The results indicate that the presence of Cry 1Ab in maize is lethal for O. nubialis, but innocuous for the non-lepidopteran insects that are associated with maize.', 'en_US'),
(2648, 'Engineered crops: transgenes go wild.', 'Genetically modified Agrostis stolonifera has escaped from cultivation. For the first time, a herbicide-resistant perennial weed has established itself in wild populations.', 'en_US'),
(2649, 'Safety testing of GM-rice expressing PHA-E lectin using a new animal test design.', 'The 90-day animal study is the core study for the safety assessment of genetically modified foods in the SAFOTEST project. The model compound tested in the 90-day study was a rice variety expressing the kidney bean Phaseolus vulgaris lectin agglutinin E-form (PHA-E lectin). Female Wistar rats were given a nutritionally balanced purified diet with 60% parental rice, 60% PHA-E rice or 60% PHA-E rice spiked with 0.1% recombinant PHA-E lectin for 90 days. This corresponded to a mean daily PHA-E lectin intake of approximately 0, 30 and 100 mg/kg body weight for each group, respectively. The spiking was used to increase the specificity and to demonstrate the sensitivity of the study. A range of biological, biochemical, microbiological and pathological parameters were examined and significant differences in weight of small intestine, stomach and pancreas and plasma biochemistry were seen between groups. Included in this paper are also data from the molecular characterisation and chemical analysis of the PHA-E rice, from the construction and production of the PHA-E lectin, and from the preceding 28-day in vivo study where the toxicity of the pure PHA-E lectin was determined. In conclusion, the combined use of information from the compositional analysis, the 28-day study and the characterisation of the PHA-E rice and the PHA-E lectin has improved the design of the 90-day study. The spiking procedure has facilitated the interpretation of the results of the study and transferred it into a valuable tool for the future safety testing of genetically modified foods.', 'en_US'),
(2650, 'A 90-day safety study in Wistar rats fed genetically modified rice expressing snowdrop lectin Galanthus nivalis (GNA)', 'Genetically modified plants expressing insecticidal traits offer a new strategy for crop protection, but at the same time present a challenge in terms of food safety assessment. The present 90-day feeding study was designed to assess the safety of a rice variety expressing the snowdrop Galanthus nivalis lectin (GNA lectin), and forms part of a EU-funded project where the objective has been to develop and validate sensitive and specific methods to assess the safety of genetically modified foods. Male and female Wistar rats were given a purified diet containing either 60% genetically modified or parental rice for 90 days. This corresponds to a mean daily GNA lectin intake of approximately 58 and 67 mg/kg body weight for males and females, respectively. Prior to the animal study comprehensive analytical characterization of both rice materials was performed. The chemical analyses showed a number of statistically significant differences, with the majority being within the ranges reported in the literature. In the animal study a range of clinical, biological, immunological, microbiological and pathological parameters were examined. A number of significant differences were seen between groups fed the two diets, but none of them were considered to be adverse. In conclusion, the design of the present animal study did not enable us to conclude on the safety of the GM food. Additional group(s) where the expressed gene products have been spiked to the diet should be included in order to be able to distinguish whether the observed effects were due to the GNA lectin per se or to secondary changes in the GM rice.', 'en_US'),
(2651, 'Expression of Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Ac protein in cotton plants, acquisition by pests and predators: a tritrophic analysis.', '1. Studies have shown that Cry proteins of the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis expressed in transgenic plants can be acquired by nontarget herbivores and predators. A series of studies under field and controlled conditions was conducted to investigate the extent to which Cry1Ac protein from Bt transgenic cotton reaches the third trophic level and to measure the amount of protein that herbivores can acquire and expose to predators.2. Levels of Cry1Ac in Bt cotton leaves decreased over the season. Among herbivores (four species), Cry1Ac was detected in lepidopteran larvae and the amount varied between species. Among predators (seven species), Cry1Ac was detected in Podisus maculiventris and Chrysoperla rufilabris.3. In the greenhouse, only 14% of the Cry1Ac detected in the prey (Spodoptera exigua larvae) was subsequently found in the predator P. maculiventris. Detection of Cry1Ac protein in Orius insidiosus, Geocoris punctipes and Nabis roseipennis was probably limited by the amount of prey consumed that had fed on Bt cotton.4. Purified Cry1Ac was acquired by the small predatory bug G. punctipes but at much higher concentration than found in plants or in lepidopteran larvae.5. Bt protein was shown to move through prey to the third trophic level. Predatory heteropterans acquired Cry1Ac from prey fed Bt cotton, but acquisition was dependent on the concentration of Cry1Ac conveyed by the prey and the amount of prey consumed. The type and availability of prey capable of acquiring the protein, coupled with the generalist feeding behaviour of the most common predators in the cotton ecosystem, probably constrain the flow of Cry1Ac through trophic levels.', 'en_US'),
(2652, 'Adsorption of the pesticidal toxin from Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. tenebrionis on tropical soils and their particle-size fractions.', 'Genetically modified crops, which produce Bacillus thuringiensis toxins, release the toxins into soils through root exudates and upon decomposition of residues. Several studies showed that Bacillus thuringiensis toxins adsorbed on pure clay minerals and model clay-OM or oxides associations as well as on soils. We determined the adsorption of the toxin from Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. tenebrionis (Btt), active against Coleoptera, on tropical soils and their constituents. Particle-size fractions were separated from a vertisol, an alfisol and an oxisol and the role of constituents of the clay-size fractions was analysed using clay-size fractions from which specific components had been extracted. The adsorbed amounts and affinities of the soil were in the order, oxisol < alfisol < vertisol. Clay-size fractions adsorbed more, with higher affinities and less reversibility, than the silt or particulate organic matter fractions or bulk soils. In the clay-size fractions, organic matter increased adsorption whereas Fe oxides decreased it, and the mineralogy had a prominent role. Smectitic clay fractions adsorbed much more of the toxin from Btt than kaolinitic ones, in relation with the surface area and charge of these minerals. The features of adsorption of the toxin from Btt on tropical soils and their constituents show that the toxin is likely to be retained by soil after cropping with transgenic plants.', 'en_US'),
(2653, 'Review of the development of methodology for evaluating the human allergenic potential of novel proteins.', 'Safety assessment of novel proteins in genetic-engineered foods is a key component of the overall safety evaluation for these products. Since allergens are typically proteins, assessment of the potential allergenicity of the novel proteins in genetically engineered foods is critical. This article reviews methods available to assess the potential allergenicity of novel proteins, as well as problems and deficiencies in the existing methods. The role of bioinformatics and knowledge of allergenic epitopes in developing new approaches to this problem is discussed.', 'en_US'),
(2654, 'Biosafety in Populus spp. and other forest trees: from non-native species to taxa derived from traditional breeding and genetic engineering.', 'Forest trees are fundamental components of our environment, mainly due to their long lifetime and important role in forest ecology. In the past, some non-native tree species and taxa from traditional breeding have induced severe environmental impacts such as biological invasion, changes in the ''gene pool'', and spread of diseases in forestry. Genetically modified trees obtained in different research groups worldwide are particularly confronted with increased concerns regarding biosafety issues. In the light of current biosafety research worldwide, various threats facing forests and natural tree populations are evaluated in this review: biological invasions, horizontal gene transfer, vertical gene transfer and effects on other organisms. Results available from groups working in biosafety research and risk avoidance using forest trees, with emphasis on transgenic trees, are reviewed. Independent biosafety research as well as the establishment of biosafety research programs for forest trees financed by national and international authorities is now more important than ever before. Biosafety problems detected in the past clearly show the importance of a prior case-by-case evaluation of non-native species, new taxa and also genetically modified trees according to the precautionary principle before their release to avoid risks to the environment and human health.', 'en_US'),
(2655, 'Digestion assays in allergenicity assessment of transgenic proteins.', 'The food-allergy risk assessment for transgenic proteins expressed in crops is currently based on a weight-of-evidence approach that holistically considers multiple lines of evidence. This approach recognizes that no single test or property is known to distinguish allergens from nonallergens. The stability of a protein to digestion, as predicted by an in vitro simulated gastric fluid assay, currently is used as one element in the risk assessment process. A review of the literature on the use of the simulated gastric fluid assay to predict the allergenic status of proteins suggests that more extensive kinetic studies with well-characterized reference proteins are required before the predictive value of this assay can be adequately judged.', 'en_US'),
(2656, 'Diamondback moth resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis transgenic canola: evaluation of refugia size with non-recessive resistant insects.', 'Current recommendations to delay the evolution of resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis crops are that a minimum of 5-50% of a crop-growing region should include non-B. thuringiensis varieties as refuges. These recommendations are based in part on the assumption that resistance will be inherited as a recessive trait. Laboratory microcosm experiments are described with transgenic canola expressing Cry1Ac and a non-recessive Cry1Ac resistant population of the diamondback moth Plutella xylostella, in which the effect of different sizes of refugia (0%, 20% and 50%) on resistance was compared over five generations. The LC50 values for Cry1Ac increased markedly in the P. xylostella sub-populations with 0% (>100-fold) and 20% refugia (>35-fold) but showed little change (less than fivefold increase) with 50% refugia. The results support the idea that relatively high levels of refugia (non-B. thuringiensis varieties) may be required where resistance is not functionally recessive at the level of toxin expressed in the B. thuringiensis crop.', 'en_US'),
(2657, 'Investigating GM risk perceptions: A survey of anti-GM and environmental campaign group members.', 'This study investigates how members of anti-GM campaign groups and environment groups perceive the risks and benefits of genetically modified (GM) technology in food and agriculture. The study targeted these groups as the most risk-averse sector of society when considering GM technology. Survey respondents were asked to rank the current and future risks and benefits of GM and to rank GM risks against other health risks. Respondents appear to be unconvinced by the claims that future GM technologies will provide additional consumer (or environmental) benefit, since perceived future risks were ranked more highly than future benefits. Results support the claim that there is an inverse relationship between perceived risk and perceived benefit. Results also suggest that among the respondents there are differences of opinion regarding the degree of risk to health posed by the technology. Women and people living in rural areas, on average, ranked risks more highly than men and people living in urban areas. This study serves to fill a void in the understanding of the perceptions of anti-GM campaigners.', 'en_US'),
(2658, 'Impact of Transgenic Bt Maize Residues on the Mycotoxigenic Plant Pathogen Fusarium graminearum and the Biocontrol Agent Trichoderma atroviride.', 'Transformation of maize with genes encoding for insecticidal crystal (Cry) proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) could have an impact on the saprophytic survival of plant pathogens and their antagonists on crop residues. We assessed potential effects on the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON)-producing wheat and maize pathogen Fusarium graminearum and on the biocontrol agent Trichoderma atroviride. Purified Cry1Ab protein caused no growth inhibition of these fungi on agar plates. Cry1Ab concentrations above levels common in Bt maize tissue stimulated the growth of F. graminearum. The fungi were also grown on -radiation-sterilized leaf tissue of four Bt maize hybrids and their non transgenic isolines collected at maize maturity on a field trial in 2002 and 2003. Both fungi degraded the Cry1Ab protein in Bt maize tissue. Fungal biomass quantification with microsatellite-based polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays revealed differential fungal growth on leaf tissue of different maize varieties but no consistent difference between corresponding Bt and non-Bt hybrids. Generally, year of maize tissue collection had a greater impact on biomass production than cultivar or Bt transformation. The mycotoxin DON levels observed in maize tissue experiments corresponded with patterns in F. graminearum biomass, indicating that Bt transformation has no impact on DON production. In addition to bioassays, maize leaf tissue was analyzed with a mass spectrometer?based electronic nose, generating fingerprints of volatile organic compounds. Chemical fingerprints of corresponding Bt and non-Bt leaf tissues differed only for those hybrid pairs that caused differential fungal biomass production in the bioassays. Our results suggest that Cry1Ab protein in maize residues has no direct effect on F. graminearum and T. atroviride but some corresponding Bt/non-Bt maize hybrids differ more in composition than Cry protein content alone, which can affect the saprophytic growth of fungi on crop residues.', 'en_US'),
(2659, 'A 3-year field-scale monitoring of foliage-dwelling spiders (Araneae) in transgenic Bt maize fields and adjacent field margins.', 'Concerns have been raised that genetically modified Bt maize may harm non-target organisms, and there is a general call and need for a risk assessment of Bt maize. Spiders are important pest predators in agroecosystems and in maize, and can be exposed to the Bt toxin by herbivorous or pollen-collecting prey, by active Bt maize pollen feeding, and by ingesting their pollen-dusted webs. The foliage-dwelling spider fauna of Bt maize fields and adjacent margins was monitored and compared to non-transgenic maize fields. The study took place during the vegetation seasons of 2001?2003 in Bavaria, South Germany. Maize fields and adjacent nettle field margins were colonized by a typical spider assemblage, dominated by space-web spiders (Theridiidae and Linyphiidae). Abundance and species richness of spiders was higher in nettle margins than in maize fields. The proportion of hunting spiders tended to be higher in nettle margins, whereas space-web spiders tended to be more frequent in maize fields. Bt maize showed no consistent effect on individual numbers, species richness and guild structure of spiders in maize fields and adjacent nettle field margin strips. The spider abundance was higher in Bt treatments in 2003, whereas in 2001 and 2002 no significant differences were found. The results provide an important contribution for the implementation of case-specific and general surveillance of transgenic plants to be employed due to the regulations of the European Community.', 'en_US'),
(2660, 'Kernel lot distribution assessment (KeLDA): a study on the distribution of GMO in large soybean shipments', 'The reliability of analytical testing is strongly affected by sampling uncertainty. Sampling is always a source of error and the aim of ''good'' sampling practice is to minimize this error. Generally the distribution of genetically modified (GM) material within lots is assumed to be random in order to use binomial distribution to make inferences. This assumption was never verified in practice and no experimental data investigating the distribution of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) exist. The objectives of the KeLDA project were: (1) to assess the distribution of GM material in soybean lots (2) to estimate the amount of variability of distribution patterns among lots. The GM content of 15 soybean lots imported into the EU was estimated (using real-time PCR methodology) analyzing 100 increment samples systematically sampled from each lot at predetermined time intervals during the whole period of off-loading. The distribution of GM material was inferred by the one-dimensional (temporal) distribution of contaminated increments. All the lots display significant spatial structuring, indicating that randomness cannot be assumed a priori. The evidence that the distribution of GM material is heterogeneous highlights the need to develop sampling protocols based on statistical models free of distribution requirements.', 'en_US'),
(2661, 'Engineering cottonseed for use in human nutrition by tissue-specific reduction of toxic gossypol.', 'Global cottonseed production can potentially provide the protein requirements for half a billion people per year; however, it is woefully underutilized because of the presence of toxic gossypol within seed glands. Therefore, elimination of gossypol from cottonseed has been a long-standing goal of geneticists. Attempts were made to meet this objective by developing so-called ''glandless cotton'' in the 1950s by conventional breeding techniques; however, the glandless varieties were commercially unviable because of the increased susceptibility of the plant to insect pests due to the systemic absence of glands that contain gossypol and other protective terpenoids. Thus, the promise of cottonseed in contributing to the food requirements of the burgeoning world population remained unfulfilled. We have successfully used RNAi to disrupt gossypol biosynthesis in cottonseed tissue by interfering with the expression of the -cadinene synthase gene during seed development. We demonstrate that it is possible to significantly reduce cottonseed-gossypol levels in a stable and heritable manner. Results from enzyme activity and molecular analyses on developing transgenic embryos were consistent with the observed phenotype in the mature seeds. Most relevant, the levels of gossypol and related terpenoids in the foliage and floral parts were not diminished, and thus their potential function in plant defense against insects and diseases remained untouched. These results illustrate that a targeted genetic modification, applied to an underutilized agricultural byproduct, provides a mechanism to open up a new source of nutrition for hundreds of millions of people.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(2662, 'Early-tier tests insufficient for GMO risk assessment.', 'As field ecologists involved in risk assessment research on Bacillus thuringiensis toxin (Bt)-maize in Europe for several years now, we are very pleased that the publication last January of an article by Romeis et al. (Nat. Biotechnol. 24, 63-71, 2006) and an earlier paper by Firbank et al. Nat. Biotechnol. (23, 1475-1476, 2005) is encouraging discussion of the development of environmental risk assessment (ERA) of genetically modified organisms (GMOs). We hope that dialog stimulated by these articles will aid the design and further development of ERA. With regard to this, Romeis et al. claim that the first-tier laboratory experiments ''are relatively simple in design [...] and the results are easy to interpret.'' This may be true, but we question whether this automatically makes them ecologically meaningful, as seems to be the implication. With regard to any ERA, we would also point out that (i) acute exposure testing is not sufficient, (ii) region-specific tests need to be performed and (iii) that field tests need to be carried out.Of immediate relevance to an ERA of predators and parasitoids is the case of Bt maize and its nontarget effects on (in particular, protected) butterflies, which has attracted considerable attention and provided several useful lessons. After a laboratory study1 describing a potentially adverse effect of Bt-maize pollen consumption on the Monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus), extensive laboratory and field studies have been funded to investigate the potential risk of Bt-maize cultivation for the Monarch and other butterfly species2. In some of these studies3, 4, first-instar butterfly larvae were fed with Bt-pollen in excess for two to three days and the subsequent effects recorded, claiming ''worst case conditions'' based on the fact that the larvae were force fed with a huge amount of pollen. The butterfly larvae were unaffected by the pollen of MON 810 and other events (in contrast to pollen of the event Bt176). In the decision-tree proposed by Romeis et al., the ERA for MON 810 would have then stopped. However, Monarch butterflies are negatively affected when first-instar larvae are exposed to naturally occurring concentrations of MON 810 pollen over a continuous and realistic time period5. This may or may not have consequences at the population level; indeed, it was concluded it is more likely not to, because of a low exposure of the entire Monarch population to pollen-shedding Bt-maize fields. Even so, early-tiered tests, as suggested by Romeis et al. would have failed to identify the potential risk. An acute dose, even if several times higher than would be expected in the field, is not equivalent to a low natural dose experienced over a longer period, and there can be a great difference in the effects between acute and chronic exposure.Results of experiments conducted by Darvas et al.6 have also shown that MON 810 pollen may negatively affect first-instar larvae of a Hungarian protected species, the Peacock butterfly (Inachis io). ERA must be region specific, as required by the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. For example, there are 187 protected Lepidoptera species in the Pannon Biogeographical Region, and especially species living on nettles (Urtica spp.) have larvae that are potentially affected by corn pollen shedding7. The corn-nettle association is the third most frequent plant relationship at cornfield perimeters in Hungary7. Tests have also revealed that the first-instar larvae of the Peacock butterfly are extremely sensitive to the Bt spray DIPEL, which contains Cry1 and Cry2 toxins (LC50 = 1 p.p.m.); the same is also true for larvae of the Comma butterfly (Polygonia c-album), another rare species living on nettles (LC50 = 19 p.p.m.). These values appear to be much lower than for lepidopteran pests in corn (suggested concentration of 500-1,000 p.p.m. in plant protection practice)8.Many laboratory tests for GMO effects consider acute toxicity9, although chronic exposure is typical for Bt-corn and other transgenic insect-resistant crops. Moreover, the ''worst case conditions'' mentioned and performed by Romeis et al. are not in fact worst-case scenarios for lepidopteran larvae and for other invertebrate test organisms. Laboratory settings with ample food supply and favorable climatic conditions ensure that animals are in good condition, giving them an advantage when exposed to Cry toxins. In a ''real'' worst case (under natural conditions), additional stressors, such as low temperatures, rain, food shortage or especially parasites and diseases10, 11 are likely to exacerbate a Bt effect on butterfly larvae. For example, Peacock butterfly larval populations are regularly reduced by a viral pathogen (cypovirus 2) and some parasitoids (Sturmia bella, Tachinidae and some Chalcidoidea) in Hungary. These controlling agents may divide a single population into different susceptible and tolerant subpopulations, modulating the effect of an additional pathogenic factor, such as Cry1Ab toxin-contaminated food.In conclusion, toxicological early-tier laboratory tests may be simple to run and to interpret, but they will often be overly simplistic with respect to realistic exposure to hazardous agents (as exemplified by temporally delayed effects of Cry toxins, cypovirus 2, Sturmia bella parasitosis) and modulating environmental factors (the latter either increasing or decreasing a potentially adverse GMO effect). In consequence, there is a strong trade-off between simplicity of the ERA and its uncertainty. ERA should be handled flexibly and on a case-by-case basis, but field experiments should not be excluded in principle simply because early-tier tests indicate no harmful effects, at least not without sound and case-specific reasoning. Laboratory tests, as suggested by Romeis et al. are not worst case for Lepidoptera larvae owing to other factors influencing the final impact; therefore, one cannot discontinue investigation when early-tiered tests do not indicate an adverse effect.Finally, the same Bt-plant (or other transgenic event) can generate different ecological consequences in different biogeographical regions. For these reasons, we strongly advocate additional field or semi-field tests in ERA of genetically modified crops, regardless of early-tier results. In particular, semi-field and/or field tests should be conducted in cases where indirect effects are to be expected, for example, when the genetically modified plant itself is a stressor in addition to the introduced transgenic trait, or where effects are triggered by land-use changes after large-scale cultivation of GMOs (as mentioned by Firbank et al.). This is not motivated by a search for what Romeis et al. term ''subtle'' effects; in some cases, it may be the only way to detect any effect at all, including one of considerable significance. To simplify ERA for reasons of convenient administration or management procedure is not acceptable if it means simplifying and even ignoring existing, relevant biological knowledge.', 'en_US'),
(2663, 'Reply to early-tier tests insufficient for GMO risk assessment.', 'Lang et al. express concerns regarding the ecological risk assessment (ERA) approach that we refer to in our Perspective1. They have not addressed the focus of our paper. The real value of our article is the analysis of the studies that have addressed the impact of Bt-transgenic crops on natural enemies and the conclusions drawn for improving future studies for nontarget risk assessment of transgenic plants. In the following, we respond to the three points they raise.Their first point is that acute exposure testing is not sufficient. We never stated that risk assessment studies in the laboratory are restricted to short-term (acute) exposure testing. For a meaningful risk assessment study, measurement endpoints need to be identified that reflect the endpoints of the risk assessment (e.g., populations of nontarget organisms). The design of a study furthermore depends on the known mode of action of the insecticidal protein and the known routes and level of exposure2. The decision tree we propose in our paper (Fig. 1 in ref. 1) is not a risk assessment for laboratory studies. It is a guide for experimenters to perform meaningful studies that can be well interpreted.In their second point, Lang et al. highlight the need for region-specific tests. We fully agree that a nontarget risk assessment needs to take the receiving environment into account2. It is unclear, however, what Lang et al. mean by ''region-specific tests'' and how they would conduct such tests (in the laboratory or in the field). There is evidence that Cry1Ab toxin in Bt maize pollen or anthers is a hazard to some larvae of nontarget butterflies; however, hazard does not automatically equate to risk, unless exposure also is demonstrated. For many species, it may be sufficient to assess risk by focusing on exposure. Such an assessment would entail evaluating the potential temporal and spatial overlap of larval stages with maize flowering. This is especially important for many protected or red-list species where no information about the sensitivity toward the Bt toxin is available and cannot be generated3.Their last point strongly advocates that the ERA of transgenic crops should always include field tests. They base this request on two main assumptions: first, field assessment is necessary to address indirect effects of the transgenic crop; and second, results from laboratory studies will never conclude that a transgenic crop poses no risk for nontarget organisms in the field.With respect to indirect effects, such as those due to the transformation process, Lang et al. ignore the fact that all transgenic plants will be assessed as to their familiarity and substantial equivalence compared with their nontransformed near isolines and with commercial crop varieties before commercialization. This includes a detailed characterization of the plant under field conditions. On the basis of this detailed assessment, risk assessors will define the potential stressors that need to be addressed in the ERA4. If the transgenic plant does not differ from its near isoline, the stressor that needs to be assessed is simply the introduced trait (e.g., the expressed Cry protein) and not the whole plant. In cases where substantial differences are detected, these characters become additional stressors that also need to be evaluated.By rejecting the principle that a risk conclusion can be drawn after an assessment in the laboratory, Lang et al. oppose the step-wise (tiered) risk assessment approach that is generally applied for other environmental stressors, including plant protection products5, 6, 7. Early-tier studies, typically (but not always) performed in the laboratory, are conducted to determine whether the stressor poses a hazard for nontarget organisms at elevated doses. Only in cases where a hazard has been detected (and the degree of risk or uncertainty is deemed unacceptable), does the risk assessment proceed to more realistic hazard and exposure scenarios. This approach does include semi-field or field experiments whenever they add certainty to the risk assessment. If early-tier studies show the absence of a hazard with high enough certainty, however, the assessment can be terminated. The fact that Lang et al. request field studies ''regardless of early-tier [laboratory] results'' shows that they have no confidence in laboratory studies. If this is the case, then such studies should not be conducted because they are of little use for a risk assessment. In our Perspective, we propose ways to increase the quality of laboratory studies and the interpretability of the data (see the four questions laid out in Fig. 1 in ref. 1).Lang et al. refer to the Monarch butterfly case study to show the shortcomings of laboratory risk assessment studies. In contrast to their interpretation, we are convinced that the Monarch case provides an excellent example on how the tiered risk assessment works when a hazard has been detected. Because toxicological studies have established sensitivity of Monarch larvae to the Cry1Ab protein in Bt maize, higher-tier risk assessment studies were triggered to assess exposure and population level effects8, 9, 10, 11. Similarly, if Cry1Ab containing pollen appears to affect larvae of the Hungarian Peacock butterfly, as stated by Lang et al., more comprehensive assessment (and perhaps testing) will be needed and, depending on the degree and nature of concern, this may extend to field testing. We are of the opinion, however, that an a priori rejection of laboratory findings and uniform institution of field testing-as described by Lang et al.-is neither objective nor consistent with well-recognized approaches to risk assessment. Because results of the Peacock butterfly studies are not published, we are not able to evaluate this case. Similarly, the Scientific Panel on Genetically Modified Organisms of the European Food Safety Authority has recently discounted these reports because they do not contain scientific data ''which can be subjected to detailed scientific scrutiny''12.Because of the impact of several confounding factors, large variability is generally found within treatments in field testing. The fact that these interfering factors can mask potential effects by the stressor (the Cry protein) has been referred to by Ludy and Lang13 as one possible factor to explain why a three-year, field-scale monitoring project did not reveal any effects of Bt maize on foliage-dwelling spiders. The consideration of field studies as preferable to laboratory studies is therefore untenable. Furthermore, the conduct of field studies without first establishing the scope and nature of concern through laboratory studies (which is accommodated under tiered regimes) is not a sound way to either conduct science or risk assessment.The risk assessment approach that we described briefly in our Perspective in no respect aims to ''simplify ERA for reasons of convenient administration or management procedure'' by ''simplifying and even ignoring existing, relevant biological knowledge.'' Thorough knowledge of certain biological and ecological features of a nontarget organism is a prerequisite to conduct a meaningful and robust tiered risk assessment. Information that would be ''nice to know'' about all possible interactions between a nontarget organism, its host plant(s) and external impacts cannot be allowed to supplant the ''need to know'' parameters of practical regulatory risk assessment.', 'en_US'),
(2664, 'Characterization of Roundup Ready Flex cotton, ''MON 88913'', for use in ecological risk assessment - evaluation of seed germination, vegetative and reproductive growth, and ecological interactions.', 'Biological and ecological data collected on a genetically modified crop and an appropriate control are useful for assessing potential ecological risk. Specific characteristics studied are selected on the basis of relevance to potential ecological effects, are well known, and are accepted by plant breeders. In these studies, germination, vegetative and reproductive growth, or ecological characteristics of Roundup Ready Flex cotton, MON 88913 were compared with a negative control, MON 88913(-). Statistically significant differences, when detected, were considered in the context of the genetic variation known to occur in cotton and their potential impact on plant pest (weed) potential (ecological risk). Experimental results revealed no effects of the genetic modification that would result in increased pest potential or ecological risk of MON 88913 compared with MON 88913(-).', 'en_US'),
(2665, 'An integrated impact assessment and weighting methodology: Evaluation of the environmental consequences of computer display technology substitution.', 'Computer display technology is currently in a state of transition, as the traditional technology of cathode ray tubes is being replaced by liquid crystal display flat-panel technology. Technology substitution and process innovation require the evaluation of the trade-offs among environmental impact, cost, and engineering performance attributes. General impact assessment methodologies, decision analysis and management tools, and optimization methods commonly used in engineering cannot efficiently address the issues needed for such evaluation. The conventional Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) process often generates results that can be subject to multiple interpretations, although the advantages of the LCA concept and framework obtain wide recognition. In the present work, the LCA concept is integrated with Quality Function Deployment (QFD), a popular industrial quality management tool, which is used as the framework for the development of our integrated model. The problem of weighting is addressed by using pairwise comparison of stakeholder preferences. Thus, this paper presents a new integrated analytical approach, Integrated Industrial Ecology Function Deployment (I2-EFD), to assess the environmental behavior of alternative technologies in correlation with their performance and economic characteristics. Computer display technology is used as the case study to further develop our methodology through the modification and integration of various quality management tools (e.g., process mapping, prioritization matrix) and statistical methods (e.g., multi-attribute analysis, cluster analysis). Life cycle thinking provides the foundation for our methodology, as we utilize a published LCA report, which stopped at the characterization step, as our starting point. Further, we evaluate the validity and feasibility of our methodology by considering uncertainty and conducting sensitivity analysis.', 'en_US'),
(2666, 'Potential gene flow from agricultural crops to native plant relatives in the Hawaiian Islands.', 'Island populations have a much higher risk of extinction than their mainland counterparts for a number of reasons. Particular concern has been voiced that gene flow and hybridization between agricultural crops and native plant species may exacerbate their precarious position, especially if the gene flow occurs from crops developed through recombinant DNA technologies. Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) and vertical gene transfer (VGT) are the two possible ways for gene flow and introgression to occur. VGT is more likely to facilitate gene transfer between agricultural crops and native plant species, although this too is dependent on a variety of factors. In this critical review phylogenetic tribal boundaries were used as a limit to hybridization potential. Overlap was found between agricultural crops and native species in four tribes: Heliantheae, Gossypieae, Solaneae, and Phaseoleae. In each tribe the factors which increase and decrease the likelihood of hybridization were evaluated and distribution analyses performed. In general, it is concluded that hybridization potentials are low for most species (except Gossypium tomentosum that is known to hybridize with its cultivated relatives), however, small scale pollination studies should be performed for each tribe to quantify the risk and to better manage populations of native species.', 'en_US'),
(2667, 'Prediction of the naturalisation potential and weediness risk of transgenic cotton in Australia.', 'Climex® climate-matching and inferential-modelling was used to examine the naturalisation potential of genetically modified and non-transgenic Upland Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum variety hirsutum) in Australia north of latitude 22°S. The Climate-Match (CM) function was used to identify locations in north-east Australia where climate matches (CM Index > 0.7) the experimental sites of Eastick [Eastick, R., 2002. The Potential Weediness of Transgenic Cotton in Northern Australia. Northern Territory Department of Business, Industry and Resource Development Technical Bulletin No. 305 (Internet resource: http://cotton.pi.csiro.au/Assets/PDFFiles/TB3051.pdf)] in north-west Australia. Most of Australia north of 22°S had climate matching one or more of the sites of Eastick (2002), locations where cotton is highly unlikely to naturalise. Climex inferential models were developed using parameter values derived from the GOSSYM and OZCOT simulation models and validated against the documented distributions of (a) Indigenous G. hirsutum in Central America, (b) where it is naturalised in West Africa, and (c) Upland Cotton in West Africa. The climate-based predictions of potential distribution in Australia indicated that cotton has naturalisation potential only in the coastal regions of north-east Australia. The rest of Australia was either too cold, too dry, or both. These predictions were further refined through overlay of soil-nutrient and existing land-use data. The overlay of soil nutrient data further restricted the most suitable areas to coastal north-east Australia primarily in the wet tropics between latitudes 16°S and 19°S. Consideration of existing land-use patterns indicated that the probability of naturalisation in these potentially suitable areas was very low because these areas currently have either existing forests, or are used for managed agricultural systems, principally sugarcane. Competition from a suite of aggressive tropical weeds further reduced naturalisation potential. In less intensively managed and seasonally dry areas, fire was considered a major limitation to naturalisation of cotton. The Weed Risk Assessment (WRA) protocol, used by Biosecurity Australia to evaluate new plant importations into Australia, was used to produce an overall assessment of the weediness risk for non-transgenic, Bollgard II® and Roundup Ready® Flex cottons in north-east Australia. Because neither the Bollgard II® nor the Roundup Ready® characters conferred any advantage in the north-east Australia environment, the transgenic status of the plant did not alter the naturalisation potential or weediness risk. The WRA score of cotton in north-east Australia (-5) indicates that it has essentially zero risk of establishing as a weed in this area, especially when compared to WRA scores of other major crop plants and the competing weed species.', 'en_US'),
(2668, 'Occurrence and persistence of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) and transgenic Bt corn cry1Ab gene from an aquatic environment.', 'Genetically modified corn crops and suspensions of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) are currently used to control pest infestations of insects of the Lepidoptera family. For this purpose, the cry1Ab gene coding for protein ä-endotoxin derived from B. thuringiensis kurstaki (Btk), which is highly toxic to these insects, was inserted and expressed in corn. The aims of this study were to examine the occurrence and persistence of the cry1Ab gene from Btk and Bt corn in aquatic environments near fields where Bt corn was cultivated. First, an optimal DNA preparation and extraction methodology was developed to allow for quantitative gene analysis by real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) in various environmental matrices. Second, surface water and sediment were spiked in vitro with genomic DNA from Bt or Bt corn to evaluate the persistence of cry1Ab genes. Third, soil, sediment, and water samples were collected before seeding, 2 weeks after pollen release, and after corn harvesting and mechanical root remixing in soils to assess cry1Ab gene content. DNA was extracted with sufficient purity (i.e., low absorbance at 230 nm and absence of PCR-inhibiting substances) from soil, sediment, and surface water. The cry1Ab gene persisted for more than 21 and 40 days in surface water and sediment, respectively. The removal of bacteria by filtration of surface water samples did not significantly increase the half-life of the transgene, but the levels were fivefold more abundant than those in unfiltered water at the end of the exposure period. In sediments, the cry1Ab gene from Bt corn was still detected after 40 days in clay- and sand-rich sediments. Field surveys revealed that the cry1Ab gene from transgenic corn and from naturally occurring Bt was more abundant in the sediment than in the surface water. The cry1Ab transgene was detected as far away as the Richelieu and St. Lawrence rivers (82 km downstream from the corn cultivation plot), suggesting that there were multiple sources of this gene and/or that it undergoes transport by the water column. Sediment-associated cry1Ab gene from Bt corn tended to decrease with distance from the Bt cornfield. Sediment concentrations of the cry1Ab gene were significantly correlated with those of the cry1Ab gene in surface water (R=0.83;P=0.04). The data indicate that DNA from Bt corn and Bt were persistent in aquatic environments and were detected in rivers draining farming areas.', 'en_US'),
