INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(1256, 'Chemical fingerprinting for the evaluation of unintended secondary metabolic changes in transgenic food crops', 'A common element in designed guidelines for assessment of the food safety of transgenic crops is centred on a comparative analytical analysis with conventionally bred crop plants, assuming that these products have a long history of safe use (i.e. OECD-principle of substantial equivalence). In this study we examine the utility of an off-line combination of 400 MHz proton (1H)-NMR spectroscopy and liquid chromatography (LC) for the multi-component comparison of low-molecular weight compounds (i.e. chemical fingerprinting) in complex plant matrices. The developed NMR-methodology can contribute to the demonstration of substantial equivalence by its ability to compare possible compositional alterations in a novel food crop with respect to related non-transgenic reference lines. In this respect a hierarchical approach is proposed by comparing the chemical fingerprints of the transgenic crop plant to those of: (1) isogenic parental or closely related lines bred at identical and multiple sites; (2) extended ranges of commercial varieties of that plant; and (3) downstream processing effects. This is of importance to assess the likelihood that some of the statistical differences in a transgenic crop plant may be false positives due to chance alone or arose from natural genetic and/or physiologic variations.', 'en_US'),
(1257, 'Risk of alfalfa transgene dissemination and scale-dependent effects', 'Pollen can function as a vehicle to disseminate introduced, genetically engineered genes throughout a plant population or into a related species. The measurement of the risk of inadvertent dispersal of transgenes must include the assessment of accidental dispersion of pollen. Factors to be considered include the rate of pollen spread, the maximal dispersion distance of pollen, and the spatial dynamics of pollen movement within seed production fields; none of which are known for alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.), an insect-pollinated crop species. Using a rare, naturally occurring molecular marker, alfalfa pollen movement was tracked from seed and hay production fields. Results indicated that leafcutter bees (Megachile spp.) used in commercial seed production show a directional, non-random bias when pollinating within fields, primarily resulting in the movement of pollen directly towards and away from the bee domicile. Within-field pollen movement was detected only over distances of 4 m or less. Dispersal of pollen from alfalfa hay and seed production fields occurs at distances up to 1000 m. By examining widely dispersed, individual escaped alfalfa plants and their progeny using RAPD markers, gene movement among escaped alfalfa plants has been confirmed for distances up to 230 m. The out-crossing frequency for large fields was nearly 10-times greater than that of research-sized plots. A minimum isolation distance of 1557 m may be required to prevent gene flow in alfalfa. Data suggest that complete containment of transgenes within alfalfa seed or hay production fields would be highly unlikely using current production practices.', 'en_US'),
(1258, 'Genetically modified plants and the 35S promoter: assessing the risks and enhancing the debate', 'The 35S promoter, derived from the common plant virus, cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV), is a component of transgenic constructs in more than 80% of genetically modified (GM) plants. Alarming reports have suggested that the 35S promoter might cause accidental activation of plant genes or endogenous viruses, promote horizontal gene transfer, or might even recombine with mammalian viruses such as HIV, with unexpected consequences. In this article, we discuss the properties of CaMV and the 35S promoter and the potential risks associated with the use of the promoter in GM plants, concluding that any risks are no greater than those encountered in conventional plant breeding.', 'en_US'),
(1259, 'Genetics and the conservation and use of Australian wild relatives of crops', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1260, 'Proposed guidelines for pre-commercial evaluation of transgenic and conventional cotton cultivars', 'The primary commercial features of recently released transgenic cotton (Gossypium) cultivars are their respective pest management traits, including, tolerance of the herbicides Buctril(R) (bromoxynil) and Roundup Ultra(R) (glyphosate), and the capacity to synthesize a Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) endotoxin for control of lepidopteran pests. Many transgenic cultivars have been offered for sale with fewer years of public testing than most growers and their advisors would have liked. Lack of time and resources may have resulted in some having been sold in locations with no previous public testing in the immediate growing area. Despite the lack of public test information, the collective market share of transgenic cultivars has increased every year since their introduction, presumably because of high grower interest in their value-added, pest management features. Obviously, transgenic pest management traits strongly influence the pest management programmes that are appropriate for the transgenic cultivars, and the efficacy of the pest management programmes may positively affect yields and the costs of production. However, in Official Cultivar Trials (OCTs), comparison of the transgenic cultivars with non-transgenic cultivars has been done using only conventional and, frequently, a high level of pest management. Concerns, about the lack of public test data on transgenic cultivars, and about relying solely on OCTs for their evaluation, prompted Cotton Incorporated to convene a working group, the objective of which was to seek consensus among public and private sector researchers on how to enable growers to confidently choose the best cultivar and pest management technology for their situation. The drafting subcommittee of the working group proposed guidelines for cultivar evaluation to a joint meeting of SRIEG-61 (Southern Regional Information Exchange Group 61 - Cotton Breeding), and a new Regional Project in preparation, SRDC-9801 (Southern Regional Development Committee 9801 - Development of Genetic Resources for Cotton). Principal points of the proposal were that a minimum of 2 years of public test data should be available to growers at the time of first sale, and that the data should include comparison of transgenic cultivars with cultivars generally recognized as having high yield potential. The proposal also suggested that the testing should provide comprehensive economic evaluation of new cultivars by concurrently evaluating yields, fibre quality, and the efficacy and costs of the respective pest management programmes.', 'en_US'),
(1261, 'A direct regional scale estimate of transgene movement from genetically modified oilseed rape to its wild progenitors', 'One of the major environmental concerns over genetically modified (GM) crops relates to transgene movement into wild relatives. The pattern of hybridization ultimately affects the scale and rapidity of ecological change and the feasibility of containment. A new procedure for quantifying hybrid formation over large areas is described. Remote sensing was used to identify possible sites of sympatry between Brassica napus and ifs progenitor species across 15 000 km(2) of south-east England in 1998. Two sympatric populations with B. rapa and one with B. oleracea were found over the entire survey area. Every newly recruited plant in these populations in 1999 was screened for hybrid status using now cytometry and molecular analyses. One hybrid was observed from the 505 plants screened in the B. rapa populations but none of the nine B. oleracea recruits were hybrids. Measures to minimize gene now are suggested, and a procedure for the post-release evaluation and containment of GM cultivars is proposed.', 'en_US'),
(1262, 'Plants rendered herbicide-susceptible by cauliflower mosaic virus -- elicited suppression of a 35S promoter-regulated transgene', 'Crop plants genetically modified for herbicide tolerance were some of the first to be released into the environment. Frequently, the cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) 35S promoter is used to drive expression of the herbicide tolerance transgene. We analyzed the response to CaMV infection of a transgenic oilseed rape line containing the bialaphos tolerance gene (BAR) from Streptomyces hygroscopicus, regulated by the 35S promoter. Oilseed rape is susceptible to CaMV, but plants recover from infection. CaMV infection altered the expression of the herbicide tolerance gene such that plants became susceptible to the herbicide. The effect on transgene expression differed in infections with viral pathogenic variants typical of those found in natural situations worldwide. Susceptibility to the herbicide was most likely a result of transcriptional gene silencing of the transgene. Our results show that transgene phenotypes can be modified by pathogen invasion.', 'en_US'),
(1263, 'Field evaluation of seed production, shattering, and dormancy in hybrid populations of transgenic rice (Oryza sativa) and the weed, red rice (Oryza sativa)', 'The genetic and agronomic consequences of transferring glufosinate (Liberty?) herbicide resistance from transgenic rice (Oryza sativa L.) lines to the noxious weed red rice (Oryza sativa L.) were evaluated under field conditions. Replicated field trials in Louisiana (LA) and Arkansas (AR) were conducted in 1997 to evaluate ten vegetative and reproductive traits of eight F2 populations produced from controlled crosses of two transgenic, glufosinate-resistant rice lines and four red rice biotypes. Plant vigor and plant density at both locations were similar among populations derived from either transgenic or non-transgenic parents. Significant differences in plant height and maturity were observed among LA populations produced from transgenic lines when compared to corresponding populations developed from non-transgenic material. However, values for these traits were not greater than those detected in the red rice biotypes. Seed dormancy and seed production were not significantly different at either location among transgenic and non-transgenic populations. Dominant Mendelian segregation of glufosinate resistance was detected in 40% of the populations evaluated. Results of this study indicated that those populations segregating for glufosinate resistance responded in a location-specific manner with respect to life history and fecundity traits.', 'en_US'),
(1264, 'Biosafety and international trade: conflict or convergence?', 'One of the most important technological developments in the 1990s has been the emergence of biotechnology. Both the draft Protocol on Biosafety under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) Measures of the World Trade Organization (WTO) could cover trade in biotechnology products. However, each agreement treats the nascent ¡¥precautionary principle¡¦ differently. Trade disputes in living modified organisms will use either agreement, depending on each country¡¦s status in each agreement. Trade and environment agreements aspire to be mutually supportive, but to do so here requires substantial harmonization between the two agreements.', 'en_US'),
(1265, 'Creating a global biosafety regime', 'This article examines one of the first international efforts to formulate legally binding rules for biosafety or safe use of biotechnology - the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety under the Convention on Biological Diversity. The Cartagena Protocol, concluded in January 2000, mandates the informed consent of a country prior to the release of genetically modified organisms into its environment. The paper traces the divergent perspectives on biosafety within this negotiation and explores how key areas of disagreement were resolved in finalizing the protocol. It concludes by assessing the implications of the completed protocol for different groups and for global governance of safe use of biotechnology in agriculture. ', 'en_US'),
(1266, 'Risk assessment and regulation of bioengineered food products', 'Europe is the epicentre of what has been described as an all-out war over the acceptance of genetically engineered foods. Controversy over health effects has centred around simple and complex models of transgenic modifications. Proponents of the simple models emphasize familiarity with the host plant and the well-characterization of the transgene. Advocates of the complex models consider the genome to be more like an ecosystem than a set of building blocks. They emphasize the indeterminacy and unintended outcomes of foreign gene insertions. Evolving concepts of health that embrace health promotion and sustainable agriculture set additional standards for transgenic crops that transcend reductionist approaches to risk assessment based on contested genomic principles.', 'en_US'),
(1267, 'Unsound science? Transatlantic regulatory disputes over GM crops', 'In the risk debate over genetically modified (GM) crops, Europe''s regulatory delays have often been branded as ''political'', i.e. not based on science.  Yet the US slogan ''sound science'' tends to conceal value-laden features of safety claims, their weak scientific basis, their normative framing and their socio-political influences.  By contrast a ''precautionary approach'' can more readily identify scientific unknowns to be investigated, while acknowledging the agricultural-environmental values which inform risk assessment.  These issues underlie transatlantic regulatory disputes over insect-protected Bt maize.  In both the USA and Europe, public protest has stimulated risk-assessment research on broader cause-effect pathways, as well as more stringent regulation.  For harm to non-target insects, however, new evidence of risk has been disparaged as unsound.  It has been criticized on various grounds, which could apply just as well to evidence of safety; thus double standards have served to protect safety claims.  And non-target harm is deemed acceptable through unsubstantiated comparisons to agrochemical usage. In these ways, ''sound science'' operates as an ideology, pre-empting debate on the framing of scientific uncertainty.  The real choice is not between ''science versus politics'', but rather between ways of linking them.', 'en_US'),
(1268, 'Bringing social analysis into a multilateral environmental agreement: social impact assessment and the Biosafety Protocol', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1269, 'Labeling products of biotechnology: towards communication and consent', 'Recently, both consumers and producers of biotechnology products have insisted that communication between the two be improved. The former demand more democratic participation in the risk assessment process of biotechnology products. The latter seek to correct misinformation regarding alleged risks from these products. One way to resolve these concerns, I argue, is through the use of biotechnology labels. Such labeling fosters consumer autonomy and moves toward more participatory decision making, in addition to ensuring that informed consent from consumers is maintained. Furthermore, although voluntary biotech-free labeling in lieu of biotech labels may uphold consumer sovereignty, the latter remains a more effective strategy for achieving ethical communication between consumers and producers of biotechnology products.', 'en_US'),
(1270, 'Agrobiotechnology choices in developing countries', 'Today''s agrobiotechnology revolution (especially the move toward transgenic or genetically modified (GM) crops) is being researched, commercialized, and (hotly) debated mostly in Europe, the USA, and elsewhere within the rich industrial world. Yet it is in the developing countries where the greatest human and environmental promise - or peril - of this new technology may lie. The paper argues that it is time to move the terms of the GM crop policy debate in the direction of developing country interests. Farmers and consumers in the industrial world are already wealthy and well fed, and can afford, if they wish, to take a highly sceptical, precautionary view toward this new technology. A majority of farmers and consumers in developing countries, on the other hand, are neither wealthy nor well fed, so for them the precautionary approach might not be sufficient. At the same time, governments and societies in the industrial world are also different from the developing world in their scientific and institutional capacity to manage these powerful new technologies safely.', 'en_US'),
(1271, 'Effect of crop rotation and soil cover on alteration of the soil microflora generated by the culture of transgenic plants producing opines', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1272, 'Bt resistance under conventional insecticide use', 'Theoretical models and available field and laboratory data suggest that the development of resistance in Louisiana bollworms (H. zea) and budworms (H. virescens) to Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) and pyrethroids is influenced by assumptions made regarding the use of pyrethroids on refuge acres. We show that the use of untreated refuge regenerates susceptibility to pyrethroids in both insects, leading to a toxin mixture effect that significantly reduces the rate of Bt resistance development relative to the treated-refuge case.', 'en_US'),
(1273, 'Biotechnological production of plant-based insecticides', 'The demand for natural and nonpersistent insecticides is increasing day by day. Plant cell cultures could be an alternative to conventional methods of production of insecticides from field-grown plants. In vitro cultured plant cells produce a wide array of insecticides as a part of their secondary metabolism. Their ability to synthesize key enzymes and the manipulation of these could lead to the enhanced production of many insecticides of industrial importance. The development of a high-yielding hairy root culture system for thiophenes, nicotine, and photoecdysones is of considerable interest. in this article, the current literature on various factors that influence the growth, production, and secretion of six insecticidal compounds, namely, pyrethrins, azadirachtin, thiophenes, nicotine, rotenoids, and phytoecdysones which have been prospects for the scale-up of cell cultures, genetic engineering to obtain transgenic plants, and metabolically engineered plants for increased production of bio-molecules, has been discussed. Environmental safety clearance and the future prospects of application of biomolecules for plant-derived insecticides are presented.', 'en_US'),
(1274, 'Development and characterization of diamondback moth resistance to transgenic broccoli expressing high levels of Cry1C', 'A field-collected colony of the diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella, had 31-fold resistance to Cry1C protoxin of Bacillus thuringiensis. After 24generations of selection with Cry1C protoxin and transgenic broccoli expressing a Cry1C protein, the resistance that developed was high enough that neonates of the resistant strain could complete their entire life cycle on transgenic broccoli expressing high levels of Cry1C. After 26generations of selection, the resistance ratios of this strain to Cry1C protoxin were 12,400-and 63,100-fold, respectively, for the neonates and second instars by a leaf dip assay. The resistance remained stable until generation 38(G38) under continuous selection but decreased to 235-fold at G38 when selection ceased at G28. The Cry1C resistance in this strain was seen to be inherited as an autosomal and incompletely recessive factor or factors when evaluated using a leaf dip assay and recessive when evaluated using Cry1C transgenic broccoli. Saturable binding of 125I-Cry1C was found with brush border membrane vesicles (BBMV) from both susceptible and Cry1C-resistant strains. Significant differences in Cry1C binding to BBMV from the two strains were detected. BBMV from the resistant strain had about sevenfold-lower affinity for Cry1C and threefold-higher binding site concentration than BBMV from the susceptible strain. The overall Cry1C binding affinity was just 2.5-fold higher for BBMV from the susceptible strain than it was for BBMV from the resistant strain. These results suggest that reduced binding is not the major mechanism of resistance to Cry1C.', 'en_US'),