(2669, 'The effects of GMHT crops on bird abundance in arable fields in the UK.', 'Bird surveys were carried out in summer 2000 and winter 2000/2001 on 24 sugar beet fields, 11 maize fields, 10 spring rape fields and (for winter-only) 23 winter rape fields divided into conventional and genetically modified herbicide tolerant (GMHT) treatments. These fields were a sub-sample of those used in the farm scale evaluation (FSE [Firbank, L.G, Heard, M.S., Woiwod, I.P., Hawes, C., Haughton, A.J., Champion, G.T., Scott, R.J., Hill, M.O., Dewar, A.M., Squire, G.R., May, M.J., Brooks, D.R., Bohan, D.A., Daniels, R.E., Osborne, J.L., Roy, D.B., Black, H.I.J., Rothery, P., Perry, J.N., 2003. An introduction to the farm-scale evaluations of genetically modified herbicide tolerant crops. J. Appl. Ecol. 40, 2?16.]). The study aimed to compare bird abundance between GMHT and conventional crop treatments. In the summer, the abundance of yellowhammers Emberiza citrinella and of granivores collectively was significantly greater on conventional than GMHT sugar beet. Abundance of granivores and species richness was significantly greater on conventional than GMHT maize, but only after the application of herbicides to the GMHT treatment. No significant differences were detected in spring oilseed rape. No significant differences were detected prior to herbicide application in any crop. In winter, granivores were more abundant on bare plough following conventional sugar beet treatment than following GMHT treatment. Woodpigeon Columba palumbus, blackbird Turdus merula and corvids were more abundant on maize stubbles following GMHT treatment. These differences were in accord with likely differences in food availability ascertained from previous research carried out under the FSE.', 'en_US'),
(2670, 'Risk assessment of GM stacked events obtained from crosses between GM events.', 'The risk assessment of GM stacked events, which are considered as a new GMO in the EU, could be less extensive than the assessment of the parental GM events. This will be the case when the latter have been proven to be safe for the human health and the environment for the same uses as the GM stacked event. Criteria for the risk assessment of GM stacked events combining positively assessed GM parental lines are proposed. Molecular and comparative analysis data are put forward as minimum requirements. Additional food/feed safety testing and environmental studies are considered relevant on a case-by-case basis.', 'en_US'),
(2671, 'Declaration of allergens on the label of food products purchased on the European market.', 'The recent introduction of legislation concerning the declaration of allergenic ingredients on the label of food products within the European Union is aimed at a better protection of allergic consumers. The food industry plays a pivotal role in this protection by informing the consumer and declaring allergenic ingredients on the label of food products. Furthermore, the industry needs to manage allergens in order to avoid their unintentional presence in products. The current situation regarding the declaration of allergenic ingredients as well as precautionary warnings on food labels is discussed, and assessed by analysing the labels of 550 food products.', 'en_US'),
(2672, 'The nature and longevity of agricultural impacts on soil carbon and nutrients: A review.', 'Since the domestication of plant and animal species around 10,000 years ago, cultivation and animal husbandry have been major components of global change. Agricultural activities such as tillage, fertilization, and biomass alteration lead to fundamental changes in the pools and fluxes of carbon (C), nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P) that originally existed in native ecosystems. Land is often taken out of agricultural production for economic, social, or biological reasons, and the ability to predict the biogeochemical trajectory of this land is important to our understanding of ecosystem development and our projections of food security for the future. Tillage generally decreases soil organic matter (SOM) due to erosion and disruption of the physical, biochemical, and chemical mechanisms of SOM stabilization, but SOM can generally reaccumulate after the cessation of cultivation. The use of organic amendments causes increases in SOM on agricultural fields that can last for centuries to millennia after the termination of applications, although the locations that provide the organic amendments are concurrently depleted. The legacy of agriculture is therefore highly variable on decadal to millennial time scales and depends on the specific management practices that are followed during the agricultural period. State factors such as climate and parent material (particularly clay content and mineralogy) modify ecosystem processes such that they may be useful predictors of rates of postagricultural biogeochemical change. In addition to accurate biogeochemical budgets of postagricultural systems, ecosystem models that more explicitly incorporate mechanisms of SOM loss and formation with agricultural practices will be helpful. Developing this predictive capacity will aid in ecological restoration efforts and improve the management of modern agroecosystems as demands on agriculture become more pressing.', 'en_US'),
(2673, 'Approaches in the risk assessment of genetically modified foods by the Hellenic Food Safety Authority.', 'Risk analysis has become important to assess conditions and take decisions on control procedures. In this context it is considered a prerequisite in the evaluation of GM food. Many consumers worldwide worry that food derived from genetically modified organisms (GMOs) may be unhealthy and hence regulations on GMO authorisations and labelling have become more stringent. Nowadays there is a higher demand for non-GM products and these products could be differentiated from GM products using the identity preservation system (IP) that could apply throughout the grain processing system. IP is the creation of a transparent communication system that encompasses HACCP, traceability and related systems in the supply chain. This process guarantees that certain characteristics of the lots of food (non-GM origin) are maintained ''from farm to fork''.This article examines the steps taken by the Hellenic Food Safety Authority to examine the presence of GMOs in foods. The whole integrated European legislation framework currently in place still needs to be implemented in Greece. Penalties should be enforced to those who import, process GMOs without special licence and do not label those products. Similar penalties should be enforced to those companies that issue false certificates beyond the liabilities taken by the food enterprises for farmers'' compensation.We argue that Greece has no serious reasons to choose the use of GMOs due to the fact that the structural and pedologic characteristics of the Greek agriculture favour the biological and integrated cultivation more. Greece is not in favour of the politics behind coexistence of conventional and GM plants and objects to the use of GMOs in the food and the environment because the processor has a big burden in terms of money, time and will suffer a great deal in order to prove that their products are GMO free or that any contamination is adventitious or technically unavoidable.Moreover, Greece owns a large variety of genetic material that should try to protect from patenting and commercialisation. Finally, we should be aware of the requirements of movement of GMOs within borders, i.e. GMOs grown or used in other countries but which are not intended to cross into Greece, since Greece is very close to countries that are non-EU. This is where the development of a new, integrated, trustworthy and transparent food quality control system will help to satisfy the societal demands for safe and quality products. On the other hand, Greece should not be isolated from any recent scientific technological development and should assess the possible advantages for some cultivation using a case by case approach.Finally, the safety assessment of GM foods and feed has been discussed according to the risk assessment methodology applied by EFSA.', 'en_US'),
(2674, 'Thirteen week feeding study with transgenic maize grain containing event DAS-Ø15Ø7-1 in Sprague-Dawley rats.', 'Maize line 1507, containing event DAS-Ø15Ø7-1 (1507), is a genetically modified (GM) maize plant that expresses the cry1F gene from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) sbsp. aizawai and the phosphinothricin-N-acetyltransferase (pat) gene from Streptomyces viridochromogenes throughout the plant including in the grain expression of the Cry1F protein confers in planta resistance to the European corn borer (ECB; Ostrinia nubilalis Hübner: Crambidae) and other lepidopteran pests. Expression of the PAT protein confers tolerance to the herbicidal active ingredient glufosinate?ammonium. The current study evaluated the nutritional performance of rats fed diets containing 1507 maize grain in a subchronic rodent feeding study. The grains in this study, 1507, its near-isogenic control (33P66), and a non-GM commercial hybrid (33J56) contained similar amounts of proximates, amino acids, minerals, anti-nutrients, and secondary metabolites. The subchronic feeding study compared standard toxicology response variables in rats fed diets containing 1507 maize grain with those in rats fed diets containing non-GM maize grains. All diets were prepared according to the specifications of PMI® Nutrition International, LLC Certified Rodent LabDiet® 5002 (PMI® 5002). Diets were fed ad libitum to Sprague?Dawley rats for approximately 90 days. In-life response variables included indicators of dietary performance and weekly evaluations for clinical signs of toxicity. No toxicologically significant differences were observed in the nutritional performance variables, clinical and neurobehavioral signs, ophthalmology, clinical pathology (hematology, clinical chemistry, coagulation, and urinalysis), organ weights, and gross and microscopic pathology between any pair of treatment groups. These results demonstrate that 1507 maize grain is as safe and as nutritious as non-GM maize grain.', 'en_US'),
(2675, 'Biosafety in a globalized world.', 'Human beings and their activities have increased the changes occurring in the environment. Until recently the arrival of new organisms into geographically isolated environments was a rare event. Modern means of transportation have broken old geographic boundaries. Non-native organisms, when introduced to a new area, can out-compete native species, cause disease to, or destabilize and occasionally ultimately wipe out native species. Invasive species constitute a threat for biodiversity at the local and regional levels, since the spread of newcomers can alter the richness and abundance of the flora and fauna of the original ecosystem. As a result, native species are abruptly faced with new species and new environments with which they have had no evolutionary history.Some species have developed the capacity to adapt to new sites and to displace original populations. This phenomenon has been widely recorded and it is known as ''biological invasion.'' Many non-native plants have allowed increasing productivity in agriculture, becoming a fundamental part of human economy, whereas others have developed into serious ecological problems. However, besides (a) non-native plants, potential biosafety risk factors comprise two additional groups: (b) taxa resulting from traditional breeding, and (c) genetically modified plants (GMPs). The term ''biosafety,'' defined as the prevention of large-scale loss of biological diversity and integrity due to human activities1, has been often reduced to potential risks due to GMPs. However, non-native plants and pathogens, taxa resulting from traditional breeding and also GMPs are important issues for the biosafety sector.', 'en_US'),
(2676, 'Allergenicity of soybean: New developments in identification of allergenic proteins, cross-reactivities and hypoallergenization technologies.', 'Soybean is considered one of the ''big eight'' foods that are believed to be responsible for 90% of all allergenic reactions. Soy allergy is of particular importance, because soybeans are widely used in processed foods and, therefore, represent a particularly insidious source of hidden allergens. Although significant advances have been made in the identification and characterization of soybean allergens, scientists are not completely certain about which proteins in soy cause allergic reactions. At least 16 allergens have been identified. Most of them, as with other plant food allergens, have a metabolic, storage, or protective function. These allergens belong to protein families which have conserved structural features in relation with their biological activity, which explains the wide immunochemical cross-recognition observed among members of the legume family. Detailed analysis of the structure-allergenicity relationships has been hampered by the complexity and heterogeneity of soybean proteins. A variety of technological approaches have been attempted to decrease soybean allergenicity. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the current body of knowledge on the identification and characterization of soybean allergens, as well as an update on current hypoallergenization techniques.', 'en_US'),
(2677, 'On evaluating the GM nation? Public debate about the commercialisation of transgenic crops in Britain.', 'The public debate about GM crops that took place in Britain in 2002-03 was an unprecedented experiment for the UK in public engagement. The Government, which sponsored the exercise, made a pledge: to take into account lay perspectives, as well as the views of its expert advisers, when making a decision about the possible commercialisation of this controversial technology. As officially accredited but independent evaluators of the debate, we were given unique behind-the-scenes access to the organisation and execution of the debate process. In this paper we report on our findings, which reveal a debate process that, whilst innovative, suffered from a number of important flaws: in terms of both design and implementation. These shortcomings in part reflect constraints on time and budget, and the context of political pressure in which the debate took place. However, they also demonstrated a lack of design knowledge and availability of appropriate expertise: matters with an important bearing on future plans for such initiatives.', 'en_US'),
(2678, 'Abundance and diversity of ground-dwelling arthropods of pest management importance in commercial Bt and non-Bt cotton fields.', 'The modified population dynamics of pests targeted by the Cry1Ac toxin in Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) transgenic cotton (Bt cotton) and possible reduced insecticide use in these transgenic varieties may exert a variety of effects on ground-dwelling predator communities. A survey of ground-dwelling arthropods was carried out weekly each of 3?years (during the cropping season) in commercial Bt and non-Bt cotton fields. Sixty-five taxa of ground-dwelling arthropods (carabids, cicindelines, staphylinids, dermapterans, heteropterans and araneids) of importance for cotton pest management were recorded in the survey. Species abundance and dynamics across seasons were evaluated with univariate analysis of variance for higher taxa or multivariate principal response curve analysis for the whole community of 65 taxa. Diversity and richness indices and cumulative species curves also were calculated. The analyses demonstrated no differences in the ground-dwelling arthropod communities between cotton types. One araneid species, Pardosa pauxilla, comprised ~80% of all araneids, Labidura riparia comprised ~96% of all dermapterans, Megacephala carolina comprised ~97% of cicindelines and four carabid species (Selenophorus palliatus, Apristus latens, Harpalus gravis and Anisodactylus merula) comprised ~80% of carabid species. M.?carolina outnumbered all other collected species in each of the 3?years. When only predatory carabid species were considered, A.?merula, Calosoma sayi, Harpalus pennsylvanicus and Stenolophus ochropezus were predominant and numbers trapped were similar between cotton types. The abundance of dermapterans, staphylinids, araneids and heteropterans varied among sample dates and across seasons but did not differ between cotton types. The frequent capture of M.?carolina, S.?palliatus and P.?pauxilla in all fields and seasons in both cottons suggests that these species may be important for monitoring further changes in local communities as result of agricultural practices.', 'en_US'),
(2679, 'Plant native tryptophan synthase beta 1 gene is a non-antibiotic selection marker for plant transformation.', 'Gene transformation is an integral tool for plant genetic engineering. All antibiotic resistant genes currently employed are of bacterial origin and their presence in the field is undesirable. Therefore, we developed a novel and efficient plant native non-antibiotic selection system for the selection of transgenic plants in the model system Arabidopsis. This new system is based on the enhanced expression of Arabidopsis tryptophan synthase beta 1 (AtTSB1) and the use of 5-methyl-tryptophan (5MT, a tryptophan [Trp] analog) and/or CdCl2 as selection agent(s). We successfully integrated an expression cassette containing an AtTSB1 cDNA driven by a cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter into Arabidopsis by floral dip transformation. Transgenic plants were efficiently selected on MS medium supplemented with 75 ìM 5MT or 300 ìM CdCl2 devoid of antibiotics. TSB1 selection was as efficient as the conventional hygromycin selection system. Northern blot analysis of transgenic plants selected by 5MT and CdCl2 revealed increased TSB1 mRNA transcript whereas uneven transcript levels of hygromycin phosphotransferase II (hpt) (control) was observed. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry revealed 10-15 fold greater free Trp content in AtTSB1 transgenic plants than in wild-type plants grown with or without 5MT or CdCl2. Taken together, the TSB1 system provides a novel selection system distinct from conventional antibiotic selection systems.', 'en_US'),
(2680, 'The essential balance: Risks and benefits in food safety and quality.', 'Food composition analysis is concerned with both beneficial and harmful food components in the human diet: nutrients, bioactive non-nutrients, anti-nutrients, toxicants, contaminants and other potentially useful and dangerous elements. The concept of food safety in the past excluded elements of nutrition such as known risk factors for certain chronic diseases and nutrients in the form of fortificants and supplements. Concerns about genetically modified foods, functional foods, high levels of nutrient additives and nutritional supplements are now being taken into consideration in the risk and safety activities of both the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO). ''Food safety'' generally refers to the content of various chemical and microbiological elements in food. More consumer awareness of food safety and quality issues, along with government and industry action, is bringing about a more preventive, food chain approach?sometimes called ''from farm to table''?in many countries, so as to improve traditional food safety systems. FAO has adopted this food-chain approach and defines it as recognition that the responsibility for the supply of safe, healthy and nutritious food is shared by all involved, from primary production to final preparation and consumption. Compositional changes (representing either risks or benefits) in food can be introduced at every link. Although developments may be largely beneficial, food composition needs to be monitored to ensure that no harm results to consumers. Finally, collaborative international efforts are needed in order to resolve issues of food-quality and safety across boundaries in a global world trade context. A ''holistic food chain approach'' would recognize that responsibility for supplying safe and nutritious food lies with all those involved in food production.', 'en_US'),
(2681, 'Coexistence, genetically modified biotechnologies and biosafety: Implications for developing countries.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2682, 'Traceability of food products: General framework and experimental evidence.', 'Traceability is becoming a method of providing safer food supplies and of connecting producers and consumers. Recent diseases such as bovine spongiform encephalitis (BSE) and the questions concerning genetically modified organism (GMO) mean systems that enable control of each link in the food chain have become particularly relevant. Furthermore, although EU law no. 178 came into effect on the 1st January 2005, at the time of writing the regulatory situation is very confused.The aim of this paper is to analyze legal and regulatory aspects of food traceability, and to provide a general framework for the identification of fundamental mainstays and functionalities in an effective traceability system.Possible technical resources were clarified by analyzing assessment criteria obtained from studies of alphanumerical codes, bar codes, and radio frequency identification (RFID).Finally, the paper presents the traceability system used by Parmigiano Reggiano (the famous Italian cheese) which was developed using the proposed general framework. Based on an integration of alphanumerical codes and RFID technology, the system is working well with very good results for both cheese producers and consumers.Some interesting observations concerning development trends and traceability system costs close the paper.', 'en_US'),
(2683, 'SAFE-A hierarchical framework for assessing the sustainability of agricultural systems.', 'Sustainable development and the definition of indicators to assess progress towards sustainability have become a high priority in scientific research and on policy agendas. In this paper, we propose a consistent and comprehensive framework of principles, criteria and indicators (PC&I) for sustainability assessment of agricultural systems, referred to as the Sustainability Assessment of Farming and the Environment (SAFE) framework. In addition we formulate consistent and objective approaches for indicator identification and selection. The framework is designed for three spatial levels: the parcel level, the farm level and a higher spatial level that can be the landscape, the region or the state. The SAFE framework is hierarchical as it is composed of principles, criteria, indicators and reference values in a structured way. Principles are related to the multiple functions of the agro-ecosystem, which go clearly beyond the production function alone. The multifunctional character of the agro-ecosystem encompasses the three pillars of sustainability: the environmental, economic and social pillars. Indicators and reference values are the end-products of the framework. They are the operational tools that are used for evaluating the sustainability of the agro-ecosystems. The proposed analytical framework is not intended to find a common solution for sustainability in agriculture as a whole, but to serve as an assessment tool for the identification, the development and the evaluation of agricultural production systems, techniques and policies.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(2684, 'Gene-environment interactions influence ecological consequences of transgenic animals.', 'Production of transgenic animals has raised concern regarding their potential ecological impact should they escape or be released to the natural environment. This concern has arisen mainly from research on laboratory-reared animals and theoretical modeling exercises. In this study, we used biocontained naturalized stream environments and conventional hatchery environments to show that differences in phenotype between transgenic and wild genotypes depend on rearing conditions and, critically, that such genotype-by-environment interactions may influence subsequent ecological effects in nature. Genetically wild and growth hormone transgenic coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) were reared from the fry stage under either standard hatchery conditions or under naturalized stream conditions. When reared under standard hatchery conditions, the transgenic fish grew almost three times longer than wild conspecifics and had (under simulated natural conditions) stronger predation effects on prey than wild genotypes (even after compensation for size differences). In contrast, when fish were reared under naturalized stream conditions, transgenic fish were only 20% longer than the wild fish, and the magnitude of difference in relative predation effects was much reduced. These data show that genotype-by-environment interactions can influence the relative phenotype of transgenic and wild-type organisms and that extrapolations of ecological consequences from phenotypes developed in the unnatural laboratory environment may lead to an overestimation or underestimation of ecological risk. Thus, for transgenic organisms that may not be released to nature, the establishment of a range of highly naturalized environments will be critical for acquiring reliable experimental data to be used in risk assessments.', 'en_US'),
(2685, 'A tiered system for assessing the risk of genetically modified plants to non-target organisms.', 'Representatives of the developers of modern agricultural biotechnology are proposing a tiered approach for conducting non-target organism risk assessment for genetically modified (GM) plants in Europe. The approach was developed by the Technical Advisory Group of the EuropaBio Plant Biotechnology Unit (http://www.europabio.org/TAG.htm) and complements other international activities to harmonize risk assessment. In the European Union (EU), the principles and methods to be followed in an environmental risk assessment for the placing on the market of GM plants are laid out in Annex II of Directive 2001/18/EC on the deliberate release into the environment of GMOs, Commission Decision 2002/623/EC and Regulation (EC) No. 1829/2003. Additional information is provided in the European Food Safety Authority guidance document of 2004. However, risk assessment for effects to non-target organisms could benefit from further clarification and remains the subject of much discussion in Europe. The industry-wide approach developed by EuropaBio is based on the fundamental steps of risk evaluation, namely hazard and exposure assessment. It follows a structured scheme including assessment planning, product characterization and assessment of hazard/exposure (Tier 0), single high dose and dose response testing (Tier 1), refined hazard characterization and exposure assessment (Tier 2) and further refined risk assessment experiments (Tier 3). An additional tier (Tier 4) was included to reflect the fact that post-market activities such as monitoring are required under Directive 2001/18/EC. The approach is compatible with conditions of commercial release in the EU and around the world.', 'en_US'),
(2686, 'Transgenic oilseed rape along transportation routes and port of Vancouver in western Canada.', 'The occurrence of transgenic herbicide-resistant oilseed rape (Brassica napus) in ruderal (non-crop disturbed) areas has not been investigated previously in Canada. The primary objective of this study was to document their occurrence in two main ruderal areas (along railways and roads) in the province of Saskatchewan, where half of all oilseed rape is grown, and at the port of Vancouver, British Columbia on the west coast of Canada, where most oilseed rape destined for export is transported by rail. During the 2005 growing season, leaf samples of oilseed rape plants were collected at randomly-selected sites along railways and roads across Saskatchewan ecoregions and at Vancouver; infestation area, density, and plant height of oilseed rape were measured at each site. The presence of the glyphosate and glufosinate resistance traits was determined using test strips. The infestation area of oilseed rape, averaged across 155 sampled sites in the Saskatchewan survey, was markedly smaller in populations along railways than roads; in contrast, infestation area averaged across 54 sites in the Vancouver survey was greater for populations along railways than roads. In both surveys, mean plant density was greater for populations found along railways than roads. Two-thirds of oilseed rape plants sampled across Saskatchewan ecoregions and at Vancouver were transgenic, although the relative proportion of plants with the glyphosate or glufosinate resistance trait varied between surveys. Frequency of occurrence of transgenic plants in ruderal areas was similar to the proportion of the oilseed rape area planted with transgenic cultivars in the recent preceding years. A single transgenic B. rapa x B. napus hybrid was found along a road in Vancouver, confirming the relatively high probability of hybridization between these two Brassica species. With current control measures, transgenic oilseed rape populations may persist and spread in these ruderal areas.', 'en_US'),
(2687, 'Detection of feral transgenic oilseed rape with multiple-herbicide resistance in Japan.', 'Repeated monitoring for escaped transgenic crop plants is sometimes necessary, especially in cases when the crop has not been approved for release into the environment. Transgenic oilseed rape (Brassica napus) was detected along roadsides in central Japan in a previous study. The goal of the current study was to monitor the distribution of transgenic oilseed rape and occurrence of hybridization of transgenic B. napus with feral populations of its closely related species (B. rapa and B. juncea) in the west of Japan in 2005. The progenies of 50 B. napus, 82 B. rapa and 283 B. juncea maternal plants from 95 sampling sites in seven port areas were screened for herbicide-resistance. Transgenic herbicide-resistant seeds were detected from 12 B. napus maternal plants growing at seven sampling sites in two port areas. A portion of the progeny from two transgenic B. napus plants had both glyphosate-resistance and glufosinate-resistance transgenes. Therefore, two types of transgenic B. napus plants are likely to have outcrossed with each other, since the double-herbicide-resistant transgenic strain of oilseed rape has not been developed intentionally for commercial purposes. As found in the previous study, no transgenic seeds were detected from B. rapa or B. juncea, and more extensive sampling is needed to determine whether introgression into these wild species has occurred.', 'en_US'),
(2688, 'Evidence of natural hybridization between Aegilops geniculata and wheat under field conditions in Central Spain.', 'This study deals with hybrids between Aegilops geniculata and bread wheat, Triticum aestivum L., detected in two Ae. geniculata populations in the ''Meseta Central'', Spain''s central plateau where wheat is a major crop. Morphological traits and pentaploid chromosome numbers were used to identify hybrids in 2004 and 2005. The frequency of hybridization under natural conditions was calculated for one of these populations. Six hybrids were detected from a sample of 3158 seeds from this population. The hybrids were mainly sterile but seed set can be found. This study extends the range of documented hybridization to include central Spain. The potential risks associated with natural hybridization in the context of transgenic wheat cultivation are discussed.', 'en_US'),
(2689, 'Folate biofortification of tomato fruit', 'Folate deficiency leads to neural tube defects and other human diseases, and is a global health problem. Because plants are major folate sources for humans, we have sought to enhance plant folate levels (biofortification). Folates are synthesized from pteridine, p-aminobenzoate (PABA), and glutamate precursors. Previously, we increased pteridine production in tomato fruit up to 140-fold by overexpressing GTP cyclohydrolase I, the first enzyme of pteridine synthesis. This strategy increased folate levels 2-fold, but engineered fruit were PABA-depleted. We report here the engineering of fruit-specific overexpression of aminodeoxychorismate synthase, which catalyzes the first step of PABA synthesis. The resulting fruit contained an average of 19-fold more PABA than controls. When transgenic PABA- and pteridine-overproduction traits were combined by crossing, vine-ripened fruit accumulated up to 25-fold more folate than controls. Folate accumulation was almost as high (up to 15-fold) in fruit harvested green and ripened by ethylene-gassing, as occurs in commerce. The accumulated folates showed normal proportions of one-carbon forms, with 5-methyltetrahydrofolate the most abundant, but were less extensively polyglutamylated than controls. Folate concentrations in developing fruit did not change in controls, but increased continuously throughout ripening in transgenic fruit. Pteridine and PABA levels in transgenic fruit were >20-fold higher than in controls, but the pathway intermediates dihydropteroate and dihydrofolate did not accumulate, pointing to a flux constraint at the dihydropteroate synthesis step. The folate levels we achieved provide the complete adult daily requirement in less than one standard serving.', 'en_US'),
(2690, 'Transfer of chemicals from feed to animal products: The use of transfer factors in risk assessment.', 'The human risk assessment of feed contaminants has often been hampered by a lack of knowledge concerning their behaviour when consumed by livestock. To gain a better understanding of the transfer of contaminants from animal feed to animal products, a meta-analysis of public literature was made. Data concerning feed contaminant concentrations, feeding periods, residue levels in animal products, and other parameters were gathered and recorded. For each case a ''transfer factor'', which was defined as the ratio of the concentration of a chemical in an animal product to the concentration of the chemical in animal feed, was calculated. Scientifically founded transfer factors were calculated and analysed for groups of chemicals based on their contaminant classes or physicochemical properties. These database-derived transfer factors enable a more accurate risk assessment in the case of a feed contamination, and enable rapid risk management decision-making and/or intervention.', 'en_US'),
(2691, 'Distribution of toxigenic Fusarium spp. and mycotoxin production in milling fractions of durum wheat.', 'A reliable and sensitive PCR assay to specifically detect trichothecene-producing Fusarium spp. in milling fractions and kernel tissue of naturally infected durum wheat is reported. Assays were based on a combination of primers derived from the trichodiene synthase and the â-tubulin genes. The occurrence of toxigenic Fusarium spp. in semolina and wheat tissue (grain ends, crease, pericarp, aleurone layer, germ and albumen) was detected, even for a weakly contaminated wheat sample. Penetration of toxigenic Fusarium spp. into the interior of durum wheat kernel was demonstrated for the Nefer variety, indicating that none of the tissue structures within the wheat kernel acted as an effective barrier to fungal invasion. Moreover, after inoculation by toxigenic Fusarium strains, semolina was shown to allow high yields of trichothecenes, while bran was demonstrated to contain biochemical inhibitors able to significantly reduce trichothecene production. These results will be useful in improving breeding strategies to control trichothecene contamination of durum wheat kernels.', 'en_US'),
(2692, 'Biodegradation of Cry1Ab protein from Bt transgenic rice in aerobic and flooded paddy soils.', 'Degradation of Cry1Ab protein from Bt transgenic rice was examined under both aerobic and flooded conditions in five paddy soils and in aqueous solutions. The hydrolysis rate of Cry1Ab protein in aqueous solutions was correlated inversely with the solution pH in the range of 4.0 to 8.0, and positively with the initial concentration of Cry1Ab protein. Rapid degradation of Cry1Ab protein occurred in paddy soils under aerobic conditions, with half-lives ranging from 19.6 to 41.3 d. The degradation was mostly biotic and not related to any specific soil property. Degradation of the Cry1Ab protein was significantly prolonged under flooded conditions compared with aerobic conditions, with half-lives extended to 45.9 to 141 d. These results suggest that the toxin protein, when introduced into a paddy field upon harvest, will probably undergo rapid removal after the field is drained and exposed to aerobic conditions.', 'en_US'),
(2693, 'First application of a microsphere-based immunoassay to the detection of genetically modified organisms (GMOs): Quantification of Cry1Ab protein in genetically modified maize.', 'An innovative covalent microsphere immunoassay, based on the usage of fluorescent beads coupled to a specific antibody, was developed for the quantification of the endotoxin Cry1Ab present in MON810 and Bt11 genetically modified (GM) maize lines. In particular, a specific protocol was developed to assess the presence of Cry1Ab in a very broad range of GM maize concentrations, from 0.1 to 100% [weight of genetically modified organism (GMO)/weight]. Test linearity was achieved in the range of values from 0.1 to 3%, whereas fluorescence signal increased following a nonlinear model, reaching a plateau at 25%. The limits of detection and quantification were equal to 0.018 and 0.054%, respectively. The present study describes the first application of quantitative high-throughput immunoassays in GMO analysis.', 'en_US'),
(2694, 'Development and evaluation of event-specific qualitative PCR methods for genetically modified Bt10 maize.', 'In 2005 it was reported that the genetically modified (GM) maize strain or ''event'' called Bt10 had been distributed inadvertently in the United States over the previous 4 years. In order to ensure that grain for food and feed production did not contain trace amounts of Bt10 maize and complied with the applicable regulation, highly sensitive and specific detection of Bt10 maize was required. Accordingly, we developed a novel qualitative PCR system for specific detection of Bt10 maize. Moreover, we amply evaluated the performance characteristics of two PCR systems, our own and the one provided by the developer of Bt10, Syngenta Co. Ltd. It was confirmed that both of the qualitative PCR systems can specifically detect Bt10 maize, and the results of a single-laboratory examination suggested that the limit of detection was approximately less than 0.05% for both methods. To evaluate the reproducibility of the methods, we organized an interlaboratory study with the participation of 6 laboratories and analysis of 240 blind test samples. In this paper, we report, for the first time, the statistical analysis of the qualitative PCR data obtained from the interlaboratory study. The results of this analysis also revealed that there was no significant difference in the sensitivity between the two aforementioned methods and that the limit of detection of both the methods was less than 0.05%. Thus, we conclude that both of the methods are equally suitable for correct identification and sensitive detection of the unapproved GM maize Bt10 event in test samples.', 'en_US'),
(2695, 'Market acceptance of GM canola.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2696, 'Global extent of horizontal gene transfer.', 'Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) is thought to play an important role in the evolution of species and innovation of genomes. There have been many convincing evidences for HGT for specific genes or gene families, but there has been no estimate of the global extent of HGT. Here, we present a method of identifying HGT events within a given protein family and estimate the global extent of HGT in all curated protein domain families (8,000) listed in the Pfam database. The results suggest four conclusions: (i) for all protein domain families in Pfam, the fixation of genes horizontally transferred is not a rampant phenomenon between organisms with substantial phylogenetic separations (1.1?9.7% of Pfam families surveyed at three taxonomic ranges studied show indication of HGT); (ii) however, at the level of domains, >50% of Archaea have one or more protein domains acquired by HGT, and nearly 30?50% of Bacteria did the same when examined at three taxonomic ranges. But, the equivalent value for Eukarya is <10%; (iii) HGT will have very little impact in the construction of organism phylogeny, when the construction methods use whole genomes, large numbers of common genes, or SSU rRNAs; and (iv) there appears to be no strong preference of HGT for protein families of particular cellular or molecular functions.', 'en_US'),
(2697, 'Genetic engineering of wheat - current challenges and opportunities.', 'Wheat is one of the major staple food crops grown worldwide; however, productivity in cereal crops has not kept pace with the world population growth. A significant increase in wheat production (>40% by 2020) is needed simply to keep up with the growing demand. This increase is unlikely to be achieved by conventional plant breeding methods because of the limited gene pool available. The application of recombinant techniques to improve wheat quality and yield is not only desirable but also has potential to open up new opportunities. Although there has been significant progress in developing gene-transformation technologies for improving these traits, this remains an important challenge for plant biotechnology. Obstacles to translate the full potential of the genomic era to wheat breeding include the need to develop elite wheat varieties without selectable markers, introducing minimal or nil intergenic DNA and social and market issues concerning genetically engineered food products.', 'en_US'),
(2698, 'Effects of Bt cotton expressing Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab and non-Bt cotton on behavior, survival and development of Trichoplusia ni (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae).', 'With an assumption that the larvae of cabbage looper, Trichoplusia ni (Hübner), a secondary pest of cotton, Gossypium hirsutum (L.), could move between cotton plants in the field, we conducted a series of laboratory experiments to determine the larval movement, food choice, consumption, survival, and development on Bt (Bollgard II expressing Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab) and non-Bt cotton. On non-Bt cotton, all T. ni larvae fed and stayed on the leaves. In choice tests between a non-Bt and Bt cotton leaves, 73.3%, 86.7% and 93.3% of first instar larvae moved to non-Bt cotton leaves after 1, 8 and 48 h, respectively, indicating that larvae were able to detect and avoid Bt cotton leaves. On the non-Bt cotton leaves, 90% of larvae initiated detectable feeding damage, compared with only 16.7% on the Bt cotton leaves. The larvae feeding on non-Bt cotton leaves consumed an average of 0.226 cm2 leaf per larva in 48 h, whereas the larvae feeding on Bt cotton leaves consumed an average of 0.018 cm2 leaf per larva. The developmental times of each of the five larval stages or pupal stage were generally not significantly different with a few exceptions when they fed either on non-Bt leaves or a mixture of non-Bt and Bt leaves. The pupae that developed from the larvae that fed on non-Bt were 21.6?24.7% heavier than those that developed from the larvae that fed on a mixture of non-Bt and Bt cotton leaves. The total developmental time of larvae in the mixed-leaf treatment was significantly longer than that of larvae on non-Bt leaves. No T. ni larvae survived when they fed exclusively on Bt cotton leaves. Starved larvae died significantly sooner than those on Bt leaves. High percentages of larvae survived when they fed either on non-Bt leaves (92.7%) or on the mixture of non-Bt and Bt cotton leaves (91.7%) for 5 days. The recognition and migration of the first instar T. ni larvae from Bt cotton leaves to non-Bt cotton leaves imply that the merit of Bt and non Bt cotton seed mixture at planting should be further evaluated as a strategy for Bt cotton resistance management of lepidopteran pests.', 'en_US'),
(2699, 'Impact of Bt cotton adoption on pesticide use by smallholders: A 2-year survey in Makhatini Flats (South Africa).', 'This paper explores insecticide use in fields cropped with conventional or Bt cotton varieties in a smallholder farming area (Makhathini Flats, KwaZulu Natal, South Africa). The study was carried out during the 2002?2003 and 2003?2004 growing seasons as part of a broader survey based on daily monitoring of a sample of smallholdings. The adoption of Bt cotton led to a decrease in pyrethroid use, but the level of insect resistance of this cultivar was not sufficient to completely drop this pesticide from the spraying programme. On the other hand, organophosphates were still being applied in substantial amounts, thus raising questions as to the impact of Bt cotton adoption on farmers'' health. The overall economic results obtained with Bt cotton were slightly positive despite the low cotton yields obtained in the Flats during our survey. Bt cotton adoption did lead to labour savings, but the extent of this gain was not as high as expected. In conclusion, cropping Bt cotton in Makhathini Flats did not generate sufficient income to expect a tangible and sustainable socioeconomic improvement due to the way the crop is currently managed. Adoption of an innovation like Bt cotton seems to pay only in an agro-system with a sufficient level of intensification.', 'en_US'),