(1275, 'GMO labeling: the need for and status of GM-DNA quantification', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1276, 'Breeding transformed cotton expressing enhanced fiber strength', 'New cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) seeds that can produce fiber with enhanced strength would increase efficiency of the rotor form of open end yarn manufacture. We report results of 3-yr of breeding transgenic `Deltapine 50'' (DP 50) germplasm expressing enhanced fiber strength. The objective was to identify germplasm that could consistently express and transmit enhanced fiber strength to their progeny. Deltapine 50 cotton was transformed via particle bombardment of meristems by Monsanto. The intent of transformation was to insert a b-glucuronidase (GUS) marker gene and a proprietary gene driven by a fiber specific promoter. The R4-R6 generations descendent from three GUS-positive, enhanced strength, R3 greenhouse plants were evaluated in the field from 1996-1998 near Florence, SC. Unusual frequencies of GUS-positive progeny were found upon self-pollination of GUS-positive plants, possibly reflecting altered fitness of transgenic gametes. Fiber strength of most GUS-positive plants was 30-70% greater than the non-transformed DP 50 control plants. After examining numerous parent-offspring relationships, we did not observe any consistent transmission of enhanced fiber strength. Results of this study, however, may have application to other transgenic cotton breeding efforts.', 'en_US'),
(1277, 'Maturity and yield responses of non-transgenic and transgenic Bt cotton to simulated bollworm injury', 'No precise economic injury levels or action thresholds have been established for pests infesting transgenic Bt cotton, Gossypium hirsutum L. This study was designed to quantify the effects of injury to cotton bolls by simulating feeding by the bollworm, Helicoverpa zea (Boddie), during flowering stages on non-transgenic (cv. Stoneville 474) and transgenic Bt (cv. NuCOTN 33B) cotton. Field tests were conducted in Northeast Louisiana during 1997 and 1998 on upland cotton to study crop maturity, seedcotton yields, and boll injury associated with insect pests. Boll injury was produced by drilling a 63.5 mm hole completely through bolls. Yield and maturity responses of non-transgenic and transgenic, Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner var. kurstaki (Bt), cotton were measured after seven levels (0, 2.5, 5, 10, 20, 40, and 80%) of mechanical boll injury were applied to the total boll population during the first 4 wk of flowering. Boll injury during week 2 of flowering on Stoneville 474 in 1997 and during weeks 3 and 4 of flowering on Stoneville 474 and NuCOTN 33B in 1998 significantly delayed crop maturity at the time of harvest aid application. Significant reductions in seedcotton yield of Stoneville 474 were observed when bolls were damaged during weeks 3 and 4 of flowering in 1997 and during week 4 of flowering in 1998. Significant (P = 0.05) yield reductions of NuCOTN 33B were observed during weeks 3 and 4 of flowering in 1997. These data define economic injury levels for boll-feeding insects during the first four weeks of flowering.', 'en_US'),
(1278, 'A consumer''s guide to GM food: from green genes to red herrings', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1279, 'Determining gene flow of transgenic creeping bentgrass and gene transfer to other bentgrass species', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1280, 'Delayed activation of post-transcriptional gene silencing and de novo transgene methylation in plants with the coat protein gene of sweet potato feathery mottle potyvirus', 'The relationship between post-transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS) and DNA methylation was examined using Nicotiana benthamiana transformed with the coat protein gene including the 3'' non-translated region of sweet potato feathery mottle potyvirus. Line 4.28 showed a delayed activation of the transgene silencing in comparison with the other silenced lines, and showed complete resistance against the recombinant potato virus X engineered to contain the sequence homologous to the transgene when the silencing was activated. The transgene methylation in line 4.28 was less extensive in comparison with those of the other silenced lines before the silencing was activated. However, the extent of methylation increased in the course of plant development and became comparable with those in the other silenced lines. The activated silencing and the increased transgene methylation were reset after meiosis. However, the characters of delayed activation of the silencing and developmentally increased transgene methylation were meiotically transmitted to the next generation. These results suggest that transgene(s) itself has a potential to trigger and reset DNA methylation, which could determine a state of PTGS.', 'en_US'),
(1281, 'Transgenic plants and biosafety', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1282, 'Food for thought -- modified and engineered', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1283, 'The role of biotechnology for global food security', 'Biotechnology alone is no panacea for the world''s problems of hunger and poverty. However, genetic engineering in particular has outstanding potential to increase the efficiency of crop improvement. Thus, biotechnology could enhance global food production and availability in a sustainable way. Two case studies from Kenya and Mexico demonstrate that transgenic crops are also very appropriate for agricultural producers and consumers in developing countries. As the entire technology can be packaged into the seed, it can easily be integrated into traditional smallholder farming systems. Except for a few innovative transfer projects, however, the application of biotechnology until now remains concentrated in the industrialized world. Combined with insufficient own scientific and regulatory capacities, the increasing privatisation of international agricultural research and the strengthening of intellectual property rights complicate the access of developing countries to biotechnology. Profound institutional adjustments are essential to ensure that biotechnology does not bypass the poor.', 'en_US'),
(1284, 'Cost and return comparisons of transgenic cotton systems in Arkansas', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1285, 'Influence of glyphosate (Roundup Ultra reg trade mark) rate and time of application on weed control and performance of DP5415RR cotton in Israel: field and laboratory experiments', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1286, 'Establishment of introduced antagonistic bacteria in the rhizosphere of transgenic potatoes and their effect on the bacterial community', 'In a field release experiment, rifampicin resistant mutants of two antagonistic plant-associated bacteria were used for seed tuber inoculation of transgenic T4 lysozyme expressing potatoes, transgenic control potatoes and non-transgenic parental potatoes. The T4 lysozyme tolerant Pseudomonas putida QC14-3-8 was originally isolated from the tuber surface (geocaulosphere) of T4 lysozyme producing plants and showed in vitro antibacterial activity to the bacterial pathogen Erwinia carotovora ssp. atroseptica. The T4 lysozyme sensitive Serratia grimesii L16-3-3 was originally isolated from the rhizosphere of parental potatoes and showed in vitro antagonism toward the plant pathogenic fungus Verticillium dahliae. The establishment of the inoculated bacteria in the rhizosphere and geocaulosphere of the different plant lines was monitored over one growing season to assess the effect of T4 lysozyme produced by transgenic potato plants on the survival of both inoculants. Both introduced isolates were able to colonize the rhizo- and geocaulosphere of transgenic plants and non-transgenic parental plants, and established in the rhizosphere at levels of ca. log10 5 colony forming units g 31 fresh weight of root. During flowering of plants, significantly more colony counts of the T4 lysozyme tolerant P. putida were recovered from transgenic T4 lysozyme plants than from the transgenic control and the parental line. At this time, the highest level of T4 lysozyme (% of total soluble protein) was detected. Effects of the inoculants on the indigenous microbial community were monitored by analysis of PCR-amplified fragments of the 16S rRNA genes of the whole bacterial community after separation by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE). At any sampling time, the DGGE pattern of rhizosphere and geocaulosphere communities did not show differences between the inoculated and non-inoculated potatoes.Neither of the introduced strains became a dominant member of the bacterial community. This work was the first approach to assess the establishment of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria and potential biocontrol agents on transgenic plants.', 'en_US'),
(1287, 'Insecticidal toxin from Bacillus thuringiensis is released from roots of transgenic Bt corn in vitro and in situ', 'The insecticidal toxin encoded by the cry1Ab gene from Bacillus thuringiensis was released in root exudates from transgenic Bt corn during 40 days of growth in soil amended to 0, 3, 6, 9, or 12% (vol./vol.) with montmorillonite or kaolinite in a plant growth room and from plants grown to maturity in the field. The presence of the toxin in rhizosphere soil was detd. by immunol. and larvicidal assays. No toxin was detected in any soils from isogenic non-Bt corn or without plants. Persistence of the toxin was apparently the result of its binding on surface-active particles in the soils, which reduced the biodegrdn. of the toxin. The release of the toxin could enhance the control of insect pests or constitute a hazard to nontarget organisms, including the microbiota of soil, and increase the selection of toxin-resistant target insects.', 'en_US'),
(1288, 'Effectiveness of border areas in confining the spread of transgenic Brassica napus pollen', 'The development of transgenic Brassica napus L. cultivars requires field trials in agricultural settings. For field testing of transgenic constructs that have not been granted full environmental release, current Canadian Government regulations require either large isolation zones (200 m) or 10 m wide borders of synchronously flowering, non-transgenic B. napus to contain transgenic pollen. To investigate the effectiveness of border areas in containing transgenic B. napus pollen, border areas 15 to 30 m wide were planted around 30 m × 60 m central plots of bromoxynil-herbicide-resistant transgenic B. napus strains. Four field trials were conducted at Carman and Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada in 1994 and 1995. Seed samples were harvested from the border area at 0, 2.5, 5, 10, and 15 m for the four cardinal directions and additionally at 20, 25, and 30 m for two cardinal directions. These seed samples were planted in the field in 1995 and 1996 and the seedlings screened for the presence of bromoxynil-resistant plants (i.e., from outcrossed seeds). Distance from the central plot significantly affected outcrossing rates while environment (site-year) and direction effects were non-significant. Outcrossing rates averaged 0.70% at 0 m and declined exponentially to 0.02% at 30 m. More than four-fifths of the total outcross events detected occurred in the first 10 m of border area indicating that border areas effectively reduce pollen-mediated gene flow in B. napus but cannot completely eliminate it.', 'en_US'),
(1289, 'Growth of wild Pseudoplusia includens (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) larvae collected from BT and non-BT cotton', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1290, 'A critique of ethical and social issues of genetically modified crops', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1291, 'Weed shift in cropping systems involving transgenic cultivars', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1292, 'Transgenes are revolutionizing crop production', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1293, 'Field performance of transgenic elite commercial hybrid rice expressing Bacillus thuringiensis delta-endotoxin', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1294, 'Bioengineered food -- safety and labeling', 'The safety and labeling of genetically engineered foods are two areas that have elicited considerable public concern and debate. This Policy Forum provides a legal analysis of these issues in the context of two bills that have been recently proposed in The U.S. Congress, the Genetically Engineered Food Safety Act and the Genetically Engineered Food Right to Know Act. Most transgenic components of foods currently on the market are plant-incorporated protectants or their inert ingredients. Therefore, they have been evaluated for safety by the Environmental Protection Agency (as well as the Food and Drug Administration), and their disclosure in labeling should not be required. If plant-incorporated protectants are considered safer than chemical pesticides, and chemical pesticides do not have to be disclosed in labels, then bioengineered foods should not be subject to stricter regulation, nor should they be required to be labeled. The two bills are inconsistent, in many respects, with well-established principles of food regulation.', 'en_US'),
(1295, 'Herbicide tolerant soybean: just another step in a technology treadmill?', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1296, 'Biosafety regulations in South Africa regarding genetically modified organisms', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1297, 'New technology: issues relating to the use of genetically modified crops', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1298, 'A sensitive bioassay for the detection of Cry1A toxin expression in transgenic cotton', 'In the process of development of insect resistant transgenic plants and also to evaluate the consistency in expression of the toxin under greenhouse and field conditions, immunological and bioassays are commonly used. The assay being described in this report, is based on the high levels of sensitivity of a cotton leaf feeding insect, the semilooper, Anomis flava (Fabricius) to Cry toxins (Cry1Aa, Cry1Ab and Cry1Ac). The assay is sensitive, quick and reproducible. Cry1Ac was the most toxic followed by Cry1Ab and Cry1Aa. LC50s of the three toxins on first instar larvae ranged from 0.79-6.08 ng cm-2 of leaf. LC50s of Cry1Ac for the fourth instar larvae ranged from 12.91-21.14 ng cm-2 while LC50s for Cry1Aa and Cry1Ab were in the range 53.0-138 ng cm-2. The fiducial limits (at 95% probability) of the probit assay data indicated that there was no difference in response between the three different populations to each of the three toxins. The data from all assays were pooled for each of the three toxins separately and subjected to regression analysis to obtain a cumulative log dose response for first and fourth instar larvae. These can be used as standard curves to quantify toxin expression in plants based on mortality response of either first or fourth instar A. flava larvae. Apart from being used to detect expression in putative Bt cotton transgenic plants, the assay can also be used to follow the activity of Cry toxins in transgenic cotton plants in the field during the growing season.', 'en_US'),
(1299, 'Co-silencing of homologous transgenes in tobacco', 'Two transgenes inserted into different genomic positions can co-inactivate each other when they share homologous sequences while each of the two homologous transgenes is stably expressed in the absence of a second homologous copy. To evaluate the efficiency of such homology-dependent gene silencing (HDGS) effects, we have produced 19 tobacco transformants that contained a stably expressed NPTII transgene inserted into a single genomic locus, and have analysed the stability of each transgene in the presence of a second stably expressed homologous transgene. All transformants shared the coding region of the NPTII gene but individual transformants differed in transgene copy number, expression levels and in the continuity of the transgene homology due to the insertion of introns into the NPTII region as well as the use of different promoters and terminators for the design of the transgene constructs. We generated 189 progeny populations representing all possible dual combinations among the 19 lines and analysed the kanamycin resistance of 400 seedlings of each cross. Our data show (1) that gene silencing occurs at a relative low frequency when transgenic loci sharing an homology at the coding sequence level are combined, and (2) that neither the variation of this homology by insertion of introns in the coding sequence, or by changing the promoter and terminator of the construct, nor the variation in the expression level of the transgene, are decisive parameters modifying the efficiency of co-silencing between two NPTII transgenes.', 'en_US'),
(1300, 'Principles for safety and efficacy in the development of novel and functional foods', 'Functional foods are foods positioned in the market place for particular and identified physiological or health reasons. They may be traditional foods with newly defined significance or altogether newly formulated foods whose ingredients may be novel or whose formulation may be novel. Functional foods may also be ones used to prevent or manage disease, but here they may compete with pharmaceutical products, only to be distinguished by source of active component and the form in which they are ingested, namely one recognised and/or sold as food or medicine. A list of nine health categories, in which new foods requiring risk analysis may be developed, is presented in the article.', 'en_US'),
(1301, 'The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety', 'On 30 January 2000, the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (CPB) was adopted in Montreal by delegates of 128 Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). This must be seen as a landmark in the development of multinational environmental agreements. With it the Precautionary Approach (PA) became the guiding principle for the import of genetically modified organisms (GMOs). It subjects this import to an Advance Informed Agreement (AIA) and secured its legal status in relation to the World Trade Organization (WTO). By 15 September 2000, 75 governments including those of 44 developing countries had signed this environmental agreement. ', 'en_US'),
(1302, 'The safety of genetically modified soybeans: evidence and regulation', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1303, 'The 2000 Cartagena Protocol on biosafety: legal and political dimensions', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1304, 'Genetic engineering: risks and hazards as perceived by the German public', 'What do people associate with ''genetic engineering'', and what are the resources they mobilize for gaining orientation and the ability to assess this new technology? These are the central questions discussed in this paper. The theses are based on 48 ''Leitfadeninterviews'', made between 1995 and 1997 and complemented by a representative survey carried out in Germany in 1997, which contains 1501 cases. Most findings of the qualitative study have been verified by the survey data, the latter, however, are not presented in this paper. Though the public is not well informed about genetic engineering, strong value judgements about genetic engineering are often pronounced. Attitudes and judgements are based on subjective heuristics of risk and embedded in arguments specific to their ''Lebenswelt''. As the terms relating to hazards have a value rational or aesthetic touch, they are not quantifiable and therefore are very difficult to be incorporated into a rational discourse on risk. The public''s view of genetic engineering is shaped predominantly by two fields of application: ''genfood'' and human genetics including prenatal, medical and pharmaceutical applications. In most cases, a rational weighing up of benefits and risks lacks knowledge. In the main, the attitudes are not technology related-they are embedded in a wider semantic space: the doubts of an abuse of genetic engineering processes within human genetics - keywords: cloning, eugenic - play an important role in the minds of the German public, as has been experienced historically. Furthermore, fear of an untenable manipulation of consumers by gradually introduced genetically engineered food, by uncontrolled leakage of pathogens during accidents in laboratories and experiments of deliberate release or the aversion of a society''s subjugation to economic and technocratic imperatives are identified as serious hazards.', 'en_US'),