(2700, 'Coexistence between GM and non-GM maize crops - Tested in 2004 at the field scale level (Erprobungsanbau 2004).', 'The objective of the study was to test the feasibility of coexistence between genetically modified (GM) and non-GM maize under real-life agronomical conditions. GM hybrid maize with the event MON810 (Bt maize) was drilled at 30 sites in fields surrounded by near isogenic conventional maize, although only 27 sites could be finally evaluated. Field sizes of Bt maize varied between 0.3 and 23 ha, and the flowering period of the Bt and conventional maize was synchronous. At some sites, different planting dates of GM and non-GM maize or an earlier ripening conventional maize were tested in additional strips to obtain altered flowering and thereby reduce cross-pollination. The overlapping of flowering periods was successfully avoided only at two sites where non-GM maize was planted 25 or 28 days later. During harvest, samples were taken from the conventional maize in strips at distances of 0?10, 20?30, and 50?60 m to the Bt maize fields to assess the GM DNA content as a function of distance. Sampled materials included chaffed plant material intended for silage (18 sites), grains (eight sites), or crushed husks and cobs (one site). Wind effects were taken into account by sampling in all four compass directions. Quantitative PCR was used to detect the event specific MON810 DNA sequence in sampled materials. The analysis was conducted by two certified independent diagnostic testing companies selected in a pre-test. Taking averages over all compass directions and the two laboratories no samples collected beyond 10 m had levels of GM above the threshold of 0.9 %. In conclusion, the data indicate that coexistence of GM and conventional maize is possible under real-life large-scale agronomical conditions. Levels of GM DNA in harvested grain resulting from outcrossing can be managed to levels below 0.9 % by simply planting 20 m of conventional maize as a pollen barrier between adjacent fields.', 'en_US'),
(2701, 'Crop production factors associated with Fusarium head blight in spring wheat in eastern Saskatchewan.', 'Fusarium head blight (FHB) has been increasing in western regions of the Canadian Prairies. The objective of this 4-yr study was to identify crop production factors (CPF), associated with FHB development in spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). From 1999 to 2002, 659 crops were sampled in eastern Saskatchewan for FHB levels, and information gathered on agronomic practices used on these fields. In 2000 and 2001, percent Fusarium-damaged kernels (FDK) was also determined. Differences in the FHB index among years indicated that environment was the most important factor affecting disease development. The effects of CPFs on FHB were lower in years with high (2001) and low (1999 and 2002) disease pressure, compared with a year with moderate (2000) disease pressure. Previous application of glyphosate [N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine] formulations (GF) within tillage system, tillage system, previously grown crop, and cultivar susceptibility were the only CPFs that affected FHB. GF application in the previous 18 mo within tillage system was significantly associated with higher FHB levels every year; it was the only CPF in 1999, and one of two CPFs in 2002, that affected FHB, suggesting that its effect was not influenced as much by environmental conditions as that of other CPFs. Percentage FDK was also higher in fields previously treated with GF in 2000 and 2001. Because of the nature of this study, we could not determine if the association between previous GF use and FHB development was a cause?effect relationship. Thus, further research is needed to elucidate the nature of this association and the underlying mechanisms.', 'en_US'),
(2702, 'Animal Biotechnology: Science Based Concerns', 'The report identifies potential risks associated with advances in animal biotechnology, including the possibility that genetically engineered fish, shellfish or insects might escape and introduce engineered genes into wild populations. The report says there is no evidence that products from cloned livestock are unsafe to eat, but assessing the safety of food from cloned animals is difficult given a lack of data.', 'en_US'),
(2703, 'Hazard characterisation in food allergen risk assessment: The application of statistical approaches and the use of clinical data.', 'A structured approach to assess the risk to allergic individuals from food allergens requires as a first step the experimental measurement of minimum eliciting doses in a population that is as representative as possible of the relevant allergic population, using a standardised protocol. These doses are established in controlled challenge studies, but logistical and statistical constraints mean that a proportion of the allergic population may still be at risk of reacting at doses below those which have been or could feasibly be tested. However, statistical modelling of the dose distribution resulting from such challenges permits inferences to be drawn about the proportion of allergic individuals that are likely to react to specified (low) amounts of residual allergen in food. However, different statistical models, which all provide good fits to the experimental data yield different values outside the experimental range. Consequently, the outputs from these models require a form of validation, which demonstrates how close the predictions are to reality. In addition to characterisation of the hazard, for each allergenic food this validation requires information about exposure to undeclared allergen, the actual number of reactions taking place in the wider allergic population, and the prevalence of allergy to that food.', 'en_US'),
(2704, 'Framework for use of toxicity screening tools in context-based decision-making.', 'One of the principal applications of toxicology data is to inform risk assessments and support risk management decisions that are protective of human health. Ideally, a risk assessor would have available all of the relevant information on (a) the toxicity profile of the agent of interest; (b) its interactions with living systems; and (c) the known or projected exposure scenarios: to whom, how much, by which route(s), and how often. In practice, however, complete information is seldom available. Nonetheless, decisions still must be made. Screening-level assays and tools can provide support for many aspects of the risk assessment process, as long as the limitations of the tools are understood and to the extent that the added uncertainty the tools introduce into the process can be characterized and managed. Use of these tools for decision-making may be an end in itself for risk assessment and decision-making or a preliminary step to more extensive data collection and evaluation before assessments are undertaken or completed and risk management decisions made. This paper describes a framework for the application of screening tools for human health decision-making, although with some modest modification, it could be made applicable to environmental settings as well. The framework consists of problem formulation, development of a screening strategy based on an assessment of critical data needs, and a data analysis phase that employs weight-of-evidence criteria and uncertainty analyses, and leads to context-based decisions. Criteria for determining the appropriate screening tool(s) have been identified. The choice and use of the tool(s) will depend on the question and the level of uncertainty that may be appropriate for the context in which the decision is being made. The framework is iterative, in that users may refine the question(s) as they proceed. Several case studies illustrate how the framework may be used effectively to address specific questions for any endpoint of toxicity.', 'en_US'),
(2705, 'A study of crop-to-crop gene flow using farm scale sites of fodder maize ( Zea mays L.) in the UK.', 'From 2000 to 2003 a range of Farm Scale Evaluation (FSE) trials were established in the UK to assess the effect of the release and management of herbicide tolerant (HT) crops on arable weeds and invertebrates. The FSE trials for maize were also used to investigate crop-to-crop gene flow and to develop a statistical model for the prediction of gene flow frequency that can be used to evaluate current separation distance guidelines for GM crops. Seed samples were collected from the non-GM half of 55 trial sites and 1,055 were tested for evidence of gene flow from the GM HT halves using a quantitative PCR assay specific to the HT (pat) gene. Rates of gene flow were found to decrease rapidly with increasing distance from the GM source. Gene flow was detected in 30% of the samples (40 out of 135) at 150 m from the GM source and events of GM to non-GM gene flow were detected at distances up to and including 200 m from the GM source. The quantitative data were subjected to statistical analysis and a two-step model was found to provide the best fit for the data. A dynamic whole field model predicted that a square field (150 m × 150 m in size) of grain maize would require a separation distance of 3 m for the adjacent crop to be below a 0.9% threshold (with <2% probability of exceeding the threshold). The data and models presented here are discussed in the context of necessary separation distances to achieve various possible thresholds for adventitious presence of GM in maize.', 'en_US'),
(2706, 'Adoption of GM technology in livestock production chains: an integrating framework.', 'This paper presents an integrating framework for analysing the adoption of new technologies in food chains. We review the literature on the adoption of genetic modification in livestock production chains and conclude that an integrated chain approach is currently lacking. Such an approach is, however, essential to analysing the adoption of technologies, such as genetic modification in livestock production. The proposed framework integrates consumers and chain participants and their concerns and benefits.', 'en_US'),
(2707, 'Are GM and conventionally bred cereals really different?', 'Concerns over the safety of GM crops have led to detailed comparisons of their composition and performance with those of conventionally bred crops, under both field and glasshouse conditions. Such studies of wheat have shown that it is possible to develop GM lines which are substantially equivalent to conventional varieties. This information is important to inform the debate on the future development of GM food crops.', 'en_US'),
(2708, 'Genetic use restriction technologies (GURTs): strategies to impede transgene movement.', 'No clear consensus has emerged in the debate about the risks posed by transgenic crops and how to assess these risks accurately. In the meantime, interest is growing in strategies to impede transgene movement. This attention is being driven, in part, by expanding interest in using transgenic crops to produce pharmaceutical and industrial products. Potential strategies to impede transgene movement have been published in the scientific literature, and numerous patents have been submitted; however, the efficacy of such strategies has still to be evaluated in a field situation. In this review, we discuss some of the genetic strategies that could be used to restrict the spread of transgenes, although at present many of these technologies are still largely at a theoretical stage of development.', 'en_US'),
(2709, 'The structure of wild and domesticated emmer wheat populations, gene flow between them, and the site of emmer domestication.', 'The domestication of emmer wheat (Triticum turgidum spp. dicoccoides, genomes BBAA) was one of the key events during the emergence of agriculture in southwestern Asia, and was a prerequisite for the evolution of durum and common wheat. Single- and multilocus genotypes based on restriction fragment length polymorphism at 131 loci were analyzed to describe the structure of populations of wild and domesticated emmer and to generate a picture of emmer domestication and its subsequent diffusion across Asia, Europe and Africa. Wild emmer consists of two populations, southern and northern, each further subdivided. Domesticated emmer mirrors the geographic subdivision of wild emmer into the northern and southern populations and also shows an additional structure in both regions. Gene flow between wild and domesticated emmer occurred across the entire area of wild emmer distribution. Emmer was likely domesticated in the Diyarbakir region in southeastern Turkey, which was followed by subsequent hybridization and introgression from wild to domesticated emmer in southern Levant. A less likely scenario is that emmer was domesticated independently in the Diyarbakir region and southern Levant, and the Levantine genepool was absorbed into the genepool of domesticated emmer diffusing from southeastern Turkey. Durum wheat is closely related to domesticated emmer in the eastern Mediterranean and likely originated there.', 'en_US'),
(2710, 'Containment of regulated genetically modified cotton in the field.', 'Genetically modified (GM) insect and herbicide resistant cottons are now the mainstay of the cotton industry based in the eastern States of Australia. However, during the early years of breeding and seed increase, there was some uncertainty among regulators about containment measures needed to prevent the movement of regulated GM traits into adjacent fields of conventional cotton and possibly into the human or animal food chain. This was particularly relevant in the more tropical north of Australia that was being used as a winter nursery. Field experiments on GM cottons in eastern Australia were commonplace, but even there, regulators required confirmation that the containment practices already in place (buffer zones and isolation distances) were effective. A series of experiments in a range of environments, designed to monitor the movement of GM pollen into adjacent cotton buffers, adjacent fields, across bare ground and over long distances are reported here. Gene flow from GM plots into adjacent conventional cotton was found to be much higher in northern Australia than in eastern Australia, most likely due to higher honey bee (Apis mellifera) numbers, often deliberately enhanced to aid the surrounding horticultural industries. Movement of pollen over bare ground to nearby crops was observed at a number of locations indicating that small isolation zones should not be used for containment of regulated GM cotton. In general, buffers of 20 m of conventional cotton surrounding GM plots proved to be highly effective unless bee numbers were artificially high. Based on insect observations and rates of pollen flow, it was concluded that pollen beetles (Carpophilus spp.), another potential pollen vector normally highly abundant in cotton, were not associated with movement of pollen more than 1 m away from crops.', 'en_US'),
(2711, 'Bitrophic and tritrophic effects of Bt Cry3A transgenic potato on beneficial, non-target, beetles.', 'Insect-resistant transgenic plants have been suggested to have unpredictable effects on the biodiversity of the agro-ecosystem, including potential effects on insect natural enemies, beneficial in control of crop pests. Whilst carnivorous as adults, many of these predators may also consume plant tissues, in particular plant pollen and nectar. Coleoptera are important in terms of agro-ecological research not only because of the large number of species in this order, but also because of their role as biological control agents. Thus any detrimental impact on this group of insects would be highly undesirable. The effects of potato expressing the coleopteran-specific Bacillus thuringiensis ä-endotoxin Cry3A (Bt Cry3A) on the ladybird beetle Harmonia axyridis and the carabid beetle Nebria brevicollis were investigated via the bitrophic interaction of the adult ladybird with potato flowers and the tritrophic interaction of the carabid consuming a non-target potato pest. Immunoassays confirmed accumulation of the transgene product in potato leaves and floral tissues (at levels of up to 0.01% (pollen) and 0.0285% (anthers) of total soluble protein). Despite H. axyridis and N. brevicollis belonging to the targeted insect order, no significant effects upon survival or overall body mass change of either beetle were observed. Furthermore, Bt Cry3A had no detrimental effects on reproductive fitness of either beetle species, either in terms of fecundity or subsequent egg viability. Behavioural analysis revealed no significant impact of Bt Cry3A on beetle activity or locomoter behaviour. Ligand blots indicate that this is due to either the absence of Bt-binding sites in brush border membrane vesicles (BBMV) isolated from Nebria brevicollis, or in the case of Harmonia axyridis, the binding did not functionally lead to behavioural or physical effects.', 'en_US'),
(2712, 'Global Review of Commercialized Transgenic Crops: 2002 - Feature: Bt Maize', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2713, 'Impacts on U.S. agriculture of biotechnology-derived crops planted in 2003: An update of 11 case studies.', 'Crops developed through biotechnology methods continue to be planted on more acres and continue to deliver more tangible impacts in the United States.  In 2002, the National Center for Food and Agricultural Policy assembled a comprehensive report, ''Plant Biotechnology: Current and Potential Impact for Improving Pest Management in U.S. Agriculture.''  The study documented higher yields, higher farm incomes, and reduced pesticide use due to extensiveadoption of biotechnology-derived crops in 2001.  The updated study found that the positive impacts continued to increase as 26 million more acres were planted to more varieties of biotechnology-derived crops in 2003.Similar to 2001, American growers planted six biotechnology-derived crops in 2003 ? canola, corn, cotton, papaya, soybean, and squash. With the introduction of three new traits for corn and cotton in 2003, the number of biotechnology-derived varieties increased to 11, compared with eight in 2001.  They included virus-resistant papaya and squash; herbicide-tolerant canola, corn, cotton, and soybean; and insect-resistant corn (three applications) and cotton (two applications).', 'en_US'),
(2714, 'The biosafety protocol:  the real losers are developing countries.', 'Agricultural biotechnology is one of the most promising techniques of modern science. By adding nutrients to key crops such as rice, biotech can improve the health of millions of people. By building protection against insect predators into the crops themselves, it can limit the need for pesticides. By enhancing yields, it can reduce both hunger and the amount of land needed for farming, which leaves more available for forests, species preservation, and other environmental goals.Biotech also offers major safety gains. The techniques themselves ?such as gene splicing?present no inherent risk, and individual products are already regulated by multiple governmental agencies.Nonetheless, biotech has foes. Some are motivated by fear of the unknown, which, for far too many people, includes all of science.  Some want to suppress economic competition from new crops. Whatever their reasons, the foes are mounting a very serious campaign against agricultural biotechnology.In January 2000, in Montreal, the friends and foes of biotech met to work out rules for international trade in commodities produced by these means. The resulting Protocol was hailed in the press with the new buzz word, ''win-win.'' However, as this issue of BRIEFLY . . . discusses, the pact contains a disturbing number of possible checks on the use of agricultural biotech, and it may turn out that the ''win'' was mostly for the opponents.The author of this analysis is Frances B. Smith, Executive Director of Consumer Alert <www.consumeralert.org> and of a new organization, International Consumers for Civil Society <www.icfcs.org>.  ICCS was founded to provide a counterbalance to the current flood of private entities which call themselves ''NGOs'' (for ''nongovernmental organizations'') but which seem to devote themselves mostly to promoting additional power for international regulatory bodies, at the expense of the free market, the international business community, the private sector in general, and the true interests of the world''s consumers.Ms. Smith follows the biotech issue closely, and was in Montreal throughout the negotiations.This monograph, like all publications of the National Legal Center, is presented as an educational public service to encourage greater understanding of a legal and public policy issue. It has no political purpose, and is designed only to enlighten its readers by giving them access to the thought, experience, and knowledge of others. The views expressed are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the position of the officers or directors of the National Legal Center.', 'en_US'),
(2715, 'A conceptual framework for implementing biosafety: linking policy, capacity, and regulation', 'Products arising from modern biotechnology provide new opportunities to achieve sustainable productivity gains in agriculture. Concerns over their possible environmental  and health implications stimulated regulatory mechanisms for food safety and environmental risk assessment. Over the past two decades, national biosafety frameworks, guidelines, and regulatory systems have often been implemented on a ''piece-by-piece'' basis in response to the demands or urgent needs of the moment. Ideally, a biosafety system would be developed from a comprehensive plan. However, building such a system and making it operational is complicated by the fact that there is no single best approach nor standard that reflects national environmental, cultural, political, financial, and scientific heterogeneity. Given these challenges and difficulties inherent in building regulatory systems and needed capacity, the International Service for National Agricultural Research (ISNAR) convened an expert consultation in July 2001. The purpose of this meeting was to develop a conceptual framework to address regulatory implementation and capacity-building needs of developing countries and Parties to the Protocol. The conceptual framework clarifies critical decision points in the development of a national biosafety system, systematically examines choices among policy options, and delineates some of the scientific and social dimensions of these options. It complements ongoing regional and global projects that facilitate the development of national biosafety guidelines and frameworks.', 'en_US'),
(2716, 'Resistance to Bt toxin is surprisingly absent from pests.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2717, 'The tragedy of the commoners:  biotechnology and its publics.', 'In pluralistic societies, innovations offering new ways to promote independence or individuality are generally rapidly embraced, whereas those that appear to centralize power and authority are either outright attacked, or accepted only after contentious debates.  Biotechnology, however, has repeatedly broken this mold, offering the potential for remarkably individualized products while also appearing to concentrate capabilities and power in the hands of a small number of global players. For example, biotechnology''s promise to provide health care specific to individual needs goes hand in hand with giving corporations access to detailed genetic information.  Likewise, its potential to fine-tune food production to local needs coincides with concentrating the capabilities to do so in a small number of institutions.  Understandably, such scenarios have met with both support and opposition. The most recent, and perhaps the most contentious of the resulting controversies, has been the highly visible and ongoing debate on genetically modified (GM) agricultural products.  Many observers seem to be surprised by the sudden rise of this issue, and its origin is often ascribed to a lack of public trust in regulatory institutions', 'en_US'),
(2718, 'Ethical Aspects of Agricultural Biotechnology.', 'Ethics, as this report begins by explaining, is concerned with how we may decide what is morally right or wrong. It is a specific discipline which attempts to analyse the concepts and principles used to justify our moral choices and actions in particular situations. Because the applications of modern biotechnology impinge upon some of the most fundamental of human situations - our health, our food, our environment, even our very nature - they raise serious questions in our minds.', 'en_US'),
(2719, 'Gene stacking in herbicide tolerant oilseed rape:  lessons from the North American experience.', 'The aim of the project is to provide English Nature with evidence about the potential rate of formation and spread of ''stacked gene'' volunteers of oilseed rape and the management of these plants in order to be better able to advise DETR (now DEFRA) in the risk assessment process. This has involved discussions with UK consultant agronomists and scientists before and after a visit to Manitoba and Saskatchewan in October 2001.Systems of farming in the Canadian prairies have become very dependent on glyphosate.  Despite this, the widespread presence of canola (oilseed rape) volunteers that are tolerant to glyphosate has not compromised these systems.It is concluded that herbicide tolerant gene-stacked volunteers of oilseed rape would be inevitable in practical agriculture in the UK. It is recommended that more emphasis would have to be placed upon post-harvest cultivations in order to minimise volunteer populations in subsequent crops. However, it is considered that there would be little impact on other agricultural practices if only genetically modified (GM) varieties tolerant to glyphosate (Roundup Ready) or glufosinate (Liberty Link) were introduced into the UK. The main implication for herbicide use would most likely be the increased usage of paraquat +/- diquat pre-drilling of crops. This might have an impact on hares.Discussions with consultant agronomists suggest that UK farmers may be more likely to try to control feral rape populations on uncropped land if they were to contain herbicide tolerance genes. It is recommended that more emphasis would have to be placed upon preventing their establishment in uncropped land and on methods of control that would have minimal or no impact on biodiversity.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(2720, 'Absence of detectable transgenes in local landraces of maize in Oaxaca, Mexico (2003-2004).', 'In 2000, transgenes were detected in local maize varieties (landraces) in the mountains of Oaxaca, Mexico [Quist, D. and Chapela, I. H. (2001) Nature 414, 541?543]. This region is part of the Mesoamerican center of origin for maize (Zea mays L.), and the genetic diversity that is maintained in open-pollinated landraces is recognized as an important genetic resource of great cultural value. The presence of transgenes in landraces was significant because transgenic maize has never been approved for cultivation in Mexico. Here we provide a systematic survey of the frequency of transgenes in currently grown landraces. We sampled maize seeds from 870 plants in 125 fields and 18 localities in the state of Oaxaca during 2003 and 2004. We then screened 153,746 sampled seeds for the presence of two transgene elements from the 35S promoter of the cauliflower mosaic virus and the nopaline synthase gene (nopaline synthase terminator) from Agrobacterium tumefaciens. One or both of these transgene elements are present in all transgenic commercial varieties of maize. No transgenic sequences were detected with highly sensitive PCR-based markers, appropriate positive and negative controls, and duplicate samples for DNA extraction. We conclude that transgenic maize seeds were absent or extremely rare in the sampled fields. This study provides a much-needed preliminary baseline for understanding the biological, socioeconomic, and ethical implications of the inadvertent dispersal of transgenes from the United States and elsewhere to local landraces of maize in Mexico.', 'en_US'),
(2721, 'The EU-U.S. Biotechnology Consultative Forum Final Report.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2722, 'Food Safety, Labelling, and the Role of Science: Regulating Genetically-Engineered Food Crops in Canada and the United States.', 'The paper examines the nature of the policy networks in both countries surrounding the issue of food safety risks in an effort to determine why there are differing policy responses, given the implications for policy capacity.', 'en_US'),
(2723, 'Questions and Answers on the Regulation of GMOs in the EU', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2724, 'Exporting precaution: How Europe''s risk-free regulatory agenda threatens American free enterprise', 'In a Monograph released today by the Washington Legal Foundation (WLF), an international business and trade expert documents the rise in Europe of the so-called ''precautionary principle'' and its proponents'' plans to export this risk-free regulatory agenda to the U.S. and our trading partners. This principle eschews science-based evaluation of the benefits and costs of regulation in favor of environmental, health, and safety rules which seek to eliminate every possible risk from economic conduct. The Monograph first defines the precautionary principle and then explains how international bureaucrats and influential activist groups are using it as a vehicle to diminish America''s competitive position in the world economy and advance special interest agendas hostile to free enterprise and technology. Next, Mr. Kogan briefly reviews some areas where precaution has become institutionalized in Europe, such as government oversight of biotechnology, chemicals, and waste disposal, as well as the larger issue of ''greenhouse gases.'' The costs of pursuing a risk-free regulatory environment are profound, Mr. Kogan argues - a point he advances effectively in two substantial sections of the Monograph. The financial impact is first explored by looking at how regulatory precaution would increase costs in areas such as tort liability, intellectual property and insurance. The paper then examines how certain industries in Europe have suffered under a precautionary regulatory regime. The most important and compelling sections of the Monograph address how precaution proponents are successfully advancing their regulatory principles here in the U.S., and the serious impact their success will have on free enterprise. Activists have made their deepest inroads in areas such as genetically enhanced foods and climate change, and Mr. Kogan provides an extensive analysis to those efforts, including a discussion of state and regional programs. He also examines less obvious, but equally troubling, efforts to inject the precautionary principle into federal accounting rules, SEC disclosure regulations, and environmental and food and drug regulations. The Monograph concludes with an insightful philosophical discussion of the precautionary principle''s broader international legal, political, and economic impact. It highlights the growing rift between Europe''s social welfare approach to regulating the economy and America''s continued focus on encouraging risk-taking in the free market. It also warns that one of pro-precaution activists'' larger goals - institutionalizing their views through the international law-making process - is well within reach and should be vigorously opposed in all its forms.', 'en_US'),
(2725, 'Seeds of Opportunity: An assessment of the benefits, safety, and oversight of plant genomics and agricultural biotechnology.', 'The Subcommittee on Basic Research of the Committee on Science held a series of three hearings entitled, ''Plant Genome Research: From the Lab to the Field to the Market: Parts I-III,'' to examine plant genomics, its application to commercially-important crop plants, and the benefits, safety, and oversight of plant varieties produced using biotechnology. The testimony and other information presented at these hearings and information gathered at various briefings provides the basis for the findings and recommendations in this report.', 'en_US'),
(2726, 'Biosafety Regulation Sourcebook', 'Arent Fox and International Environmental Resources are pleased to make this Biosafety Regulation Sourcebook freely available as a public service to all parties who are interested in the development of biosafety regulatory frameworks that implement the provisions of the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety.Included in this Sourcebook is a Model Act that sets forth proposed provisions for a transparent, effective and workable national biosafety regulatory framework.  While there are other reference materials available, the Model Act is the only reference document currently available that was specifically designed to implement and ensure compliance with the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety.', 'en_US'),
(2727, 'Biopesticides Registration Action Document - Preliminary Risks and Benefits Sections - Bacillus thuringiensis plant-pesticides.', 'EPA has undertaken a comprehensive, preliminary reassessment of the time limited registrations for all Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) corn and cotton plant-pesticides that will be reviewed for registration renewal in the fall of 2001.  This reassessment has been designed to assure that the decisions on the renewal of the corn and cotton registrations are based on the most current health and ecological data (including recently reviewed non-target impact data) and incorporates recommendations made by the March 1995, February 1998, and December 1999 FIFRA Scientific Advisory Panel (SAP) and the findings of the 1999 National Academy of Sciences (NAS) report on Genetically Modified Pest- Protected Plants.  The June 2000 SAP report has not yet been received, but will be considered when this assessment is finalized.  Also included in this assessment is the data that supports the registration of the NatureMark Bt potato as well as data developed in support of a number of plant-pesticides that are no longer produced or will not be seeking registration renewal. In the interest of assuring a truly comprehensive review, it is EPA''s intention to present and assess the full range of data and information available.The complete reassessment document is fashioned after the Agency''s traditional Reregistration Eligibility Document (RED). This format was selected to present the data and findings in a format that is familiar to the registrants, the users and the general public.  The Bt Plant-Pesticides Biopesticides Registration Action Document (BRAD) Preliminary Risk and Benefits Sections document has five major sections:1. Product Characterization2. Human Health Assessment3. Ecological Assessment4. Insect Resistance Management5. Benefits.The Executive Summary includes one additional section, Other Considerations.', 'en_US'),
(2728, 'Investigation of Human Health Effects Associated with Potential Exposure to Genetically Modified Corn.', 'On October 25, 2000, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) requested technical assistance from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in investigating adverse event reports (AERs) of human illnesses that were potentially associated with consumption of genetically modified corn products. Prior to these reports, a protein named Cry9c had been inserted into genetically modified StarLink? corn; it subsequently and inadvertently was introduced into the human food supply. CDC conducted an epidemiological investigation that included (1) reviewing the AERs, (2) administering questionnaires to all people who experienced adverse health effects and manifested signs and symptoms consistent with allergic reaction, (3) obtaining relevant medical records, and (4) collecting serum samples for temporary banking. The investigation concluded that 28 people had experienced apparent allergic reactions. These people had also reported eating corn products that may have contained Cry9c protein. With the endorsement of U.S. Environmental Protection Agency''s Scientific Advisory Panel which convened on November 28, 2000, CDC recommended that the banked serum samples be evaluated to see if they contained evidence of an allergic response to the Cry9c protein.An FDA laboratory developed an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method to detect antibodies to the Cry9c protein. CDC sent coded serum samples to FDA for analysis, including serum samples from the affected people and historically banked serum samples collected before Cry9c entered the food supply. CDC also sent serum samples from people identified as being highly sensitive to a variety of allergens. The ELISA method found that none of the CDC-submitted samples reacted in a manner consistent with an allergic response to the Cry9c protein.These findings do not provide any evidence that the reactions that the affected people experienced were associated with hypersensitivity to the Cry9c protein. The difficulties of this investigation highlight the importance of evaluating the allergic potential of genetically modified foods before they become available for human consumption.', 'en_US'),
(2729, 'Genetically modified plants for food use and human health - an update.', 'The Royal Society report, Genetically modified plants for food use (1998), concluded that the use of genetically modified (GM) plants potentially offered benefits in agricultural practice, food quality, nutrition and health, but that there were several aspects of GM technology which required further consideration.  We recognise that there is public concern about GM technology, particularly with respect to the safety of GM food for human consumption and to the possible effects of the technology on the environment.  Since the 1998 report there has been new research which the working group has evaluated.  This update focuses on the effects that GM foods might have on human health and the use of the principle of substantial equivalence in GM food safety testing.', 'en_US'),
(2730, 'Safety assessment, detection and traceability, and societal aspects of genetically modified foods European network on safety assessment of genetically modified food crops (ENTRANSFOOD).', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2731, 'Safety of meat, milk and eggs from animals fed crops derived from modern biotechnology', '''The safety and availability of high-quality food and animal feedstuffs are critical to populations worldwide,'' saysTask Force Chair Professor Richard H. Phipps, School of Agriculture, Development and Policy, The University of Reading, Reading, United Kingdom. ''During the last decade the area of biotechnology-derived crops has increased dramatically from 4 to 90 million hectares/year, and crop varieties of corn, soybean, cotton, and canola are now widely used and are an important feedstuff in livestock production systems. It is essential, therefore, to consider the safety of meat, milk, and eggs obtained from animals fed crops derived from modern biotechnology.'' Written and evaluated by a Task Force of international scientists?from the United Kingdom, Germany, the United States, and Brazil?this timely CAST Issue Paper has the following objectives: 1. To provide an overview of regulatory assessments of biotechnology-derived crops; and 2.To summarize the empirical data generated for assessing the safety of meat, milk, and eggs from animals fed biotechnology-derived crops that express agronomic input traits.  Animal products such as milk, meat, and eggs are significant sources of high-quality food for humans and represent approximately one-sixth of their food energy and one-third of their food protein on a global basis. Therefore, an important underlying tenet for the scientific assessment of the safety and nutritive value of crops derived from modern biotechnology is based on the question ''Is the biotechnology-derived crop as safe as a conventional crop?'' Safety of Meat, Milk, and Eggs from Animals Fed Crops Derived from Modern Biotechnology provides evidence to support a strong affirmative response.', 'en_US'),
(2732, 'The Global GM Market:  Implications for the European Food Chain - An analysis of labelling requirements, market dynamics and cost implications.', 'This report examines the feasibility and cost implications of delivering and maintaining''GM avoidance'' policies in the EU food and feed supply chains.', 'en_US'),
(2733, 'Are genetically modified (GM) crops a commercial risk for Africa?', 'What risks might Africa face if it decided to plant genetically modified (GM) agricultural crops?  A rough calculation based on current export profiles for one sampling of eastern and southern African countries suggests that the commercial export risks incurred outside of Africa would be quite small.  Most of Africa''s exports of goods that might be considered GM currently go to other African countries, rather than to Europe, Asia, or some other GM-sensitive destination.  This raises a trade policy coordination challenge for Africa, but only a small commercial export risk beyond Africa.', 'en_US'),
(2734, 'Ten Years of Genetically Modified Crops in Argentine Agriculture', 'The first genetically modified (GM) crop incorporated into Argentina''s agriculture was herbicide-tolerant soybean in 1996.  From that date on, almost 900 field tests have been conducted on different crops and traits and nine additional events have been released commercially both for maize and cotton (herbicide tolerance and insect resistance). In the last growing season, GM varieties represented over 90% of the area planted with soybeans, 70% in the case of maize and 60% for cotton.  As a result of this, Argentina has become the second largest producer of GM crops, after the United States, with over 17 million hectares planted.  This review - commissioned by ArgenBio, the Argentine Council for Information and Development of Biotechnology - on the economic impacts of GM crops on the Argentinian agricultural sector concludes that the first decade of GM crops in Argentinian agriculture has been a period of large benefits, not only for the agricultural sector, but for the economy as a whole; however it has become clear that this process has not been free of both costs and uncertainties, issues that remain open and should be addressed and widely debated in the future.', 'en_US'),
(2735, 'Determining the transgene containment level provided by chloroplast transformation.', 'Plastids (chloroplasts) are maternally inherited in most crops.  Maternal inheritance excludes plastid genes and transgenes from pollen transmission.  Therefore, plastid transformation is considered a superb tool for ensuring transgene containment and improving the biosafety of transgenic plants.  Here, we have assessed the strictness of maternal inheritance and the extent to which plastid transformation technology confers an increase in transgene confinement.  We describe an experimental system facilitating stringent selection for occasional paternal plastid transmission. In a large screen, we detected low-level paternal inheritance of transgenic plastids in tobacco.  Whereas the frequency of transmission into the cotyledons of F1 seedlings was 1.58 x 10-5 (on 100% cross-fertilization), transmission into the shoot apical meristem was significantly lower (2.86 x 10-6).  Our data demonstrate that plastid transformation provides an effective tool to increase the biosafety of transgenic plants.  However, in cases where pollen transmission must be prevented altogether, stacking with other containment methods will be necessary to eliminate the residual outcrossing risk.', 'en_US'),
(2736, 'Exceptional transmission of plastids and mitochondria from the transplastomic pollen parent and its impact on transgene containment.', 'Plastids in Nicotiana tabacum are normally transmitted to the progeny by the maternal parent only. However, low-frequency paternal plastid transmission has been reported in crosses involving parents with an alien cytoplasm. Our objective was to determine whether paternal plastids are transmitted in crosses between parents with the normal cytoplasm. The transplastomic father lines carried a spectinomycin resistance (aadA) transgene incorporated in the plastid genome. The mother lines in the crosses were either (i) alloplasmic, with the Nicotiana undulata cytoplasm that confers cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS92) or (ii) normal, with the fertile N. tabacum cytoplasm. Here we report that plastids from the transplastomic father were transmitted in both cases at low (10?4-10?5) frequencies; therefore, rare paternal pollen transmission is not simply due to breakdown of normal controls caused by the alien cytoplasm. Furthermore, we have found that the entire plastid genome was transmitted by pollen rather than small plastid genome (ptDNA) fragments. Interestingly, the plants, which inherited paternal plastids, also carried paternal mitochondrial DNA, indicating cotransmission of plastids and mitochondria in the same pollen. The detection of rare paternal plastid transmission described here was facilitated by direct selection for the transplastomic spectinomycin resistance marker in tissue culture; therefore, recovery of rare paternal plastids in the germline is less likely to occur under field conditions.', 'en_US'),