(1305, 'Risk judgements and intuitive reasoning about the risks of genetically engineered products', 'The research reported in this paper investigates the reasoning (or arguments) ''behind'' intuitive judgements on risks of genetically engineered products. Each participant of the study (N = 72) was asked to rate two products out of a list of 12 genetically engineered products (which were selected from two fields of application for genetic engineering: medicine and foodstuffs) with respect to its risks. The subjects were asked to describe the reasons for their risk judgements out loud. An analysis of these arguments indicates that the participants gave very different reasons for their risk judgements, but that these can be reconstructed to form a manageable set of reasoning patterns. Important categories consist of reasoning patterns referring to the assessment of one''s own or other people''s knowledge and to the consequences which may result from genetically engineered products. Benefit-related reasoning patterns referring to beneficial aspects in assessing the risks also play a specific, although more limited role.', 'en_US'),
(1306, 'Bt-cotton in India: anatomy of a controversy', 'The farmers'' protests against field trials of genetically engineered Bt-cotton in India highlighted the controversies surrounding genetic engineering technology in agriculture. Molecular biological, organismal, ecological and societal issues surrounding the Bt-cotton controversy are examined in order to identify the level of organization at which known and potential problems arise and, thereby, to suggest the level at which such problems are best addressed. The analysis suggests that information available to the public was incomplete, irrelevant, or obfuscated such that the technological and societal issues were neither well characterized, nor well separated; scientists have an important role in making available undistorted information to the public, thus enabling informed, democratic decision making.', 'en_US'),
(1307, 'Detection of genetically modified soybeans and maize by the polymerase chain reaction method', 'The feasibility of detecting genetically modified (GM) soybeans and GM maize by a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method is detd. Primers specific for inserted genes and crop endogenous genes in Roundup Ready soybeans (Monsanto company) and Event 176 GM maize (Novartis/Ciba-Geigy company) were applied. Four pairs of primers, namely, 35S (35S-promoter, originated from cauliflower mosaic virus), NOS (nopaline synthase-terminator, derived from Agrobacterium tumefaciens), EPSPS (5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3- phosphate synthase, obtained from A. tumefaciens strain CP4) and LE (endogenous gene lectin) were used to identify the GM soybeans. An addnl. three pairs of primers, including CDPK-cry (pollen-specific calcium-dependent protein kinase promoter - delta-endotoxin, acquired from maize and Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki, resp.), crylA(b)(delta-endotoxin, evolved from B. thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki) and ivr (endogenous gene invertase) were directed to confirm the GM maize. Using 35S and EPSPS as primers, the method showed a limit of detection for samples contg. 0.1% (wt./wt.) of GM soybeans and contg. 1% (wt./wt.) of GM soybeans when NOS primers were applied. All soybean samples were evidenced by LE primer-PCR as soybean products. Detection limits of 0.1% (wt./wt.) of GM maize in raw material using CDPK-cry primers and 2% (wt./wt.) of GM maize with crylA(b) were established. The maize products were also approved by Invertase primer-PCR. To further confirm detection of the target Gm soybean by PCR, the 195 fragment, amplified from 35S-PCR, digested with endonuclease XmnI resulted in 80 and 115 bp fragments, while digesting the 180 bp amplified products from NOS-PCR using endonuclease NsiI yielded 96 and 84 by fragments. The data further revealed that the PCR method can sufficiently differentiate GM soybeans and maize from non-GM products.', 'en_US'),
(1308, 'Comparison of phytase from genetically engineered Aspergillus and canola in weanling pig diets', 'Ninety-six crossbred pigs with an average weight of 9.0 kg were used in a 5-wk trial to compare the efficacy of genetically engineered Aspergillus ficuum phytase, expressed in Aspergillus niger (Natuphos) or in canola seed (Phytaseed), for enhancing the utilization of phytate P in corn-soybean meal-based diets fed to young pigs and to evaluate the safety of Phytaseed phytase. Three levels of the two sources of phytase (250, 500, or 2,500 U/kg of diet) were added to a corn-soybean meal basal diet containing .35% total P, .09% available P, and .50% Ca. There were six pens per treatment (one barrow and one gilt/pen), except that the diet without added phytase was fed to 12 pens of pigs. Pen feed consumption and BW were recorded weekly. During wk 5, pen fecal samples were collected for determination of apparent digestibilities of DM, Ca, and P. At the end of wk 5, all barrows were killed, and the 10th rib on both sides was removed for determination of shear force and energy. Thirty pigs (six from the diet without added phytase and the diets with 500 and 2,500 U/kg phytase from both sources) were randomly selected for gross necropsy and histologic evaluation of liver, kidney, and bone tissues. Both sources of phytase were equally effective in increasing (P < .05) daily gain, gain:feed, apparent digestibilities of DM, P, and Ca, and 10th rib measurements. Fecal P excretion was reduced with phytase addition. Feed intake was increased by phytase levels during wk 4 to 5. No significant abnormalities were seen in any of the 30 pigs necropsied. The fit of a nonlinear function revealed that most measurements were reaching a plateau at 2,500 U/kg phytase. In summary, based on performance, bone measurements, and digestibilities of P, Ca, and DM of young pigs, the efficiency of Phytaseed was similar to that of Natuphos for enhancing the utilization of phytate P in corn-soybean meal-based diets. General necropsy and histologic examination of tissues indicated no toxic effect of phytase.', 'en_US'),
(1309, 'Safety assessment of rice genetically modified with soybean glycinin by feeding studies on rats', 'Feeding studies on rice genetically modified with soybean glycinin were performed on rats for four weeks. The rats were divided into three groups, each being fed on (I) only a com. diet, (II) this diet plus control rice and (III) this diet plus rice genetically modified with glycinin. The rats were fed with 10 g/kg-wt. of rice every day by oral administration. During the test period, the rats in every group grew well without marked differences in appearance, food intake, body wt., or cumulative body wt. gain. There were also no significant differences in the blood count, blood compn. or internal organ wts. among the rats. Necropsy at the end of the expt. indicated neither pathol. symptoms nor histopathol. abnormalities in the liver and kidney. Judging from these results, the rice genetically modified with glycinin is considered to have been essentially the same in nutritional and biochem. characteristics as the control rice.', 'en_US'),
(1310, 'Genetically modified pest-protected plants: Science and regulation', 'This book explores the risks and benefits of crops that are genetically modified for pest resistance, the urgency of establishing an appropriate regulatory framework for these products, and the importance of the public understanding of the issues. Also included is a critical review of the federal policies towards transgenic products, the 1986 coordinated framework among the key federal agencies in the field, and the rules proposed by the Environmental Protection Agency for regulation of plant pesticides. Case studies explore the commercial production and oversight of transgenic crops including Bt crops, the most widely used transgenic pest-protected plants.', 'en_US'),
(1311, 'Contested innovation: what lessons may be drawn from public controversies on GMOs?', 'This paper analyses the failure of the introduction of GM crops in Europe. It challenges the idea that this failure is due to the influence of the public irrationality on decision processes. Instead, it focuses on the inability of the regulatory system to manage complex situations which result from the limits of sound science in contexts of uncertainty and controversy. It argues that the way out of the currently blocked situation requires more open and participatory processes of innovation and technological assessment, based on the normative stance provided by the precautionary principle.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(1312, 'Monitoring gene flow from transgenic sugar beet using cytoplasmic male-sterile bait plants', 'One of the most discussed environmental effects associated with the use of transgenic plants is the flow of genes to plants in the environment. The flow of genes may occur through pollen since it is the reproductive system that is designed for gene movement. Pollen-mediated gene escape is hard to control in mating plants. Pollen from a wind pollinator can move over distances of more than 1000 m. To investigate the efficiency of transgenic pollen movement under realistic environmental conditions, the use of bait plants might be an effective tool. In this study, cytoplasmic male-sterile (CMS) sugar beets were tested with regard to their potential for monitoring transgene now. As the pollen source, transgenic sugar beets were used that express recombinant DNA encoding viral (beet necrotic yellow vein virus) resistance, and antibiotic (kanamycin) and herbicide (glufosinate) tolerance genes. In a field trial, the effectiveness of a hemp (Cannabis sativa) stripe containment strategy was tested by measuring the frequency of pollinated CMS bait plants placed at different distances and directions from a transgenic pollen source. The results demonstrated the ineffectiveness of the containment strategy. Physiological and molecular tests confirmed the escape and production of transgenic offspring more than 200 m behind the hemp containment. Since absolute containment is unlikely to be effective, the CMS-bait plant detection system is a useful tool for other monitoring: purposes.', 'en_US'),
(1313, 'Vaccine cornucopia. Transgenic vaccines in plants: new hope for global vaccination?', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1314, 'Transgenic plants and the environment', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1315, 'Evaluation of the biological risks associated with the dissemination of transgenic fish in the environment', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1316, 'Evaluation of the allergenic risk of transgenic foods from vegetable origin', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1317, 'Impact of transgenic plants for agriculture', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1318, 'Transgenic plants and resistance to antibiotics', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1319, 'Evaluation of the safety of GMOs', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1320, 'The regulation of GMOs.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1321, 'Consumer concerns about food', 'This paper examines some of the food scares that have occurred during the past forty years. It looks at why food scares have become increasingly common, and why some countries are particularly affected. It then considers food buyers'' attitudes towards food safety, environmental issues, animal welfare, organic foods and genetically modified foods, and the impact that those attitudes have had on food choice. It finishes with some thoughts on how food labelling and WTO measures could change in the future.', 'en_US'),
(1322, 'Season-long abundance of generalist predators in transgenic versus nontransgenic potato fields.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1323, 'A mania for all seasons -- reflections on the GM debate', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1324, 'New genetically modified foods and society', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1325, 'Towards an understanding of the dynamics of rape populations that have ''escaped'' from large-scale cultivation in an agricultural region.', 'Assessment and management of risks associated to transgenic crops cultivation require a quantification of the various processes involved in the spread and persistence of transgenes outside of cultivated fields. Oilseed rape (Brassica napus L. ssp oleifera) is a ''sensitive'' crop since it can cross, more or less easily, with wild relatives and can colonise natural or semi-natural habitats in the vicinity of the cultivated fields. The persistence of feral plants outside of fields is an important component of risk assessment and management since feral populations could be reservoir and/or corridors for genetic pollution between GM and GM-free productions. At the scale of an agricultural landscape, we performed a study (collaborating with CETIOM and INRA) to determine spatial distribution and dynamics of feral populations. This study shows (i) that relict plants of now unmarketable cultivars persist at least 8 years after their last cultivation (likely in the seed-bank), (ii) that feral populations persist also by local recruitment and (iii) that the spatial distribution of feral populations is partially related with carrying traffic of harvests from fields towards the silo.', 'en_US'),
(1326, 'GeneSys-Colza: a model for the medium-term and long-term effects of cultivation systems on the flow of genes between rape fields and new growth in a given agricultural area', 'The aim of the model is to evaluate the influence of cropping systems on transgene escape from rapeseed crops to rapeseed volunteers in time and space. The model input variables are the regional field pattern, crop succession and cultivation techniques. The main output variables are, for each year and plot, the number of individuals per m2 and the genotype proportions of the adult rapeseed plants, the newly produced seeds and the seedbank. The model comprises an annual life-cycle for volunteer and cropped rapeseed plants simulated for each plot and year; the relationships between the various life-stages depend on crop type and management. Pollen and grain exchanges between plots depend on distance between plots and cropping system. With the help of the simulations performed with the model, it is possible to identify low-gene-flow cropping systems or the minimum distance between rape plots to avoid contamination of the harvest product, to estimate the consequences if one farmer does not manage his rape volunteers correctly, etc.', 'en_US'),
(1327, 'How to study the impact of genetically modified rape on bees?', 'Different methods are used to study the incidence of genetically modified oilseed rape on honeybees, that depend on the type of transgene and on the transformation induced in the plant. Two examples are chosen to present risk assessment procedures.  One deals with oilseed rape resistant to pest insects (by expressing protease inhibitors PI), the other concerns oilseed rape tolerant to an herbicide (glufosinate). In the first case, the aim is to ensure the safety of honeybees. First, the occurrence of the transgene product in nectar and pollen is checked and the foraging behaviour on the plants is observed. Second, the effects of various concentrations, equal or higher than those expressed in the plant, is evaluated under laboratory conditions. Thus, acute and chronic toxicity, individual learning behaviour and life span of workers exposed to the PI is investigated. Experiments are also carried out to examine the effects on the colony activity and development. In addition, indirect effect related to secondary changes in plant signals cueing bees visits are examined. In the second case, the aim is to assess the risk for transgene dispersal in the environment, mediated by honeybees. It is unlikely that tolerance to herbicide has toxic effects, but a pleitropic effect of the transgene could affect the value and attractiveness of the plants. So, pollen and nectar production, flower size and density are evaluated and experiments are carried out in the field to study the foraging behaviour. In particular, the ability of honeybees to cross-visit transgenic and traditional oilseed rape or oilseed rape and weedy relatives is observed. Both types of studies show how complementary methods and collaborations between teams have been designed to study various aspects of the impact of genetic engineered oilseed rape on honeybees.', 'en_US'),
(1328, 'Evaluation of the impacts of the flow of transgenes for tolerance to different broad-spectrum herbicides.', 'Given the characterisation and evaluation of the gene flow from oilseed rape done by INRA, CNRS and Cetiom, the present paper aims to investigate the possible agro-environmental impacts of gene flow from herbicide-tolerant genetically-modified (GM) oilseed rape (seed loss outside and inside the field, pollen dispersal, interspecific hybridization). We identified two main impacts of the release of such varieties in French agricultural systems: the possible questioning of GM content norms for the harvest of non-GM rape fields, and of the long-term effectiveness of such weed control strategies through the development of tolerant weeds (oilseed rape and hybrids). This text is an extract from a report that summarises French research on gene flow carried out by Cetiom towards the end of the two-year French moratorium on genetically-modified oilseed rape and sugar beet.', 'en_US'),
(1329, 'France: precaution between expertise and public discussion. The case of transgenic plants.', 'Since 1996 France has had an intensified public controversy about the commercialisation of GM crops. As new actors have entered the debate and raised new issues with the experts, the uncertainties (related to agronomic, environmental and human health consequences) have tended to increase and the previous standards of precaution have been challenged as inadequate. In response, the French government has begun to open up the regulatory process in order to involve citizens, NGOs and scientists within the official expert structures. Thus the French public controversy becomes a space where plant biotechnology is subjected to a social assessment. This article attempts to analyse some consequences of the introduction of the precautionary principle into the public decision and the scientific expertise.', 'en_US'),
(1330, 'UK: strategies for precautionary commercialization of GM crops', 'As genetically modified (GM) products approach the market stage, the UK government and agro-food industry have faced a suspicious or hostile public. Since 1998 many retail chains have undertaken to exclude any GM-derived ingredients from their own brand lines. This commercial blockage has intensified pressures for greater precaution, even for a moratorium on cultivating GM crops. Political protest has led to strategies for precautionary commercialization. Government and industry have cooperated to plan a ''managed development'' of GM crops. Across the agricultural supply chain, industry has devised voluntary guidelines to ensure segregation of GM crops and to limit the spread of GM herbicide-tolerance. In particular UK regulators seek to test the risk that broad spectrum herbicide sprays could damage wildlife habitats; they have broadened the advisory expertise accordingly. These measures open up the precautionary content to further debate, at both national and EU levels. Market-stage precautions establish a means to test claims that GM crops are environmentally-friendly products. By translating public concerns into broader risk-assessment criteria, the UK procedure involves critics in potentially influencing standards of scientific evidence and environmental harm. This social process has become a prerequisite for legitimizing commercial use.', 'en_US'),
(1331, 'Germany: ''Elite precaution'' alongside continued public opposition', 'Germany is the EU member state with the most difficult situation (besides Austria) for marketing genetically modified (GM) crops and food. At the same time, it shows the least administrative effort to respond to the reasons for this situation - public suspicion and protest. Regulators advocate specific precaution-related measures, including market-stage monitoring; these measures, however, do not relate to the primary demands of critics and opponents. The administration''s claim to prioritize scientific evidence over politics constructs the administration and the public as two separate worlds without real mediation. This conflicts with the ever-growing demands for public participation. Participation in a broader sense, however, is not dependent on formal opportunities. In this conflict, NGOs bring up issues of democracy, transparency and precaution through public mobilization. This strategy results in an anticipated consumer boycott and thereby a commercial blockage of GM products. These dynamics can be analysed as ''reflexive modernization'', which implies greater public aversion to externally imposed risks. The politico-administrative system responds with a legalistic-scientistic approach in order to increase safety but without participatory measures to overcome predictive uncertainty and value conflicts. Environmental and consumer protest has led the technology providers to revise their political strategies in the biotechnologyconflict. Thus, in Germany reflexive modernization takes place without reflexive politics.', 'en_US'),
(1332, 'Biotechnology risk regulation in Europe: linking precaution with sustainable development', 'In the risk debate over genetically modified (GM) crops, their status as ''''environmentally-friendly products'''' has been controversial. The 1990 precautionary legislation of the European Union was designed to anticipate potential harm from GMOs in advance. Yet the acceptability of harm - or even its definition - has been contentious in evaluating commercial products. The legislation has been interpreted in ways which implicitly link concepts of precaution and ''''sustainable development''''. In the mid-1990s risk regulation, the European Union framed ''''risk'''' within a commitment to intensive agriculture. Its familiar hazards were accepted as a normal baseline for evaluating the effects of GM crops. The regulatory procedure regarded choices of crop protection measures as irrelevant or interchangeable, and therefore regarded some future options as dispensible, regardless of whether they would be environmentally preferable. At least implicitly, safety claims presupposed environmental advantages of GM crops in reducing agrochemical usage. That risk-framing came under challenge from widespread protest and expert disagreements. In response, some governments applied more precautionary measures. They broadened the definition of the ''''adverse effects'''' which must be avoided, devised market-stage precautions for such effects, and increased the burden of evidence for demonstrating safety. Soon the EU-wide procedure began to formalize such approaches. In the contested definitions of relevant harm, there are deeper issues about the sort of environment which should be protected, sustained or created. Thus GM crops have become a test case for environmental norms, within a broader debate about how to construct a sustainable agriculture.', 'en_US'),
(1333, 'Policy arena: genetically modified organisms and smallholders in the developing world', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1334, 'Genetically modified organisms: major issues and policy responses for developing countries', 'Genetic modification (GM) is a radical new technology that could potentially change and challenge world agriculture, economic and regulatory systems. This paper looks at such issues, with particular respect to their impact in developing countries, and provides some policy recommendations to help ensure that GM technology helps rather than hinders economic development and welfare in the developing world.', 'en_US'),
(1335, 'Host-plant diversity of the European corn borer Ostrinia nubilalis: what value for sustainable transgenic insecticidal Bt maize?', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1336, 'An evaluation of the potential for transferring DNA from transgenic plants to soil bacteria.', 'According to recent analyses of complete genome sequences horizontal gene transfers have played a fundamental role in bacterial evolution. Nowadays, this is efficiency of bacteria in picking up genes of surrounding organisms that rises concerns about a potential dissemination of genes from transgenic plants to soil bacteria. The only mechanism which could be involved for such gene exchanges is natural transformation which requires the successive occurrence of several steps, including release of plant DNA, persistence of DNA in the environment, presence of transformable bacteria and internalization of the sequences in the new host. The data I present in this paper indicate that transformation-mediated gene transfers could occur in the environment and in the case of transgenic plants are more likely to involve the prokaryotic sequences of the transgene than the remaining of the genome. However, soil bacteria use to exchange genes by conjugation at frequencies several orders of magnitude higher than those resulting from a transfer from plants. One can thus assess that ecological consequences of interkingdom transfers of plant genes, naturally present in soil bacteria and which do not modify the fitness of the recipient microorganism would remain negligible.', 'en_US'),
(1337, 'Enteric infection acts as an adjuvant for the response to a model food antigen', 'Oral administration of soluble protein Ags typically induces Ag-specific systemic nonresponsiveness. However, we have found that feeding a model food protein, OVA, to helminth-infected mice primes for a systemic OVA-specific Th2 response. In this report we show that, in addition to creating a Th2-priming cytokine environment, helminth infection up-regulates costimulatory molecule expression on mucosal, but not peripheral, APCs. To examine the consequences of mucosal infection for the T cell response to orally administered Ag, we adoptively transferred transgenic, OVA-specific, T cells into normal mice. We found that helminth infection enhances the expansion and survival of transgenic T cells induced by Ag feeding. Transfer of 5,6-carboxyfluorescein diacetate succinimidyl ester-labeled donor cells showed that T cell proliferation in response to Ag feeding takes place primarily in the mesenteric lymph nodes. Upon subsequent peripheral exposure to Ag in adjuvant, the proliferative capacity of the transferred transgenic T cells was reduced in noninfected mice that had been fed OVA. Helminth infection abrogated this reduction in proliferative capacity. Our data suggests that enteric infection can act as an adjuvant for the response to dietary Ags and has implications for allergic responses to food and the efficacy of oral vaccination.', 'en_US'),
(1338, 'Spatial and temporal variation in susceptibility of the American bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) to Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki in India', 'Studies were carried out to determine the baseline susceptibility of the American bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera to Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki (B.t.k.) HD-1 and HD-73 strains for the populations collected from different places in India. The populations from Delhi (field), Raichur (F1 and F2) and Bangalore were least susceptible to the toxicity of B.t.k. HD-1. On the contrary, the Hyderabad and Madurai populations were most susceptible. B.t.k. HD-1 caused neonate mortality of 37.4% at 10 ppm and 68.6% mortality at 100 ppm after 96 h of treatment. Mehna and Nagpur populations were least susceptible to B.t.k. HD-73 whereas Guntur, Bapatla, Hyderabad, Madurai and Vijayawada populations were most susceptible. HD-73 caused mortality of 62.3% at 100 ppm and 91.7% at 500 ppm after 96 h of treatment. Temporal variations of insect mortality showed that LC50 (96 h) of B.t.k. HD-1 increased from 9.47 ppm in October 1998 to 51.04 ppm in December 1998 for the insect population on pigeonpea in Delhi. The baseline susceptibility studies show that there is a possibility of tolerance (resistance) in some populations. These studies are discussed in relation to their importance vis-à-vis growing use of B.t.k. and future cultivation of B.t. transgenic crops in the country.', 'en_US'),
(1339, 'Bacillus thuringiensis insecticides in crop protection -- reality and prospects', 'Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) has been the leading biopesticide against lepidopterous pests since 1959. In the 1990 s the following developments contributed to increased rational uses of Bt: (1) natural and recombinant Bt products were developed to broaden the insect host range in pest management programs; (2) new formulations based on conventional or genetically engineered encapsulation of the toxins and/or feeding stimulants to increase ingestion and, in turn, the efficacy of the microbe; (3) screening of the interactions of Bt with insect herbivores and plant allelochemicals or natural enemies of the pests, to aid the formulation of biological control strategies; and (4) knowledge and management of insect resistance to Bt. The prospects for Bt insecticides will be described and discussed. ', 'en_US'),
(1340, 'Assessing the risks of releasing genetically modified virus insecticides: progress to date', 'Insect baculoviruses have been genetically modified to improve their speed of kill. Whilst these viruses show considerable promise for improving crop protection, any risks that might be attached to their wide-scale release need to be assessed. The potential hazards of releasing genetically modified baculoviruses are (i) negative effects on susceptible non-target species, and (ii) movement of the introduced gene. One approach to risk assessment is to estimate the relative fitness of the genetically modified virus as compared to the wild type. Initial laboratory and field experiments have shown that both productivity and transmission are significantly reduced in baculoviruses which express insect-selective toxins. This indicates that these viruses are likely to be less fit than the parent wild type. However, further information is needed on whether genetic modification alters baculovirus persistence and how baculoviruses behave in less susceptible species and species with different life history strategies.', 'en_US'),
(1341, 'AACC collaborative study of a protein method for detection of genetically modified corn', 'Modern agricultural biotechnology methods have been used to develop new varieties of agronomically important crops with novel characteristics through the introduction of new genes. Examples of such crops include corn, cotton, soybean, canola, and potatoes, and rice and wheat are currently in development. The first characteristics that were engineered into crops were predominately designed to meet specific needs of growers, e.g., insect protection and herbicide tolerance. These crops were introduced throughout the 1990s in the United States and were rapidly accepted by growers in the United States as well as other parts of the world, notably Canada and Argentina (1). Although growers have generally viewed the technology in a positive light, as evidenced by the rapid increase in total acreage planted with agbiotech varieties, some have viewed these crops and the food fractions derived from them with concern. Much of the debate centers around the consumer''s right to know when such products are present in foods, even though the commercial agbiotech products have been widely reviewed and found to be as safe as conventional varieties by regulatory authorities worldwide. The controversy that has surrounded agbiotech crops has prompted a number of areas, including the EU and Japan, to pass laws requiring foods containing agbiotech ingredients above specified threshold limits to be labeled to address the consumer''s desire to be informed.Agbiotech crops are produced by introducing into plants novel bits of DNA that code for production of specific proteins that result in the expression of new characteristics. The new DNA and protein can be found to varying degrees in many parts of these plants, including seeds and grain and certain processed fractions and final foods prepared from them.Methods for detecting and measuring DNA and protein are available and are used extensively in medical diagnostics, but the task of analyzing the myriad of final food products in sufficient numbers to be anything more than spot checking is so overwhelming and costly that it is not practical. In fact, some food producers who are attempting to comply with regulations are struggling to source raw agricultural commodities of certified identity as an alternative to massive testing. This strategy has placed the burden of identification squarely on the shoulders of growers and the grain distribution and processing industries and has created a demand for reliable, validated methods of analysis.Companies developing agbiotech crops recognize the importance of making sure growers and distributors have tools to facilitate the marketing of their grains to meet regulatory and consumer needs. As part of a product stewardship effort designed to facilitate the appropriate use and sale of their products, Monsanto commissioned Strategic Diagnostics Inc. (SDI) to develop a test kit to detect and quantify the newly introduced protein in Monsanto''s insect protected MON810 YieldGard corn. MON810 corn expresses the Cry1Ab insecticidal protein from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), and it is by far the most prevalent transgenic corn in commercial production today.Given the prevalence of MON810 in the market and the current lack of validated methods, it was important to validate the performance of the method and demonstrate the ability of the test to quantify MON810 grain in bulk samples at concentrations relevant to regulatory thresholds. The AACC Technical Committee for Biotechnology Methods, in collaboration with the Institute of Reference Materials and Measurements (IRMM) of the Joint Research Centre of the EU selected SDI''s MON810 test method for the first AACC sponsored collaborative study. Forty laboratories from 20 countries (Table 1) participated in the study. The labs were chosen based on their familiarity with the test methodology and their expertise in the field of testing for agbiotech crops. Many of these labs play a key role in their respective countries by providing technical expertise and recommendations that influence policy decisions regarding foods and agbiotech crops.', 'en_US'),
(1342, 'A novel strategy for general sustainability and resistance management in pest and pathogen resistant crops.', 'A novel and general strategy for the management of plant genes for pest or pathogen resistance is presented. The strategy utilizes F2 hybrids produced from two parents similar in agronomic and quality traits but which differ in their plant genes for resistance to a pest or pathogen. The grower would plant F2 hybrid seed that should allow for the expression of hybrid vigor for agronomic and quality traits while presenting a diverse population of plants to the pest or pathogen in which individual plants differ for their pest resistance genotype. This strategy will be suitable especially in self-pollinated crops like cotton (Gossypium spp.) where there is no significant effect of inbreeding depression.This simulates nature where the pest or pathogen is exposed to a population of host plants that differ in resistance genes. This strategy should delay or minimize the selection of a dominant pest or pathogen biotype that can damage and reproduce on the resistant plants resulting in the loss of the usefulness of the resistant genes. Careful selection of individual genes should allow this strategy to utilize the advantages of strong vertical resistance genes while maintaining the sustainability advantages of horizontal resistance. This strategy also provides for a refuge of a small percentage of the plants in an F2 population which do not carry any resistance genes, thus providing an additional benefit in resistance management against genetically engineered pest resistant crops. However, this method will not be suitable for crops with significant effect of inbreeding depression.', 'en_US'),
(1343, 'Effects of distance and pollen competition on gene flow in the wind-pollinated grass Festuca pratensis Huds', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1344, 'The effect of Bt-transgenic potatoes on the movement of the Colorado potato beetle [Coleoptera : Chrysomelidae].', 'A two-year field study conducted at the Potato Research Centre in Fredericton, New Brunswick, demonstrated a quantifiable residency time for Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) susceptible adult Colorado potato beetles (Leptinotarsa decemlineata) in a Bt-transgenic potato field. Fifty percent of Bt-susceptible beetles released in a transgenic Russet Burbank (NewLeafTM) potato plot were recaptured 4 to 7 days after release compared to 7 to 11 days for beetles released in a non-transgenic control plot. Beetles survived for long periods of time (up to 31 days) on transgenic potatoes in spite of the crop''s toxicity. A significant number of beetles dispersed from transgenic plots. Twenty-five and 30% of the beetles released in the Bt-transgenic plot were recaptured in border rows or trench traps outside the plot indicating a high level of dispersal activity. The long residency time and the high level of dispersal activity could increase the chances of development of a Bt-resistant beetle population. These findings are important to the development of a deployment strategy that will reduce the risk of build-up of Bt resistance in the beetle population.', 'en_US'),
(1345, 'Current use of transgenic herbicide-resistant soybean and corn in the USA', 'The objective of this paper is to outline the current use of herbicide-resistant soybean and corn in the United States and describe the ramifications of utilizing these crops derived from biotechnology. The popular press and news articles detail the positions of consumers, environmental advocates, and the agriculture industry. Recent concerns expressed by consumers throughout the world have affected how herbicide-resistant crops are viewed and thus potentially the adoption of the technology. The paper will focus on the benefits and risks of using herbicide-resistant soybean and corn, specifically constructs that confer resistance to glyphosate. Glufosinate-resistant crops will also be discussed.', 'en_US'),
(1346, 'Risks of the release of transgenic herbicide-resistant plants with respect to humans, animals, and the environment', 'Cultivation of transgenic herbicide-resistant crops has become very attractive in the last 2-3 years. The potential risks and benefits on cultivation of such crops depend on the type of crop modification, herbicides to be used, but also of variable environmental conditions. Data on the use of herbicides on transgenic crops grown on a large scale are scarce. The safety of foods and animal feeding stuffs derived from transgenic crops is assessed through application of the concept of substantial equivalence. This process includes a thorough comparison of the composition of the modified foods with the proper traditionally grown product, a toxicological assessment of newly introduced gene products, and an evaluation of possibly unintended alterations. This information provides a solid basis for food and feed safety assessment.', 'en_US'),
(1347, 'Clonal stability, seasonal periodicity and transgenes: the lesson from long-term micropropagation of transgenic and non-transformed Populus tremula L. plants', 'Annual and diurnal rhythms of plant development are manifested as ordered changes in growth and regeneration, in physiological processes and metabolism, and in molecular events. This periodic behavior may reflect either external (environmental) stimuli, and/or endogenous (intrinsic) biological clocks of various types. Although exogenous stimuli can be controlled in vitro, the tissue also exhibits rhythmic behavior under environmentally controlled in vitro culture. A combination of in vitro culture and gene insertion via transformation could, therefore, be used to elucidate some of the potential interactions between culture growth rhythms and stability, the regeneration potential, and molecular control mechanisms such as silencing. These and related aspects were examined in our laboratory, using long-term cultures of transgenic and non-transformed aspen plants (Populus tremula L.). Stem segments have been routinely subcultured every 4 to 8 weeks under standard conditions, without any hormones, since 1990, resulting currently in plantlets representing about 80 to 120 passages in culture. In addition, two types of transgenic plants have been generated: (1) expressing the rol-T-DNA fragment from Agrobacterium rhizogenes LBA9402, carrying a Ri vir, and (2) expressing the water stress-regulated BspA cDNA. Seasonal periodicity in non-transformed aspen development was clearly evident with respect to adventitious root formation, shoot elongation and axillary bud break. Generally, these growth parameters were at a maximum when explants were subcultured in the summer, and extremely low during the winter. This was also reflected in the considerably higher in vitro propagation coefficient in the summer vs. winter. This recorded pattern of development has persisted for over more than 10 years since the primary explants were excised from the mother plant and cloned in vitro and no other phenotypic changes have been detected. The in vitro-cultured transformed lines, transgenic for rol-T-DNA and expressing the rolB and rolC genes, were characterized by accelerated regeneration and growth of roots and shoots, and by the loss of a seasonal growth rhythm. Seasonal fluctuation in the expression of the gene encoding an aspen water-stress-responsive boiling-stable protein (BspA) at the RNA and protein levels as also detected in the same plant material. The persistence of growth periodicity in long-term cultures suggests that the actual rate of phenotypic polymorphism in plants is often far less frequent than DNA and protein band polymorphism. It is proposed that specific existing and induced mechanisms contribute to clonal stability in tissue culture, and that these are at least as important as the suggested mechanisms of variation induction in vitro.', 'en_US'),