(2737, 'Management of genetically modified herbicide-tolerant sugar beet for spring and autumn environmental benefit.', 'When used in genetically modified herbicide-tolerant (GMHT) crops, glyphosate provides great flexibility to manipulate weed populations with consequences for invertebrates and higher trophic levels, for example birds. A range of timings of band and overall spray treatments of glyphosate to GMHT sugar beet were compared with a conventional weed control programme in four field trials over 2 years. Single overall sprays applied between 200 and 250 accumulated day degrees (above a base air temperature of 3°C; °Cd) and band applied treatments applied at 10% or 20% ground cover within the crop rows generally gave significantly greater weed biomass and seed rain than conventional treatments, while later band sprays (more than 650 °Cd) reduced seed return. Two overall sprays of glyphosate produced low weed biomass and generally lowest seed return of all treatments but tended to give some of the highest yields. However, the early overall sprays (200-250 °Cd) and band sprays gave as good or better yields than the conventional and were generally equivalent to the two overall-spray programme. Viable seeds in the soil after the experiment were generally higher following the early overall (200-250 °Cd) and the band spray treatments than following the conventional. The results show that altered management of GMHT sugar beet can provide alternative scenarios to those of the recent Farm Scale Evaluation trials. Without yield loss they can enhance weed seed banks and autumn bird food availability compared with conventional management, or provide early season benefits to invertebrates and nesting birds, depending on the system chosen. Conventional weed control does not have the flexibility to enable these scenarios that benefit both agriculture and environment, although there may be some options for increasing weed seed return in autumn.', 'en_US'),
(2738, 'Problem formulation and hypothesis testing for environmental risk assessments of genetically modified crops.', 'Environmental risk assessments can provide high confidence of minimal risk by testing theories, ''risk hypotheses'', that predict the likelihood of unacceptable harmful events. The creation of risk hypotheses and a plan to test them is called problem formulation. Effective problem formulation seeks to maximize the possibility of detecting effects that indicate potential risk; if such effects are not detected, minimal risk is indicated with high confidence. Two important implications are that artificial test conditions can increase confidence, whereas prescriptive data requirements can reduce confidence (increase uncertainty) if they constrain problem formulation. Poor problem formulation can increase environmental risk because it leads to the collection of superfluous data that may delay or prevent the introduction of environmentally beneficial products.', 'en_US'),
(2739, 'The interplay between societal concerns and the regulatory frame on GM crops in the European Union.', 'Recapitulating how genetic modification technology and its agro-food products aroused strong societal opposition in the European Union, this paper demonstrates how this opposition contributed to shape the European regulatory frame on GM crops. More specifically, it describes how this opposition contributed to a de facto moratorium on the commercialization of new GM crop events in the end of the nineties. From this period onwards, the regulatory frame has been continuously revised in order to slow down further erosion of public and market confidence. Various scientific and technical reforms were made to meet societal concerns relating to the safety of GM crops. In this context, the precautionary principle, environmental post-market monitoring and traceability were adopted as ways to cope with scientific uncertainties. Labeling, traceability, co-existence and public information were installed in an attempt to meet the general public request for more information about GM agro-food products, and the specific demand to respect the consumers'' and farmers'' freedom of choice. Despite these efforts, today, the explicit role of public participation and/or ethical consultation during authorization procedures is at best minimal. Moreover, no legal room was created to progress to an integral sustainability evaluation during market procedures. It remains to be seen whether the recent policy shift towards greater transparency about value judgments, plural viewpoints and scientific uncertainties will be one step forward in integrating ethical concerns more explicitly in risk analysis. As such, the regulatory frame stands open for further interpretation, reflecting in various degrees a continued interplay with societal concerns relating to GM agro-food products. In this regard, both societal concerns and diversely interpreted regulatory criteria can be inferred as signaling a request - and even a quest - to render more explicit the broader-than-scientific dimension of the actual risk analysis.', 'en_US'),
(2740, 'Meteorological input data requirements to predict cross-pollination of GMO Maize with Lagrangian approaches.', 'Modeling pollen dispersal to predict cross-pollination is of great importance for the ongoing discussion of adventitious presence of genetically modified material in food and feed. Two different modeling approaches for pollen dispersal were used to simulate two years of data for the rate of cross-pollination of non-GM maize (Zea mays (L.)) fields by pollen from a central 1 ha transgenic field. The models combine the processes of wind pollen dispersal (transport) and pollen competition. Both models used for the simulation of pollen dispersal were Lagrangian approaches: a stochastic particle Lagrange model and a Lagrangian transfer function model. Both modeling approaches proved to be appropriate for the simulation of the cross-pollination rates. However, model performance differed significantly between years. We considered different complexity in meteorological input data. Predictions compare well with experimental results for all simplification steps, except that systematic deviations occurred when only main wind direction was used. Concluding, it can be pointed out that both models might be adapted to other pollen dispersal experiments of different crops and plot sizes, when wind direction statistics are available. However, calibration of certain model parameters is necessary.', 'en_US'),
(2741, 'Gene flow from GM glyphosate-tolerant to conventional soybeans under field conditions in Japan.', 'Natural out-crossing rates were evaluated for conventional soybeans (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) cultivated adjacent to genetically modified (GM) glyphosate-tolerant soybeans under field conditions during a four-year period in Japan. A total of 107 846 progeny of 2772 plants harvested from conventional varieties were screened for glyphosate herbicide tolerance. The highest out-crossing rates, 0.19% in 2001 and 0.16% in 2002, were observed in adjacent rows 0.7 m from the pollen source. The highest rate in 2004 was 0.052%, which was observed at 2.1 m. No out-crossing was observed in the rows 10.5 m from the pollen source over the four-year period. The farthest distances between receptor and pollen source at which out-crossing was observed were 7 m in 2001, 2.8 m in 2002, and 3.5 m in 2004. The greatest airborne pollen density during the flowering period, determined by Durham pollen samplers located between the rows of each variety, was 0.368 grains.cm-2.day-1, with the average value at 0.18 grains.cm-2.day-1, indicating that the possibility of out-crossing by wind is minimal. Thrips species and predatory Hemiptera visited the soybean flowers more frequently during the four-year period than any other common pollinators, such as bees.', 'en_US'),
(2742, 'Evaluating the effect of food processing on the potential human allergenicity of novel proteins: International workshop report.', 'The ILSI Health and Environmental Sciences Institute Protein Allergenicity Technical Committee organized an international workshop in June 2006 in Estoril, Portugal, co-sponsored by the ILSI Research Foundation, ILSI International Food Biotechnology Committee and ILSI Europe. The objective was to discuss the effects of food processing on the allergenic potential of proteins and foods. The impact of food processing on the sensitization/induction phases of food allergy, and the bioavailability of allergens to the immune system were presented. Studies evaluating the stability, digestibility, and allergenicity of processed food allergens were identified, and their complexity and limitations discussed. Participants agreed that investigating food allergy mechanisms, validating appropriate methods for identifying allergenic proteins, and refining strategies to assess and manage the risks from food allergy were important before processing considerations are integrated into public-health decision-making for novel proteins. Other factors may also play a role in food allergy and include: food matrix; multiplicity of epitopes; geographic variation in patterns/prevalence of food allergies; and genetic factors, but required further exploration. Food processing may increase or decrease the intrinsic allergenicity of a protein, but current data do not facilitate the identification of specific variables that could be used to reliably determine how processing will influence protein allergenicity.', 'en_US'),
(2743, 'Safety assessment of transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis with VIP insecticidal protein gene by feeding studies.', 'The aim of this study was to evaluate the toxicology safety of a genetically modified (GM) Bacillus thuringiensis with vegetative insecticidal protein (VIP) gene. Acute and subacute toxicity studies by using its powder preparation were conducted in Wistar rats. The result of the acute study showed the no-observable-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) of this GM B. thuringiensis powder preparation was greater than 5000 mg/kg body weight (BW). In the subacute study, the data analysis of body weight gain, food and water consumptions, clinical observations, haematology, serum biochemistry, organ weight ratios and histopathological findings did not show significant differences between control and treated groups. These results proved the NOAEL of this GM B. thuringiensis powder preparation in subacute test was greater than 5000 mg/kg BW. Since both the acute and subacute oral toxicity were not detected at the highest dose recommended by OECD guidelines, this GM B. thuringiensis could be generally regarded as safe for use in bio-pesticide industry.', 'en_US'),
(2744, 'Subchronic feeding study of DAS-59122-7 maize grain in Sprague-Dawley rats.', '59122 is a transgenic maize line containing event DAS-59122-7 that expresses the corn rootworm (CRW) specific pesticidal Cry34Ab1 and Cry35Ab1 proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Berliner strain PS149B1 and the phosphinothricin-N-acetyltransferase (PAT) protein from Streptomyces viridochromogenes for tolerance to the herbicidal ingredient glufosinate-ammonium. For the current study, 59122 maize grain, non-transgenic near-isogenic maize grain (091), and a commercially available non-transgenic reference maize grain (33R77) were grown under conditions simulating commercial farming practices. Adult Sprague-Dawley rats (12/sex/group) were fed diets formulated with 35% maize grain from either 59122, 091, or 33R77, or one of two separate lots of commercially available rodent chow prepared with commercially available corn (35%) in accordance with the standards of Purina Mills Labdiet® 5002 for approximately 90 days. All diets possessed similar nutritional and contaminant profiles. The transgenic proteins were detected only in diets prepared with 59122 maize grain and were stable over the course of the study. Compared to control groups, no adverse diet-related differences were observed in rats fed diets formulated with 59122 maize grain with respect to body weight/gain, food consumption/efficiency, clinical signs of toxicity, mortality, ophthalmology, neurobehavioral (FOB and motor activity) assessments, clinical pathology (hematology, clinical chemistry, coagulation, and urinalysis), and pathology (organ weights and gross and microscopic pathology). Results from this study indicate that 59122 maize grain is nutritionally equivalent to and as safe as conventional maize grain.', 'en_US'),
(2745, 'Biosafety and risk assessment framework for selectable marker genes in transgenic crop plants: a case of the science not supporting the politics.', 'Selectable marker gene systems are vital for the development of transgenic crops. Since the creation of the first transgenic plants in the early 1980s and their subsequent commercialization worldwide over almost an entire decade, antibiotic and herbicide resistance selectable marker gene systems have been an integral feature of plant genetic modification. Without them, creating transgenic crops is not feasible on purely economic and practical terms. These systems allow the relatively straightforward identification and selection of plants that have stably incorporated not only the marker genes but also genes of interest, for example herbicide tolerance and pest resistance. Bacterial antibiotic resistance genes are also crucial in molecular biology manipulations in the laboratory. An unprecedented debate has accompanied the development and commercialization of transgenic crops. Divergent policies and their implementation in the European Union on one hand and the rest of the world on the other (industrialized and developing countries alike), have resulted in disputes with serious consequences on agricultural policy, world trade and food security. A lot of research effort has been directed towards the development of marker-free transformation or systems to remove selectable markers. Such research has been in a large part motivated by perceived problems with antibiotic resistance selectable markers; however, it is not justified from a safety point of view. The aim of this review is to discuss in some detail the currently available scientific evidence that overwhelmingly argues for the safety of these marker gene systems. Our conclusion, supported by numerous studies, most of which are commissioned by some of the very parties that have taken a position against the use of antibiotic selectable marker gene systems, is that there is no scientific basis to argue against the use and presence of selectable marker genes as a class in transgenic plants.', 'en_US'),
(2746, 'Decontamination of aflatoxin duckling feed with aqueous citric acid treatment.', 'Detoxification of commercial aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) contaminated feed by means of 1N aqueous citric acid was confirmed by the AFLATEST? immunoaffinity column method (IAC), high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), Ames test (Salmonella-microsomal screening system), and the 1-day duckling assay. IAC and HPLC determinations showed that AFB1 at an initial concentration of 110 ng/g was partially detoxified (86%) by the acidic treatment. Results of the Ames test indicated that the mutagenic activity of treated AFB1 was greatly reduced (or inactivated) compared with that of untreated controls based on his- ¡ú his+ reversions in the Salmonella TA100 strain. The toxicology and pathology studies showed that toxicity of AFB1 was minimized by acidic treatment. The results indicated that aqueous citric acid exhibits detoxifying activity in AFB1-contaminated feeds and protects animals from chronic aflatoxin toxicity.', 'en_US'),
(2747, 'Carry-over of Fusarium toxins (deoxynivalenol and zearalenone) from naturally contaminated wheat to pigs.', 'The frequent contamination of grain with the Fusarium toxins, deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZON), is an important issue in animal and human nutrition. However, data on the exposure of humans to these toxins through consumption of animal tissues exposed to Fusarium toxins (carry-over) are fragmentary. Therefore, residues of DON, ZON and their metabolites were determined in tissues and body fluids of pigs (female and castrated male) from a fattening trial. Pigs were fed a control (n = 6, 0.24 mg DON and 0.009 mg ZON per kg diet as fed) or a Fusarium toxin-contaminated diet (n = 12, 6.68 mg DON and 0.056 mg ZON per kg diet as fed) either ad libitum or for restrictive consumption for 12 weeks. After slaughter (96.3 ± 11.6 kg live weight), the concentrations of DON and its metabolite, de-epoxy-DON, were measured in serum, bile, liver, kidney, musculus longissimus and back fat, while ZON and its metabolites, á- and â-zearalenol (á -/ â -ZOL), were determined in serum, bile and liver. The mean carry-over factor of DON + de-epoxy-DON, defined as the concentration of both substances in the tissue/fluid divided by the DON concentration in the diet, for all pigs decreased from bile (0.1046 ± 0.0653) >> kidney (0.0151 ± 0.0070) > liver (0.0057 ± 0.0043) > serum (0.0023 ± 0.0018) > muscle (0.0016 ± 0.0016) >> back fat (0.0002 ± 0.0004). The time interval between the end of feeding and slaughter had no consistent effect on DON + de-epoxy-DON concentrations in the analysed specimen of Fusarium toxin-exposed pigs fed restrictively. No transfer of ZON and its metabolites could be observed into serum of pigs, while the mean carry-over factors of ZON + á-ZOL + â-ZOL were 0.0094 ± 0.0123 and 4.0 ± 2.2 for liver and bile, respectively. Therefore, it can be concluded that serum is a reliable indicator for DON exposure, but an inappropriate parameter to deduce ZON exposure, which is better represented by bile concentration of ZON + á-ZOL + â-ZOL. However, the exposure risk to humans by consumption of edible tissues of animals exposed to Fusarium toxins is negligible compared to the direct consumption of grain-based food.', 'en_US'),
(2748, 'Compliance costs for regulatory approval of new biotech crops.', 'Here, we make two contributions to knowledge concerning the private costs of complying with the current regulatory approval system for agrifood biotechnologies1. First, we characterize the structure of such compliance costs and identify key dimensions of their variability. Second, we provide estimates of representative compliance costs for selected maize biotechnologies. Our estimates are based on reviews and analyses of dossiers submitted to regulatory agencies, and firm-level data on associated expenses.', 'en_US'),
(2749, 'Acceptance of GM food-an experiment in six countries.', 'Genetically modified (GM) foods have generated intensely negative consumer attitudes in many countries, particularly in Europe. Several expert reviews indicate that safety concerns regarding GM foods appear largely unfounded, but expert opinions have been insufficient to greatly change public sentiment. Even so, antipathy toward the concept of genetic modification will not necessarily translate into consumer resistance to such foods once introduced into the market.The experiments reported here were undertaken to determine how consumers in a range of countries with highly negative public perceptions of GM technology might react toward GM food products that offer clearly stated consumer benefits if introduced into their markets. Classic economic theory postulates that consumers seek to maximize self-interest in the presence of pecuniary or other advantages6. Ample evidence exists that consumer attitudes, and even stated behavioral intentions, may not translate into purchase behavior.We set up real roadside fruit stalls based on a choice modeling experimental design. Experimental choice modeling has been widely used as a method for determining behavior based on subjects making choices from sets of product options put before them9. What makes our study highly novel is that the choices were real in a genuine shopping situation, rather than being made under circumstances where the subjects knew that their choices were being observed. Our intention was to minimize the possibility of social desirability bias10 influencing the results.We placed on sale conventional fruit labeled as ''organic'', ''spray-free genetically modified'', or ''conventional'', or appropriate translations of same in the prevalent local language at each site, at varying price levels. The price for each fruit category was set at one of three levels: the median market price in that locality, median plus 15% or median minus 15%. A parsimonious main effects balanced fractional factorial design was used to generate nine price and fruit offerings (Table 1). Research assistants fluent in the local language operated the stalls, which were set up on the outskirts of urban areas in New Zealand (Queenstown), Sweden (Ystad, Skåne), Belgium (near Brussels), France (Paris), Germany (Koblenz, Rheinland-Pfalz) and the UK (Berwick-upon-Tweed). We avoided locating adjacent to farms or orchards to minimize the risk of upsetting local producers. If customers asked about the spray status of different fruit types, verbal explanation was provided that the organic fruit could have been sprayed with ''Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) organic spray'' and that the spray-free GM fruit was from plants incorporating the Bt gene, making spraying unnecessary. (Less than 5% of customers over the six experiments enquired.) In each case, the experimental set of offerings (Table 1) changed after ~50 customers, yielding ~450 observations from each country. In accordance with University of Otago Ethics Approval requirements, customers were informed of the experiment (verbally, or by using a display card if other customers were present) after they had made their selection, but before money changed hands. A main reason for using roadside fruit stalls, rather than street market or other walk-in situations, was to minimize the risk of contamination of customer intentions through overhearing reactions from customers newly aware of the ''candid camera''-like stratagem.', 'en_US'),
(2750, 'Spontaneous hybridization between bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and its wild relatives in Europe.', 'In Europe, wild wheat relatives of the Triticum-Aegilops complex grow in sympatry with cultivated bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and spontaneous hybridization is known to occur. With the development of transgenic wheat, an understanding of the likelihood and occurrence of hybridization and introgression between wheat and its relatives is needed for use in risk assessment. To assess the probability of wheat to wild relative gene introgression, the distribution and biology of wheat wild relatives and their genome affinity and crossability with bread wheat were reviewed. Twelve of the 22 known Aegilops species, as well as one wild Triticum species, T. monococcum L. subsp. aegilopoides (Link) Thell., are known to occur in Europe near or within wheat cultivation. Five tetraploid species, Ae. cylindrica Host., Ae. triuncialis L., Ae. geniculata Roth., Ae. neglecta Req. ex Berthol., and Ae. biuncialis Vis., have wide distribution in most European countries. Bread wheat, wild Aegilops species, and Triticum species are predominantly autogamous (except Ae. speltoides Tausch, typically allogamous), but outcrossing among species is possible depending on species sympatry, concurrent flowering, and sexual compatibility. Spontaneous hybridization with wheat was reported for most of the tetraploid Aegilops species. The probability of gene transfer and gene retention in hybrid progenies is, however, higher when a gene is located on a shared genome, particularly on the D genome shared with Ae. cylindrica and Ae. ventricosa Tausch. Case-by-case and region-by-region assessments are needed to evaluate the risk associated with production and competitiveness of hybrids and their progeny.', 'en_US'),
(2751, 'Ecological impacts of genetically modified crops:  Ten years of field research and commercial cultivation.', '', 'en_US'),
(2752, 'Characterisation of adult green lacewing (Chrysoperla carnea) digestive physiology: impact of a cysteine protease inhibitor and a synthetic pyrethroid.', 'In spite of concern regarding potential non-target effects of GM crops, few studies have compared GM pest control with conventional methods. The impacts of cypermethrin and oilseed rape expressing oryzacystatin-1 (OC-1) were compared in this study on the predator Chrysoperla carnea (Stephens). RESULTS: Adults fed purified rOC-1 showed a subtle shift in digestive protease profile, with an increasing reliance on serine proteases (chymotrypsin), increase in aspartic proteases and a slight reduction in elastase activity. Although there were no effects on mortality, onset of oviposition was delayed; however, once egg production commenced, egg laying and hatching success rates were comparable with those of controls. Oryzacystatin-1 expressed in pollen showed no detrimental effects. Cypermethrin had no effect on mortality owing to high levels of non-specific esterase activity resulting in partial breakdown of the insecticide. In spite of this, there was a significant delay in onset of oviposition and a significant reduction in egg production and viability. CONCLUSION: This study demonstrates the potential for pest management to impact on predators, but importantly it highlights the ability of the predator to detoxify/respond to treatments with different modes of action. In this case, exposure to an insecticide carried a greater fitness cost than exposure to a protease inhibitor expressed in transgenic crops. ', 'en_US'),
(2753, 'Trends in analytical methodology in food safety and quality: monitoring microorganisms and genetically modified organisms.*', 'The guarantee of food safety and quality along the food chain is a principal demand of the citizen. Fundamental aspects in food safety and quality, such as the presence of pathogens and their potential risk, are important consumer concerns. Other questions such as the use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in food production are also subjects where society demands total transparency. To guarantee food safety and quality and satisfy the requirements of the consumer, it is necessary to ensure that efficient analytical methodologies are possessed by the food industry. This review discusses current status and future challenges in two areas of analytical methodology in food safety and quality: the monitoring of microorganisms and the detection of GMOs. Current strategies for developing methods will be discussed. Lessons learnt through activities in method development and validation of leading research groups will be described. The review will also discuss the necessary requirements for the standardization of analytical tools in food safety monitoring.* A summary of the symposium ''Analytical Methodology in Food Safety: current status, lessons learnt and future challenges'' at the XIII World Congress of Food Science and Technology IUFOST 2006 ''FOOD IS LIFE'', Nantes, France, September 17th?21st, 2006.', 'en_US'),
(2754, 'Intragenic crop improvement:  combining the benefits of traditional breeding and genetic engineering.', 'New crop varieties are developed by applying traditional breeding methods that rely on random genome modifications. These varieties combine multiple traits that support farm efficiency and acceptable yields but also contain genes associated with the production of toxins, allergens, and/or antinutritional compounds that were not considered during the selection process. Furthermore, existing cultivars frequently lack the functional genes required for specific sensory traits and the formation of health-promoting antioxidants. One new method efficiently addresses some of these issues by either silencing undesirable genes or enhancing the expression of genes that are linked to dormant beneficial traits. Rather than incorporating foreign DNA into the plant''s genome, these methods transform crops with plant-derived transfer (P-) DNAs that consist of only native genetic elements. The genetic modification can be characterized molecularly so that any inadvertent transfer of undesirable DNA, as may be the case with traditional methods, is excluded. A recently developed intragenic potato plant is silenced for the polyphenol oxidase, dikinase R1, and phosphorylase-L genes in a tuber-specific manner. French fries derived from these tubers lack discolorations, display an enhanced potato flavor, and produce greatly reduced amounts of the suspected carcinogen acrylamide. It is argued that intragenic modification is unlikely to trigger phenotypic, biochemical, or physiological variation that is new to the species. Similarly, the targeted traits are similar to those that breeders select for and often have a history of domestication and reduced fitness. For these reasons, an updated regulatory system is proposed whereby intragenic crops are considered as low risk and should be cleared for commercial release in a timely and cost-effective manner. By using modern techniques to modify the same genetic material that is used by breeders, intragenic approaches may be perceived as an acceptable extension of traditional methods in crop improvement.', 'en_US'),
(2755, 'Comparison of real-time PCR detection chemistries and cycling modes using Mon810 event-specific assays as model.', 'The most widely accepted methods for accurate quantitative detection of genetically modified organisms rely on real-time PCR. Various detection chemistries are available for real-time PCR. They include sequence-unspecific DNA labeling dyes such SYBR-Green I and the use of both universal (e.g., AmpliFluor) and sequence-specific double-labeled probes, the latter comprising hybridization (e.g., Molecular Beacon) and hydrolysis (e.g., TaqMan or MGB) probes. Also, new real-time PCR devices and reagents allowing fast cycling reactions exist. Five Mon810 real-time PCR assays were developed in which the event specificity was based on the detection of transgene and plant rearranged sequences found to 3'' flank the insertion site. Every assay was specifically designed for one particular detection chemistry, that is, AmpliFluor, Molecular Beacon, MGB, TaqMan, and SYBR-Green I. When possible, the assays were adapted to fast cycling mode. All assays displayed satisfactory performance parameters, although Molecular Beacon, MGB, and TaqMan chemistries were the most suitable for quantification purposes in both conventional and fast cycling modes.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(2756, 'Sampling plan and test protocol for the semiquantitative detection of genetically modified canola (Brassica napus) seed in bulk canola seed.', 'Using a statistical approach, sampling plans for the semiquantitative detection of genetically modified (GM) canola within a bulk seed sample can be developed and tailored to meet different GM thresholds, costs, and confidence limits. This is achieved by changing the number of subsamples analyzed, the number of seeds per subsample, and the percentage of positive results allowed. These sampling plans must be devised carefully, taking into account the detection capability of the analytical assay. This is particularly important in the case of InVigor (a registered trademark of Bayer CropScience) canola, for which expression levels of the introduced protein in seed are very low. Lateral flow assays and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) were both investigated for their suitability as a qualitative assay using a subsampling approach. On the basis of an ELISA, several sampling plans have been devised and validated to provide at least 99% confidence that bulk seed samples containing at least 0.9% (w/w) InVigor canola will be detected. Although the term ''seed'' is used throughout this paper to refer to the canola, the term ''seed'' is to be taken to include both seed and the canola seed (grain) that is harvested by the farmer/grower.', 'en_US'),
(2757, 'The Public, the Media and Agricultural Biotechnology.', 'This pioneering look at the communication of biotechnology will be an essential resource for researchers and policy makers, and those involved in agricultural biotechnology communication campaigns. As the use of biotechnology in the agriculture industry rises, examining the feelings of the public towards this controversial issue and understanding how public opinion has formed has become increasingly more important. It has become apparent that there are more factors involved than just a lack of scientific knowledge about biotechnology and genetically modified foods that effect public acceptance of this technology.', 'en_US'),
(2758, 'Methods for growing nonfood products in transgenic plants.', 'The relatively high cost of producing select industrial and pharmaceutical products in traditional hosts has led many groups to investigate the benefits of plant-based production systems. Transgenic plants can offer significant cost advantages for select products, but the advantage can be eroded occasionally by the cost of confinement to segregate them from commodity crops. The conceptual similarities and differences between transgenic plant production systems and other transgenic hosts are discussed in regard to regulations and public perception. A system of regulated transgenic production is described that is based on dedicating an area solely to industrial products. This system would take advantage of surrounding crops that are also grown for industrial applications to offset the cost of growing the regulated transgenic plants. Examples are given that demonstrate the economic advantages of the system while concurrently creating a clearer distinction between food and nonfood products. This system may also increase public confidence, as it is modeled on current systems used to produce regulated transgenic products in nonplant hosts.', 'en_US'),
(2759, 'Soil persistence of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxin from transgenic Bt cotton tissues and its effect on soil enzyme activities.', 'A silty loam soil was incubated with the leaves and stems of two transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) cotton varieties and nontransgenic Bt cotton to study the soil persistence of the Bt toxin from the decomposing transgenic Bt cotton tissues and its effect on soil enzyme activities. The results showed that after Bt cotton tissue amendment, Bt toxin was introduced into soil upon decomposition; about 50% of the introduced Bt toxin persisted in soil for at least 56 days. No Bt toxin was detected in the nontransgenic Bt cotton-amended soil; the amount of Bt toxin was the highest in the soil treated with the residue with the higher Bt toxin content. Activities of soil urease, acid phosphomonoesterase, invertase, and cellulase were stimulated by the addition of Bt cotton tissues, whereas activity of soil arylsulfatase was inhibited. Probably cotton tissue stimulated microbial activity in soil, and as a consequence, enzyme activities of soil were generally increased. This effect can mask any negative effect of the Bt toxin on microbial activity and thus on enzyme activities.', 'en_US'),
(2760, 'Interactions of Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Ac toxin in genetically engineered cotton with predatory heteropterans.', 'A number of cotton varieties have been genetically transformed with genes from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) to continuously produce Bt endotoxins, offering whole plant and season-long protection against many lepidopteran larvae. Constant whole-plant toxin expression creates a significant opportunity for non-target herbivores to acquire and bio-accumulate the toxin for higher trophic levels. In the present study we investigated movement of Cry1Ac toxin from the transgenic cotton plant through specific predator-prey pairings, using omnivorous predators with common cotton pests as prey: (1) the beet armyworm, Spodoptera exigua (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), with the predator Podisus maculiventris (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae); (2) the two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae (Acarina: Tetranychidae), with the predatory big-eyed bug Geocoris punctipes (Heteroptera: Geocoridae) and (3) with the predatory damsel bug Nabis roseipennis (Heteropera: Nabidae); and (4) the thrips Frankliniella occidentalis (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) with the predatory pirate bug Orius insidiosus (Heteroptera: Anthocoridae). We quantified Cry1Ac toxin in the cotton plants, and in the pests and predators, and the effects of continuous feeding on S. exigua larvae fed either Bt or non-Bt cotton on life history traits of P. maculiventris. All three herbivores were able to convey Cry1Ac toxin to their respective predators. Among the herbivores, T. urticae exhibited 16.8 times more toxin in their bodies than that expressed in Bt-cotton plant, followed by S. exigua (1.05 times), and F. occidentalis immatures and adults (0.63 and 0.73 times, respectively). Of the toxin in the respective herbivorous prey, 4, 40, 17 and 14% of that amount was measured in the predators G. punctipes, P. maculiventris, O. insidiosus, and N. roseipennis, respectively. The predator P. maculiventris exhibited similar life history characteristics (developmental time, survival, longevity, and fecundity) regardless of the prey''s food source. Thus, Cry1Ac toxin is conveyed through non-target herbivores to natural enemies at different levels depending on the herbivore species, but continuous lifetime contact with the toxin by the predator P. maculiventris through its prey had no effect on the predator''s life history. The results found here, supplemented with others already published, suggest that feeding on Cry1Ac contaminated non-target herbivores does not harm predatory heteropterans and, therefore, cultivation of Bt cotton may provide an opportunity for conservation of these predators in cotton ecosystems by reducing insecticide use.', 'en_US'),
(2761, 'Vaccines are for dinner.', 'Transgenic plants have been sought not only as bioreactors but also as potential scaffolds for oral vaccines. Tobacco was initially exploited for the successful expression of Streptococcus mutans surface protein A as a potential dental caries vaccine (1) and for hepatitis B surface antigen (2) as a vaccine bioreactor alternative for viral hepatitis B. Today, a number of edible plants (Table 1), including potatoes, tomatoes, maize, and soybeans, have been genetically modified to express a variety of vaccine targets, including hepatitis B surface antigen (2), Norwalk virus particles (3, 4), heat-labile enterotoxin B subunit (5, 6), and others (7?11) that can benefit both humans (6?8) and livestock (9?11). The advantage of edible vaccines is that often the plant products, whether leaves, fruit, or seed, can be readily consumed with limited or no processing. Viable oral platforms such as edible products suitable for human use are in demand to deliver vaccines (12). Obviously, the fact that food products are consumed obviates many of the health concerns that arise in the oral vaccination of humans (as reviewed in ref. 13). Edible vaccines can also have the advantage of circumventing cold-storage issues (the ''cold chain''), because plant tissues can be dried or, as when the seeds are targeted, have low moisture content. Likewise, water- or oil-based plant extracts can provide additional storage convenience. In this issue of PNAS, Nochi et al. (14) describe a rice-based oral vaccine that potentially addresses many of these topics. At hand is the need for vaccine development and strategies to aid underserved nations with the ability to produce vaccines locally in a cost-effective manner.', 'en_US'),
(2762, 'Production of vaccines and therapeutic antibodies for veterinary applications in transgenic plants: an overview.', 'During the past two decades, antibodies, antibody derivatives and vaccines have been developed for therapeutic and diagnostic applications in human and veterinary medicine. Numerous species of dicot and monocot plants have been genetically modified to produce antibodies or vaccines, and a number of diverse transformation methods and strategies to enhance the accumulation of the pharmaceutical proteins are now available. Veterinary applications are the specific focus of this article, in particular for pathogenic viruses, bacteria and eukaryotic parasites. We focus on the advantages and remaining challenges of plant-based therapeutic proteins for veterinary applications with emphasis on expression platforms, technologies and economic considerations.', 'en_US'),
(2763, 'Expression of recombinant human factor VIII in milk of several generations of transgenic rabbits.', 'Transgenic founder rabbits carrying a gene construct consisting of a 2.5 kb murine whey acidic protein promoter (mWAP), 7.2 kb of the human clotting factor VIII (hFVIII) cDNA and 4.6 kb of 3¡ä flanking sequences of mWAP gene were crossed for three generations. All transgenic animals showed stable transgene transmission. Transgenic females showed high level of recombinant hFVIII (rhFVIII) mRNA expression in biopsed mammary gland tissues, while marginal expression of rhFVIII mRNA was observed in the spleen, lung and brain. No adverse effects of ectopic expression on the physiology of the rabbits were observed. Expression was not detected in the liver, kidney, heart and skeletal muscle. In transgenic females derived from three generations, rhFVIII protein was secreted from the mammary gland of lactating females, as shown by Western blotting. Biological activity of rhFVIII protein, as revealed in clotting assays was ranged from 0.012 to 0.599 IU/ml corresponding to 1.2% and 59.9% of the hFVIII level in normal human plasma. No apparent effect of secreted rhFVIII on the milk performance of rabbits was observed. Our results confirm the possibility of producing a significant amount of a biologically active rhFVIII in the mammary gland of established transgenic rabbit lines.', 'en_US'),
(2764, 'Traditional foods: a science and society perspective.', 'Traditional foods reflect cultural inheritance and have left their imprints on contemporary dietary patterns. They are key elements for the dietary patterns in different countries and consequently are important to accurately estimate population dietary intakes. However, this information is missing from most current national food composition databases. EuroFIR aims to enrich national food composition tables that lack nutrient data on traditional foods and to provide data on selected bioactive components. In this context, a common definition of traditional foods has been agreed upon for the classification of traditional foods in European food composition tables. A list of traditional foods, for which analytical nutritional and bioactive data will be provided, has been developed.', 'en_US'),
(2765, 'EuroFIR-BASIS - a combined composition and biological activity database for bioactive compounds in plant-based foods.', 'Mounting evidence suggests that certain non-nutrient bioactive compounds promote optimal human health and reduce the risk of chronic disease.  An Internet-deployed database, EuroFIR-BASIS, which uniquely combines food composition and biological effects data for plant-based bioactive compounds, is being developed.  The database covers multiple compound classes and 330 major food plants and their edible parts with data sourced from quality-assessed, peer-reviewed literature.  The database will be a valuable resource for food regulatory and advisory bodies, risk authorities, epidemiologists and researchers interested in diet and health relationships, and product developers within the food industry.', 'en_US'),
(2766, 'Nutritional assessment of genetically modified rapeseed synthesizing high amounts of mid-chain fatty acids including production responses of growing-finishing pigs.', 'The nutritive value of genetically modified myristic acid-rich rapeseed, in which a acyl-thioesterase gene inserted, was studied. Crude nutrients, amino acid and fatty acid profiles as well as mineral and glucosinolate contents were determined and compared with those of the non-transgenic parental cultivar. The concentration of crude nutrients, minerals and amino acids were found to be within the range of natural variance. The myristic and palmitic acid content increased from 0.1 - 11.4% and from 3.6 - 20%, respectively, at the expense of oleic acid, which decreased from 68.6 - 42.6% of total fatty acids. The glucosinolate contents increased from 12.4 µmol/g in the parental plant to 19 µmol/g DM in the GM-plant. Full-fat rapeseed of both cultivars was incorporated in pig diets at a level of 15%, and the digestibility and the production efficiency were tested under ad libitum feeding conditions with ten pigs each over the growing finishing period from 32 - 105 kg BW. The experimental diets did not show significant differences in digestibility and energetic feeding value. However, feed intake and weight gain decreased presumably due to the increasing glucosinolate intake associated with the feeding of transgenic rapeseed. The dietary fatty acids profile influenced the fatty acid profile of body fat. Myristic acid accumulated in back fat and intramuscular fat while the oleic acid content decreased. The increased glucosinolate intake affected the weight of thyroid glands and their iodine concentration.', 'en_US'),