(1348, 'Biotechnological applications for integrated pest management', 'Selection and cloning of novel genes, and a better understanding of mechanisms underlying plant gene expression, have enabled us to develop plants with resistance to certain species of insects. However one cannot overlook the ability of insects to overcome the effects of continued stress, and to evolve new biotypes. This volume is an account of the progress made in the integration of conventional and biotechnological approaches of pest control in the light of resistance in insect pests to methods of control. ', 'en_US'),
(1349, 'Simulating the impact of cross resistance between Bt toxins in transformed clover and apples in New Zealand', 'Simulations were conducted to guide development of resistance management strategies aimed at prolonging the usable life of B. thuringiensis (Bt) endotoxins in multiple cropping situations, where different crops expressing Bt endotoxins are host plants for a common pest. We used the New Zealand apple and clover model ecosystem to explore the relative impact on the rate of resistance development of varying levels of cross-resistance between different toxins expressed in these 2 potentially Bt-transformed crops. These 2 crops are hosts for a complex of leafrollers in New Zealand, including the lightbrown apple moth, used here as the model pest. Cross-resistance was varied between 0.0 and 0.5 (zero to partial cross-resistance) to allow for the case in which selection by one plant has a potential effect on resistance to the toxin in another plant. The largest factor affecting the evolution of resistance was the total habitat area occupied by transgenic orchards. The proportion of the clover habitat that was transformed was also an important factor, even in the absence of cross-resistance. The effect of increasing the proportion of the second transformed crop (clover) acted on resistance evolution mainly by reducing the external refuge of susceptibility for the transgenic orchards. Hence, the ecological implications of reducing the available source of susceptible insects from clover, which can help to slow resistance development in the orchard ecosystem, had a more significant impact than the presence of cross-resistance. Partial cross-resistance between different toxins in the separate crops was overall of relatively minor importance. These simulations have implications for deployment decisions for individual transformed crops in multiple cropping systems, where there is the potential for the crops to serve as refuges for each other. These decisions may need to focus less on cross-resistance between toxins, than on economic trade-offs between the relative roles of individual crops as refugia maintaining susceptibility in the system as a whole.', 'en_US'),
(1350, 'Molecular approaches towards development of novel Bacillus thuringiensis biopesticides', 'Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) has been used for control of lepidopteran, dipterans, and coleopteran insects for over three decades. Novel Bt strains harbouring new types of insecticidal genes are being discovered worldwide. Recombinant strains with enhanced toxicity and broadened insecticidal spectrum have been constructed. To increase the field persistence of insecticidal crystal proteins (ICPs), alternative modes of their delivery in Pseudomonas sp. and endophytes have been developed.', 'en_US'),
(1351, 'Oilseed rape with modified fatty acid profiles: are GM volunteers likely to be a problem?', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1352, 'From pesticides to genetically modified plants: history, economics and politics', 'Two technologies of crop protection are compared, crop protection by pesticides and by Genetically Modified Plants (GMPs). The history of pesticides provides lessons relevant to the future of GMPs; (1) high pesticide usage is counter-productive, (2) the technology requires intensive regulation and (3) has nonetheless many external effects which strongly reduce its social benefits, (4) early calculations on net benefits of pesticides were over-optimistic, and (5) intensive use of pesticides made farmers so dependent on them that they lost important options. These lessons are used to construct a framework for the economic analysis of GMPs which can be applied once sufficient empirical information becomes available. Conceptually the framework can be used for a comparison of crop protection strategies indicated as chemical crop protection, threshold-based crop protection, crop protection by ecotechnology and organic agriculture. Given the current state of knowledge on the impact of GMPs where (1) benefits are assumed rather than proven, (2) regulatory costs are rising and (3) environmental and human health risks have yet to be fully identified, one conclusion is that ex ante economic analysis which draws upon some of the lessons learned with chemical pesticides may help to bridge the gap between the proponents and the opponents of GMT (Genetic Modification Technology).', 'en_US'),
(1353, 'The ecological impacts of transgenic crops on agroecosystem health', 'Transgenic crops are being deployed at increasing rates in agricultural landscapes worldwide. This leads to increasing genetic uniformity of agroecosystems and enhances farmers dependence on biotechnological innovations subject to proprietary regimes controlled by multinational corporations. As developed transgenic crops respond to market niches and opportunities, there has been little consideration of the ecological implications of their deployment. Existing ecological theory and emerging research data suggest that the massive planting of transgenic monocultures can create critical environmental impacts ranging from gene flow between transgenic crops and wild relatives, the creation of super-weeds and the rapid development of insect resistance, to impacts on soil fauna and nontarget organisms. The consequences of such effects on agroecosystem health are analyzed are herein.', 'en_US'),
(1354, 'Population genetics of Chrysomela tremulae: a first step towards management of transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis poplars Populus tremula x P. tremuloides', 'Many strategies have been proposed for delaying the development of insect resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). The current paradigm for Bt resistance management is the high dose-refuge strategy. For this strategy to be successful: (i) heterozygotes must be killed in treated areas, (ii) resistant alleles must be rare (frequency < 10-3), and (iii) there must be a high level of gene flow between populations to ensure random mating. We studied gene flow within and between populations with a view to managing the resistance of Chrysomela tremulae (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) to new transgenic, highly toxic poplars expressing a synthetic Bt gene. In this study, we assessed the extent of gene flow in C. tremulae within and between 16 sites in France and Belgium, using allozyme markers. We found a high level of genetic variability in C. tremulae, with a mean of 0.206 ± 0.16. There were no obvious limitations to gene flow between populations of C. tremulae over large geographical distances (several hundreds of kilometres). Nevertheless, a very low level of genetic differentiation was observed between a site located in the south of France and the sampled sites from the Centre region.', 'en_US'),
(1355, 'Production and commercialization of transgenic crops, biosafety and intellectual property', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1356, 'Non conventional technologies and impact on consumer behavior', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1357, 'Current procedures for applying risk assessment in genetically modified crops', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1358, 'Questions raised during the implementation of the Hungarian law on biotechnological activities', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1359, 'Property rights and agricultural biotechnology', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1360, 'The regulation of transgenic trees in North America', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1361, 'Interactions of elevated CO2 and nitrogen fertilization: effects on production of Bacillus thuringiensis toxins in transgenic plants', 'Elevated atmospheric CO2 concentrations will cause plants to grow faster, lower nitrogen content per unit of plant tissue, and generate higher carbon to nitrogen (C/N) ratios. We hypothesize that production of transgenic proteins will be reduced, thus reducing the efficiency of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) transgenes against insect populations. Commercially available transgenic cotton plants expressing the Cry 1Ac gene from Bt were compared with a near isogenic non-Bt cotton line in a split-plot design with two levels of atmospheric CO2 (ambient, 370 ppm and elevated, 900 ppm) incorporating a 2 × 2 factorial design with two nitrogen (N) fertilization regimes (low, 30 mg N/kg soil/wk and high, 130 mg N/kg soil/wk), and two levels of Bt (presence or absence). Bioassays using Spodoptera exigua (Hübner) and quantitative enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays for toxin content indicated reduced Bt protein production in elevated CO2. The tendency for test insects to consume more foliage from plants with lower N, caused by the elevated CO2, did not compensate for the reduction in toxin production. N fertilization regime interacted with CO2 concentration, showing that plants growing in N limited systems would produce substantially less toxin. The use of transgenic plants is becoming increasingly important and will continue to be so in the next decades. At the same time, atmospheric CO2 increase will affect the effectiveness of this strategy. These observations have implications not only for agricultural use of transgenic plants, but also for the ecological consequences of transfer of Bt toxins to closely related wild plant genotypes.', 'en_US'),
(1362, 'Tritrophic interactions of transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis corn, Anaphothrips obscurus (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), and the predator Orius majusculus (Heteroptera: Anthocoridae)', 'Laboratory feeding experiments using transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis variety kurstaki (Berliner) corn plants were carried out to study the effects of B. thuringiensis-fed herbivorous prey on the predator Orius majusculus (Reuter). Host plants were a transgenic B. thuringiensis-expressing (Cry1Ab) corn hybrid and the corresponding untransformed isogenic B. thuringiensis-free corn hybrid. The herbivorous prey species used in the experiment was Anaphothrips obscurus (Müller), a thysanopteran pest of corn, not sensitive to Cry1Ab toxin. The objectives were to quantify the effects of B. thuringiensis-fed prey on the development and mortality of immature O. majusculus. There was no significant difference in total mean mortality from hatch to adult eclosion between O. majusculus nymphs reared on B. thuringiensis-fed or B. thuringiensis-free prey. Similarly, no significant differences in total developmental time of O. majusculus was detected when reared on the two different prey types. Overall mortality was low, confirming that the methodology used was appropriate. We propose this approach as an efficient standardized preregistrational testing for side effects of transgenic plants on small predators such as Orius spp.', 'en_US'),
(1363, 'Bt transgenic crops: risks and benefits', 'Bt crops, predominantly maize and cotton hybrids, transgenically expressing cry genes derived from Bacillus thuringiensis, were planted on approximately 14 million hectares (worldwide) in 1999. Preliminary reports suggest that in most cases pesticide use was reduced, and in some situations there were significant increases in yields and profits. However, assemblages of secondary pests, such as aphids, plant bugs and thrips, also exist in Bt crops, and although the overall need for scouting and chemical control is reduced in Bt crops, there may be a requirement for additional, conventionally applied chemicals to control such non-target pests. Naturally-occurring Bt toxins with activity against a wide variety of pest species have been discovered and are thus potentially available for engineering into Bt crops to control a broader spectrum of pests than are currently targeted. New Bt crops and second-generation products incorporating an expanding range of Cry toxins and other arthropod targeted genes are in development and could become available for introduction to the market within the next few years. Insecticide resistance management (IRM) strategies for Bt crops are reviewed in the context of studies on selection pressures and the potential for resistance development in target populations. The so-called, high-dose strategy, combined with the use of refuges, is widely agreed to be the best technical approach for managing resistance, and evidence is accumulating that ''separate'' refuges are more effective at conserving pest susceptibility than ''mixed'' refuges. A widespread consensus on the necessity for such measures, and an appreciation of the importance of multi-tactical approaches, has developed. Monitoring programmes, protocols and studies relevant to detecting the early development of resistance to Bt Cry toxins are described. Field monitoring of non-target entomofauna has not revealed significant differences in the abundance or biodiversity of beneficial insects associated with Bt maize. Indeed, laboratory studies of effects on parasitoids suggest that Bt plants may even have an environmental advantage over broad spectrum pesticides. However, more complex, multi-trophic, long-term experiments are needed to thoroughly assess the compatibility of Bt crops with non-target invertebrates and to define the complex relationship between IRM, target species and their natural enemy assemblages. Studies on the effects of transgenically-expressed Cry toxins on non-target insects, and their persistence in soil and on leaves, is reviewed. It is suggested that there is currently no generally agreed framework, or methodology, within which ad hoc experimental results can be accommodated, and each crop-transgene combination has to be assessed on a case-by-case basis. Studies proposing a conceptual approach to evaluating risks associated with Bt crops are highlighted and potential benefits and hazards are reviewed.', 'en_US'),
(1364, 'Brave new seeds: the threat of GM crops to farmers', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1365, 'Genetically engineered plants in the environment -- applications and issues', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1366, 'Transgene integration into the same chromosome location can produce alleles that express at a predictable level, or alleles that are differentially silenced', 'In an effort to control the variability of transgene expression in plants, we used Cre-lox mediated recombination to insert a gus reporter gene precisely and reproducibly into different target loci. Each integrant line chosen for analysis harbors a single copy of the transgene at the designated target site. At any given target site, nearly half of the insertions give a full spatial pattern of transgene expression. The absolute level of expression, however, showed target site dependency that varied up to 10-fold. This substantiates the view that the chromosome position can affect the level of gene expression. An unexpected finding was that nearly half of the insertions at any given target site failed to give a full spatial pattern of transgene expression. These partial patterns of expression appear to be attributable to gene silencing, as low gus expression correlates with DNA methylation and low transcription. The methylation is specific for the newly integrated DNA. Methylation changes are not found outside of the newly inserted DNA. Both the full and the partial expression states are meiotically heritable. The silencing of the introduced transgenes may be a stochastic event that occurs during transformation.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(1367, 'Implications of transgenics for environmental and agricultural sustainability', 'The potential risks of GMOs, their impact on human and animal health, and on the environment, as well as their socioeconomic effects, have generated a worldwide discussion which is far from drawing to a close for lack of sufficient scientific information. Part of this information supports risk-hypotheses previously put forward. Thus the presence of transgenic plant genes in other plants and in other organisms has been confirmed in several occasions. Therefore, gene dissemination to plants of the same species as well as to widely different species is already regarded as an actual risk. The principle of substantial equivalence has opened the way for the liberation of transgenic plants for commercial crops, despite short-term tests, which are quantitatively and qualitatively insufficient to certify that the foods deriving from those plants are healthy and safe. Thus, the adoption of the so-called precautionary principle (PP) has turned out to be the most adequate safety measure to date, or else until scientific data should be able to demonstrate the actual impact of transgenic plants on human and animal health, and on the environment.', 'en_US'),
(1368, 'The role of gene technology in food agribusiness systems', 'Two recent major drivers of change in the food industry, particulary with plant-based foods, have been gene technologies and the entry of intellectual property into many areas of strategic and applied biology of the principal food plants. It seems likely that for the next few years advances in food processing will rely on plant breeding which takes advantages of the increasing knowledge base coming from gene technologies but which does not rely on the involvement of introduced transgenes. New diagnostics and assays will allow grains and other foods to be equipped with changes in their protein, lipid, starch and other biochemical components so that they better fit food functionalities and product quality requirements. Subsequently, genetically modified foods are likely to be accepted as consumers become more familiar with what is actually involved in bringing about the production of better and safer foods by these methods. Importantly, many improvements will involve adjustments without the addition of any new components. These will assist acceptance of the technologies. It seems inevitable that transgenic crops will eventually be the norm in our food production systems because the new technologies promise such significant gains in efficiencies on farm with corresponding increases in the sustainability and reliability of the production system. They also will provide for an unprecedented differentiation of raw materials designed to meet the demands of the increasingly discriminating consumer.', 'en_US'),
(1369, 'Survival of free DNA encoding antibiotic resistance from transgenic maize and the transformation activity of DNA in ovine saliva, ovine rumen fluid and silage effluent', 'To assess the likelihood that the bla gene present in a transgenic maize line may transfer from plant material to the microflora associated with animal feeds, we have examined the survival of free DNA in maize silage effluent, ovine rumen fluid and ovine saliva. Plasmid DNA that had previously been exposed to freshly sampled ovine saliva was capable of transforming competent Escherichia coli cells to ampicillin resistance even after 24 h, implying that DNA released from the diet could provide a source of transforming DNA in the oral cavity of sheep. Although target DNA sequences could be amplified by polymerase chain reaction from plasmid DNA after a 30-min incubation in silage effluent and rumen contents, only short term biological activity, lasting less than 1 min, was observed in these environments, as shown by transformation to antibiotic resistance. These experiments were performed under in vitro conditions; therefore further studies are needed to elucidate the biological significance of free DNA in the rumen and oral cavities of sheep and in silage effluent.', 'en_US'),