(2767, 'Effects of genetically modified herbicide-tolerant cropping systems on weed seedbanks in two years of following crops.', 'The Farm Scale Evaluations (FSEs) showed that genetically modified herbicide-tolerant (GMHT) cropping systems could influence farmland biodiversity because of their effects on weed biomass and seed production. Recently published results for winter oilseed rape showed that a switch to GMHT crops significantly affected weed seedbanks for at least 2 years after the crops were sown, potentially causing longer-term effects on other taxa. Here, we seek evidence for similar medium-term effects on weed seedbanks following spring-sown GMHT crops, using newly available data from the FSEs.Weed seedbanks following GMHT maize were significantly higher than following conventional varieties for both the first and second years, while by contrast, seedbanks following GMHT spring oilseed rape were significantly lower over this period. Seedbanks following GMHT beet were smaller than following conventional crops in the first year after the crops had been sown, but this difference was much reduced by the second year for reasons that are not clear. These new data provide important empirical evidence for longer-term effects of GMHT cropping on farmland biodiversity.', 'en_US'),
(2768, 'Assessing gene flow in apple using a descendant of Malus sieversii var. sieversii f. niedzwetzkyana as an identifier for pollen dispersal.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2769, 'Evaluating the allergic risk of genetically modified soybean.', 'Genetically modified (GM) soybean (carrying the EPSPS transgene) is the most common GM food in Korea. In order to assess whether genetic modification increases the allergenic risk of soybeans, the allergenicity and IgE-reactive components of wild-type and GM soybean extracts were compared in allergic adults who had been sensitized to soybeans. We enrolled 1,716 adult allergy patients and 40 healthy, non-atopic controls. Skin prick tests and IgE enzyme linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) were performed using wild-type and GM soybean extracts, along with other common inhaled allergens. The specificities of serum IgE antibodies from allergic patients and the identities of the IgE-reactive components of the soybean extracts were compared using ELISA inhibition testing, 2-dimensional gel electrophoresis, and IgE immunoblotting. To evaluate the effects of digestive enzymes and heat treatment, the soybean extracts were heated or pre- incubated with or without simulated gastric and intestinal fluids. The IgE sensitization rates to wild-type and GM soybeans were identical (3.8% of allergic adults), and circulating IgE antibodies specific for the two extracts were comparable. The results of the ELISA inhibition test, SDS-PAGE, and IgE immunoblotting showed a similar composition of IgE-binding components within the wild-type and GM extracts, which was confirmed using two-dimensional gel electrophoresis, IgE immunoblotting, and amino acid sequencing. None of the subjects had a positive response to purified EPSPS protein in the skin prick test, ELISA, or IgE immunoblot analysis. These findings suggest that the IgE sensitization rate to GM soybean extracts is identical to that of wild-type soybean extracts in adult allergy patients. In addition, based on both in vivo and in vitro methods, the allergenicity of wild type and GM soybean extracts was identical.', 'en_US'),
(2770, 'Transgenic malaria-resistant mosquitoes have a fitness advantage when feeding on Plasmodium-infected blood.', 'The introduction of genes that impair Plasmodium development into mosquito populations is a strategy being considered for malaria control. The effect of the transgene on mosquito fitness is a crucial parameter influencing the success of this approach. We have previously shown that anopheline mosquitoes expressing the SM1 peptide in the midgut lumen are impaired for transmission of Plasmodium berghei. Moreover, the transgenic mosquitoes had no noticeable fitness load compared with nontransgenic mosquitoes when fed on noninfected mice. Here we show that when fed on mice infected with P. berghei, these transgenic mosquitoes are more fit (higher fecundity and lower mortality) than sibling nontransgenic mosquitoes. In cage experiments, transgenic mosquitoes gradually replaced nontransgenics when mosquitoes were maintained on mice infected with gametocyte-producing parasites (strain ANKA 2.34) but not when maintained on mice infected with gametocyte-deficient parasites (strain ANKA 2.33). These findings suggest that when feeding on Plasmodium-infected blood, transgenic malaria-resistant mosquitoes have a selective advantage over nontransgenic mosquitoes. This fitness advantage has important implications for devising malaria control strategies by means of genetic modification of mosquitoes.', 'en_US'),
(2771, 'Risk, genetically modified food and the US/EU divide.', 'The Genetically Modified (GM) food and crops issue illustrates some key contemporary differences between the EU and the USA on environmental issues. These differences have been parallel to the apparently stronger influence of environmentalists since 1990 on a range of issues in the EU, compared to the USA. Beck''s ''Risk Society'' theory has general resonance with contemporary western attitudes to risk. However, it may be that the US regulatory framework may now be more representative of his ''analysis'' of archetypal ''reflexive modernisation'', while EU policies (on GM food at least) represent more self-critical, precautionary and solutions-oriented ''normative'' aspects of the thesis.', 'en_US'),
(2772, 'Pharmaceutical crops have a mixed outlook in California.', 'Crops are being genetically engineered to produce a wide variety of drugs, vaccines and other pharmaceutical proteins. Although these crops may open the door to less expensive and more-readily available drugs, there is concern regarding the potential for contamination of human food and livestock feed, as well as environmental harm. The outlook for the production of pharmaceutical crops in California currently appears mixed. To date, 18 federal permits for field trials involving pharmaceutical or industrial proteins have been approved in California. However, the state''s farming community and general public have thus far rejected pharmaceutical crop production, and a handful of local governments have recently banned the cultivation of genetically modified crops, including pharmaceutical crops. In light of the many pros and cons, three major approaches ? the precautionary approach, risk analysis and cost-benefit analysis ? could be used to move the debate about pharmaceutical crops forward.', 'en_US'),
(2773, 'Risk assessment for plant-made pharmaceuticals.', 'Plant-made pharmaceuticals (PMPs) offer great promise as efficacious and cost-effective products for the treatment of human and animal disease. The benefits of this technology must be balanced against potential health and environmental risks that may be associated with its use. Risks associated with human and animal health and environmental impacts of PMPs can be minimized through adoption of production confinement and product channelling processes that have stringencies consistent with the degree of hazard or uncertainty associated with a specific product. Risk assessment considers the probability for harm to occur as a consequence of exposure in the production, processing, and use of a given PMP. Risk assessment focused on the intended uses of PMPs involves manufacturing and medicinal use scenarios that consider workers and consumers of the PMP; whereas the risk assessment for unintended occurrence in food or feeds considers a differing nature of exposure (in terms of the route, intensity, frequency and duration of exposure). The consequences of intended and unintended use both must be considered and managed for comprehensive understanding of risk. Regardless, because PMPs presently have no provision for regulatory tolerances, their inadvertent occurrence in foods or feeds remains an important economic consideration, even when the health and environmental risks are low. Various production options may be utilized to account for uncertainties in order to mitigate the risks of PMPs.', 'en_US'),
(2774, 'Evaluation of Bt-toxin uptake by the non-target herbivore, Myzus persicae (Hemiptera: Aphididae), feeding on transgenic oilseed rape.', 'As consequence of the concern about the biosafety of genetically modified plants, biological and ecological studies are considered crucial for environmental risk assessment. Laboratory experiments were carried out in order to evaluate the transfer of the Cry1Ac Bt-toxin from a transgenic Bt-oilseed rape to a non-target pest, Myzus persicae Sulzer. Cry1Ac protein levels in plants and aphids were determined using a double sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Phloem sap from (Bt+) and (Bt-) oilseed rape plants was collected from leaves using a standard method of extraction in an EDTA buffer. Bt-toxin was present in phloem sap, with a mean concentration of 2.7±1.46 ppb, corresponding to a 24-fold lower level than in oilseed rape leaves. Toxin was also detected in aphid samples, with a mean concentration in the positive samples of 2.0±0.8 ppb. The evidence that Bt-toxin remains in herbivores, in this case an aphid, could be useful to clarify functional aspects linked to possible consequences of Bt-crops on food chains involving herbivore?natural enemy trophic systems. Further studies are needed in order to improve the knowledge on the functional aspects linked to the transfer of the Cry1Ac Bt-toxin from GM-oilseed rape to aphids and their possible consequence.', 'en_US'),
(2775, 'The yield and composition of milk from transgenic rabbits.', 'Basic objective of this research was to compare the milk yield and composition of New Zealand White transgenic rabbit females expressing recombinant human factor VIII (hFVIII) in mammary gland during lactation with that of non-transgenic rabbit females of the same age during 30 days of lactation. Transgenic founders were generated by the microinjection of foreign DNA (mWAP-hFVIII gene construct) into the egg. F1, F2 and F3 generations of transgenic rabbits were obtained after mating of transgenic founder rabbits with non-transgenic rabbits. The amount of milk rejected was measured by weight-suckle-weight method at 10th, 20th and 30th day of lactation. Quality of milk (content of fat, protein, lactose, dry ash, and some minerals) from transgenic and non-transgenic rabbit was also determined. Comparison of milk yield, determined by weight-suckle-weight method, showed significantly higher (p<0.05) milk production at day 20 of first lactation in non-transgenic females, but on the same day of second lactation higher milk yield was measured in transgenic ones. Significantly higher (p<0.05) content of milk fat and protein was determined in transgenic milk whilst higher content of lactose was found in non-transgenic milk. The content of minerals (calcium, phosphorus, magnesium and sodium) did not differ in both experimental and control groups. Our results showed that milk yield and composition of transgenic rabbit females (mammary specific transgenic over-expression of hFVIII) over several generations is only slightly and transiently different from milk yield of non-transgenic females, which had no significant consequence on the litter size and viability.', 'en_US'),
(2776, 'Categorizing genetically modified food products:  Effects of labelling on information processing.', 'Purpose ? The purpose of this paper is to provide insight into whether GM-labelling leads to different processing behaviour of food stimuli compared to when products are not labelled. Design/methodology/approach ? A task was designed to investigate people''s categorization behaviour as a function of information provided. In two studies each participant was randomly allocated to either the experimental ''GM-labelled condition'', or the control ''non-labelled condition''. Findings ? Different processing strategies and different characteristics are used to judge products that are labelled as genetically modified or not. GM labelling of foods is interpreted to induce analytical processing of information and therefore the products are classified relatively more often on the basis of verifiable categorization criteria compared to when they were not labelled as GM. When products are not labelled as GM, information is more likely to be automatically processed and non-verifiable categorization criteria are used. Originality/value ? This is the first study to examine the processes that labelling as GM brings about.', 'en_US'),
(2777, 'Chemical composition of glyphosate-tolerant soybean 40-3-2 grown in Europe remains equivalent with that of conventional soybean (Glycine max L.).', 'The composition of glyphosate-tolerant (Roundup Ready) soybean 40-3-2 was compared with that of conventional soybean grown in Romania in 2005 as part of a comparative safety assessment program.  Samples were collected from replicated field trials, and compositional analyses were performed to measure proximates (moisture, fat, ash, protein, and carbohydrates by calculation), fiber, amino acids, fatty acids, isoflavones, raffinose, stachyose, phytic acid, trypsin inhibitor, and lectin in grain as well as proximates and fiber in forage.  The mean values for all biochemical components assessed for Roundup Ready soybean 40-30-2 were similar to those of the conventional control and were within the published range observed for commercial soybean.  The compositional profile of Roundup Ready soybean 40-3-2 was also compared to that of conventional soybean varieties grown in Romania by calculating a 99% tolerance interval to describe compositional variability in the population of traditional soybean varieties already on the marketplace.  These comparisons, together with the history of the safe use of soybean as a common component of animal feed and human food, lead to the conclusion that Roundup Ready soybean 40-3-2 is compositionally equivalent to and as safe and nutritious as conventional soybean varieties grown commercially.', 'en_US'),
(2778, 'Editorial.  Co-existence of genetically modified crops with conventional and organic farming.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2779, 'The Impact of the media on food choice.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2780, 'Quantitative analysis of the seasonal and tissue-specific expression of Cry1Ab in transgenic maize Mon810.', 'The tissue-specific expression and seasonal abundance of Cry1Ab protein were determined in transgenic maize plants (Mon810, variety ''Novelis'') from two field trials located near Bonn and Halle, Germany. A total of 1085 samples were analysed by using Double Antiserum-Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (DAS-ELISA). The Cry1Ab contents of various plant tissues (root, stem, upper leaf, lower leaf, anther, pollen and kernel) were determined at four different growth stages (BBCH19, BBCH30, BBCH61 and BBCH83) collected in 2001, 2002 and 2003. Mon810 showed the highest Cry1Ab contents in the leaves (5.5 - 6.4 µg g fresh weight &lsqb;fw&rsqb;) at BBCH83, whereas the lowest Cry1Ab contents were detected in the pollen (1 - 97 ng g fw). Cry1Ab content of residual root stocks collected in the field nine months after harvest was 15 - 17 ng g fw. This demonstrated that the Cry1Ab concentration in residual root stocks was reduced to about one-hundredth of the fresh roots. The monitoring of Cry1Ab expression showed that the Cry1Ab contents varied strongly between different plant individuals.', 'en_US'),
(2781, 'Dispersal potential is affected by growth-hormone transgenesis in Coho Salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch).', 'Potential ecological consequences on the natural environment of fast-growing transgenic fish with elevated intrinsic growth rates is an important question should such fish be allowed in commercial production systems. One trait that will strongly affect the spatial extent of consequences is the propensity of transgenic fish to disperse. We addressed this question in three experiments using different measures of spatial dispersal where we compared very young genotypically wild coho salmon with transgenic conspecifics in terms of: (i) group cohesion, (ii) exploratory behavior, and (iii) up- and downstream movements. Transgenic fish were more loosely aggregated, more likely to explore, and less likely to swim upstream, but equally likely to disperse downstream compared with genetically wild fish. These results show that dispersal behavior has been affected by transgenesis and that transgenic fish therefore may venture into habitats previously not used by wild fish. Given the importance of dispersal in ecological risk-assessment of transgenic fish, continued work within this area is warranted and experimental habitats should mimic the potential receiving natural habitats to which transgenic fish are likely to escape or be released to.', 'en_US'),
(2782, 'Pharma-Planta:  road testing the developing regulatory guidelines for plant-made pharmaceuticals.', 'Significant advances over the last few years have seen plant-made pharmaceuticals (PMPs) move from the exploratory research phase towards clinical trials, with the first commercial products for human use expected to reach the market by 2009. Europe has yet to witness the commercial application of PMP technology, although at least one product has begun phase II clinical trials with others following close behind. These emerging products are set to challenge the complex and overlapping regulations that currently govern GM plants and ''conventional'' pharmaceutical production. The areas of responsibility are being mapped out between the different EU regulatory agencies, with specific guidelines currently being drawn up for the regulation of PMPs. This article discusses issues surrounding the development of robust risk-assessment and risk-management practices based on health and environmental impact, while working with EU regulatory authorities to ensure appropriate regulatory oversight.', 'en_US'),
(2783, 'Modelling the role of refuges for sustainable management of dual-gene Bt Cotton in West African smallholder farming systems.', 'Modelling is a common tool for evaluating the sustainability of Bt crops. We previously used modelling to show that, under the agro-ecological conditions of West Africa, non-Bt cotton could be used as a refuge to delay the development of resistance to Bt toxins in Helicoverpa armigera. We concluded that Cry1Ac Bt Cotton should be limited to 20% of the total cotton acreage [Nibouche, S., Martin, P., Vaissayre, M., 2003. A modelling approach of the sustainability of Bt cotton grown by small farmers in West Africa. Res. Pest Manag. Newsl. 13, 55?58]. Here we present results obtained with a cotton cultivar expressing two Bt genes (dual-gene Bt Cotton). Our conclusions are the same as those drawn on the basis of results obtained with one-gene Bt Cotton, i.e. non-Bt cotton refuges are essential for effective prevention of resistance, since wild host plants of the bollworm have not been found to serve as a refuge for this pest during the rainy season. The optimal size of non-Bt cotton refuges depends on bollworm mortality levels on Bt cotton, and on gene flow between rainfed crops and irrigated vegetable crops. Although there is very little data available regarding pest movements and/or migration and crop-pest interactions in the agro-ecological conditions of West Africa, our simulations indicate that Bt cotton should not be grown on more than 20?25% of the total cotton cropping area in order to prevent resistance from developing in the long term.', 'en_US'),
(2784, 'Stability of RNA silencing-based traits in potato after virus infection.', 'Induction of post-transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS) by transgenes can be exploited in the genetic engineering of plants for virus resistance, altered lipid or polysaccharide composition, delayed flowering, reduced toxin or allergen content, and many other desired traits. Transformation with constructs based on virus coat protein (CP) genes or other viral genes has been successfully used to engineer PTGS-mediated virus resistance into a large number of crop plants and some transgenic lines have been commercially exploited. However the discovery that plant viruses encode suppressors of gene silencing has raised concerns that virus infection of crop plants might reverse the new silencing-based traits. Most studies of virus suppression of silencing have used model systems based on silencing of reporter genes. A few studies have analysed the effects of virus infections on plants with genetically engineered virus resistance based on either a simple sense or an inverted repeat construct. We decided to use genetically engineered virus resistance in potato as a model system for further studies of the effect of virus infection on genetically engineered traits. We present for the first time a comparison of simple and inverted repeat constructs with respect to resistance stability upon challenge with another virus. We found that silencing induced by an inverted repeat construct persisted after virus infection where silencing induced by a simple sense construct failed. Furthermore, even with a simple sense construct the virus-induced suppression of silencing was partial and transient, suggesting that silencing based traits can be agronomically highly useful.', 'en_US'),
(2785, 'Long term evaluation of field-released genetically modified rhizobia.', 'This is the report of the first open field release of genetically modified microorganisms (GMMs) in Italy. It covers ten years of monitoring, and follows in-field GMM dynamics from strain release to disappearance below detection limits, as well as assessment of impact on resident microorganisms. The bacteria released belong to the nitrogen fixing legume endosymbiont Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. viciae, and were engineered with non-agronomically-proficient traits, in order to assess their behavior and fate without GMM-specific positive feedback from the plant. A DNA cassette containing mercury resistance and ß-galactosidase genes was introduced in either plasmid-borne or chromosomally integrated versions, in order to test the resulting strain stability. A synthetic promoter was used to drive the lacZ gene, conferring high catabolic activity to the GMM. Two different wild-type Rhizobium backgrounds were tested, comparing a non-indigenous vs. an indigenous, highly competitive strain. The latter had much greater persistence, since it was able to survive and establish at technically detectable levels for over four years after release. Selection factors, such as reiterated presence of the plant host, or lactose substrate supply, enhanced long-term survival to different extents. The lactose treatment showed that even a single trophic supplementation can surpass the benefits of symbiotic interaction for a period of several years. Concerning impact, the GMMs did not alter substantially the other soil community general microbiota. However, there were some significant differences in microbiota as a consequence of the Rhizobium inoculation. This effect was observed with either the WT or GMM, and was more evident in the release of the indigenous Rhizobium. Moreover, as the indigenous GMM had its parental, dominant wild-type in the same soil, it was possible to evaluate to what extent the GMM version could result in parent displacement (''self-impact''), and how much the two rhizobia would additively contribute to nodulation.', 'en_US'),
(2786, 'Transgene escape in sugar beet production fields: data from six years farm scale monitoring.', 'Concerns have been raised in Europe about the efficiency, sustainability, and environmental impact of the first genetically modified crops. The committees and regulators in charge of approving procedures have encouraged a field trial approach for safety assessment studies under current agronomic conditions. We describe the gene flow from sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.) in a multi-year and multi-crop monitoring study on farmers'' fields at two locations that has been carried out since 1995. We analyzed two sugar beet lines that have been genetically transformed for herbicide resistance. One sugar beet has resistance to glufosinate and the other to glyphosate. Large differences among lines, years and locations were observed. These differences provided a broad range of situations to estimate the risks. Sugar beet bolters produced the majority (86%) of the herbicide-resistant seeds harvested in the field. Direct pollen flow from sugar beet bolters to weed beets that were growing within the same field as well as in a neighboring field that was left fallow accounted for only 0.4% of the resistant seeds released over the years and locations. Descendants of the hybrids between the sugar beet and the weed beet produced the remaining 13.6% of resistant seeds. Herbicide-resistant seeds from the progeny of the weed beet were recorded up to 112 m away from the closest transgenic pollen donor. Indications were observed of non-randomness of the weed beet producing resistant progeny. We also analyzed pollen flow to male-sterile bait plants located within and outside of the sugar beet field. Herbicide-resistant pollen flow was recorded up to 277 m, and fitted with an inverse power regression. Using sugar beet varieties with no, or very low, sensitivity to bolting and destroying bolters are two necessary measures that could delay gene flow.', 'en_US'),
(2787, 'Adsorption of pure and dirty bacterial DNA on clay minerals and their transformation frequency.', 'Several studies have investigated the adsorption of pure DNA on soil particles and its transformation ability. However, the presence of not purified (dirty) rather than pure DNA is more common in the extracellular soil environment. For this reason, we have investigated the adsorption and binding of dirty DNA on montmorillonite (M) and kaolinite (K) and their transforming ability in comparison to pure DNA. After lysis of Bacillus subtilis cells, induced by KCl, dirty DNA was characterized by the presence of cellular wall debris (cwd) and other constitutional organic components (coc). The dirty DNA was then divided into two fractions, one with cellular wall debris (DNA +cwd) and the other without cellular wall debris (DNA -cwd). B. subtilis BD 1512 (Cmr) and BD 170 (Cms) were selected as donor and recipient bacteria, respectively, for adsorption and transformation studies. Both cwd and coc seem to facilitate the adsorption of DNA to clay minerals, whereas only cwd promote the DNA binding on clays, protecting also the DNA fragments below 400 bp against nucleases. Both dirty DNA fractions adsorbed and bound on clay minerals were able to transform competent cells.', 'en_US'),
(2788, 'Inheritance and cross-resistance of Bacillus thuringiensis insecticidal crystal protein Cry1Ac resistance in cotton bollworm Helicoverpa armigera Hubner population from Tamil Nadu, India.', 'Cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera Hubner selected for five generations with Bacillus thuringiensis insecticidal crystal protein Cry1Ac in the laboratory developed 12.98-fold resistance. Resistance and susceptible populations were mass crossed to study the dominance of resistance. The Cry1Ac?selected (BCR) population showed 5.8-fold resistance to Cry1Aa and 5.04-fold resistance to Cry1Ab. The degree of dominance (D) was 0.34 and 0.40 for the R × S and S × R hybrids, respectively, which indicates incomplete recessive character of Cry1Ac resistance in the population. The estimated realized heritability (h2) and response quotient (Q) of resistance for Cry1Ac were 0.52 and 0.15, respectively. This indicated the lower phenotypic variation in the selected population. The resistance risk assessment based on h2indicated that the resistance would increased tenfold after <9 generations for Cry1Ac in the resistant population. The results show the ability of H. armigera to develop resistance against Cry1Ac and cross-resistance to Cry1Aa and Cry1Ab. ', 'en_US'),
(2789, 'Transgene flow to hybrid rice and its male-sterile lines.', 'Gene flow from genetically modified (GM) crops to the same species or wild relatives is a major concern in risk assessment. Transgenic rice with insect and/or disease resistance, herbicide, salt and/or drought tolerance and improved quality has been successfully developed. However, data on rice gene flow from environmental risk assessment studies are currently insufficient for the large-scale commercialization of GM rice. We have provided data on the gene flow frequency at 17 distances between a GM japonica line containing the bar gene as a pollen donor and two indica hybrid rice varieties and four male-sterile (ms) lines. The GM line was planted in a 640m2 in an isolated experimental plot (2.4 ha), which simulates actual conditions of rice production with pollen competition. Results showed that: (1) under parallel plantation at the 0-m zone, the transgene flow frequency to the ms lines ranged from 3.145 to 36.116% and was significantly higher than that to hybrid rice cultivars (0.037?0.045%). (2) Gene flow frequency decreased as the distance increased, with a sharp cutoff point at about 1?2 m; (3) The maximum distance of transgene flow was 30?40 m to rice cultivars and 40?150 m to ms lines. We believe that these data will be useful for the risk assessment and management of transgenic rice lines, especially in Asia where 90% of world''s rice is produced and hybrid rice varieties are extensively used.', 'en_US'),
(2790, 'Research strategies for future farming systems:  GM sugarcane.', 'Worldwide, there is an increasing area and number of different genetically modified (GM) crops being grown in 21 countries.  Into the future, the number of different traits will also increase and is likely to include pharmaceutical and industrial products.  This year has seen the first commercial harvest of a transgenic sugar crop - a sugar beet grown in the USA containing a gene conferring herbicide tolerance.  In Australia to date, only GM cotton and carnations are in commercial production.  Canola has been approved for commercial release through the Federal regulatory system but is not grown commercially because of state-based moratoria in all states and territories except Queensland and the Northern Territory.Whilst numerous benefits of growing GM crops have been demonstrated (e.g., reduced insecticide use on plants producing insecticidal proteins, increased adoption of no/reduced tillage systems due to herbicide resistant crops, and an overall reduced environmental footprint) many challenges remain for the introduction of GM sugarcane.  Actions required include the following:·', 'en_US'),
(2791, 'Guidance document of the scientific panel on genetically modified organisms for the risk assessment of genetically modified plants and derived food and feed.', 'The Scientific Panel on Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO Panel) adopted its guidance document for the risk assessment of genetically modified (GM) plants and derived food and feed on 24 September 2004. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and the GMO Panel have consulted stakeholders prior to the final adoption of this document.This document provides guidance for the preparation and presentation of applications submitted within the framework of Regulation (EC) 1829/2003 on GM food and feed, and of Directive 2001/18/EC on the deliberate release into the environment of genetically modified organisms (GMOs). This document therefore covers the full risk assessment of GM plants and derived food and feed. Issues related to risk management of GMOs (traceability, labelling, co-existence) are outside the scope of the guidance document.Guidance for the preparation of applications is given throughout the different chapters of the document. The first chapter of the guidance document clarifies the scope of the document and the legal background for the risk assessment of GMOs, GM food and feed at Community level. Chapter II describes the overall risk assessment strategy. Chapter III describes the issues to be considered when carrying out a comprehensive risk characterisation. These include molecular characterisation of the inserts, assessment of modification to the agronomic characteristics of the GM plant and evaluation of food/feed safety aspects of the GM plant and/or derived food and feed. Data on composition, toxicity, allergenicity, nutritional value and environmental impact provide, on a case-by-case basis, the cornerstones of the risk assessment process. The characterisation of risk may give rise to the need for further specific activities including post-market monitoring of the GM food/feed and/or for the environmental monitoring of GM plants. Finally, Chapter IV summaries the overall risk characterisation process.Guidance for the presentation of applications can be found in the Annexes to the guidance document. These include details on the key component parts of the application, on the format of technical dossiers and on the summary of applications. There are also specifications on the submission of samples of GM plant materials to DG Joint Research Centre.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(2792, 'Proceedings of a Workshop on:  Ecological Effects of Pest Resistance Genes in Managed Ecosystems.', 'Genetically engineered crops have become a visible part of the US agricultural landscape. The first transgenic varieties in or near commercial production have been modified for a range of characteristics conferring improved agronomic performance, herbicide tolerance, pest and disease resistance, handling and storage properties, as well as other traits. However the use of biotechnology to address constraints in agricultural production brings with it questions regarding the potential of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) to cause unacceptable impacts on the environment.Among the ecological issues associated with transgenic crops is the possibility that some newly introduced traits, such as pest or pathogen resistance, could confer added fitness to the crop. As a result, the crop may gain weedy characteristics if its ability to survive and spread outside of cultivation is enhanced. A second issue arises if such crops are grown in the vicinity of compatible wild or weedy related species; transfer of the trait by natural hybridization may produce hybrid progeny that are more aggressive or more difficult to control. These issues are no longer hypothetical, as at least seven groups of crops being engineered for pest resistance are known to have sexually compatible wild or weedy relatives in the US.Pest resistance has been a primary objective of farmers and breeders throughout the history of agriculture. Genes identified in wild germplasm or recovered as spontaneous or induced mutations have been incorporated into cultivated varieties of many major crop species. This process is now being supplemented by the techniques of genetic engineering, and dozens of crop species are being engineered for improved pest resistance. Pre-release risk assessment of these crops addresses the question: Does releasing such crops pose any special risk of creating or exacerbating a weed problem?Assessing the potential for transgenic pest resistant crops to become problem weeds, or to enhance the weediness of nearby sexually compatible relatives, is a complex task. Information is required from many disciplines - weed science, agronomy, population biology and genetics, entomology, plant breeding, ecology, plant pathology, molecular biology, and more. Scientific evidence in support of informed risk assessment and decision making thus lies in the collective knowledge of experts from these fields.The workshop on Ecological Effects of Pest Resistance Genes in Managed Ecosystems was organized to promote multidisciplinary discussions that would lead to a synthesis of what we already know, and what we don''t know, regarding the environmental impact of pest resistant crops. In so doing, the workshop provided an opportunity to reexamine a key issue related to the responsible development and use of agricultural biotechnology products.', 'en_US'),
(2793, 'Nucleotide sequence of the ampicillin resistance Gene of Escherichia coli plasmid pBR32.', 'I have determined the nucleotide sequence of the ampicillin resistance gene of pBR322, an Escherichia coli plasmid that encodes a penicillin â-lactamase.  This gene codes for a protein of 286 amino acid residues.  The first 23 amino acids presumably form a signal for secretion, because they do not appear in the mature enzyme, whose partial amino acid sequence has been determined independently, [Ambler, R. P. & Scott, G. K. (1978) Proc. NatL Acad Sci. USA 75, 3732-3736].', 'en_US'),
(2794, 'Safety assessment of transgenic plums and grapevines expressing viral coat protein genes: new insights into real environmental impact of perennial plants engineered for virus resistance.', 'The potential impact of transgenic plums and grapevines expressing viral coat protein (CP) gene constructs on the diversity and dynamics of virus populations was assessed under open and confined conditions in the frame of a research program sponsored by the European Commission. Across all field trials conducted in different locations (France, Romania, and Spain) and environments (continental and Mediterranean), transgenic plums expressing the CP gene of Plum pox virus (PPV) and transgenic grapevines expressing the CP gene of Grapevine fanleaf virus (GFLV) had no detectable effect on the emergence of recombinant PPV and GFLV species over eight-ten and three years, respectively.  Also, no statistically significant difference was found in the number and type of aphids, including viruliferous individuals, and other arthropods that visited transgenic and nontransgenic plum trees. In addition, Apple chlorotic leaf spot virus, Prune dwarf virus, and Prunus necrotic ringspot virus did not influence the stability of the engineered resistance to PPV in co-infected transgenic plums over three dormancy periods.  Further, under confined conditions, no recombinant virus was found to detectable level in transgenic grapevines expressing the CP gene of Grapevine virus A (GVA) or Grapevine virus B (GVB) that were challenged with the homologous or heterologous virus, despite high accumulation of transgene transcripts. Also, translocation of transgene-derived products, i.e. protein, mRNAs and siRNAs, did not occur to detectable level from transgenic grapevine rootstocks expressing the GFLV CP gene to nontransgenic scions. Altogether, our transgenic plums and grapevines expressing viral genes had a neutral impact on virus populations and non-target organisms over extended time. These findings provide new insights into the environmental impact of transgenic perennial crops engineered for virus resistance. It is expected that they will assist national and international regulatory authorities in making scientifically based decisions for the release of virus-resistant transgenic crops.', 'en_US'),
(2795, 'Safety of virus-resistant transgenic plants two decades after their introduction:  lessons from realistic field risk assessment studies.', 'Potential safety issues have been raised with the development and release of virus-resistant transgenic plants. This review focuses on safety assessment with a special emphasis on crops that have been commercialized or extensively tested in the field such as squash, papaya, plum, grape, and sugar beet. We discuss topics commonly perceived to be of concern to the environment and to human health-heteroencapsidation, recombination, synergism, gene flow, impact on nontarget organisms, and food safety in terms of allergenicity. The wealth of field observations and experimental data is critically evaluated to draw inferences on the most relevant issues. We also express inside views on the safety and benefits of virus-resistant transgenic plants, and recommend realistic risk assessment approaches to assist their timely deregulation and release.', 'en_US'),
(2796, 'Evaluation of the safety and nutritional equivalence of a genetically modified cottonseed meal in a 90-day dietary toxicity study in rats.', 'Meal prepared from Cry1F/Cry1Ac transgenic/genetically modified cottonseed (WIDESTRIKE? Insect Protection, hereafter referred to as WIDESTRIKE?) was compared to cottonseed meal prepared from four conventionally bred lines of cotton (three commercial non-transgenic line controls (PHY72, PHY78 and 98M-2983), and a near isoline non-transgenic control (PSC355) in a 90-day dietary study to evaluate safety and nutritional equivalence. Diets were formulated with 10% WIDESTRIKE? cottonseed meal equivalent to 7235 mg/kg/day for males and 7935 mg/kg/day for females. Animals were evaluated by cage-side and hand-held detailed clinical observations, body weight, and feed consumption. Functional tests, motor activity and ophthalmic examinations were conducted pre-exposure and prior to study termination. Standard hematology, clinical chemistry, prothrombin time and urinalysis parameters were evaluated. All rats had a complete necropsy and selected organs were weighed. Histopathologic examinations were performed on all rats fed the diets containing the near isoline non-transgenic control or WIDESTRIKE?.Following 90 days of feeding, no adverse effects were observed during the conduct of clinical observations or in any of the parameters measured in this study. This study demonstrated that rodent diets prepared with 10% cottonseed meal from WIDESTRIKE? cottonseeds do not produce any untoward effects and are nutritionally equivalent to cottonseed meals prepared from other, non-transgenic cottonseeds.', 'en_US'),
(2797, 'High-lysine corn generated by endosperm-specific suppression of lysine catabolism using RNAi.', 'Because of the limited lysine content in corn grain, synthetic lysine supplements are added to corn meal-based rations for animal feed. The development of biotechnology, combined with the understanding of plant lysine metabolism, provides an alternative solution for increasing corn lysine content through genetic engineering. Here, we report that by suppressing lysine catabolism, transgenic maize kernels accumulated a significant amount of lysine. This was achieved by RNA interference (RNAi) through the endosperm-specific expression of an inverted-repeat (IR) sequence targeting the maize bifunctional lysine degradation enzyme, lysine-ketoglutarate reductase/saccharopine dehydrogenase (ZLKR/SDH). Although plant-short interfering RNA (siRNA) were reported to lack tissue specificity due to systemic spreading, we confirmed that the suppression of ZLKR/SDH in developing transgenic kernels was restricted to endosperm tissue. Furthermore, results from our cloning and sequencing of siRNA suggested the absence of transitive RNAi. These results support the practical use of RNAi for plant genetic engineering to specifically target gene suppression in desired tissues without eliciting systemic spreading and the transitive nature of plant RNAi silencing.', 'en_US'),
(2798, 'BioOK:  One-stop-agency for the risk assessment of genetically modified plants and derived food and feed.', 'The Innovative Regional Growth Core BioOK is a confederation of five companies, one Steinbeis Transfer Center, the Federal Centre for Breeding Research on Cultivated Plants and the University of Rostock with the objective to develop a complete portfolio effective and adapted analytical procedures for transgene specific risk assessment procedures of genetically modified plants.  The network includes molecular characterisation, compound analysis, feeding studies, toxicology and allergenicity tests, greenhouse and field trials, analysis of effects on target and non target organisms, soil and micro organisms as well as post-marked monitoring.As model substances we are analysing five different recombinant plant-derived proteins (two marker proteins and three proteins with technical and pharmaceutical value) to support practicability and comparison to previously applied methods. The commonly used and well analysed marker NPTII serves as a control to for the comparison to previously used methods to validate the new procedures, GFP (green flourescent protein) is used as visible marker protein to standardise new in vitro test systems, Cyanophycin (poly l-aspartate chain with l-arginine residues) is a protein of technical value, VP60 (structural protein of RHDV (rabbit haemorragic disease virus)) is a member of subunit vaccines and finally the well known and characterised adjuvant CTB (non-toxic Subunit B of the Choleratoxin).The potato plant has been selected as the model plant because of the high biosafety standard and the storage organ (tuber) with a high industrial value and the possibility to do feeding analysis.', 'en_US'),
(2799, 'Community and International Law on Food Safety. [Original Title: Droit Communautaire et International de la Securite des Aliments.]', 'Après la publication du Livre blanc sur la sécurité alimentaire , les contrôles nationaux dans ce domaine sont, depuis le 1er janvier 2006, relayés par des autocontrôles effectués par les opérateurs économiques. Dans ce contexte, qui laisse présager de nombreux conflits juridictionnels, cet ouvrage éclaire le lecteur sur la nouvelle répartition des responsabilités entre les acteurs concernés : EFSA/ AFSSA (procédures d''analyse des risques, principe de précaution) , contrôles vétérinaires, police sanitaire, contrôles phytosanitaires , établissements responsables (HACCP, règles de traçabilité). La législation relative aux aliments, à la santé et au bien-être des animaux , à la protection des végétaux , à l''hygiène des denrées alimentaires (pack Hygiène) , les thèmes et problèmes spécifiques liés au secteur de l''agro-alimentaire : ESB, fièvre aphteuse, grippe aviaire, OGM, allégations nutritionnelles, bioterrorisme, les perspectives de l''usage médical des aliments.', 'en_US'),