(1370, 'China''s WTO entry and negotiations', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1371, 'Persistence and biological activity in soil of insecticidal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis and of bacterial DNA bound on clays and humic acids', 'Insecticidal proteins produced by various subspecies of Bacillus thuringiensis and bacterial transforming DNA bind rapidly and tightly on clays, both pure mined clay minerals and soil clays, and on humic acids extd. from soil. This binding reduces the susceptibility of these biomols., which retain their biol. activity when bound, to microbial degrdn. The persistence of bound insecticidal toxins may enhance the control of target pests, constitute a hazard to nontarget organisms, and result in the selection and enrichment of toxin-resistant target insects. The persistence of bound DNA has relevance to horizontal gene transfer in soil. Because of the large differences in the chem. compn. and structure between these proteins and DNA, as well as between clays and humic acids, these studies can serve as models for the potential fate and effects of other biomols. that will be introduced to soil from ''factories'' of transgenic plants and animals genetically engineered to produce vaccines, hormones, antibodies, toxins, pharmaceuticals, and other bioactive compds.', 'en_US'),
(1372, 'Public perception and legislation of biotechnology in Poland', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1373, 'Improving the regulation of genetically modified foods and other novel foods in Canada (final report)', 'The issues involved in the production, regulation and marketing of GM foods are complex. Positions are polarized. There are those who believe that modern biotechnology has provided and will provide significant benefits for both farmers and consumers. They are opposed by those who hold that it is only the inventors of genetically modified products who are likely to benefit significantly, while the population as a whole may have to bear unacceptable risks to health and the environment. There are also sharp differences of opinion concerning the implications of agricultural biotechnology for developing countries. Some see it as a means of considerably enhancing food supplies in vulnerable regions of the world, while others fear that it will lead to the exploitation of both growers and consumers in impoverished countries. The fact that there are divergent views on such a complex issue is not surprising. Nor should it be a reason for failure to take action that is in the public interest - namely, to capture the benefits of biotechnological innovation while providing reasonable protection against potential harms. Our findings and recommendations in this regard fall under four themes: good governance, precaution, information and consumer choice, and social and ethical considerations.We conclude that no scientific evidence exists to suggest that GM plants and foods currently in the market pose any greater health or environmental risk than other foods. This does not mean that one should take these products or the underlying technology used to develop them lightly. There is a need not only to develop methods for long-term surveillance of health and environmental impacts, but also to ensure that regulatory processes are able to deal effectively with the more complex products on the horizon. The incorporation of ethical considerations into public policy on biotechnology in general - and on GM and other novel foods in particular - poses a continuing challenge for government and is an important topic in CBAC''s ongoing program of activities. We look forward to the government''s response to our findings and recommendations.', 'en_US'),
(1374, 'Plant biotechnology moral dilemmas', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1375, 'Gene transfer from genetically modified food', 'The current debate about the safety of genetically modified food includes some important scientific issues where more scientific data would aid the robustness of safety evaluation. One example is the possibility of gene transfer, especially from genetically modified plant material.', 'en_US'),
(1376, 'Transgenic resistance to rice yellow mottle virus disease: highlighting some of the issues facing the potential introduction of biotechnological products into Africa', 'It is becoming increasingly apparent that biotechnology offers promise for some of the problems facing agriculture in Africa. One such example has exploited on the one hand innovative, advanced and appropriate technology and on the other extensive experience with subsistence farmers and well-informed local knowledge. This case provides an example of how publicly funded collaboration between an advanced research laboratory and an agricultural research institution in Africa has provided a potential solution to rice yellow mottle virus disease in lowland/irrigated rice in West Africa. The issues that have arisen through this research are relevant to many potential applications of biotechnology. These include access to innovative technologies and their integration with conventional solutions, an awareness of socio-economic issues and institutional capacity to deal with biosafety, intellectual property, ethics, public concern and agricultural policy issues. Intrinsically important in reporting these examples is the provision of factual and balanced viewpoints on all sides which will serve as a guide to African countries in the development, testing and application of biotechnologies that are free from public concern.', 'en_US'),
(1377, 'Genetically modified plants: developing countries and the public acceptance debate', 'Although it is still challenging for certain species such as wheat, many crops can be routinely genetically modified. During the early to mid-1990s, the research translated into commercial reality, and transgenic crops such as tomatoes, soya and cotton were available in several countries. Outside research, commercial and regulatory circles, the production and consumption of transgenic crops attracted little interest and relatively limited controversy until 1997. However, between 1997 and 1999, the issue rose to prominence in the popular media, and to a key issue of social debate in Europe, Australia and many other parts of the world. Central to the debate on genetically modified foods is the safety of genetically modified crops and their potential environmental effects, and whether mankind, especially developing countries, can secure the benefits of genetically modified crops while most effectively avoiding any risks they may present. The major issues raised by those opposed to genetically modified crops are undetected effects on human health, a myriad of potential environmental effects and a less definable sense that genetically modified crops are unnatural. Issues that follow are labelling of genetically modified foods (whether to label, which genetically modified products to label and whether such labelling should be voluntary or compulsory), and whether labelling should be backed up by testing. This review discusses the scientific and commercial motivations for development of genetically modified crops, current applications of the technology in the context of the debate on safety concerns. The focus of much of the debate has been developed countries such as Europe, but it is possible that the technology could have the greatest utility for developing countries.', 'en_US'),
(1378, 'An evaluation of the safety of foods produced from genetically modified crops: experiences and uncertainties', 'Numerous food products may be derived from GMO. A risk assessment is required in each case, involving four steps: - an analysis of the genetic construction, - a biochemical, functional and toxicological characterisation of the new expressed proteins, - a determination of the nutritional value of the new food, - an evaluation of unintended effects. Subchronic-tests are preferred to acute toxicity assays. Controlling the degradability of new proteins by digestive simulation tests and mutagenicity tests may be discussed. Lastly it is also recommended to perform tolerance studies by feeding experimental animals with the final new products.', 'en_US'),
(1379, 'Labelling of genetically modified foods in the European Union: legal aspects and application problems', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1380, 'Replicase-derived resistance against pea early browning virus in Nicotiana benthamiana is an unstable resistance based upon posttranscriptional gene silencing', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1381, 'An economic analysis of non-Bt corn refuges', 'Planting Bt transgenic corn in large areas of the environment may lead to European corn borer(ECB) [Ostrinia nubilalis (Hubner)] resistance to Bt toxins. Scientists recommend planting a non-Bt corn refuge of at least 20% of total corn area in close proximity to Bt corn as part of an Insect Resistance Management (IRM) strategy. A partial budget analysis was used to estimate the costs of implementing alternative refuge configurations in the US Corn Belt. A strip configuration is the least cost method of planting a 20% non-Bt corn refuge. A block-U refuge combination is only slightly more costly. The costs are small regardless of configuration choice and it is likely that other considerations, such as potential GMO segregation requirements, will dictate choice of configuration.', 'en_US'),
(1382, 'The right chemistry for marker gene removal?', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1383, 'Biosafety: future priorities for research in health care', 'Currently the public interest in biosafety issues has focussed on the discussions surrounding the use of genetically modified organisms, very specifically on the use of transgenic plants in agriculture. Although many of the questions raised in connection with genetically modified organisms are of legitimate scientific interest, attention should be drawn back to a number of other more classical biosafety research areas, namely the problem of control of new and reemerging infectious diseases, the need for new vaccines, control of transport and routes of dissemination, biosafety information exchange and networking, where research results are dearly needed. In the area of modern biotechnology new applications such as gene therapy and transgenic animals will be on the list of future priorities for biosafety related activities and research.', 'en_US'),
(1384, 'Molecular control of transgene escape from genetically modified plants', 'Potential risks of gene escape from transgenic crops through pollen and seed dispersal are being actively discussed and have slowed down full utilization of gene technology in crop improvement. To ban the transgene flow, barren zones and ''terminator'' technology were developed as GMO risk management technologies in transgenic crops. Unfortunately, the technologies have not protected reliably the transgene migration to wild relatives. The present study offers a novel molecular technique to eliminate gene flow from transgenic plants to wild relatives by recoverable block of function (RBF). The RBF consists of a blocking sequence linked to the gene of interest and a recovering sequence, all in one transformable construct. The blocking sequence blocks a certain molecular or physiological function of the host plant. Action of the blocking sequence leads to the death of the host plant or to an alteration in its phenotype resulting in inability for sexual reproduction in nature. The recovering construct recovers the blocked function of the host plant. The recovering construct is regulated externally by a specific chemical or physical treatment of the plants and does not act under natural conditions. In nature, hybrids of the transgenic plants with its wild relatives carrying the RBF will die or be unable to reproduce because of the blocking construct action. A wet-king model of RBF is described in this report as one example of the RBF concept. This RBF example is based on ba, nase (the blocking construct) and barstar (the recovering construct) gene expression in tobacco under sulfhydryl endopeptidase (SH-EP) and a heat shock (HS) promoter, respectively.', 'en_US'),
(1385, 'GENESYS: a model of the influence of cropping system on gene escape from herbicide tolerant rapeseed crops to rape volunteers. II. Genetic exchanges among volunteer and cropped populations in a small region', 'The aim of the model GENESYS is to rank cropping systems according to their risk of gene escape from genetically modified. herbicide tolerant winter oilseed rape cultivars to rapeseed volunteers. The model integrates the effects of crop succession and crop management at the level of a region. The first part of the model presented by Colbach et al. [Colbach, N., Clermont-Dauphin, C., Meynard, J.M., 2001. GENESYS: a model of the influence of cropping system on gene escape from herbicide tolerant rapeseed crops to rape volunteers. I. Temporal evolution of a population of rapeseed volunteers in a field. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ.. in press], describes the temporal evolution of rapeseed volunteers in a field. In this paper, the temporal sub-model was extended to include the evolution of genotype proportions with time and the effect of genotype on herbicide efficacy, on seed and pollen production. The spatial dimension was introduced by modelling demographic and genetic evolution of rapeseed volunteers in all the plots of a region, whether they are cropped fields or uncultivated field margins and waysides. Each year, pollen and seed are exchanged between plots and the importance of these exchanges depends on plot areas and distances. and, in the case of pollen, on flowering dates.', 'en_US'),
(1386, 'Bt-cotton in India', 'The article ''Bt-cotton in India: Anatomyvof a controversy'' by Geeta Bharathan (Curr. Sci., 2000, 79, 1067-1075) is an overall admirable analysis of the controversy regarding the application of genetic engineering (GE) (or genetic modification using recombinant DNA technologies (GM) or transgenics as more widely used) for the improvement of crop plants. It raises many questions, a few are genuine, others reflecting some of the exaggerated concerns that have been raised earlier1. However, the analysis, though intellectually stimulating, is based on incorrect information and shows a lack of familiarity with the variety development and evaluation process (basic plant breeding and genetics).', 'en_US'),
(1387, 'Bt-cotton: government procedures', 'Geeta Bharathan (Curr. Sci., 79, 1067?1075) has touched upon several aspects of Bt-cotton in India, some of which are inexact and are not based on facts. It is the intention of this note to provide clarification on the working procedures of the Government on the Bt-cotton trial, which are elaborated below.', 'en_US'),
(1388, 'Bt-cotton: the view from MAHYCO', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1389, 'Food in society: economy, culture, geography', 'Who can deny the significance of food? It has a central role in our health and pleasure as well as in our economy, politics and culture. Food in Society provides a social science perspective on food systems and demonstrates the rich variety of disciplinary and theoretical contexts of food studies. While hunger and malnutrition remain a reality in many countries, for some food has become an experience rather than a sustenance. This book addresses the different worldwide understandings of food through thematic chapters and a wide range of material including: description of the political economy of the food chain, from production to the point of sale; analysis of global issues of supply and demand; critical debate of environmental and health aspects of food, including GM food, the role of habits, taboos, age and gender in food consumption. Each chapter contains a guide to further reading and to websites of relevance to food. Extensively illustrated, this book is essential reading for students of food studies in the social sciences and humanities.', 'en_US'),
(1390, 'Gene silencing: fleshing out the bones', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1391, 'Stability of transgene expression, field performance and recombination breeding of transformed barley lines', 'Stable inheritance of the transgene, consistent expression and competitive agronomic properties of transgenic crops are important parameters for successful use of the latter. These properties have been analyzed with 18 homozygous transgenic barley lines of the cultivar Golden Promise. The lines originated from three independent primary transformants obtained by the biolistic method with three plasmids containing respectively, the bar gene, the uidA gene and the gene for a protein-engineered heat-stable (1,3-1,4)-<beta>-glucanase. Three production levels of recombinant <beta>-glucanase were identified in homozygous transgenic T3 plants, and these remained constant over a 3-year period. In micro-malting experiments, the heat-stable enzyme reached levels of up to 1.4 µg·mg-1 protein and survived kiln drying at levels of 70-100%. In the field trials of 1997 and 1998 the transgenic lines had a reduced 1000-grain weight as well as variable yield depressions compared to the Golden Promise progenitor. In 1999 large-scale propagations of the lines with the highest recombinant enzyme synthesis during germination and of Golden Promise were studied at three different locations. In an irrigated field transgenic lines yielded approximately 6 t·ha-1 and Golden Promise 7.7 t·ha-1. Cross-breeding was carried out to transfer the transgene into a more suitable genetic background. Crosses of the semi-dwarf ari-e mutant Golden Promise gave rise to the four morphological phenotypes nutans, high erect, erect, and ari-e. Two improvements were achieved: (1) F3 lines homozygous for the expression of heat-stable (1,3-1,4)-<beta>-glucanase were found among lines that were homozygous for each of the four morphological phenotypes; (2) improved 1000-grain weights and yields with respect to those of the original transformants were observed in some F4 lines homozygous for the morphological phenotypes and for the transgene. In the case of a homozygous nutans line, the transgenic plants had a higher 1000-grain weight than those lacking the transgene. Like mutants providing useful output traits, transgenic plants will often have to be improved by relocating the gene into more suitable genotypes.', 'en_US'),
(1392, 'Plant-based vaccines: unique advantages', 'Numerous studies have shown that viral epitopes and subunits of bacterial toxins can be expressed and correctly processed in transgenic plants. The recombinant proteins induce immune responses and have several benefits over current vaccine technologies, including increased safety, economy, stability, versatility and efficacy. Antigens expressed in corn are particularly advantageous since the seed can be produced in vast quantities and shipped over long distances at ambient temperature, potentially allowing global vaccination. We have expressed the B-subunit of Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin and the spike protein of swine transmissible gastroenteritis virus at high levels in corn, and demonstrate that these antigens delivered in the seed elicit protective immune responses.', 'en_US'),
(1393, 'Coat protein RNAs-mediated protection against Andean potato mottle virus in transgenic tobacco', 'The expression of translatable sequences of either one of the two Andean potato mottle virus (APMoV) coat protein (CP) genes (CP22 and CP42) and of the nontranslatable sequence of CP42 in transgenic tobacco provided protection against APMoV. Resistance was mediated by CP transgene RNAs rather than the protein, as an inverse correlation between resistance and the accumulation levels of CPs transgene mRNAs was observed. These data indicated that a post-transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS) mechanism is likely involved in the APMoV CP RNA-mediated protection. Moreover, the HindIII-AccI restriction pattern of the CP22 transgene was different in susceptible and resistant transgenic plants, suggesting the involvement of methylation in PTGS. Southern blot experiments also revealed that CPs transgene insertion loci and organisation in the plant genome may play a role in determining the degree of protection.', 'en_US'),