(2800, 'Genetically modified organisms:  from consumer needs to analytical techniques. [Original Title: OGM:  des besoins des consommateurs aux techniques analytiques.]', 'Face à la croissance des surfaces cultivées en OGM dans le monde, comment savoir si les produits que nous consommons sont dérivés de plantes génétiquement modifiées ? Quels sont les outils disponibles aujourd''hui qui permettent de le savoir ? En Europe, plusieurs laboratoires et programmes de recherche ont tenté ces dernières années de répondre à ces questions.', 'en_US'),
(2801, 'Fees or refuges: which is better for the sustainable management of insect resistance to transgenic Bt corn?', 'The evolution of resistance in insect pests will imperil the efficiency of transgenic insect-resistant crops. The currently advised strategy to delay resistance evolution is to plant non-toxic crops (refuges) in close proximity to plants engineered to express the toxic protein of the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). We seek answers to the question of how to induce growers to plant non-toxic crops. A first strategy, applied in the United States, is to require Bt growers to plant non-Bt refuges and control their compliance with requirements. We suggest that an alternative strategy is to make Bt seed more expensive by instituting a user fee, and we compare both strategies by integrating economic processes into a spatially explicit, population genetics model. Our results indicate that although both strategies may allow the sustainable management of the common pool of Bt-susceptibility alleles in pest populations, for the European corn borer (i) one of the most serious pests in the US corn belt, the fee strategy is less efficient than refuge requirements.', 'en_US'),
(2802, 'An analytical model assessing the potential threat to natural habitats from insect resistance transgenes: continuous transgene input.', 'The potential effects of ''escape'' of genetically modified material (transgenes) into natural communities is a major concern in their use. These effects may be limited in the first instance by limiting the proportion of transgene-carrying plants in the natural community. We previously presented an analytical model of the ecological processes governing the relative abundance and persistence of insect resistance (IR) transgenes in a natural community. In that paper, we illustrated the case in which the transgene is input into the community in a single season using data from oilseed rape (OSR) and its known herbivore, Plutella macropennis. We found that the transgene is unlikely to have a great impact on the natural community. Here, we extend the model for repeated input of crop pollen carrying the transgene. We show the model output, again using OSR, for continuous input of the transgene over 10 years, the projected commercial lifetime of a transgene without associated undesirable agronomic effects. Our results do not change our original conclusion that the IR transgene need not have a large impact on the natural community and our suggestions for assessing and mitigating any threat still stand.', 'en_US'),
(2803, 'Plantations, GM trees and indigenous rights.', 'The damaging effects of monoculture tree plantations are being resisted around the world. Timber plantations have occupied large tracts of indigenous and agricultural land and have been responsible for the loss of biodiversity and the pollution and depletion of water and soils. Such plantations are owned by large corporations with little concern for the surrounding communities or environment. Now, the addition of genetically modified (GM) tree plantations can only make the situation worse. This article argues that the development of GM trees needs to be stopped now.', 'en_US'),
(2804, 'Awareness of and attitudes towards biotechnology and GMOs in Southwest Nigeria:  a survey of people with access to information.', 'In this paper, we examine awareness of biotechnology and the attitudes towards products and services derived from Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) in Southwest Nigeria. For this purpose, we surveyed 180 respondents across selected segments of the regional population. The paper demonstrates that while respondents have some awareness of biotechnology techniques, there is little awareness about specific GM crops that include Bt maize, Bt cotton and golden rice. Most of the respondents tend to be in favour of the introduction of GM crops and would eat GM foods if they are more nutritious than non-GM foods. The attitudes of the respondents towards GMOs suggest that though more people are in favour of the introduction of GM crops, they do not consider the current state of Nigeria''s institutional preparedness satisfactory for the approval and release of GMOs.', 'en_US'),
(2805, 'EU and US regulations for handling and transporting genetically modified grains:  Are both positions correct?', 'Differences in the way GM grains are treated in the US and the EU motivate the question of whether there is a single correct policy towards identification of such products. This issue is addressed here, based on a mathematical model that assumes that the cost of maintaining identity on non-GM markets is borne by the non-GM industry. The economic welfare impacts of introducing GM technology depend on the levels of consumer concern and production cost savings, and the cost of maintaining non-GM grain identity. The introduction of a new cost-reducing GM technology often increases total welfare as one might expect. However, society loses when GM production cost-savings are small and consumers are highly concerned about GM grain because introducing GM technology creates a need to preserve the identity of non-GM grain. Taken together, the results suggest that the US may have maximized welfare by not requiring labeling of GM corn and soybeans, and that the recently approved EU legislation enforcing labeling of GM crops also makes sense in the EU. The reason for this is that consumer concern in the EU appears to be greater than in the US, and fewer EU producers stand to benefit from cost savings in GM corn and soybean production.', 'en_US'),
(2806, 'Monitoring the environmental effects of Bacillus thuringiensis maize:  Possible effects on nematodes.  [Original title:  Monitoring der umweltwirkungen von Bacillus-thuringiensis-mais:  Untersuchungen zu möglichen effekten auf nematoden.]', 'The Ministry for Environment, Health, and Consumer Protection in the German state of Bavaria funded a cooperative research network entitled Assessment and Monitoring of Genetically Modified Organisms Placed on the Market. Within this framework, the Bavarian State Research Centre for Agriculture (LfL) evaluated and monitored the environmental effect of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) maize from 2000 to 2004. The LfL research focussed on potential side effects on nontarget organisms including aphids and antagonists, butterflies, soil micro-organisms, springtails, earthworms, and nematodes in the laboratory, small field blocks, and fields of commercial size. Of that research, only the studies on nematodes are presented in this article. As an abundant and diverse group in agricultural soils, nematodes are an important part of the soil/food network and have functional diversity in agrarian ecosystems. They may be relevant bioindicators, as plant-feeding nematodes could be affected directly by Bt toxin from the maize tissues, while saprophagous nematodes may be indirectly affected by changed fungal or bacterial food sources. A more detailed and comprehensive final report was published as a special volume in the series on all LfL project results (http://www.LfL.bayern.de).', 'en_US'),
(2807, 'FDA finds meat from animal clones is safe.', 'The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recently issued Draft Documents on the Safety of Animal Clones. MI reviews the FDA''s findings, the response from the EU, and takes an in-depth look at the issues surrounding animal cloning.', 'en_US'),
(2808, 'Increased response to cadmium and Bacillus thuringiensis maize toxicity in the snail Helix aspersa infected by the nematode Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita.', 'To determine the effect of nematode infection on the response of snails to selected toxins, we infected Helix aspersa with 0-, 0.25-, 1-, or 4-fold the recommended field dose of a commercial nematode application for agricultural use. In the first experiment, the snails also were exposed to cadmium via food and soil at concentrations of 0, 30, 60, 120, or 240 mg/kg in a full-factorial design. In the second experiment, snails were infected with nematodes and also fed either Bt (expressing Bacillus thuringiensis toxin) maize or non-Bt maize. The snails were weighed at the beginning and end (after four weeks) of the experiments, and mortality was checked daily. Neither exposure of snails to nematodes nor exposure of snails to cadmium or Bt toxin affected the survival rates of snails. The number of dead snails was highest for combinations of nematode treatments with cadmium concentrations of 120 and 240 mg/kg. In both experiments (Bt and cadmium), the growth rate decreased with increasing nematode dose. The Bt maize was not harmful to the snails in the absence of nematodes, but infected snails grew faster when fed non-Bt maize. The growth rate of snails exposed to cadmium decreased with exposure to increasing Cd concentrations and differed significantly between the no-nematode treatment and the treatments with nematode doses of one- and fourfold the recommended field dose. Snails treated with the highest dose of nematodes accumulated the highest cadmium concentrations.', 'en_US'),
(2809, 'Biointensive integrated pest management for Bt cotton.', 'Biointensive Integrated Pest Management (BIPM) modules were compared with the Farmers` Package of Practices (FPP) for MECH 162 Bt and MECH 162 N Bt The incidence of leaf hopper, aphids, thrips and whiteflies in different modules was in the order of FPP-MECH 162 Bt > BIPM MECH 162 Bt > BIPM MECH 162 N Bt > FPP MECH 162 N Bt. Natural enemies population were more in BIPM modules than the FPP. Coccinellids such as Menochilus sexmaculatus, Coccinella transversalis and spiders Oxyopes spp., Argiope spp., Neoscona spp., Araenus spp. and Plexippus spp. were frequently observed in the field trials. Incidence of bollworm population was more in winter field trial than that in the summer field trials. Fruiting bodies damage, open boll, locule and inter locule damage in different modules was in the order of BIPM MECH 162 Bt > FPP MECH 162 Bt > BIPM MECH 162 N Bt > FPP MECH 162 N Bt. Seed cotton yield in BIPM MECH 162 Bt, BIPM MECH 162 N Bt, FPP MECH 162 Bt and FPP MECH 162 N Bt modules at Alandurai field trial were 1920, 1640, 1800 and 1440 kg ha-1. The results indicated the better performance of Bt cotton in both the modules. BIPM approach reduces the insecticide usage. The IPM approach is essential for gaining higher advantage from Bt cotton as it takes care of varying pest situation.', 'en_US'),
(2810, 'Functional foods from biotech-an unappetizing prospect?', 'In the early 1990s, functional foods promised to solve global malnutrition and put palatable options for treating ailments on grocery shelves. Since then, a meager number of products have ripened while the rest have turned sour.', 'en_US'),
(2811, 'Gone to Seed:  Transgenic Contaminants in the Traditional Seed Supply.', 'Nothing is more fundamental to agriculture and our food supply than seeds. Whether eaten directly or processed through animals, seeds are the ultimate source of human nutrition.  The variety, abundance, and safety of foods are all dependent on the availability and quality of seeds.The prowess of genetic engineers notwithstanding, seeds cannot be made from scratch.  They must be harvested, saved, and shepherded from generation to generation by knowledgeable, engaged individuals.  The value to the food supply of the seeds entrusted to our generation cannot be overstated.In this report, the Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS) examines a new phenomenon that may threaten the quality of the seed supply: the contamination of traditional seeds by DNA sequences derived from genetically engineered crop varieties.  These varieties are produced by molecular techniques?variously known as genetic engineering, genetic modification, or transgenic techniques?that allow scientists to move novel traits into plants from distantly related organisms such as animals and bacteria.The number of transgenes that might potentially contaminate the seed supply is large. Although most commercial transgenic varieties of corn, cotton, soybeans, and canola contain only two traits (herbicide and insect resistance), hundreds of other novel genes have been engineered into crops that have been field tested but have not been, and may never be, commercialized.Most of the transgenes used by genetic engineers are new to foods and some are not intended for use in foods at all.  For these and other reasons, concerns have arisen about the possibility that transgenes introduced into crop varieties through genetic engineering might unintentionally contaminate the seed supply for traditional, or non-genetically engineered, varieties of crops.The research covered in this report addresses that possibility with a small pilot study of seeds of traditional varieties of three major food crops: corn, soybeans, and canola. The study found that the seeds of traditional varieties bought from the same retailers used by U.S. farmers are pervasively contaminated with low levels of DNA sequences originating in genetically engineered varieties of those crops.', 'en_US'),
(2812, 'Mitigation of indirect environmental effects of GM crops.', 'Currently, the UK has no procedure for the approval of novel agricultural practices that is based on environmental risk management principles. Here, we make a first application of the ''bow-tie'' risk management approach in agriculture, for assessment of land use changes, in a case study of the introduction of genetically modified herbicide tolerant (GMHT) sugar beet. There are agronomic and economic benefits, but indirect environmental harm from increased weed control is a hazard. The Farm Scale Evaluation (FSE) trials demonstrated reduced broad-leaved weed biomass and seed production at the field scale. The simplest mitigation measure is to leave a proportion of rows unsprayed in each GMHT crop field. Our calculations, based on FSE data, show that a maximum of 2% of field area left unsprayed is required to mitigate weed seed production and 4% to mitigate weed biomass production. Tilled margin effects could simply be mitigated by increasing the margin width from 0.5 to 1.5m. Such changes are cheap and simple to implement in farming practices. This case study demonstrates the usefulness of the bow-tie risk management approach and the transparency with which hazards can be addressed. If adopted generally, it would help to enable agriculture to adopt new practices with due environmental precaution.', 'en_US'),
(2813, 'Genetically Modified Organisms in Crop Production and their Effects on the Environment: Methodologies for Monitoring and the Way Ahead. Expert consultation, report and selected papers, 18-20 January, 2005.', 'The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) hosted an Expert Consultation on ''Genetically Modified Organisms in Crop Production and Their Effects on the Environment: Methodologies for Monitoring and the Way Ahead'' from 18 to 20 January, 2005 in Rome.  The main objective of the consultation was to review the scientific basis for, and procedures to establish, effective post-release monitoring of genetically modified (GM) crops and develop guidelines to strengthen member countries'' capacities to design and carry out monitoring programmes.  The participants represented a wide range of expertise from research institutes, universities, international agencies, regulatory agencies, the private sector and civil society.  The consultation was jointly organized by the Plant Production and Protection Division of FAO''s Agriculture Department and the Inter-Departmental Working Groups on Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture and on Biotechnology in Food and Agriculture.', 'en_US'),
(2814, 'Hybridization between wild and cultivated potato species in the Peruvian Andes and biosafety implications for deployment of GM potatoes.', 'The possibility of gene flow between Solanum species was tested through crossing 54 accessions from 13 Solanum species (seven wild and six cultivated), both in open pollinated fields in several areas of the Peruvian Andes and in greenhouse crosses.  In this paper, the results of the greenhouse crosses are reported and only the Puno open pollinated field results, both with AFLP fingerprinting, as proof of hybridity and identification of the pollen parent. The cultivated species were selected on the basis of commonly grown native or hybrid varieties and wild species found near or around cultivated potato fields in five different agroe-ecogeographies of Peru, above 3200 m asl. Results from greenhouse and field crosses can be divided in two main groups:1. Same ploidy and EBN number2. Different ploidy and/or EBN', 'en_US'),
(2815, 'Experience with monitoring and GM crops in CIMMYT.', 'The International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) aims to genetically enhance crops and generate public-sector-provided products for the resource poor, e.g., drought-tolerant wheat and insect-resistant maize and, through international?national partnerships, facilitate the acquisition of improved germplasm for non-mandate crops in the cropping systems where maize and wheat thrive; e.g., genetically modified (GM)-papaya through a national food security undertaking in Bangladesh.  The Center also engages in public awareness campaigns in projects such as Insect Resistance Maize for Africa (IRMA), which includes food, feed and environmental safety, monitoring of resistance and establishment of refugia, non-target effects and gene flow.  Monitoring of genetic resources is a wide concern among the centers of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), with an emphasis on the quality of gene banks. Decisions, policies and procedures about monitoring should be science-based, and this requires education, an area where CIMMYT and other CGIAR centers can play an important role. There will be a need to continue to evaluate the need for, and type of monitoring, as new (and unique) products are developed and released in the emergent economies of the world.', 'en_US'),
(2816, 'Monitoring strategies and management of GM crops: an industry perspective.', 'Monitoring is one of many tools that can be used to gather information that can then be used as part of a science-based risk assessment process to make decisions. Industry supports the use of monitoring, when appropriate, to ensure that products meet farmer needs (product stewardship), when used by academic and government researchers to increase basic scientific knowledge and as part of, and when prompted by, scientifically based risk assessment in the regulatory process.  Prior to designing and carrying out a monitoring programme, it is essential to ask and obtain answers to several important questions.  These fall into the broad categories of: Why (study purpose), When (study timing), Where (study and sampling location), What (the information to be gathered), How (the methods to be used) and Who (personnel issues related to studies).', 'en_US'),
(2817, 'Challenges to the design and implementation of effective monitoring for GM crop impacts: lessons from conventional agriculture.', 'Agricultural productivity and the environmental impacts of agriculture are most effectively managed using procedures that are based on sound ecological thinking.  Monitoring procedures for genetically modified (GM) crops that are now a part of international protocols and postmarket requirements should be developed to protect the productivity and ecological integrity of farming systems.  Risk assessment procedures are in development, and monitoring must compensate for deficiencies that will only be rectified through field experience in GM commodities.  The history of monitoring in agriculture tells us that even clearly adverse impacts of GM cropping will be difficult to detect because of the inherent complexity and heterogeneity of farming systems.  Ecosystem-level indicators are relevant (e.g., those employed in PAGE and MEA), as well as crop-specific indicators, and their relative contribution is dependent upon the specific farming-system context.  Long-term monitoring has made positive contributions to the retrospective analysis of trends associated with production and off-crop impacts in agriculture.  Globally, farming systems differ significantly in the forms of monitoring that are required to protect them.  This is because of differences between crops and cropping practices, differences in underlying ecological processes and climate, differences in the distribution of knowledge among growers and researchers, differences in policy and regulatory environments and the degree of feedback to agricultural change and differences in the quality and availability of relevant monitoring data.  All monitoring programmes for GM crops should be designed in such a way that their potential value is clear, and in ways that will result ultimately in effective management.  They should provide a clear and rigorous explanation for the selection of indicators, including a sampling design that meets the requirements for statistical power.  Critically, there should be a clear connection between the results of monitoring and decision-making.', 'en_US'),
(2818, 'Issues and challenges in monitoring GM crop-specific traits.', 'It is recognized that any risk assessment of genetically modified plants (GMP) is only as good as our state of scientific knowledge at the time it was conducted.  Pre-market biosafety studies can only address issues such as the potential adverse effects on non-target organisms for a limited number of species under limited environmental conditions.  Thus, an additional concept called ''monitoring'' has been added to the EU legislation to address any remaining uncertainty. Monitoring can be defined as the systematic measurement of variables and processes over time.  It assumes that there are specific reasons to collect such data, e.g., to ensure that certain standards or conditions are being met or to examine potential changes with respect to certain baselines.  Against this background, it is essential to identify the type of effects or variables to be monitored, an appropriate time period for measurements and, importantly, the tools and systems to measure them.  Monitoring results, however, may lead to adjustments of certain parts of the original monitoring plan or they may be important in the development of further research (e.g., for plant gene flow consequences [Bartsch et al., 2003]).', 'en_US'),
(2819, 'Approaches and challenges in conducting environmental risk assessment and monitoring of GM crops in New Zealand: a regulatory perspective.', 'New Zealand has an active development and field test programme in genetically modified (GM) crops but no large-scale GM crops have ever been tested or commercially released in New Zealand.  Currently, the release of GM crops in New Zealand is regulated by the Hazardous Substances and New Organisms (HSNO) Act.  The HSNO Act has a wide scope of matters that must be taken into account during decision-making, including environmental, public health, cultural and economic effects.  The HSNO legislation is ''risk averse'' with respect to environmental risk because an application to release a GM crop must be declined if it fails to meet the ''minimum standards'' that relate to the GM crop''s potential environmental effects.  There are three types of application routes by which GM crops can be introduced to the environment: field test (contained), conditional release and full release.  Controls requiring monitoring for environmental effects can only be imposed for field test or conditional release approvals. Experience in New Zealand has shown that appropriate scientific methods have not always been available for effective monitoring of environmental effects.  Additionally, as a consequence of being a small nation, environmental research cannot always be carried out independently of the approval holder, and funding sources are limited for comprehensive long term monitoring studies.', 'en_US'),
(2820, 'Monitoring genetically modified crops in Canada.', 'Genetically modified (GM) crops are grown on 6 million hectares annually in Canada; with 80 percent of this area being GM canola (Brassica napus L.).  Despite their rapid adoption over the last decade, and the significant potential benefits that may be realized in the future, much controversy surrounds GM crops.  One of the biggest and most difficult issues to evaluate is the potential effects of GM crops on the environment.  This paper outlines several studies that deal with the potential environmental impacts of GM crop production in Canada.', 'en_US'),
(2821, 'Monitoring environmental effects of genetically modified rice in China.', 'The challenges of food security and rapid progress in transgenic biotechnology have significantly stimulated the development of genetically modified (GM) rice in China.  Consequently, many GM rice varieties have been produced and some already entered production trials, which is the last step to commercialization.  As GM rice will enter commercial production in the near future, it is urgently needed to develop methodologies for monitoring environmental effects of GM rice in China.  Monitoring such effects from the commercialization of GM rice is challenging because of the complexity of such issue.  This paper discusses the identification of potential environmental effects caused by insect- and herbicide-tolerant GM rice, particularly under the Chinese circumstances of rice farming at the small household scale.  Environmental effects can be the impacts on non-target organisms and biodiversity, transgene flow and its related effects, development of resistance to insect-resistant transgenes and other indirect effects and influences on rice ecosystems by extensive cultivation of GM rice.', 'en_US'),
(2822, 'Field experience and methodologies for monitoring environmental effects of GM crops in South Africa.', 'South Africa is the only African country that has approved the commercial production of genetically modified (GM) crops, namely, maize (both white and yellow), soybean and cotton. The planting of the first GM crop (Bt-maize) was approved in 1998.  The traits that have since been approved are insect resistance (Bt genes) and herbicide tolerance (glyphosate).  Both commercial and emerging farmers have adopted these technologies.  The monitoring requirements by the Government of South Africa for these different crops and traits vary. Companies selling these technologies have placed a high priority on monitoring aspects they deem important to protect their commercial interests in the crops they have developed.Monitoring by the Government of South Africa now falls under the jurisdiction of the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI).  Its mandate is contained in the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act No. 10 of 2004.', 'en_US'),
(2823, 'Transgene containment by maternal inheritance:  Effective or elusive?', 'Transgene containment is a central concern in genetically modified (GM) crops, especially for those with out-crossing wild relatives.  However, plant cells contain genomes in the nucleus, mitochondria, and chloroplasts.  Whereas nuclear genes are biparentally inherited, organelle genes are in general maternally inherited (1, 2).  Therefore, engineering foreign genes in the chloroplast genome may provide containment from pollen transmission.  This topic was hotly debated when the first herbicide-resistant (Round-Up-ready) transplastomic plants (transformed with chloroplast genomes) were reported (3).  In this issue of PNAS, two articles highlight different aspects of this important question.  The article by Svab and Maliga (4) examines whether alien cytoplasm contributes to rare paternal plastid transmission.  They report low frequencies (10?4 to 10?5) of paternal plastids in both normal and alien cytoplasm and caution that this observation is biased by tissue culture selection, and therefore transgenes are less likely to get into the germ line under field conditions.  Most importantly, these investigators show that the entire plastid genome is transmitted by pollen instead of plastid DNA fragments and that the mitochondria are also cotransmitted.  In a parallel study, Ruf et al. (5) set up a stringent selection system for paternal transmission by using male-sterile maternal parents and transplastomic pollen donors, conferring plastid-specific antibiotic resistance and green fluorescence for visual screening.  This selection system identified 6 among 2.1 million seedlings screened (frequency of 2.86 x 10?6) that showed paternal transmission of transgenes, and the authors concluded that plastid transformation provides an effective tool to increase biosafety of GM crops. ', 'en_US'),
(2824, 'Willingness to consume and produce transgenic bananas in Costa Rica.', 'An exploratory study of the willingness to produce and consume transgenic bananas was carried out in Costa Rica.  Transgenic crops are plants with novel genes incorporated into their genome through the use of genetic engineering techniques.  Farm managers'' opinions were gathered using faxed questionnaires while final consumers'' opinions were obtained through personal intercept interviews. Consumers expressed a lack of knowledge about transgenic crops and had received non-favour but also non-negative information through the media about their adoption.  The results of a probit regression model show that, other things being equal, younger, wealthier consumers, with higher levels of education, with smaller households are more likely to consume transgenic bananas.  All producers included in the study consider they would adopt a new transgenic variety.  Producers'' willingness to pay for such a variety would depend on its capacity to reduce pest management costs and is estimated to range between $500 and $999 per hectare.  This study stresses the potential for development and adoption of a new transgenic variety that would alleviate the current issues faced by banana farmers.  On the other hand, final consumers should be better informed on the nature of such products, their benefits and risks.', 'en_US'),
(2825, 'Transgene and mitochondrial DNA are indicators of efficient composting of transgenic pig carcasses.', 'Composting is an environmentally sound method for the disposal of on-farm livestock mortalities that generates material suitable for use as fertilizer; however, this method is not generally permitted for disposal of transgenic livestock mortalities during the research and development phase.  This study has explored the application of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) as a method for assessing the persistence of transgene and mitochondrial DNA markers during the composting of euthanized transgenic pig.  There was at least a 107 fold reduction of genetic material to a level that not either transgene or mitochondrion markers were detectable.  At the end of the composting period, only bone fragments that were completely demineralised and chalky were detected.  Chemically the compost was similar to that from pig litter and poultry mortalities, except the copper content was lower.  Based on these data, composting appears to be an appropriate method for the disposal of transgenic animals.', 'en_US'),
(2826, 'The effect of consumer risk perceptions on the propensity to purchase genetically modified foods in Romania.', 'This study evaluates consumer purchase propensity for genetically modified (GM) food products in Romania, shedding light on consumer preferences in developing Eastern European nations.  Results based on a bivariate probit model of purchase propensity for GM sunflower oil and table potatoes show that consumers in Romania are generally opposed to GM food consumption, similar to consumers in Western Europe, but contrary to consumers in many developing nations.  Purchase probabilities carry across GM foods, indicating homogeneity in consumer risk perceptions.  Additionally, income levels and risk perceptions are the primary drivers of purchase decisions, whereas positive or beneficiary product attributes (e.g., health, environmental, economic) are currently not considered by consumers. Negative consumer risk perceptions of GM goods in Romania will likely make the implementation of these crops for economic development purposes difficult.', 'en_US'),
(2827, 'Soil microbial biomass, functional diversity and enzyme activity in glyphosate-resistant wheat-canola rotations under low-disturbance direct seeding and conventional tillage.', 'As glyphosate-resistant (GR) crops are becoming common in agro-ecosystems, their effects on non-target soil organisms need to be monitored. We evaluated soil microbial biomass C (MBC), bacterial functional diversity and community structure, and dehydrogenase enzyme activity in a field experiment conducted at six sites on the Canadian prairies. Treatments consisted of a factorial arrangement of three GR wheat and GR canola crop frequencies and two tillage systems. GR crop frequencies were arranged in 4-yr wheat-canola-wheat-pea rotations, with GR wheat and GR canola in zero of four, two of four, or three of four possible GR crop frequencies. The two tillage systems were either low soil-disturbance direct-seeding (LDS) or conventional tillage (CT). MBC increased with increasing frequency of GR crops in two of 20 site-years in the rhizosphere, and had no effects in bulk soil. Depending on tillage, GR crop frequency also affected the functional diversity of rhizosphere soil bacteria in only two of 20 site-years, and had no effects in bulk soil. Shifts in the structures of bacterial communities related to GR crop frequency were detected, but they were few and inconsistent. In three of 22 cases (10 in rhizosphere+12 in bulk soil), the activity of dehydrogenase enzyme decreased with increasing frequency GR crops in both the rhizosphere and bulk soil. In five of 20 site-years, soil MBC in the rhizosphere was greater under CT than under LDS, regardless of GR crop frequency. In bulk soil, tillage affected soil MBC in five site-years, three of which had greater MBC under CT than LDS, and vice versa in the other two. Tillage affected the functional diversity of soil bacteria in the rhizosphere in three site-years, but the effects were not consistent. Similar inconsistent tillage-related patterns were observed in the community structures of bacteria. There were no tillage effects on bacterial diversity in bulk soil. Dehydrogenase enzyme activity was greater under LDS than under CT in three of four cases in which tillage had significant effects. Overall, GR crop frequency effects on soil microorganisms were minor and inconsistent over a wide range of growing conditions and crop management.', 'en_US'),
(2828, 'Adventitious presence of herbicide resistant wheat in certified and farm-saved seed lots.', 'Varietal purity in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) seed production is necessary for agronomic uniformity and to enable potential market segregation. We conducted a survey of certified and farm-saved seed samples using a nontransgenic imidazolinone-resistant (IR) wheat cultivar in 2004 and 2005 in eastern Colorado. The objective was to compare varietal purity based on type of seed producer and IR wheat history. Ninety-two samples of non-IR varieties were taken from certified and farm-saved seed growers, who either produced or had never produced IR wheat. Adventitious IR seeds were detected using a seed-soaking technique in samples from each producer type and each IR production history. Levels of IR seed ranged from 0 to 11.28%. One certified sample and three farm-saved samples exceeded the 0.1% threshold for off-types in certified wheat seed. Using a two-factor analysis, farm-saved production class and positive IR history increased the estimated proportion of adventitious seed. Based on grower interviews, higher levels of adventitious seed presence were associated with volunteer plants from previous crops of the resistant cultivar and mechanical mixture during harvesting. Production practices for certified seed address these factors and may need to be strengthened if more stringent purity criteria are adopted. This information is important for risk assessment and policy development for potential commercial release of transgenic wheat varieties.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(2829, 'Detection of genetically modified soy in doughs and cookies.', 'In many countries, including the European Union member states, Switzerland, Australia, New Zealand, and Japan, legislation has been set up for labeling of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in food and feed products. To comply with these regulations, reliable detection methods are necessary. If the detection is based on DNA, a GMO analysis may contain several steps where qualitative and quantitative species-specific, GMO screening, GMO construct, and GMO line-specific polymerase chain reactions (PCRs) are used. A limit of detection (LOD) thereby defines to what extent a target molecule may be detected in a sample. In this study, cookies were made with variable levels of a soy sample containing 2 wt% Roundup Ready soy. For all PCRs described, detection limits based on dilution series and practical LODs were determined. The practical LODs are used to determine to what extent a GMO ingredient may be detected in a real food product. Results reveal that, due to the baking process, the overall DNA fragment length is reduced, rendering GMO analyses more difficult. Furthermore, Roundup Ready soy line-specific and real-time quantitative PCR are less sensitive than GMO screening PCRs, whereas just these PCRs are crucial in the decision-making process regarding the presence of GMOs in a food product. Moreover, high standard deviations and errors render the precise quantification of GMOs difficult.', 'en_US'),
(2830, 'Roadside surveys support predictions of negligible naturalisation potential for cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) in north-east Australia.', 'A survey of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) volunteers was conducted along the 1400 km of a cottonseed transport route in north-east Australia to determine the extent of naturalisation from spilt seed. In each year, 1% of the road distance was inspected for volunteer plants. The survey results were juxtaposed with the eco-climatic suitability predictions from inferential modelling. Over 3 years, 22 cotton plants were found at eight sites. Within the cotton production region, volunteers averaged 2.28 plants km-1 of road; their most likely source was seed cotton spilt during the previous harvest. Further north, three plants were found over 3 years, at an average density of 0.089 plants km-1 of road; all three plants were found in locations with a positive Ecoclimatic Index. No secondary spread was detected. Roadside slashing reduced plant survival and the potential to produce seed. In the wet tropics, weed competition and slashing prevented volunteers establishing. The surveys indicate that roadsides in north-east Australia are a hostile environment for the establishment of cotton plants, with no evidence of naturalisation or secondary spread. Current transport practices utilizing fully covered loads present negligible risk of producing naturalised populations of cotton (either transgenic or non-transgenic) on roadsides in north-east Australia.', 'en_US'),
(2831, 'Utilizing the assassin bug, Pristhesancus plagipennis (Hemiptera: Reduviidae), as a biological control agent within an integrated pest management programme for Helicoverpa spp. (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and Creontiades spp. (Hemiptera: Miridae) in cotton.', 'Helicoverpa spp. and mirids, Creontiades spp., have been difficult to control biologically in cotton due to their unpredictable temporal abundance combined with a cropping environment often made hostile by frequent usage of broad spectrum insecticides. To address this problem, a range of new generation insecticides registered for use in cotton were tested for compatibility with the assassin bug, Pristhesancus plagipennis (Walker), a potential biological control agent for Helicoverpa spp. and Creontiades spp. Indoxacarb, pyriproxifen, buprofezin, spinosad and fipronil were found to be of low to moderate toxicity on P. plagipennis whilst emamectin benzoate, abamectin, diafenthiuron, imidacloprid and omethaote were moderate to highly toxic. Inundative releases of P. plagipennis integrated with insecticides identified as being of low toxicity were then tested and compared with treatments of P. plagipennis and the compatible insecticides used alone, conventionally sprayed usage practice and an untreated control during two field experiments in cotton. The biological control provided by P. plagipennis nymphs when combined with compatible insecticides provided significant (P<0.001) reductions in Helicoverpa and Creontiades spp. on cotton and provided equivalent yields to conventionally sprayed cotton with half of the synthetic insecticide input. Despite this, the utilization of P. plagipennis in cotton as part of an integrated pest management programme remains unlikely due to high inundative release costs relative to other control technologies such as insecticides and transgenic (Bt) cotton varieties.', 'en_US'),
(2832, 'A conjoint/logit analysis of consumers'' responses to genetically modified tofu in Taiwan.', 'We use data collected from a consumer survey of face-to-face interviews to determine consumer demand for genetically modified (GM) tofu attributes in Taiwan. Conjoint analysis using logit models reveals that, on average, brand is the most important attribute in terms of influence on consumers'' preferences, followed by price, with GM content having the least influence. However, the analysis also reveals three distinct market segments for tofu. Apart from the largest segment (which reflects the average lack of concern about GM food), the remaining two segments are split according to their preference or antipathy towards GM tofu. This result suggests that GM labelling is helpful to Taiwanese tofu consumers.', 'en_US'),
(2833, 'A decade of herbicide-resistant crops in Canada.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2834, 'Impact assessment of Bt-maize on a moth parasitoid, Cotesia marginiventris (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), via host exposure to purified Cry1Ab protein or Bt-plants.', 'Addressing whether Cry1Ab protein produced by Bt-maize affects non-target insects, including parasitoids, is a necessary component in the risk assessment of this crop protection alternative. This study assessed host-mediated effects of Cry1Ab protein on the parasitoid Cotesia marginiventris Cresson (Hymenoptera) via two delivery methods: delivery of purified Cry1Ab protein via artificial diet, and delivery of Cry1Ab protein via Bt-maize plant tissue. In the first case, lethal and sublethal effects of purified Cry1Ab protein on the host, Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera), were evaluated prior to evaluating effects on the parasitoid. Unparasitized host larvae were exposed to one of three Cry1Ab concentrations, 0.46 (C1), 9.13 (C2), and 182.6 (C3) ìg Cry1Ab/ml diet. The C3 concentration proved highly toxic to host larvae, so only host-mediated effects of C1 and C2 concentrations on the parasitoid C. marginiventris were studied. As expected, purified Cry1Ab affected survival, developmental times, and growth rates of S. frugiperda larvae at all three Cry1Ab concentrations. In contrast, host-mediated effects of purified Cry1Ab protein on C. marginiventris were not evident at the two concentrations that were evaluated, C1 and C2. However, several host-mediated effects on C. marginiventris were detected when Cry1Ab protein was delivered via Bt-maize tissue. Exposure to Cry1Ab protein via Bt-maize tissue affected parasitoid developmental times, adult size, and fecundity. Though effects on parasitoids of direct exposure (i.e. not mediated by the host) to Cry1Ab protein were not evaluated, the results of the present study suggested a direct effect of the protein, delivered via host feeding on Bt-maize, on C. marginiventris.', 'en_US'),
(2835, 'Public perceptions of agricultural biotechnology in Britain:  the case of genetically modified foods.', 'As the use of biotechnology in the agriculture industry rises, examining the feelings of the public towards this controversial issue and understanding how public opinion has formed has become increasingly more important. It has become apparent that there are more factors involved than just a lack of scientific knowledge about biotechnology and genetically modified foods that effect public acceptance of this technology.', 'en_US'),
(2836, 'Biotechnology and consumer information.', 'As the use of biotechnology in the agriculture industry rises, examining the feelings of the public towards this controversial issue and understanding how public opinion has formed has become increasingly more important. It has become apparent that there are more factors involved than just a lack of scientific knowledge about biotechnology and genetically modified foods that effect public acceptance of this technology.', 'en_US'),
(2837, 'Approval process and adoption of Bollgard Cotton in India :  A private company perspective.', 'As the use of biotechnology in the agriculture industry rises, examining the feelings of the public towards this controversial issue and understanding how public opinion has formed has become increasingly more important. It has become apparent that there are more factors involved than just a lack of scientific knowledge about biotechnology and genetically modified foods that effect public acceptance of this technology.', 'en_US'),
(2838, 'Decomposition of the leaf litter and mycorrhiza forming ability of silver birch with a genetically modified lignin biosynthesis pathway.', 'The effects of the transformation of a 4-coumarate:coenzyme A ligase (4CL) gene involved in lignin biosynthesis on the interactions between transgenic plants and soil microbiota were studied in silver birch (Betula pendula Roth). Although the genetic transformation did not lead to expected changes in wood chemistry, it had significant influence on root biomass and morphology. The transgenic lines had less root biomass and lower numbers of root tips than the wild-type birch. However, the transgenic lines formed normal ectomycorrhizas with Paxillus involutus (Batsch) Fr. and no differences between the transgenic lines and the wild-type birch were detected in the colonization by mycorrhizas in vitro. In a field trial, the decomposition of the transgenic and wild-type birch litter was equally rapid, and no marked differences were found between the transgenic lines and wild-type birch in total microbial biomass (SIR) or activity (basal respiration). The effects of the genetic transformation on the ergosterol content of the leaf litter were contradictory; the litter from one transgenic line had significantly higher ergosterol content and the litters from two other transgenic lines had significantly lower ergosterol content than the litter from wild-type birch. This study shows that the 4CL antisense transformation and the pleiotropic effects of the transformation on growth characteristics of birch did not disturb the formation of ectomycorrhizas with P. involutus and had no clear influence on the biodegradability of the leaf litter.', 'en_US'),
(2839, 'Overexpression of a foreign Bt gene in cotton affects the low-molecular-weight components in root exudates.', 'Most research in the past using genetically modified crops (GM crops) has focused on the ecological safety of foreign gene (i.e., the gene flow), gene products (for example, Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) protein), and the safety of transgenic food for humans. In this study, changes in both the species and amounts of low-molecular-weight components in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) root exudates after foreign Bt gene overexpression were investigated under different nutritional conditions. Transgenic cotton containing Bt (Bt-cotton), supplemented with all the mineral nutrients, secreted more organic acids than the wild-type cotton (WT). When nitrogen was removed from the full-nutrient solution, the amount of organic acids secretion of Bt-cotton was lesser than that of WT. The roots of the transgenic cotton secreted lesser amounts of amino acids and soluble sugars than the WT roots in the full-nutrient solution. Deficiencies of P and K caused a large increase in the total amino acid and soluble sugar secretions of both Bt-cotton and WT, with larger increases observed in Bt-cotton. Because transferring the foreign Bt gene into cotton can result in alterations in the components of the root exudates, with the effect varying depending on the nutritional status, the cultivation of genetically modified crops, such as Bt-cotton, in soil environments should be more carefully assessed, and the possible effects as a result of the alterations in the root exudate components should be considered.', 'en_US'),
(2840, 'Genetically Engineered Crops:  Interim Policies, Uncertain Legislation', 'Genetically Engineered Crops examines current controversies surrounding the potential health, environmental, and social impacts of plants produced using molecular biology techniques. Educators, professionals, and practitioners representing a wide range of disciplines, including plant biotechnology, environmental health risk assessment, law, food safety assessment, and bio safety, address the uncertainties of the science, biological risks, national and international governance issues in North and South America, Europe, and Africa, and the need for full public understanding of genetically engineered crops. Proper regulation of food requires a broad understanding of the science and of varying public perceptions of the technology that will lead to effective governance. Genetically Engineered Crops examines ecological, health, and environmental concerns about crop genetic engineering, the need for precaution, biosafety, and liability, and the challenges faced in meeting the public''s demands for proper understanding of the risks involved. With no worldwide framework for regulation in place and public concern about food safety growing, this vital book takes a closer look at the long-term impact of GE crops and their place in the future of agriculture.', 'en_US'),
(2841, 'Collaborative study of a T-nos real-time PCR method for screening of genetically modified organisms in food products.', 'In the EU the presence of genetically modified organisms (GMO) in food is controlled by the Member States official laboratories within their national inspection and monitoring programs.  The most frequently used approach to detect the presence of GMO material in different food matrices is the PCR-based screening for the CaMV 35S promoter and the nos terminator (T-nos) DNA sequence from Agrobacterium tumefaciens.  A real-time PCR method for detection of T-nos and its validation in a collaborative trial study is described in this paper.  The PCR system amplifies a 84 bp fragment and showed to be sensitive to detect at least 5 copies of the T-nos DNA sequence.  The assay was adapted for use in real-time PCR instruments using plastic reaction vials and glass capillaries, respectively.  A total of 24 laboratories participated in the study and each laboratory received 18 DNA blind samples prepared from GMO certified reference materials (0.1 % and 0.5 % NK601 maize) and from a non-GM maize flour.  All samples containing NK603 maize DNA were correctly classified as T-nos positive by the participating laboratories.  For the blank samples (0 % GMO) only three false-positive results were reported. A detailed evaluation of the results of the collaborative trial study is described.', 'en_US'),
(2842, 'Field study results on the probability and risk of a horizontal gene transfer from transgenic herbicide-resistant oilseed rape pollen to gut bacteria of bees.', 'Bees are specifically subjected to intimate contacts with transgenic plants due to their feeding activities on pollen. In this study, the probability and ecological risk of a gene transfer from pollen to gut bacteria of bees was investigated with larvae of Apis mellifera (honeybee), Bombus terrestris (bumblebee), and Osmia bicornis (red mason bee), all collected at a flowering transgenic oilseed rape field.  The plants were genetically engineered with the pat-gene, conferring resistance against glufosinate (syn. phosphinothricin), a glutamine-synthetase inhibitor in plants and microorganisms.  Ninety-six bacterial strains were isolated and characterized by 16S rRNA gene sequencing, revealing that Firmicutes represented 58% of the isolates, Actinobacteria 31%, and Proteobacteria 11%, respectively.  Of all isolates, 40% were resistant to 1 mM glufosinate, and 11% even to 10 mM.  Resistant phenotypes were found in all phylogenetic groups.  None of the resistant phenotypes carried the recombinant pat-gene in its genome.  The threshold of detecting gene transfer in this field study was relatively insensitive due to the high background of natural glufosinate resistance.  However, the broad occurrence of glufosinate-resistant bacteria from different phylogenetic groups suggests that rare events of horizontal gene transfer will not add significantly to natural bacterial glufosinate resistance.', 'en_US'),
(2843, 'A meta-analysis of effects of Bt cotton and maize on nontarget invertebrates.', 'Although scores of experiments have examined the ecological consequences of transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) crops, debates continue regarding the nontarget impacts of this technology.  Quantitative reviews of existing studies are crucial for better gauging risks and improving future risk assessments. To encourage evidence-based risk analyses, we constructed a searchable database for nontarget effects of Bt crops.  A meta-analysis of 42 field experiments indicates that nontarget invertebrates are generally more abundant in Bt cotton and Bt maize fields than in nontransgenic fields managed with insecticides.  However, in comparison with insecticide-free control fields, certain nontarget taxa are less abundant in Bt fields.', 'en_US'),
(2844, 'Food safety:  screening tests used to detect and quantify GMO proteins.', 'GMO protein content in maize flours or fresh crops can be easily assessed by the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) and immunochromatographic (lateral flow) strip tests commercially available. Therefore, ELISA can be seen as a useful tool for screening, for control purposes and for traceability implementation. In order to highlight the importance of monitoring GMO protein presence in food products and to investigate the performance of representative ELISA commercial kits, we evaluated three commercial kits by measuring the amount of Cry1Ab/Cry1Ac in IRMM certified reference materials.', 'en_US'),
(2845, 'Cytology and pollen grain fertility in creeping bentgrass interspecific and intergeneric hybrids.', 'Creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera L. or A. palustris Huds.) is a highly outcrossing allotetraploid species. It can form hybrids with a number of other Agrostis species and Polypogon genus. However, cytology and pollen grain fertility of the creeping bentgrass interspecific and intergeneric hybrids are not well known. In this research, chromosome pairing behaviors during meiosis I in F1 and pollen viability of F1 hybrids, as well as seed set rate and seed germination rate of backcrosses were studied in hybrids between creeping bentgrass, and other bentgrass species and three species of Polypogon genus. Abnormal chromosome pairing, laggard chromosomes, and premature segregation in F1 hybrids were found. Pollen viability ranged from 1.6 to 48.5% amongst F1 hybrids, significantly lower than that of the parents (85.5?94.1%). Some hybrids produced pollens of different sizes within the same anther. Seed set following backcrosses using F1 hybrids as the male parent and creeping bentgrass as the recurrent parent was significantly lower than their parents. The study of chromosome paring behaviors and progeny fecundity are important in utilizing the alien genes to improve bio-stress and abio-stress resistance, and in assessing the potential transgene risks of creeping bentgrass.', 'en_US'),
(2846, 'Neither transgenic Bt maize (MON863) nor tefluthrin insecticide adversely affect soil microbial activity or biomass: A 3-year field analysis.', 'Laboratory and greenhouse studies on transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) maize have drawn attention to the persistence and activity of the Cry proteins in soil and their potential effects on soil microorganisms, but there have been few field assessments that evaluate the effects of Bt maize with those of insecticides on soil microbial populations. This study was conducted to determine the effects of Cry3Bb Bt maize with those of the insecticide tefluthrin on soil microbial biomass and activity in the field over a 3-year cropping cycle. The recently commercialized maize variety YieldGard® Rootworm (MON863), which produces the Cry3Bb protein, was grown along with a non-Bt isoline with and without tefluthrin applied at planting. Microbial biomass, nitrogen (N) mineralization potential, short-term nitrification rate, and respiration rate were measured in rhizosphere and bulk soil samples collected from three replicate field plots just before planting, at anthesis, and at harvest in each year. There were clear seasonal effects on microbial biomass and activity in the field soils?as represented by the consistent changes in all measured variables across years and sampling times. Differences in the measured variables were also sometimes observed between bulk and rhizosphere soil. However, there were no adverse effects of either the Bt or non-Bt maize with insecticide applied compared to the non-Bt controls; on the contrary, microbial biomass and soil respiration data suggested a stimulatory effect of the Bt genotype, particularly in comparison to the non-Bt isoline. Although ''higher'' does not necessarily mean ''better'', the higher microbial biomass and respiration rates observed in the Bt and insecticide-applied soils compared to non-Bt soils does allay concerns that either the Bt protein or the tefluthrin typically used to control the corn rootworm reduce microbial biomass or its respiratory activity in field soils. Similarly, the higher N mineralization potential and nitrification rates observed in some soil samples from the Bt and tefluthrin-treated plots indicate higher activity of N-mineralizing microorganisms, a potentially positive consequence as both ammonium and nitrate are effective N sources for maize during grain filling. Our data suggest that cropping MON863 Bt maize is unlikely to adversely affect soil ecology in the short term. Longer-term monitoring of transgenic cropping systems should assure that the biotic functioning of the soil is maintained as a part of studies on overall ecosystem integrity.', 'en_US'),
(2847, 'Transgenic Brassica napus fields and Brassica rapa weeds in Quebec:  sympatry and weed-crop in situ hybridization.', 'Hybridization between the herbicide-resistant transgenic crop Brassica napus L. (canola) and its weedy relative Brassica rapa L. (bird rape) has been documented in Quebec.  Our goal was to evaluate the actual hybridization potential based on range overlap and actual in situ hybridization rates.  This was done by mapping B. napus canola fields, comparing them with the sampling locations of B. rapa herbarium specimens from Quebec, gathering information on the presence of B. rapa in certified canola seed production fields, and surveying for B. rapa populations located in, or close to B. napus field margins.  Progeny from these populations were screened for herbicide resistance (HR) and for the presence of the HR transgene.  Two fields were also selected to evaluate B. rapa density effects on hybridization rates.  Significant sympatry was observed in several areas of the province; hybridization occurred in all eight populations (1.1% to 17.5% hybrid seed) located in field margins and in one (1.1%) out of three populations located less than 10 m from a B. napus field.  Hybridization rates decreased exponentially as B. rapa density increased, but interplant rates (0% to 68%) were highly variable.  Environmental problems could be generated by the release of B. napus crops with traits conferring fitness benefits in nonmanaged areas.', 'en_US'),
(2848, 'Occurrence of genetically modified oilseed rape seeds in the harvest of subsequent conventional oilseed rape over time.', 'Is returning to a conventional crop possible after growing a genetically modified (GM) variety?  Oilseed rape volunteers in oilseed rape crops can cause seed admixture in the harvest.  Farmers who desire to go back to conventional varieties after growing genetically modified varieties must comply with the 0.9% threshold of GM material in the harvest if they are to declare it as non-GM for food and feed use in Europe.  The farm-scale GM platforms set up in France in 1995 were used to estimate the amount of GM seeds in the harvest of a conventional variety grown 3-8 years later in the same field.  We show that over time the rate of GM seeds admixture in the harvest largely exceeded the European threshold in 6 out of 18 cases.  In one case, the GM level was as high as 18%.  However, it varied considerably according to the varieties used.  These findings are discussed in the light of studies about seed shedding, seed dormancy and survival in the soil which are suggested to be the main source of large differences among GM varieties, which ultimately determines the frequency of volunteer plants growing amongst and harvested in admixture with the sown crop.  These findings are equally discussed in light of differences of growth habit and potential competitiveness between conventional varieties responsible for different seed output by volunteers.  To help cope with coexistence over time, we discuss appropriate uses of varieties and crop management in order to prevent seed admixture.', 'en_US'),
(2849, 'An overview of findings from a six-country European survey on consumer attitudes to the metabolic syndrome, genetics in nutrition, and potential agro-food technologies.', 'Metabolic syndrome, a cluster of cardiovascular risk factors that can lead to type 2 diabetes and/or heart disease, is at the centre of LIPGENE.  This European Union (EU)-funded project integrates human nutrition, genomics, agro-food, social and economic analysis.  In the social science module of the project, a six-country survey was carried out to provide data on consumers'' attitudes towards the metabolic syndrome, potential agro-food technologies and nutrigenomics.  A total of 5967 participants aged 15 years plus from six European countries were interviewed.Heart disease, obesity, bulimia, anorexia and type 2 diabetes were the most frequently identified diet-related diseases.  Nearly 30% of participants self-reported suffering from stress, and one in five reported having central obesity.  High blood pressure was identified as an extremely high/high-risk condition for almost half of the sample, followed by high cholesterol.  Respondents reported the three most important ways of reducing personal risk of type 2 diabetes or heart disease to be increasing physical activity, eating more fruit and vegetables, and decreasing intake of fatty foods.  However, lack of motivation, lack of information and lack of knowledge were identified as barriers to healthy actions.  Participants associated the concept of ''functional foods'' with fruit and vegetables, which were consumed at least once a week by most of them, but they also reported consuming high-fibre products, probiotic yogurt drinks, foods with added vitamins and/or minerals, and cholesterol-lowering spreads/drinks.  However, the most commonly desired health benefits from foods to reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes and heart disease were a cholesterol-lowering effect, blood sugar control and weight reduction.  The preferred foods to decrease metabolic syndrome were fish, cheese and yogurt ''with healthy fat'', but these foods were less acceptable to respondents if developed through genetic modification (GM) technology, and more than 30% of the sample would not eat GM foods at all.  However, participants said that they would be more willing to consume GM foods if these foods provided health benefits.  The survey also showed that many people would be willing to undergo a genetic test for general interest or in order for a diet to be tailored to their needs.', 'en_US'),
(2850, 'Short-term assessment of bt maize on non-target arthropods in Brazil.', 'Although not yet available for cultivation in Brazil, the effect of Bt maize hybrids on natural enemies and soil dwelling arthropods should be assessed prior to its release to growers.  Trials were carried out during one growing season in two different locations with the genetically modified maize hybrids 7590-Bt11 and Avant-ICP4, comparing with their respective non-Bt isogenic hybrids.  Arthropods were evaluated through direct observation on plants and pitfall traps.  In general, no differences were observed between populations of earwig (Dermaptera: Forficulidae), lady beetles (Coleptera: Coccinellidae), minute pirate bug (Coleoptera: Anthocoridae), ground beetles (Carabidae), tiger beetles (Cicindelidae), and spiders (Araneae).  There was no difference in egg parasitism of Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) by Trichogramma sp. (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae).  Thus, Bt maize hybrids expressing insecticide proteins Cry1A(b) and VIP 3A do not cause reduction of the main maize dweeling predators and parasitoids.', 'en_US'),
(2851, 'Development of a certified reference material for genetically modified potato with altered starch composition', 'The presence of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in food and feed products is subject to regulation in the European Union (EU) and elsewhere. As part of the EU authorization procedure for GMOs intended for food and feed use, reference materials must be produced for the quality control of measurements to quantify the GMOs. Certified reference materials (CRMs) are available for a range of herbicide- and insect-resistant genetically modified crops such as corn, soybean, and cotton. Here the development of the first CRM for a GMO that differs from its non-GMO counterpart in a major compositional constituent, that is, starch, is described. It is shown that the modification of the starch composition of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) tubers, together with other characteristics of the delivered materials, have important consequences for the certification strategy. Moreover, the processing and characterization of the EH92-527-1 potato material required both new and modified procedures, different from those used routinely for CRMs produced from genetically modified seeds.', 'en_US'),
(2852, 'A procedural approach for the identification of sources of uncertainty associated with GM quantification and real-time quantitative PCR measurements', 'Estimation of measurement uncertainty is important as it provides objective evidence that an assay or instrument is ''fit for purpose'', and is a requirement for accreditation to ISO17025. Technological developments within the bioanalytical laboratory have progressed rapidly in the past few years. However, the measurement science associated with these technologies has not yet fully matured. The provision of a full measurement uncertainty budget is often difficult because of a lack of standardised approaches and the constraints associated with time, finances and expertise. A procedural approach for the identification of factors that can account for measurement uncertainty in quantification of genetically modified (GM) ingredients using real-time quantitative PCR is presented here. This example illustrates an approach for the identification of factors that can be applied to related assays concerned with GM quantification, can be utilised as part of existing uncertainty approaches, and can provide the basis for making quantitative estimates of uncertainty that will contribute towards a full measurement uncertainty budget.', 'en_US'),
(2853, 'Co-existence and traceability of GM and non-GM products in the feed chain.', 'According to the European Regulations (EC) 1829/2003 and 1830/2003, products which are, consist of or contain GMOs should be labelled and traceable in each stage of production, processing and distribution.  Only in cases where the GMO level is below 0.9% and this presence is due to accidental contamination or is technically unavoidable, no labelling is required.  As it is very unclear how feed manufacturers have implemented these new regulations, a Belgian survey was held to evaluate the current situation at importer and feed production level.  Several bottlenecks were encountered, at the level of acquisition of raw materials and at production level, such as carry over of GM with non-GM soy in the production lines.  Next to this, some weaknesses in the analysis of GMOs were also revealed.', 'en_US'),
(2854, 'Physical degradation of genomic DNA of soybean flours does not impair relative quantification of its transgenic content.', 'In this paper, four different physical treatments (microwaves, heating by conduction, sonication and pressure autoclaving) were performed to degrade a pure DNA extract, and their influence on GMO quantification was studied.  The aim was to check the hypothesis that processing of agrofood products results in a similar degradation rate for both the transgenic target and the specific target.  Indeed we could observe that even if the used physical treatments could lead to a significant increase of C t values for both transgenic and specific targets, the resulting ÄC t remained stable.  So, the main conclusion of the study is that the aforementioned hypothesis seems valid and thus a physical degradation of DNA will not affect the relative quantitation of the GMO content, provided that both the specific and transgenic targets have very similar size.  A second important issue of the experiments performed was that DNA is a very robust molecule as it is extremely difficult to reach a mean size below 100 bp.  The study also gives evidence of the importance of using small targets.', 'en_US'),
(2855, 'Ecotoxicological risk assessment using DNA chips and cellular reporters.', 'Ecotoxicological risk assessment has long been based on (acute) effective concentration and lethal concentration (EC/LC50) endpoints in organisms from different trophic levels. These tests are insufficient adequately to assess the risk associated with many chemical classes. The introduction of advanced molecular techniques is leading to improved risk assessment and is also providing an alternative to the massive use of animal testing. Transcriptional profiling and DNA chips are highly informative and are among the most promising novel techniques for environmental risk assessment. Moreover, information discerned from these chips enables the identification of new discriminative biomarker genes. Based on these biomarker genes, cellular reporters can be constructed. These can be used in a high-throughput set-up and can facilitate ecotoxicological risk assessment significantly. Some important technical and interpretative hurdles still need to be overcome before a full implementation of ecotoxicogenomics in regulatory settings will occur.', 'en_US'),
(2856, 'Pollen-mediated intraspecific gene flow from herbicide resistant oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.).', 'The cultivation of genetically modified (GM) herbicide resistant oilseed rape (Brassica napus) has increased over the past few years.  The transfer of herbicide resistance genes via pollen (gene flow) from GM crops to non-GM crops is of relevance for the realisation of co-existence of different agricultural cultivation forms as well as for weed management.  Therefore the likelihood of pollen-mediated gene flow has been investigated in numerous studies.  Despite the difficulty to compare different experiments with varying levels of outcrossing, we performed a literature search for world-wide studies on cross-fertilisation in fully fertile oilseed rape.  The occurrence and frequency of pollen-mediated intraspecific gene flow (outcrossing rate) can vary according to cultivar, experimental design, local topography and environmental conditions.  The outcrossing rate from one field to another depends also on the size and arrangement of donor and recipient populations and on the ratio between donor and recipient plot size.  The outcrossing levels specified in the presented studies are derived mostly from experiments where the recipient field is either surrounding the donor field (continuous design) or is located as a patch at different distances from the donor field (discontinuous design).  Reports of gene flow in Brassica napus generally show that the amount of cross-fertilisation decreases as the distance from the pollen source increases.  The evidence given in various studies reveals that the bulk of GM cross-fertilisation occurs within the first 10 m of the recipient field.  The removal of the first 10 m of a non-transgenic field facing a GM crop might therefore be more efficient for reducing the total level of cross-fertilisation in a recipient sink population than to recommend separation distances.  Future experiments should investigate cross-fertilisation with multiple adjacent donor fields at the landscape level under different spatial distributions of rapeseed cultivars and different cropping systems.  The level of cross-fertilisation occurring over the whole field is mainly important for co-existence and has not been investigated in agricultural scale experiments until now.  Potential problems with herbicide resistant oilseed rape volunteers arising from intraspecific gene flow can be largely solved by the choice of suitable cultivars and herbicides as well as by soil management.', 'en_US'),
(2857, 'Safety assessment of genetically modified organisms of plant origin in the Russian Federation.', 'The beginning of the 21st century is characterized by growing interest in the problems of biosafety, which are determined, on the one hand, by the wide use of novel biotechnologies and the necessity to develop the adequate precautionary measures, and, on the other hand, by the objective threat of bioterrorism. Therefore, improvement of the estimation system for genetically modified (GM) sources of food and strengthening the control of their circulation are the urgent problems of modern biology and medicine. Russia is one of the countries where the estimation system of food products obtained from the GM sources is rather efficient. The key features of this system are the complex toxicological and epidemiological examinations. One of the main parts of GM food safety assessment is based upon detection of their potentially toxic properties, which could provoke unintended effects of the genetic modification.', 'en_US'),
(2858, 'Biosafety and selectable markers', 'Francisella tularensis (F. tularensis) is one of the most infectious pathogens known. Although the disease caused by this bacterium is rarely fatal with appropriate antibiotic therapy, it is often severely debilitating. Laboratory work with F. tularensis poses a significant hazard, and it is essential that appropriate laboratory facilities, trained personnel, and suitable working practices are in place in any organization working with this pathogen. Work with human virulent strains should be carried out at containment level 3. Vaccines play an important potential role in the protection of individuals working with F. tularensis, but the live vaccine strain (LVS) vaccine is not currently licensed for use in humans. Because antibiotic therapy is central to the treatment of human tularemia, antibiotic resistance markers for use in genetic manipulation studies should be carefully selected.', 'en_US'),
(2859, 'Biosafety of recombinant and wild type nucleopolyhedroviruses as bioinsecticides.', 'The entomopathogenic Autographa californica (Speyer) nucleopolyhedrovirus (AcMNPV) has been genetically modified to increase its speed of kill.  The potential adverse effects of a recombinant AcMNPV (AcAaIT) as well as wild type AcMNPV and wild type Spodoptera littoralis NPV (SlNPV) were studied.  Cotton plants were treated with these viruses at concentrations that were adjusted to resemble the recommended field application rate (4 x 1012 PIBs/feddan, feddan = 4,200 m2) and 3rd instar larvae of S. littoralis were allowed to feed on the contaminated plants.  SDS-PAGE, ELISA, and DNA analyses were used to confirm that larvae that fed on these plants were virus-infected.  Polyhedra that were purified from the infected larvae were subjected to structural protein analysis.  A 32 KDa protein was found in polyhedra that were isolated from all of the viruses.  Subtle differences were found in the size and abundance of ODV proteins.  Antisera against polyhedral proteins isolated from AcAaIT polyhedra were raised in rabbits.  The terminal bleeds from rabbits were screened against four coating antigens (i.e., polyhedral proteins from AcAaIT, AcAaIT from field-infected larvae (AcAaIT-field), AcMNPV, and SlNPV) using a two-dimensional titration method with the coated antigen format.  Competitive inhibition experiments were conducted in parallel to optimize antibody and coating antigen concentrations for ELISA.  The IC50 values for each combination ranged from 1.42 to 163 ìg/ml.  AcAaIT-derived polyhedrin gave the lowest IC50 value, followed by those of SlNPV, AcAaIT-field, and AcMNPV.  The optimized ELISA system showed low cross reactivity for AcMNPV (0.87%), AcAaIT-field (1.2%), and SlNPV (4.0%).  Genomic DNAs isolated from AcAaIT that were passaged in larvae of S. littoralis that were reared in the laboratory or field did not show any detectable differences.  Albino rats (male and female) that were treated with AcAaIT, AcMNPV or SlNPV (either orally or by intraperitoneal injection at doses of 1 x 108 or 1 x 107 PIBs/rat, respectively) appeared to be healthy and showed increased body weight at 21 days posttreatment.  The effect of virus administration on hematological, serum biochemical, and histopathological parameters were determined.  Slight to moderate differences were observed in most of the hematological parameters.  Specifically, serum proteins were decreased markedly in female rats treated orally with SlNPV, and in male rats injected with AcAaIT.  SDS-PAGE analysis also showed some changes in serum protein profiles.  No marked changes in acetylcholine esterase (AChE) activity were found.  Changes in serum glucose, alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), bilirubin, creatinin, and urea were also observed.  Immunohistochemical observation of tissues from stomach, intestine, liver, kidney, brain, spleen, and lung also showed slight changes.  Fish (Tilapia nilotica) were also exposed to AcAaIT, AcMNPV or SlNPV by incorporating each of the viruses into diet (1 x 109 PIBs/group).  No mortality was found in treated or untreated fish during the experimental period (28 days).  Macrophage phagocytic activity of fish head kidney cells increased with time, reaching maximum values at 180 min for both treated and control fish.', 'en_US'),
(2860, 'The basics of animal biosafety and biocontainment training.', 'The threat of biocontamination in an animal facility is best subdued by training. ''Training'' is an ambiguous designation that may not be adequately appreciated in all animal facilities. The authors set down concrete training topics and provide practical advice on incorporating the basic principles of facility biosafety training?as well as the precautions and procedures that employees must know in case of accident or emergency?into various training models. They also discuss the current biosafety publications and guidelines and their relationship to biosafety training.', 'en_US'),
(2861, 'New measures of insecticidal efficacy and safety obtained with the 39K promoter of a recombinant baculovirus.', 'Baculoviruses are orally infectious to insects and considered to be natural insecticides. To enhance their speed-of-kill these viruses were engineered to express arthropod neurotoxins under the control of various strong promoters. Although this strategy proved to be efficient, it raised recently concerns about safety. We analyzed the speed-of-kill and safety of Autographa californica multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus expressing the insecticidal scorpion neurotoxin AaIT and found that the mortality of Helicoverpa armigera larvae was enhanced significantly when the expression was controlled by the baculovirus delayed-early promoter 39K rather than the very late promoter p10. This improvement was also reflected in better protection of cotton leaves on which these insects were fed. Using lacZ as a sensitive reporter we also found that expression driven by the 39K promoter was detected in insect but not in mammalian cells. These results imply that by selection of an appropriate viral promoter, engineered baculoviruses may comply with the high standard biosafety requirements from a genetically modified organism (GMO). Our results provide further support for the potential use of engineered baculoviruses in insect pest control in a safely manner.', 'en_US'),
(2862, 'Conservation biology, genetically modified organisms, and the biosafety protocol.', 'Concerns have been raised regarding the potential adverse effects on biological diversity of the use of living modified organisms (LMOs, which are commonly known by similar terms such as genetically modified organisms). At the international level these concerns are addressed in part by an agreement known as the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety and include potential toxic effects of insect-resistant crops on nontarget organisms and potential ecological effects of gene flow from modified crops, fish, microorganisms, or insects to wild species or counterparts. We reviewed the protocol''s main provisions, including those dealing with risk assessment and risk management, decision making on imports, documentation accompanying shipments, and liability resulting from damages caused by LMOs. A medium-term program of work has been adopted by the parties, which includes the potential contribution of conservation biologists to delivering capacity building, developing risk assessment guidance, evaluating mechanisms of potential ecological damages from LMOs, and other issues. Conservation biologists and other experts have opportunities to influence the negotiations and implementation of the protocol by providing inputs at meetings, offering expertise to governments and organizations, and participating in or developing relevant projects and initiatives. Involvement of conservation biologists in the implementation and further development of the protocol would contribute to its effectiveness.', 'en_US'),
(2863, 'The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development:  challenges for risk assessment.', 'The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development''s (OECD) Working Group for the Harmonization of Regulatory Oversight (Working Group) has taken the opportunity over the last several years to identify the challenges to environmental risk assessment of transgenic organisms, particularly plants. These initiatives have included most importantly, a report to the G8, the Rapporteur''s Report from the OECD international symposium on LMOs and the Environment; and an internal workshop on Review of Consensus Documents and Future Work in Harmonization that emphasized priority setting. The outcome of these endeavors has informed the development of subsequent programs of work adopted by the Working Group. This paper identifies points raised at these conferences and meetings that relate to the science underpinning risk/safety assessment. Many of the points are similar over the timeframe of these endeavors and are still of current importance. The discussions at the OECD workshop on risk assessment held in Korea during the 9th International Symposium on the Biosafety of Genetically Modified Organisms will also influence the subsequent projects and priorities of the Working Group.', 'en_US'),
(2864, 'The Japanese experience with the Blue Book and subsequent activities in environmental biosafety of GM crops.', 'The Blue Book made a big contribution to the development of the Japanese Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF) guidelines established in 1991 for almost all of the basic issues. However, the MAFF guidelines could not sufficiently cover some important areas that the Blue Book addressed well, such as potential consequences. This gap has been recovered substantially by a new law established in 2003. Japan still faces several important issues, including assessment of stacked products, potential consequences, comparative assessment, assessment of imported GM commodities and movement of concerned groups.', 'en_US'),
(2865, 'The OECD Blue Book on Recombinant DNA Safety Considerations: it''s influence on ISBR and EFSA activities.', 'Biosafety regulatory frameworks are intended to serve as mechanisms for ensuring the safe use of biotechnology products without imposing unacceptable risk to human health or the environment, or unintended constraints to technology transfer. The OECD Blue Book on ''Recombinant DNA Safety Considerations'', setting out principles and concepts for handling genetically modified organisms safely outside of contained laboratory conditions, was a milestone in the history of biotechnology. The ''Recombinant DNA Safety Considerations'' definitively became the major resource for the formulation of national regulatory frameworks and international regulations, including the Cartagena Protocol.', 'en_US');

INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(2904, 'Impacts of transgenic cry1Ab rice on non-target planthoppers and their main predator Cyrtorhinus lividipennis (Hemiptera: Miridae)-A case study of the compatibility of Bt rice with biological control.', 'Transgenic rice containing insecticidal protein(s) from Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) effectively control lepidopteran pests under laboratory and field conditions. However, Bt rice has not been widely commercialized. A major concern regarding the deployment of Bt rice is its potential impact on non-target arthropods, including herbivorous insect pests and biological control agents (predators and parasitoids) in the rice ecosystem. A 2-year field study was conducted at 3 sites in Zhejiang Province, China to assess the impacts of a homozygous transgenic japonica rice line KMD1 (Bt rice) containing a synthetic cry1Ab gene from Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner. The impacts on three planthoppers (Homoptera: Delphacidae), Sogatella furcifera (Horváth), Nilaparvata lugens (Stål) and Laodelphax striatellus (Fallén), and the natural enemy, Cyrtorhinus lividipennis (Reuter) (Hemiptera: Miridae), were evaluated using two sampling methods: vacuum-suction and Malaise trap. Population densities of planthoppers and C. lividipennis were not significantly affected by rice type (Bt/non-Bt) over the season at any of the 3 sites in each year, regardless of sampling methods. Both in Bt rice and non-Bt rice plots, S. furcifera was the predominant species of planthoppers as determined by either of the two sampling methods, and comprised >50% of the planthoppers at each site. No consistent effects of Bt rice and Bt rice × sampling date interaction on population dynamics of the predominant planthopper species, S. furcifera, and the predator, C. lividipennis, were observed throughout the sampling period. Overall, this 2-year field study indicates that, in comparison with non-Bt rice, Bt rice did not lead to higher planthopper populations and did not negatively affect the predator C. lividipennis. These results suggest that use of Bt rice may provide control of the key lepidopteran pests while promoting the key biological control agent of planthopppers, C. lividipennis.', 'en_US'),
(2905, 'Review of potential environmental impacts of transgenic glyphosate-resistant soybean in Brazil.', 'Transgenic glyphosate-resistant soybeans (GRS) have been commercialized and grown extensively in the Western Hemisphere, including Brazil. Worldwide, several studies have shown that previous and potential effects of glyphosate on contamination of soil, water, and air are minimal, compared to those caused by the herbicides that they replace when GRS are adopted. In the USA and Argentina, the advent of glyphosate-resistant soybeans resulted in a significant shift to reduced- and no-tillage practices, thereby significantly reducing environmental degradation by agriculture. Similar shifts in tillage practiced with GRS might be expected in Brazil. Transgenes encoding glyphosate resistance in soybeans are highly unlikely to be a risk to wild plant species in Brazil. Soybean is almost completely self-pollinated and is a non-native species in Brazil, without wild relatives, making introgression of transgenes from GRS virtually impossible. Probably the highest agricultural risk in adopting GRS in Brazil is related to weed resistance. Weed species in GRS fields have shifted in Brazil to those that can more successfully withstand glyphosate or to those that avoid the time of its application. These include Chamaesyce hirta (erva-de-Santa-Luzia), Commelina benghalensis (trapoeraba), Spermacoce latifolia (erva-quente), Richardia brasiliensis (poaia-branca), and Ipomoea spp. (corda-de-viola). Four weed species, Conyza bonariensis, Conyza Canadensis (buva), Lolium multiflorum (azevem), and Euphorbia heterophylla (amendoim bravo), have evolved resistance to glyphosate in GRS in Brazil and have great potential to become problems.', 'en_US'),