(1394, 'Biodegradation and insecticidal activity of the toxin from Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki bound on complexes of montmorillonite-humic acids-Al hydroxypolymers', 'The equilibrium adsorption and binding of the active toxin from Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki on complexes of montmorillonite-humic acids-Al hydroxypolymers, as well as the biodegradation and the insecticidal activity of the bound toxin, were studied. Seventy percent of the total adsorption occurred within the first hour, and maximal adsorption occurred in <8 h. Adsorption of the toxin on a constant amount of the complexes increased as the amount of the toxin added increased, and equilibrium adsorption isotherms of the L-type were obtained. There was essentially no desorption of the toxin after extensive washing of the toxin-organomineral complexes with double distilled H2O and 1 M NaCl. The bound toxin was resistant to utilization by mixed microbial cultures from soil and to enzymatic degradation by Pronase E. Free and bound toxin were active against the larvae of Manduca sexta; the bound toxin retained the same activity after exposure to microbes or Pronase, whereas the toxicity of the free toxin decreased significantly. The results of these studies indicate that the release of transgenic plants and microorganisms expressing truncated genes that encode active insecticidal toxins from B. thuringiensis could result in the accumulation of these toxins in soil as a consequence of binding on surface-active soil particles. This persistence could pose a hazard to nontarget organisms, enhance the selection of toxin-resistant target species, and increase the control of target insect pests.', 'en_US'),
(1395, 'The introduction of transgenic cotton in India', 'For a country that consumes over US$ 235 million of pesticides every year to control the dreaded bollworm pests, any technology that reduces dependence upon chemicals is obviously welcome. More so in a country where hundreds of cotton farmers have preferred to commit suicide in the past two decades to escape the humiliation that comes with mounting debt resulting from crop failures.', 'en_US'),
(1396, 'Influence of transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis corn-fed prey on prey preference of immature Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae)', 'Paired-choice assays in a tritrophic system have been carried out to study the influence of transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki (Berliner) corn plants on prey preference of the predator Chrysoperla carnea (Stephens). Plants used were a transgenic B. thuringiensis-expressing (Cry1Ab) corn hybrid and the corresponding isogenic untransformed B. thuringiensis-free hybrid. Two different prey species were used in the experiments, Spodoptera littoralis (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and Rhopalosiphum padi (Homoptera: Aphidae). Both species were not lethally affected by the Cry1Ab toxin. C. carnea larvae were placed individually in a searching arena together with two groups of prey to choose from. One group had eaten transgenic B. thuringiensis corn (Bt+), the other non-transgenic corn (Bt?). Choice-experiments with various prey and host plant combinations were performed. The number and type of prey consumed by C. carnea, the time C. carnea larvae spent feeding on their chosen prey and the number of prey C. carnea only ''probed'' upon for one minute or less were recorded. Observations were made for each of the three larval stages of C. carnea. When C. carnea could choose between S. littoralis fed transgenic corn (Bt+) and S. littoralis fed non-transgenic corn (Bt?), they showed a significant preference for S. littoralis fed non-transgenic corn (Bt?) as 3rd instars. Although not statistically significant, a similar trend was observed for the 2nd instar. No preference was observed when C. carnea had the choice between R. padi fed transgenic corn (Bt+) and R. padi fed non-transgenic corn (Bt?). This lack of preference for R. padi fed either transgenic or non-transgenic corn may be due to the absence of the Btprotein in the phloem. In prey combinations with S. littoralis and R. padi, all three larval stages of C. carnea showed a preference for R. padi regardless whether they had fed on transgenic or non-transgenic corn. These findings are discussed in context with biological control and pest resistance development.', 'en_US'),
(1397, 'Monitoring and surveillance of genetically modified higher plants: guidelines for procedures and analysis of environmental effects', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1398, 'The deliberate release of genetically modified biocontrol agents. I. Is it possible to harmonise safety, emotion and rationality?', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1399, 'Bt maize and auxiliary insects', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1400, 'Validation of real-time PCR for the quantification of genetically modified soybeans', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1401, 'Genetically modified soya and maize -- qualitative determination and quantitation in food', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1402, 'Transgenic modification of milk proteins', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1403, 'Transgenic salmon: potential and hurdles', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1404, 'Genetically modified animals -- safety issues', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1405, 'Direct and indirect sublethal effects of Galanthus nivalis agglutinin (GNA) on the development of a potato-aphid parasitoid, Aphelinus abdominalis (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae)', 'Insects exhibit a remarkable array of adaptations that allow them to handle more or less severe hypoxia associated with numerous aquatic and terrestrial habitats. We consider these habitats and then discuss physiological, behavioral and morphological mechanisms that facilitate insect life under oxygen deprivation. Actually or potentially hypoxic habitats include aquatic systems, flood-prone soils and burrows, intertidal zones, ice encasement and high altitudes. Some microhabitats, including dung, carrion, mammalian alimentary canals, grain and wood, also are subject to hypoxia. Adaptations to hypoxia include the ability to switch from aerobic to anaerobic metabolic pathways (with attendant generation of end products), the ability to drastically attenuate basal metabolic rates, altered behaviors and enlarged tracheal system volumes. Research into the biology of hypoxia seems to be progressing from early observations of the abilities of some insects to withstand exposure to hypoxia or anoxia through studies of organismal mechanisms operating in hypoxia to detailed investigations of cellular and intracellular signaling processes. Our hope is this essay will help crystallize the emergent picture of this area for those interested in contributing to future research.', 'en_US'),
(1406, 'Genetic transformation of bacteria by antibiotic resistance determinants present in transgenic plants or novel food', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1407, 'Bt-maize in animal nutrition', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1408, 'Beneficial arthropod survey in transgenic and non-transgenic field crops in Ohio', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1409, 'Evaluation of baking properties and gluten protein composition of field grown transgenic wheat lines expressing high molecular weight glutenin gene 1Ax1', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1410, 'Proteinase inhibitors: plant-derived genes of insecticidal protein for developing insect-resistant transgenic plants', 'Proteinase inhibitors (PIs) are anti-metabolic proteins, which interfere with the digestive process of insects. It is one of the important defence strategies existing in plants against predators. The use of the plant-derived PI genes for developing insect-resistant transgenic crops has come of age. Several transgenic plants expressing PIs have been created and these plants have shown enhanced resistance against insect pests. Recently PIs have also been used to engineer resistance against viruses in transgenic plants. The current scenario for developing insect, fungal and viral pathogen- resistant transgenic crops by using PI gene(s) is reviewed. The biosafety aspect of the transgenic plants expressing PIs is also discussed.', 'en_US'),
(1411, 'Herbicide tolerance: survey on cultivation practices in 2000', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1412, 'Expression of bar in the plastid genome confers herbicide resistance', 'Phosphinothricin (PPT) is the active component of a family of environmentally safe, nonselective herbicides. Resistance to PPT in transgenic crops has been reported by nuclear expression of a bar transgene encoding phosphinothricin acetyltransferase, a detoxifying enzyme. We report here expression of a bacterial bar gene (b-bar1) in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum cv Petit Havana) plastids that confers field-level tolerance to Liberty, an herbicide containing PPT. We also describe a second bacterial bar gene (b-bar2) and a codon-optimized synthetic bar (s-bar) gene with significantly elevated levels of expression in plastids (>7% of total soluble cellular protein). Although these genes are expressed at a high level, direct selection thus far did not yield transplastomic clones, indicating that subcellular localization rather than the absolute amount of the enzyme is critical for direct selection of transgenic clones. The codon-modified s-bar gene is poorly expressed in Escherichia coli, a common enteric bacterium, due to differences in codon use. We propose to use codon usage differences as a precautionary measure to prevent expression of marker genes in the unlikely event of horizontal gene transfer from plastids to bacteria. Localization of the bar gene in the plastid genome is an attractive alternative to incorporation in the nuclear genome since there is no transmission of plastid-encoded genes via pollen.', 'en_US'),
(1413, 'Testing the safety of potential pest control viruses', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1414, 'Marker free transgenic plants: engineering the chloroplast genome without the use of antibiotic selection', 'Chloroplast genetic engineering offers several advantages over nuclear transformation including high levels of gene expression and gene containment. However, a consequence of placing a transgene in the chloroplast genome is that the antibiotic resistance genes used as selectable markers are highly amplified. Engineering genetically modified (GM) crops without the use of antibiotic resistance genes should eliminate the potential risk of their transfer to the environment or gut microbes. Therefore, the betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase (BADH) gene from spinach was used in this study as a selectable marker. The selection process involves conversion of toxic betaine aldehyde (BA) by the chloroplast BADH enzyme to non-toxic glycine betaine, which also serves as an osmoprotectant. Chloroplast transformation efficiency was 25-fold higher in BA selection than with spectinomycin. In addition, rapid regeneration was obtained. Transgenic shoots appeared within 12 days in 80% of leaf disks (up to 23 shoots per disk) under BA selection compared to 45 days in 15% of disks (1 or 2 shoots per disk) under spectinomycin selection. Southern blots confirmed stable integration of foreign genes into all of the chloroplast genomes (~10,000 copies per cell) resulting in homoplasmy. Transgenic tobacco plants showed 15- to 18-fold higher BADH activity at different developmental stages than untransformed controls. Transgenic plants were morphologically indistinguishable from untransformed plants and the introduced trait was inherited stably in the subsequent generation. This is the first report of genetic engineering of the higher plant chloroplast genome without the use of antibiotic selection. The use of naturally occurring genes in spinach for selection, in addition to gene containment, should ease public concerns regarding GM crops.', 'en_US'),
(1415, 'Increased tolerance of fall armyworms (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) to Cry1Ac delta-endotoxin when fed transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis cotton: impact on the development of subsequent generations', 'Increased tolerance to Cry1Ac protein was found in a population of fall armyworms, Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith), after selection for a single generation with transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner (Bt) cotton foliage. When fed Cry1Ac treated artificial diet, larvae whose parents had fed on transgenic Bt cotton leaves had significantly higher larval weights and a shorter time to pupation than those larvae whose parents had fed on conventional cotton leaves. In addition, there was no evidence to suggest any fitness or vigor differences existed from progeny of fall armyworms that fed previously on conventional or transgenic Bt cotton. Furthermore, tolerance of fall armyworms to Cry1Ac had a heritable component in the subsequent generation based on larval weights and time to pupation. These data show that using a common approach designed to control all intrinsically tolerant lepidopteran species of transgenic Bt cotton identically may not be desirable.', 'en_US'),
(1416, 'Assessment of GM crops in commercial agriculture', 'The caliber of recent discourse regarding genetically modified organisms (GMOs) has suffered from a lack of consensus on terminology, from the scarcity of evidence upon which to assess risk to health and to the environment, and from value differences between proponents and opponents of GMOs. Towards addressing these issues, we present the thesis that GM should be defined as the forcible insertion of DNA into a host genome, irrespective of the source of the DNA, and exclusive of conventional or mutation breeding. Some defenders of the commercial use of GMOs have referred to the scientific work of GMO critics as ``junk science.'''' Such a claim is false and misleading, given that many papers critical of both the utility and safety of GMOs have been published in peer reviewed journals by respected scientists. In contrast, there is a dearth of peer reviewed work to substantiate the frequently heard assertions of either safety or utility in GMOs. The polarity, which now characterizes much of the public discourse on GMOs, reflects not simply scientific disagreement, but also disagreement in underlying value assumptions. Value differences strongly affect the assessment of both benefit and harm from GMOs. The concept of substantial equivalence occupies a pivotal position in the GMO risk assessment process that is used in both Canada and the US. A GMO judged to be substantially equivalent to a conventional product - as have all submissions to date - is presumed to be safe enough for commercialization. The conclusion of safety - from both human health and environmental perspectives - should be based on scientific evidence, corroborated by actual experimentation. However, regulators infer safety largely from assumptions-based reasoning, with little or no experimental validation. The judgement of safety because of substantial equivalence is a dubious argument by analogy.', 'en_US'),
(1417, 'Comparative effects of a genetically engineered insect virus and a growth-regulating insecticide on microbial communities in aquatic microcosms', 'The effects of a genetically engineered insect baculovirus on indigenous aquatic microbial communities were determined in closed, recirculating aquatic microcosms, and compared with the effects of a natural strain of the virus and of a growth-regulating insecticide, Dimilin. The recombinant virus was a nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV) of the spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana (Cf)) with a lacZ marker gene inserted into the egt region of the CfNPV. The natural virus was Ireland strain CfNPV. Microbial measurement endpoints included decomposition activity (mass loss of organic material), respiration on two different substrates (O2 consumption), heterotrophic bacterial abundance (plate counts), and microbial community metabolic profiles (carbon source utilization patterns in Biolog GN microplates). Viral DNA of both the natural strain and the recombinant viruses, detected by polymerase chain reaction techniques, settled out of the microcosm water and accumulated on bottom substrates within 3 days of the microcosm inoculations. The viral DNA persisted in bottom substrates for the duration of the 21-day experimental period, although there was some evidence that the recombinant virus was less stable than the natural strain in particulate organic matter. No significant changes in microbial decomposition or respiration activity, bacterial abundance, or average metabolic responses were detected by a time trend analysis in microcosms inoculated with either the lacZ recombinant virus or the natural Ireland strain CfNPV. Significant effects on microbial decomposition and respiration activity were detected in microcosms treated with the growth-regulating insecticide at, and above, the expected environmental concentrations. Despite significant effects on microbial community functional attributes in Dimilin-treated microcosms, there were no detectable changes in community structure in terms of metabolic profiles or bacterial abundance.', 'en_US'),
(1418, 'The activities of the International Service for the Acquisition of Agribiotech Applications (ISAAA) in crop biotechnology transfer', 'The International Service for the Acquisition of Agribiotech Applications (ISAAA) is a not-for-profit organisation. The mission of ISAAA is to help alleviate poverty and hunger in the Third World by increasing crop productivity and income generation, particularly for resource-poor farmers, and to create a safer environment and promote more sustainable agricultural development. ISAAA''s activities as an honest broker involve the transfer of appropriate crop biotechnology applications and products, particularly proprietary technology, from the North for the benefit of developing countries in the South, by building partnerships between national programmes in the South and institutions in the North. In the past, developing countries and the institutes assisting them with agricultural research accessed non-proprietary traditional technology from the public sector in industrial countries. With the advent of biotechnology this situation is changing, because biotechnology applications are increasingly proprietary and are owned primarily by private sector corporations in industrial countries. The activities of ISAAA in brokering biotechnology applications are described as well as the support services it provides for national programmes in Africa, Asia and Latin America.', 'en_US'),
(1419, 'Certification of genetically modified forest plantations', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1420, 'Natural and genetically modified baculoviruses: environmentally friendly pest control or an ecological threat?', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1421, 'Environmental risks of chemicals and genetically modified organisms: a comparison. Part I: Classification and characterisation of risks posed by chemicals and GMOs', 'Risks can be characterised by several parameters. A risk is commonly defined to be the product of the extent of damage and the probability of its occurrence. But there are several other characteristics to be taken into account: degree of certainty in determining extent and probability, persistency, ubiquity, irreversibility, delay effect and mobilisation potential. As potential risks of genetically modified plants (GMPs), resistance to antibiotics, impact on non-target organisms, spread of genes and GMOs, and secondary consequences, e.g. on cultivation practice, are discussed in detail. Risks of GMPs are, in general, characterised by high uncertainty of the magnitude and probability of damage, a high mobilisation potential and a delay effect.', 'en_US'),
(1422, 'Impact of Bt cotton in China', 'A sample of 283 cotton farmers in Northern China was surveyed in December 1999. Farmers that used cotton engineered to produce the Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxin substantially reduced the use of pesticide without reducing the output/ha or quality of cotton. This resulted in substantial economic benefits for small farmers. Consumers did not benefit directly. Farmers obtained the major share of benefits and because of weak intellectual property rights very little went back to government research institutes or foreign firms that developed these varieties. Farmers using Bt cotton reported fewer pesticide poisonings than those using conventional cotton.', 'en_US'),