(2906, 'Insect resistance management for Bt corn:  an assessment of community refuge schemes.', 'Because of Bt corn''s efficacy in controlling European corn borer, farmers are required to implement an insect resistance management (IRM) program that constrains each farmer to plant no more than 80% of the farm''s corn to Bt varieties. This ''refuge'' must be planted within a half-mile of Bt corn and must be contained on the same farm. ''Community refuge'' schemes, those which allow the refuge area to be planted on a neighboring farm, have been proposed. In this analysis, we estimate the potential gains to all farms in the community in two representative locations: Pennsylvania and Iowa. The results of a decision analysis model show that the potential gains are very small; the greatest is only $652 over a 2000-acre community ($0.33 per acre). This gain would almost certainly be offset by the costs of developing such a community.', 'en_US'),
(2907, 'Non-target organism risk assessment of MIR604 maize expressing mCry3A for control of corn rootworm.', 'Event MIR604 maize expresses a modified Cry3A protein (mCry3A), for control of corn rootworm. As part of the environmental safety assessment of MIR604 maize, risks to non-target organisms of mCry3A were assessed. The potential exposure of non-target organisms to mCry3A following cultivation of MIR604 maize was determined, and the hypothesis that such exposure is not harmful was tested. The hypothesis was tested rigorously by making worst-case or highly conservative assumptions about exposure, along with laboratory testing for hazards using species taxonomically related to the target pest and species expected to have high exposure to mCry3A, or both. Further rigour was introduced by study designs incorporating long exposures and measurements of sensitive endpoints. No adverse effects were observed in any study, and in most cases exposure to mCry3A in the study was higher than the worst-case expected exposure. In all cases, exposure in the study was higher than realistic, but still conservative, estimates of exposure. These results indicate minimal risk of MIR604 maize to non-target organisms.', 'en_US'),
(2908, 'Identifying and defining hazards and potential consequences I:  concepts for problem formulation and non-target risk assessment.', 'The scientific organizers of the symposium put much emphasis on the identification and definition of hazard and the potential consequences thereof and three full sessions with a total of 13 presentations encompassing a wide range of related themes were planned for this topic. Unfortunately, one talk had to be cancelled because of illness of the speaker (BM Khadi, India). Some presentations covered conceptual approaches for environmental risk assessment (ERA) of GM plants (problem formulation in the risk assessment framework, familiarity approach, tiered and methodological frameworks, non-target risk assessment) and the use of models in assessing invasiveness and weediness of GM plants. Other presentations highlighted the lessons learned for future ERA from case studies and commercialized GM crops, and from monitoring of unintended releases to the environment. When the moderators of the three sessions came together after the presentations to align their summaries, there was an obvious need to restructure the 12 presentations in a way that allowed for a consistent summarizing discussion. The following new organization of the 12 talks was chosen: (1) Concepts for problem formulation and non-target risk assessment (2) Modeling as a tool for predicting invasiveness of GM plants (3) Case-studies of ERA of large-scale release (4) Lessons learned for ERA from a commercialized GM plant (5) Monitoring of unintended release of Bt maize in Mexico. The new thematic structure facilitates a more in-depth discussion of the presentations related to a specific topic, and the conclusions to be drawn are thus more consistent. Each moderator agreed to take responsibility for summarizing one or more themes and to prepare the respective report.', 'en_US'),
(2909, 'Identifying and defining hazards and potential consequences II.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2910, 'Identifying and defining hazards and potential consequences III:  concepts for problem formulation and non-target risk assessment.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2911, 'Estimating likelihood and exposure.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2912, 'Estimating likelihood and exposure, Part II.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2913, 'Current harmonization activities related to risk/safety assessment by the OECD Working Group on Harmonisation of Regulatory Oversight in Biotechnology.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2914, 'Environmental impacts of transgenic herbicide-resistant crops.', 'Transgenic glufosinate- and glyphosate-resistant crops are currently commercialized, and bromoxynil- resistant crops have been removed from the market for economic reasons. Glyphosateresistant cotton and soybean have become dominant in those countries where they have been approved for planting. Potential effects of glufosinate and glyphosate on contamination of soil, water and air are minimal, compared to those caused by the herbicides that they replace when herbicide-resistant crops (HRCs) are adopted. No risks have been found with food or feed safety or nutritional value in products from currently available HRCs. Both glufosinate- and glyphosateresistant crops promote the adoption of reduced- or no-tillage agriculture, reducing environmental degradation by agriculture. HRCs have caused evolution of herbicide resistance in weed species and shifts to those species that are naturally resistant. Transgene flow with HRCs is a concern for commercial and ecological reasons. In canola, rice and bentgrass, herbicide resistance transgenes have been found in fields that are supposed to be non-transgenic. Under some circumstances, transgene flow (introgression) to plants that might become problems in natural ecosystems remains the largest risk of HRCs.', 'en_US'),
(2915, 'Bt corn and impact on mycotoxins.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2916, 'How do risk beliefs and ethics affect food choice?', ' - Introduction - Consumer risk perception and food choice - Ethical concerns associated to foods and agriculture technologies - Future trends - Implications for the new product development - Sources of further information and advice - References', 'en_US'),
(2917, 'Corporate decisions about labelling genetically modified foods .', 'This paper considers whether individual companies have an ethical obligation to label their Genetically Modified (GM) foods. GM foods and ingredients pervade grocery store shelves, despite the fact that a majority of North Americans have worries about eating those products. The market as whole has largely failed to respond to consumer preference in this regard, as have North American governments. A number of consumer groups, NGO''s, and activist organizations have urged corporations to label their GM products. This paper asks whether, in such a situation, individual corporations can be ethically required to take such unilateral action. We argue that they cannot. Given the lack of solid evidence for any risk to human health, and the serious market disadvantage almost surely associated with costly unilateral action, no individual company has an ethical obligation to label its GM foods.', 'en_US'),
(2918, 'Ethics in the societal debate on genetically modified organisms:  A (re)quest for Sense and Sensibility.', 'Via a historical reconstruction, this paper primarily demonstrates how the societal debate on genetically modified organisms (GMOs) gradually extended in terms of actors involved and concerns reflected. It is argued that the implementation of recombinant DNA technology out of the laboratory and into civil society entailed a ''complex of concerns.'' In this complex, distinctions between environmental, agricultural, socio-economic, and ethical issues proved to be blurred. This fueled the confusion between the wider debate on genetic modification and the risk assessment of transgenic crops in the European Union. In this paper, the lasting skeptical and/or ambivalent attitude of Europeans towards agro-food biotechnology is interpreted as signaling an ongoing social request - and even a quest - for an evaluation of biotechnology with Sense and Sensibility. In this (re)quest, a broader-than-scientific dimension is sought for that allows addressing the GMO debate in a more ''sensible'' way, whilst making ''sense'' of the different stances taken in it. Here, the restyling of the European regulatory frame on transgenic agro-food products and of science communication models are discussed and taken to be indicative of the (re)quest to move from a merely scientific evaluation and risk-based policy towards a socially more robust evaluation that takes the ''non-scientific'' concerns at stake in the GMO debate seriously.', 'en_US'),
(2919, 'Against the neoliberal steamroller?  The Biosafety Protocol and the social regulation of agricultural biotechnologies.', 'Through a discursive and organizational analysis we seek to understand the Biosafety Protocol and the place of socioeconomic regulation of agricultural biotechnology in it.  The literature on the Protocol has been fairly extensive, but little of it has explored debates over socioeconomic regulation during the negotiation process or the regulatory requirements specified in the final document.  This case is especially important at a time when the spread of neoliberalism is increasingly associated with deregulation, because it sheds light on the conditions under which circumvention of the market is deemed legitimate and socio-economic regulation of agricultural technology is possible.', 'en_US'),
(2920, 'A multidisciplinary approach directed towards the commercial release of transgenic herbicide-tolerant rice in Costa Rica.', 'This review discusses a multidisciplinary and multicomponent approach leading to the development and commercial release of transgenic Costa Rican rice varieties tolerant to the herbicide gluphosinate ammonium.  We describe the field evaluations of the transgenic lines and their potential environmental impact, focusing on gene flow, particularly in relation to native wild Oryza species and weedy rice, based on trials performed in compliance with the national regulatory requirements of the country.  We also present a socio-economic analysis of rice production in Costa Rica and the economic benefits of genetically modified (GM) rice as well as an environmental risk-benefit analysis for the deployment of GM rice.  Additionally, food safety evaluation, intellectual property management, requirements for deregulation, and options for the commercialization of the new varieties are discussed.  We also present results from a national survey aimed at assessing the level of support for GM crops in Costa Rica as this forms an integral component of our approach.  Taken together, our results demonstrate that the adoption of these genetically improved rice varieties will provide clear benefits to Costa Rican rice growers and consumers.', 'en_US'),
(2921, 'Natural hybridization between a clonally propagated crop, cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) and a wild relative in French Guiana.', 'Because domestication rarely leads to speciation, domesticated populations often hybridize with wild relatives when they occur in close proximity.  Little work has focused on this question in clonally propagated crops.  If selection on the capacity for sexual reproduction has been relaxed, these crops would not be expected to hybridize with their wild relatives as frequently as seed-propagated crops.  Cassava is one of the most important clonally propagated plants in tropical agriculture.  Gene flow between cassava and wild relatives has often been postulated, but never demonstrated in nature.  We studied a population of a wild Manihot sp. in French Guiana, which was recently in contact with domesticated cassava, and characterized phenotypes (10 morphological traits) and genotypes (six microsatellite loci) of individuals in a transect parallel to the direction of hypothesized gene flow.  Wild and domesticated populations were strongly differentiated at microsatellite loci.  We identified many hybrids forming a continuum between these two populations, and phenotypic variation was strongly correlated with the degree of hybridization as determined by molecular markers.  Analysis of linkage disequilibrium and of the diversity of hybrid pedigrees showed that hybridization has gone on for at least three generations and that no strong barrier prevents admixture of the populations.  Hybrids were more heterozygous than either wild or domesticated individuals, and phenotypic comparisons suggested heterosis in vegetative traits.  Our results also suggest that this situation is not uncommon, at least in French Guiana, and demonstrate the need for integrated management of wild and domesticated populations even in clonally propagated crops.', 'en_US'),
(2922, 'Regulatory considerations on transgenic livestock in Japan in relation to the Cartagena protocol.', 'In Japan, the development and application of living modified organisms (LMOs) are regulated by law (conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity law).  Procedures are classed as type 1 for the use of LMOs where no preventive measures against their dispersal into the environment are required and type 2 for the use of LMOs where preventive measures are stipulated.  Development and research on transgenic livestock falls under the responsibility of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Science, Sports and Technology.  Field use of transgenic livestock is controlled by the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries.  The author describes risk assessment and management of transgenic livestock by both ministries.', 'en_US'),
(2923, 'Coexistence, genetically modified biotechnologies and biosafety:  Implications for developing countries.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2924, 'Laboratory containment practices for arthropod vectors of human and animal pathogens.', 'Arthropod-borne pathogens have an impact on the health and well-being of humans and animals throughout the world.  Research involving arthropod vectors of disease is often dependent on the ability to maintain the specific arthropod species in laboratory colonies.  The author reviews current arthropod containment practices and discusses their importance from public health and ecological perspectives.', 'en_US'),
(2925, 'Toxins in transgenic crop byproducts may affect headwater stream ecosystems.', 'Corn (Zea mays L.) that has been genetically engineered to produce the Cry1Ab protein (Bt corn) is resistant to lepidopteran pests.  Bt corn is widely planted in the midwestern United States, often adjacent to headwater streams.  We show that corn byproducts, such as pollen and detritus, enter headwater streams and are subject to storage, consumption, and transport to downstream water bodies.  Laboratory feeding trials showed that consumption of Bt corn byproducts reduced growth and increased mortality of nontarget stream insects.  Stream insects are important prey for aquatic and riparian predators, and widespread planting of Bt crops has unexpected ecosystem-scale consequences.', 'en_US'),
(2926, 'Applying ecological risk assessment to environmental accidents:  Harlequin ducks and the Exxon Valdez oil spill.', 'Ecological risk assessment is a systematic way to evaluate the likelihood that an environmental accident has caused significant ecological consequences.  I apply this framework retrospectively to evaluate a scenario linking the Exxon Valdez oil spill to population effects on harlequin ducks (Histrionicus histrionicus) through hydrocarbon contamination of mussels in spill-affected shorelines of Prince William Sound, Alaska.  By evaluating the plausibility of each step of this scenario in turn, it becomes apparent that it is highly unlikely the oil spill is having continuing effects on harlequins through this pathway.  This case study shows how ecological risk assessment can help clarify potential cause?effect relationships in an emotionally and socially charged situation.', 'en_US'),
(2927, 'Presentation of the thematic issue on horizontal gene transfer.', 'Questions concerning the fate and potential biological activity of transgenes from transgenic plants in bacteria have motivated considerable research that attempts to provide some answers.  Some of the scientific difficulties with this research are due to the relatively low (if at all) frequencies of gene transfer from transgenic plants to environmental bacteria.  Therefore, a range of different model systems have been constructed and tested in order to try to determine possible scenarios of transgene transfer to bacteria in the environment.  One such model is the fate of transgenes from transplastomic plants to environmental micro-organisms, which was investigated in the frame of a European Union-funded project TRANSBAC.  The objectives of this project were to understand and quantify gene transfer under optimum conditions and develop tools for reducing (or augmenting) gene transfer.  A range of conditions and biological models were examined for a better overview of the probability of gene transfer.  Gene transfer is expected to be a function of the genetic environment of the gene, the number of copies, its persistence in the environment, and physical conditions that increase selective pressure and enhance gene transfer.  When experiments do not demonstrate measurable gene transfer, the tendency is to avoid publication.  Negative results are seldom appreciated, but in a rigorous evaluation of the likelihood of different transfer events, one must recognize that the detection limits are not always sufficiently low.  This was in part the motivation for engineering experimental systems to increase the likelihood of gene transfer in order to have at least a baseline (albeit maybe not an environmentally validated one).', 'en_US'),
(2928, 'Horizontal gene transfer between bacteria.', 'Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) refers to the acquisition of foreign genes by organisms. The occurrence of HGT among bacteria in the environment is assumed to have implications in the risk assessment of genetically modified bacteria which are released into the environment. First, introduced genetic sequences from a genetically modified bacterium could be transferred to indigenous micro-organisms and alter their genome and subsequently their ecological niche. Second, the genetically modified bacterium released into the environment might capture mobile genetic elements (MGE) from indigenous micro-organisms which could extend its ecological potential. Thus, for a risk assessment it is important to understand the extent of HGT and genome plasticity of bacteria in the environment. This review summarizes the present state of knowledge on HGT between bacteria as a crucial mechanism contributing to bacterial adaptability and diversity. In view of the use of GM crops and microbes in agricultural settings, in this mini-review we focus particularly on the presence and role of MGE in soil and plant-associated bacteria and the factors affecting gene transfer.', 'en_US'),
(2929, 'Fate of transgenic plant DNA in the environment.', 'This review addresses the possible ecological effects of transgenic plants on micro-organisms in the field, hence, in the phytosphere and in the soil matrix. The important steps involved in the interaction between plant DNA and bacteria and the factors that influence the horizontal gene transfer (HGT) process will be discussed. HGT is a process in which two partners are involved, even if indirectly. In the first section, aspects concerning bacteria, such as their physico-chemical, biological and genetic characteristics, are described. Parameters affecting transgenic DNA fate in the environment are described in the second section. Subsequently, terrestrial habitats are evaluated in terms of their capacity to favor horizontal gene transfer. Finally, we focused on several studies in order to evaluate possible perturbations of soil bacterial community composition due to cultivation of transgenic plants in the field.', 'en_US'),
(2930, 'Release and persistence of extracellular DNA in the environment.', 'The introduction of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) has called for an improved understanding of the fate of DNA in various environments, because extracellular DNA may also be important for transferring genetic information between individuals and species. Accumulating nucleotide sequence data suggest that acquisition of foreign DNA by horizontal gene transfer (HGT) is of considerable importance in bacterial evolution. The uptake of extracellular DNA by natural transformation is one of several ways bacteria can acquire new genetic information given sufficient size, concentration and integrity of the DNA. We review studies on the release, breakdown and persistence of bacterial and plant DNA in soil, sediment and water, with a focus on the accessibility of the extracellular nucleic acids as substrate for competent bacteria. DNA fragments often persist over time in many environments, thereby facilitating their detection and characterization. Nevertheless, the long-term physical persistence of DNA fragments of limited size observed by PCR and Southern hybridization often contrasts with the short-term availability of extracellular DNA to competent bacteria studied in microcosms. The main factors leading to breakdown of extracellular DNA are presented. There is a need for improved methods for accurately determining the degradation routes and the persistence, integrity and potential for horizontal transfer of DNA released from various organisms throughout their lifecycles.', 'en_US'),
(2931, 'Detection of potential transgenic plant DNA recipients among soil bacteria.', 'The likelihood of gene transfer from transgenic plants to bacteria is dependent on gene number and the presence of homologous sequences. The large number of transgene copies in transplastomic (transgenes contained in the chloroplast genome) plant cells as well as the prokaryotic origin of the transgene, may thus significantly increase the likelihood of gene transfer to bacteria that colonize plant tissues. In order to assess the probability of such transfer, the length of homologous DNA sequences required between the transgene and the genome of the bacterial host was assessed. In addition, the probability that bacteria, which co-infect diseased plants, are transformable and have sequences similar to the flanking regions of the transgene was evaluated. Using Acinetobacter baylyi strain BD143 and transplastomic tobacco plants harboring the aadA gene (streptomycin and spectinomycin resistance), we found that sequences identical to the flanking regions containing as few as 55 nucleotides were sufficient for recombination to occur. Consequently, a collection of bacterial isolates able to colonize tobacco plant tissue infected by Ralstonia solanacearum strain K60 was obtained, screened for DNA sequence similarity with the chloroplastic genes accD and rbcL flanking the transgene, and tested for their ability to uptake extracellular DNA (broad host-range pBBR1MCS plasmids) by natural or electro-transformation. Results showed that among the 288 bacterial isolates tested, 8% presented DNA sequence similarity with one or both chloroplastic regions flanking the transgene. Two isolates, identified as Pseudomonas sp. and Acinetobacter sp., were able to integrate exogenous plasmid DNA by electro-transformation and natural transformation, respectively. Our data suggest that transplastomic plant DNA recipients might be present in soil bacterial communities.', 'en_US'),
(2932, 'Assessment of transformability of bacteria associated with tomato and potato plants.', 'Transformation of plant-associated bacteria by plant DNA has never been demonstrated in agricultural fields. In total 552 bacterial isolates from stems of Ralstonia solanacearum-infected and healthy tomato plants and from stems and leaves of healthy potato plants were tested for natural genetic competence using plasmid pSKTG DNA and homologous DNA extracts. Control strain Acinetobacter baylyi ADP1 was transformable with both DNA extracts. No transformable isolates were observed after treatment with plasmid pSKTG DNA. Two isolates, P34, identified as Pseudomonas trivialis and A19, identified as Pseudomonas fragi, were selected on the basis of the consistently higher Rp-resistant CFU numbers after treatment with DNA from Rp-resistant cells than with that from wild-type cells. P34 showed 2.1-fold and A19 1.5-fold higher Rp-resistant CFU numbers after treatment with DNA from homologous Rp-resistant cells versus that from wild-type cells. It is concluded that bacteria capable of in vitro capture and integration of exogenous DNA into their genomes are relatively rare in culturable bacterial communities associated with tomato and potato plants, or that conditions conducive to transformation were not met in transformation assays.', 'en_US'),
(2933, 'Screening of rhizosphere and soil bacteria for transformability.', 'Natural transformation is assumed to be the most likely mechanism by which DNA from transgenic plants could be horizontally transferred to bacteria. In order to determine the occurrence of naturally transformable bacteria amongst bulk and rhizosphere soil bacteria, different transformation strategies were employed using either plasmid DNA (IncQ plasmids pSM1890 and pSM1885, conferring GFP, SmR, GmR and GFP, SmR, TcR, respectively) or genomic DNA from rhizosphere isolates, which were chromosomally tagged with mini-Tn5 (GFP, TcR, as transforming DNA. Transformation assays were done in microtiter plates (262 isolates and pSM1890 or pSM1885), on filters (i) with rhizosphere bacterial community mixed with pSM1890 or pSM1885, (ii) with 24 rhizosphere or soil bacterial isolates mixed with genomic DNA of the corresponding mini-Tn5-tagged strains, and in the rhizosphere of tobacco plants inoculated with rifampicin-resistant bacterial isolates and genomic DNA of the corresponding mini-Tn5-tagged strains added. One transformant colony was obtained when Brevundimonas vesicularis was transformed with genomic DNA of the corresponding mini-Tn5-tagged strain. Attempts to reproduce this result were unsuccessful. With this single exception, transformants were neither detected in the collection of isolates nor in the rhizosphere bacterial community. Acinetobacter baylyi BD413 used as a positive control showed drastically reduced transformation frequencies with plasmid pSM1890 as transforming DNA when mixed with the rhizosphere pellet. All transformants were characterized by BOX-PCR fingerprints, and three different BOX patterns were revealed. Sequencing the 16S rRNA gene showed that all transformants could be assigned to Acinetobacter sp. Since transformants were only observed in the positive control, the introduced BD413 either underwent genomic rearrangements, or competence of the Acinetobacter population present in the rhizosphere was stimulated by the introduction of BD413. The various transformation assays performed indicate that the proportion of rhizosphere or bulk soil bacteria which are naturally transformable is negligibly low.', 'en_US'),
(2934, 'Transformation of Acinetobacter baylyi in non-sterile soil using recombinant plant nuclear DNA.', 'To provide estimates of horizontal gene transfer from transgenic crops to indigenous soil bacteria, transformation frequencies were obtained for naturally transformable Acinetobacter baylyi BD413 using a chromosomally integrated plant transgene. The transgene comprised sequences for two phenotypic markers: kanamycin resistance (npt II) and green fluorescent protein (gfp), expressed from their own bacterial promoters. Recipient bacteria carried a copy of these two genes, with deletions in their 3''-termini abolishing the marker activity, these genes were integrated into a 16S rRNA gene in the bacterial chromosomal genome or carried on a broad host range plasmid. Successful recombination between the plant transgene and the bacterial genome resulted in restoration of the markers, allowing detection through antibiotic selection and fluorescence. Transformation parameters of increasing complexity, without any enrichment steps, were used to approach the field conditions, while still obtaining measurable transformation frequencies. In pure culture filter experiments, transformation was detected using ground, chopped and whole leaves, as well as whole sterile seedlings, and ground roots. In sterile soil microcosms, transformation was detected using pure plant DNA (3.6 x 10-8 transformants per recipient) and ground leaves (2.5 x 10-11). Transformation was also detected for the first time in non-sterile soil using pure plant DNA (5.5 x 10-11). Since the same constructs were used throughout, these data allow predictions of even more complex environmental systems where measurable frequencies are not easily obtainable.', 'en_US'),
(2935, 'Differences in the rhizosphere bacterial community of a transplastomic tobacco plant compared to its non-engineered counterpart.', 'Cultivation-independent analyses were carried out to compare the bacterial community structure found in the rhizospheres of a transplastomic tobacco plant carrying the antibiotic resistance marker-gene aadA and its non-engineered parental line.  PCR- and reverse transcriptase PCR-amplifications of 16S rRNA and their corresponding genes were carried out with primers targeting the domain Bacteria.  The diversity of PCR-products amplified from total nucleic acids extracted from rhizospheres of 10-week-old plants, which had been grown in potting soil in the greenhouse, was visualized by genetic profiling using the single-strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP) technique.  The SSCP profiles generated from DNA extracted with two different protocols, one including total RNA and the other only DNA, did not show any differences.  The SSCP profiles amplified from RNA and DNA were also highly similar to each other, indicating that the dominant bacteria detected were metabolically active.  High similarities were seen between the SSCP profiles from the transplastomic and the non-engineered plants, except for a single band that consistently occurred with samples from the non-engineered plants (six replicates), but not, or only weakly, with their engineered counterparts.  DNA sequencing and database analysis revealed that the partial rRNA gene matched to a Flavobacterium sp. Other bands of the SSCP-profiles, related to Burkholderia and Bordetella were variable between individual plants but not affected by the transplastomic modification.  Thus, the transplastomic modification caused a relative decline of a specific Flavobacterium population but not of other bacteria.  Further studies including additional tobacco cultivars, soils and conditions of cultivation would be desirable, to elucidate the ecological importance of this difference.', 'en_US'),
(2936, 'Ecological versus ecotoxicological methods for assessing the environmental risks of transgenic crops.', 'The potential environmental risks of cultivating transgenic crops have been the subject of much publicly funded research, which often seems to have increased controversy about transgenic crops, rather than assisted decision-makers. This stems from an ecological method of research that has several characteristics that limit its usefulness to decision-makers: a reluctance to define problems in relation to policy objectives; testing null hypotheses of no difference between transgenic and non-transgenic crops; a preference for detailed descriptions of ecosystem structure, complex models and precise predictions of uncertain relevance; and favouring tests of hypotheses under field conditions. A more effective method of research for decision-making follows principles exemplified by ecotoxicology: research problems are selected by policy relevance; testing of risk hypotheses that predict no harm of the transgenic plants to things of value; a preference for tests of ecosystem function, simple comparative models, and accurate and relevant, if qualitative, predictions; and favouring tests of hypotheses under conditions that provide most rigour. These principles may also be usefully applied to other environmental science research programmes that aim to inform decision-making.', 'en_US'),
(2937, 'Expression analysis of genes encoding translation initiation factor 3 subunit g (TaeIF3g) and vesicle-associated membrane protein-associated protein (TaVAP) in drought tolerant and susceptible cultivars of wheat', 'The present study deals with the characterization of genes encoding translation initiation factor 3 subunit g (TaeIF3g) and vesicle-associated membrane protein associated-protein (TaVAP), and how their expression is altered during water stress in the drought tolerant (C-306) and susceptible (HD-2329) cultivars of wheat.  Bioinformatics analysis revealed that the TaeIF3g gene consists of an open reading frame (ORF) of 870 nucleotides encoding for a protein of 290 amino acid residues, with a likely molecular mass and pI of 31.47 kDa and 6.89, respectively.  The TaVAP cDNA consists of an ORF of 714 nucleotides encoding for a protein of 238 amino acid residues having deduced molecular mass and pI of 25.75 kDa and 7.56, respectively.  The changes in expression of the two genes in flag leaf and developing grains were studied in response to drought stress at 15 days post anthesis (DPA).  The expression of TaeIF3g and TaVAP in the flag leaf, after increasing in response to mild drought stress, decreased under severe stress conditions in C-306, whereas on the contrary, it persisted in cv. HD-2329.  Furthermore, the expression of TaeIF3g and TaVAP in response to drought stress was affected in a coordinated manner in leaf of both the cultivars.  The effect of drought on expression of TaeIF3g and TaVAP was also different in the grains of the two cultivars thus implying that the adaptive mechanisms operating in the tissues of tolerant and susceptible cultivars are different.', 'en_US'),
(2938, 'Leaf-feeding larvae of Manduca sexta (Insecta, Lepidoptera) drastically reduce copy numbers of aadA antibiotic resistance genes from transplastomic tobacco but maintain intact aadA genes in their feces.', 'The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of insect larval feeding on the fate and genetic transformability of recombinant DNA from a transplastomic plant. Leaves of tobacco plants with an aadA antibiotic resistance gene inserted into their chloroplast genome were incubated with larvae of the tobacco hornworm Manduca sexta (Lepidoptera). The specifically designed Acinetobacter strain BD413 pBAB2 was chosen to analyze the functional integrity of the aadA transgene for natural transformation after gut passages. No gene transfer was detected after simultaneous feeding of leaves and the Acinetobacter BD413 pBAB2 as a recipient, even though 15% of ingested Acinetobacter BD413 cells could be recovered as viable cells from feces 6 h after feeding. Results with real-time PCR indicated that an average of 98.2 to 99.99% of the aadA gene was degraded during the gut passage, but the range in the number of aadA genes in feces of larvae fed with transplastomic leaves was enormous, varying from 5 x 106 to 1 x 109 copies.g-1. DNA extracted from feces of larvae fed with transplastomic leaves was still able to transform externally added competent Acinetobacter BD413 pBAB2 in vitro. Transformation frequencies with concentrated feces DNA were in the same range as those found with leaves (10-4-10-6 transformants per recipient) or purified plasmid DNA (10-3-10-7). The presence of functionally intact DNA was also qualitatively observed after incubation of 30 mg freshly shed feces directly with competent Acinetobacter BD413 pBAB2, demonstrating that aadA genes in feces have a potential to undergo further horizontal gene transfer under environmental conditions.', 'en_US'),
(2939, 'An assessment of the potential of herbivorous insect gut bacteria to develop competence for natural transformation.', 'Whereas the capability of DNA uptake has been well established for numerous species and strains of bacteria grown in vitro, the broader distribution of natural transformability within bacterial communities remains largely unexplored.  Here, we investigate the ability of bacterial isolates from the gut of grass grub larvae (Costelytra zealandica (White); Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) to develop natural genetic competence in vitro.  A total of 37 mostly species-divergent strains isolated from the gut of grass grub larvae were selected for spontaneous rifampicin-resistance.  Genomic DNA was subsequently isolated from the resistant strains and exposed to sensitive strains grown individually using established filter transformation protocols.  DNA isolated from wild-type strains was used as a control.  None of the 37 isolates tested exhibited a frequency of conversion to rifampicin-resistance in the presence of DNA at rates that were significantly higher than the rate of spontaneous mutation to rifampicin-resistance in the presence of wild-type DNA (the limit of detection was approximately < 1 culturable transformant per 109 exposed bacteria).  To further examine if conditions were conducive to bacterial DNA uptake in the grass grubs gut, we employed the competent bacterium Acinetobacter baylyi strain BD413 as a recipient species for in vivo studies.  However, no transformants could be detected above the detection limit of 1 transformant per 103 cells, possibly due to low population density and limited growth of A. baylyi cells in grass grub guts.  PCR analysis indicated that chromosomal Acinetobacter DNA remains detectable by PCR for up to 3 days after direct inoculation into the alimentary tract of grass grub larvae.  Nevertheless, neither transforming activity of the DNA recovered from the alimentary tract of grass grubs larvae nor competence of bacterial cells recovered from inoculated larvae could be shown.', 'en_US'),
(2940, 'Lack of detectable DNA uptake by bacterial gut isolates grown in vitro and by Acinetobacter baylyi colonizing rodents in vivo.', 'Biological risk assessment of food containing recombinant DNA has exposed knowledge gaps related to the general fate of DNA in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT). Here, a series of experiments is presented that were designed to determine if genetic transformation of the naturally competent bacterium Acinetobacter baylyi BD413 occurs in the GIT of mice and rats, with feed-introduced bacterial DNA containing a kanamycin resistance gene (nptII). Strain BD413 was found in various gut locations in germ-free mice at 103-105 CFU per gram GIT content 24-48 h after administration. However, subsequent DNA exposure of the colonized mice did not result in detectable bacterial transformants, with a detection limit of 1 transformant per 103-105 bacteria. Further attempts to increase the likelihood of detection by introducing weak positive selection with kanamycin of putative transformants arising in vivo during a 4-week-long feeding experiment (where the mice received DNA and the recipient cells regularly) did not yield transformants either. Moreover, the in vitro exposure of actively growing A. baylyi cells to gut contents from the stomach, small intestine, cecum or colon contents of rats (with a normal microbiota) fed either purified DNA (50 g) or bacterial cell lysates did not produce bacterial transformants. The presence of gut content of germfree mice was also highly inhibitory to transformation of A. baylyi, indicating that microbially-produced nucleases are not responsible for the sharp 500- to 1 000 000-fold reduction of transformation frequencies seen. Finally, a range of isolates from the genera Enterococcus, Streptococcus and Bifidobacterium spp. was examined for competence expression in vitro, without yielding any transformants. In conclusion, model choice and methodological constraints severely limit the sample size and, hence, transfer frequencies that can be measured experimentally in the GIT. Our observations suggest the contents of the GIT shield or adsorb DNA, preventing detectable exposure of feed-derived DNA fragments to competent bacteria.', 'en_US'),
(2941, 'Gene flow from transgenic maize to landraces in Mexico:  An analysis.', 'A highly publicized study in 2001 reported that maize landraces in Oaxaca, Mexico were found to contain transgenes, yet not all follow-up research has detected transgenes in the same region. Continued testing for transgenes in Mexican maize, and calls for the removal of transgenes from landraces, have only fueled the debate about the dynamics of gene flow from transgenic maize to landraces in Mexico. This paper reviews these recent findings and discusses how evolution may be expected to alter the frequency of transgenes in crop populations over time. Further, it shows that calls for removing transgenes must be interpreted in light of two ecological complexities: (a) it may be impossible to purge a particular gene from a population and (b) scientists'' ability to accurately determine the presence or absence of transgenes is limited by challenges related to sampling. The paper concludes by outlining two ways forward for removing transgenes from landraces.', 'en_US'),
(2942, 'Plant diversity in crop fields and woody hedgerows of organic and conventional farms in contrasting landscapes.', 'The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of contrasting agricultural practices in organic and conventional farming (local factors), and to evaluate the influence of surrounding landscape features (regional factors) on plant assemblages, taking into account habitat structure.  Plants were inventoried in crop fields and woody hedgerows (boundary and centre) of 16 conventional and 14 organic sites.  Habitat structure, agricultural practices and landscape characteristics were quantified for each habitat.  Hedgerow boundaries contained a higher number of plant species than adjacent habitats although many of them were exotics.  However, exotics comprised a decreasing proportion of species richness from field to hedgerow centre.  Many of the exotic species were shared between crop fields and adjacent boundaries.  There was a clear difference in species richness and composition between the organic and conventional study sites.  Fields and woody hedgerows situated in organic sites consistently harboured more native and exotic plant species than those in conventional systems.  Numerous species were only found in organic hedgerows and included several long-lived herbaceous forest species.  At the larger scale level, old-fields (areas with sparse shrubs and trees re-colonizing cleared land) were the only habitats that significantly influenced the species composition of hedgerows, particularly exotic species.  Conversely, farm type was a significant predictor of native species richness.', 'en_US'),
(2943, 'Genetic resources of eggplant (Solanum melongena) and allied species:  A new challenge for molecular geneticists and eggplant breeders.', 'Eggplants cultivated or wild relatives, cover a wide range of Solanum species (subgenus Leptostemonum), the geographic origin of which is mainly Asia and Africa.  The best known species is Solanum melongena, domesticated in the Indo-Burma region, and now cultivated all over the world.  Several public institutions in Asia, Europe and North America maintain genetic resources of this species.  Other cultivated eggplants related to S. melongena, such as the scarlet eggplant (Solanum aethiopicum) and the gboma eggplant (Solanum macrocarpon), are cultivated mainly in Africa.  The wild species related to all cultivated eggplants comprise 200 or so species, almost half of the huge subgenus Leptostemonum.  Beyond the conventional breeding use of this eggplant germplasm, many other potentialities exist.  A preliminary eggplant genetic map, based on the use of RAPDs on an intraspecific F2 progeny, is available.  A more extensive map, based on a set of markers common to well mapped Solanaceae such as potato, tomato and pepper, is also being produced for discovering possible syntenic relationships.  Such markers, and others specific to S. melongena, should also allow the molecular tagging of eggplant agronomic traits, some of which are common to other Solanaceae, inorder to provide powerful tools to eggplant breeders.  Furthermore, no resistance has been found in S. melongena germplasm, up to now, for some serious pests (such as Meloidogyne incognita) and diseases (such a Verticillium dahlia) whereas such resistances, which are monogenetically inherited, are available in tomato:  those genes could be used to produce resistant eggplants by genetic engineering.  Lastly, the whole set of eggplant genetic resources, which comprises a significant part of the genus Solanum, needs to be investigated by molecular tools to produce a functional taxonomic treatment of subgenus Leptostemonum, as well as to help answer questions about Solanum phylogeny.', 'en_US');