(1423, 'The genetically modified crop debate in the context of agricultural evolution', 'Throughout the history of humankind, there have been those who have embraced change and those who have clung to the old ways because they felt at least the risks were known. Few Edisons or Einsteins were properly recognized during their lifetime. And, since feeding ourselves was the primary occupation of mankind for most of our recorded and prerecorded history, changes in food production have been accepted slowly. The first person to try to scratch out a garden most assuredly heard derisive laughter as the mighty hunters headed off in pursuit of meat. So, we should not be surprised that eons of history are being replayed as we enter the era of biotechnology. As the fates of human society and crops have been inextricably intertwined since the dawn of civilization, an appreciation of our agricultural past may guide us in addressing societal concerns and also in ensuring minimal negative consequences from scientific pursuits. Farmers have embraced the new technology because it makes them more efficient, protects or increases yields and reduces their reliance on chemicals that, other things being equal, they would prefer not to use. Crops enhanced by biotechnology are being grown on nearly 110 million acres in 13 countries. Food ingredients produced from biotech crops are found in thousands of food products consumed worldwide. However, while no unequivocal evidence of harm to our health or the environment from these crops is known or expected, there is an intense debate questioning their value and safety. Societal anxiety over this so-called genetically modified (GM) food is understandable, and it is fueled by a variety of causes, including consumer unfamiliarity, lack of reliable information on the current safeguards in place, a steady stream of negative opinion in the news media, opposition by activist groups, growing mistrust of industry, and a general lack of awareness of how our food production system has evolved. The scientific community has neither adequately addressed public concerns about GM foods nor effectively communicated the value of this technology. Clearly, societal acceptance is pivotal to the continued development and application of biotechnology in food and agriculture. Two decades ago, many agricultural scientists rightfully saw the emerging recombinant DNA technology as a potent tool in enhancing crop productivity and food quality while promoting sustainable agriculture. Much of this early excitement and expectation was met with successive breakthroughs in scientific research on plant gene transfer methods, identification of valuable genes, and the eventual performance of transgenic crops. Plant breeders saw the technology as an additional means of crop improvement that could complement existing methods. For the first time, plant breeding was subjected to rigorous testing, and a regulatory framework was developed to oversee the commercialization of GM crops on a case-by-case basis. There has been widespread acceptance and support for biotechnology from the scientific community. Accumulated experience and knowledge of decades of crop improvement combined with expert judgment, science-based reasoning and empirical research has led to scientists'' confidence that GM crops may pose no new or heightened risks that could not be identified or mitigated, and that any unforeseen hazard will be negligible, manageable, or preventable. Risks from GM crops should be monitored and measured, but concerns about these risks must also be balanced against the enormous benefits from this technology and weighed against alternative options. The strong trust that the American public has in its regulatory agencies (FDA, USDA, and EPA) has helped gain higher public acceptance of GM food in this country than in other nations.', 'en_US'),
(1424, 'Phenotypic and genotypic characterization of antagonistic bacteria associated with roots of transgenic and non-transgenic potato plants', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1425, 'Better trees through biotechnology', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1426, 'Herbicide resistant sugar beet -- what is the problem?', 'Risk assessment studies of herbicide resistant sugar beet have revealed no risks to human health or the environment. Indeed it appears that commercial growth of this crop might secure benefits such as decreased pesticide use and increased biodiversity. However, widespread resistance to GM crops such as herbicide resistant sugar beet still persists in Europe. It is argued that this is not just because people do not know the relevant facts. Rather it is because popular resistance to GM food is driven in part by concerns other than the fear of narrowly defined risks to health and the environment. These other concerns include an aversion to commercial monopoly and a negative view of pesticide use in general. Herbicide resistant sugar beet may also be perceived as a ``Trojan horse,'''' i.e., a crop whose licensing would create a precedent and make it more likely that other, less environmentally friendly, crops will be approved within the current strictly technical and science-based risk assessment procedures. To meet these public concerns, a kind of technology assessment reflecting factors such as benefits and consumer choice is called for.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(1427, 'Antibiotic-free chloroplast genetic engineering -- an environmentally friendly approach', 'Chloroplast genetic engineering offers several advantages over nuclear genetic engineering, including gene containment and hyperexpression. However, introducing thousands of copies of transgenes into the chloroplast genome amplifies the antibiotic resistance genes. Two recent articles report different and novel strategies to either remove antibiotic resistance genes or select chloroplast transformants without using these genes. This should eliminate their potential transfer to microorganisms or plants and ease public concerns about genetically modified crops.', 'en_US'),
(1428, 'Suppression of gene silencing: a threat to virus-resistant transgenic plants?', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1429, 'The deliberate release of genetically modified biocontrol agents. II. Survival, establishment, and ecological effects', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1430, 'Persistence of oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) outside of cultivated fields', 'It is widely assumed that most cultivated plants cannot persist in natural or semi-natural habitats. Most people thus assume that the plants growing outside of fields (in particular oilseed rape along roadsides) find their origins in the current or previous year''s cultivation of that crop. One consequence of this assumption is that the identity of plants growing on road verges is thought to reflect one of the cultivars currently or recently cultivated, while another consequence is the widespread belief that transgenic plants can be simply managed and controlled by stopping their cultivation. Our work shows that this assumption is false. We identify relict plants of a now unmarketable cultivar type of oilseed rape which have persisted in a semi-natural habitat (road verges) for at least 8 years according to farmer surveys in the studied area. More generally, we confirm that the dynamics of the feral oilseed rape plants of road verges is more complex than those resulting from spillage from agricultural machines or from neighbouring arable fields cultivated the previous year. Within the scope of transgenic oilseed rape cultivation, these results suggest that more studies on the dynamics of feral oilseed rape are needed in order to assess more precisely the risks of its invasiveness and its potential impact on genetic pollution between GM fields and non-GM fields.', 'en_US'),
(1431, 'In-field monitoring of beneficial insect populations in transgenic corn expressing a Bacillus thuringiensis toxin', 'In 1998 and 1999, field studies were conducted near Rosemount, MN to assess the potential impact of transgenic sweet corn, transformed to express the Cry1Ab toxin from Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner var kurstaki(i.e., Bt corn), on several beneficial insects, including predatory coccinellids, chrysopids and anthocorids. Beneficial insects in both St and in non-Bt sweet corn were also monitored in field cages in 1999. Plants were visually sampled for beneficial insects by arbitrarily selecting 3 consecutive plants from each plot or 6 plants/cage. Rank transformed data were analyzed using the Kruskal-Wallis test. which indicated no significant within-year differences in the overall density of beneficial insect populations between Bt and non-Bt sweet corn. Coleomegilla maculata (DeGeer) was the dominant predator species detected in 1998 and 1999. A significant trend (P &lt; 0.05) was found for C. maculata larvae in open plots, with non-Bt treatments having higher C. maculata levels than Bt. Also, C. maculata larval and adult densities, for caged plots, showed a significant trend for higher counts in the in non-Bt corn. No additional differences in species diversity of beneficial insects were detected using Hills N1. Neither Hippodamia convergens Guerin-Menville, Adalia bipunctata (L.), nor Coccinella septempunctata L. were observed during 1999. Although our test detected significant trends for higher densities of C. maculata in non-Bt corn, the results also suggest that longer-term in-field studies with higher sample sizes are needed to further characterize what may be relatively subtle population effects in the field.', 'en_US'),
(1432, 'Weed management in transgenic soybean resistant to glyphosate under conventional tillage and no-tillage systems', 'A 3-year field research was conducted in 1997, 1998 and 1999 at Stoneville, MS on a Dundee silt loam soil to study efficacy and economics of glyphosate with or without preemergence (PRE) herbicides in glyphosate-resistant soybean under conventional tillage (CT) and no-tillage (NT) systems. Single or sequential glyphosate postemergence (POST) applications provided at least 91% control of Echinochloa crusgalli (L.) Beauv. (barnyardgrass), Brachiaria platyphylla (Griseb.) Nash (broadleaf signalgrass), Brachiaria ramosa (L.) Stapf (browntop millet), Sesbania exaltata (Raf.) Rydb. ex A.W. Hill (hemp sesbania), Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. (johnsongrass), Senna obtusifolia (L.) Irwin and Barneby (sicklepod), Ipomoea lacunosa L. (pitted morningglory), Sida spinosa L. (prickly sida), and Cypereus esculentus L. (yellow nutsedge), and POST-only programs were as effective as PRE followed by POST programs.', 'en_US'),
(1433, 'South Africa and the global biotechnology battle', 'Technological innovation forms a continuum with periodic breakthroughs which overcome barriers and extend the frontiers of scientific application. Of all of modern technologies, genetic modification is having the most profound impact and is raising the most public concerns. Emotional debates which started in Europe, have now increased in ferocity and have spilled over into many other regions. The major cause for the present battle for the hearts and minds of the public is two-fold: firstly, a changed social environment in which moral, ethical and safety considerations have gained prominence; secondly, failure of governments, industries and scientists to adequately communicate with the public, politicians and major decision makers. This has left the stage wide open for activists to grab headlines and to blend genuine concerns with pseudo-intellectual information. In addition, a strong under-current has emerged of trade interests and technical trade barriers. South Africa has suddenly been plunged into this heated debate and has become the primary biotechnological battleground in Africa. Regulatory institutions, industry and scientists are urged to become active participants in the debate in order to ensure that factual information reaches the public.', 'en_US'),
(1434, 'Genetic engineering and accelerated plant improvement: opportunities and challenges', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1435, 'Post-transcriptional gene silencing in plum pox virus resistant transgenic European plum containing the plum pox potyvirus coat protein gene', 'Transgenic plums containing the plum pox potyvirus coat protein (PPV-CP) gene were inoculated with PPV. Infection was monitored by evaluating symptoms, ELISA, and IC-RT-PCR. Transgenic clone C5 was highly resistant to PPV during four years of testing and displayed characteristics typical of post-transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS), including a high level of transgene transcription in the nucleus, low levels of transgene mRNA in the cytoplasm, a complex multicopy transgene insertion with aberrant copies, and methylation of the silenced PPV-CP transgene. The PPV-CP transgene was also methylated in seedlings of C5 and these seedlings were resistant to PPV. Our results show, for the first time, that PTGS functions as a mechanism for virus resistance in a woody perennial species.', 'en_US'),
(1436, 'Dissection of RNA-mediated ryegrass mosaic virus resistance in fertile transgenic perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.)', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1437, 'Horizontal transfer of DNA from GM crops to bacteria and to mammalian cells.', 'The evidence for horizontal gene transfer from genetically modified (GM) crops (i.e. maize) to bacteria and mammalian cells is reviewed. The conclusion is that while horizontal gene transfer can and has occurred, such events are rare. However, even rare events may have an ecological impact, and thus the genes encoded by DNA introduced into a GM plant should be the focus of biosafety considerations. In the case of antibiotic resistance markers, the chances of increasing the fitness of any bacteria acquiring the genes from a GM plant is remote. There is also no known risk associated with the remote possibility that mammalian cells could be transformed with these genes and express the proteins.', 'en_US'),
(1438, 'Transgenic insecticidal corn: beyond insecticidal toxicity to ecological complexity', 'Many researchers have hailed transgenic insecticidal crops-plants modified to produce insecticidal proteins derived from genes of the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)-as the most important technological advancement in insect pest management since the development of synthetic insecticides (Vaeck et al. 1987, Koziel et al. 1993, Perlak et al. 1990, 1993). At least 18 transgenic insecticidal crops have been field-tested in the United States, and three (corn, cotton, and potato) have been widely planted (Andow and Hutchison 1998, Federici 1998, Gould 1998, USDA 1999). But as the commercial availability of these crops has grown, so too has controversy over how to assess and manage the risks posed by this method of pest control.The widespread planting of millions of hectares of transgenie crops with high levels of insecticidal proteins raises concerns that pest populations might develop resistance to Bt toxins and that food webs might be disrupted (Gould 1998, McGaughey et al. 1998, Marvier 2001). Indeed, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) .requires industry to maintain populations of susceptible (nonresistant) insect pests to slow development of resistant populations. Nor are concerns limited to the United States: Anxiety over the safety of food and products derived from transgenic crops have created tensions among international trading partners (Balter 1997, Butler and Reichhardt1999, Masood 1999).In this article we focus on transgenic insecticidal corn (Bt corn) developed for selected lepidopteran species that feed on above-ground portions of the corn plant. Over 2.8 million hectares of Bt corn were planted in the United States in 1998, limited only by seed availability (Andow and Hutchison 1998); an estimated 9.7 million hectares of Bt corn were planted in 1999. Thus, although acreage declined to approximately 6.2 million hectares in 2000, Bt corn is now the most common management tactic for the European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis, throughout the corn-growing regions of the United States.The potential benefits of transgenic insecticidal corn include savings in resources devoted to scouting for pest insects, reduced applications of broad-spectrum insecticides, increased or protected yields due to season-long control of O. nubilalis (Rice and P&her 1998), protection of stored corn from lepidopteran insect pests (Giles et al. 2000), and lower mycotoxin levels due to a reduction in fimgal plant pathogens associated with O. nubilalis feeding (Munkvold et al. 1997,1999).Balanced, against these potential benefits are possible draw-backs. Such disadvantages of genetically modified crops can, in general, be grouped into three categories: (1) selection for resistance among populations of the target pest, (2) exchange of genetic material between the transgenic crop and related plant species, and (3) Bt crops'' impact on nontarget species. The potential for O. nubilalis to develop resistance to toxins in Bt corn has been discussed in several publications (Gould 1998, McGaughey et al. 1998, Huang et al. 1999). Although the transfer of genetic material between Bt corn and its wild relatives can be a concern (Snow and Pahna 1997, Bergelson et al. 1998, Traynor and Westwood 1999), the potential for that transfer is limited to Mexico and Central America, where the wild species are located (Galinat 1988).', 'en_US'),
(1439, 'The chimerical world of agricultural biotechnology: food allergens, labeling, and communication', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1440, 'Silencing of antibody genes in plants with single-copy transgene inserts as a result of gene dosage effects', 'The stability of Fab antibody fragment expression during plant development was studied using two homozygous Arabidopsis thaliana lines that contain single copies of the transgenes. These lines exhibited expression characteristics that are typical for homology-based post-transcriptional gene silencing. Their developmental silencing profiles differed markedly, presumably due to the influence of the genomic context on the T-DNAs. In both lines, a clear gene dosage effect could be observed: in contrast to the homozygous lines, derived hemizygous plants accumulated high levels of Fab fragments throughout development. Interestingly, silencing also occurred in double-hemizygous plants, which resulted from a cross between the two homozygous lines and had two copies of each T-DNA at non-allelic positions in their genome. In all cases, down-regulation of the Fab levels was strictly correlated with methylation of cytosine residues in the transcribed regions of the transgenes. Remarkably, this methylation was also found in regions in which the transgenes were non-homologous regions. Finally, the time point of down-regulation depended on the culture conditions and differed for leaves and roots of the same transgenic plant.', 'en_US'),
(1441, 'A non-antibiotic marker for amplification of plant transformation vectors in E. coli', 'Concern over perceived risks from the presence of antibiotic resistance genes in transgenic plants is leading to selection strategies which do not use antibiotic resistance genes as selectable markers. The concern regarding the presence of antibiotic resistance genes has focused particularly on the bla gene for ampicillin resistance, which is used as a bacterial marker when pUC-based plasmids are amplified prior to microprojectile bombardment. The rtl operon, which permits the use of ribitol as the sole carbon source, is present in Escherichia coli strain C but absent in all the K-12 laboratory strains commonly used for molecular biology. A ClaI fragment containing the kinase, dehydrogenase and transporter components of the rtl operon was isolated from strain C and subsequently used to replace bla from two cloning vectors, pBluescript and pMECA, to create pBluescript-R and pMECA-R. E. coli K-12 strain DH10B transformed with either plasmid acquired the ability to grow on ribitol as the sole carbon source, as long as pMECA-R was present within the bacterial cell. Plasmid yields were evaluated and found to be comparable to those obtained from bacteria growing on LB medium supplemented with ampicillin. Hence, the use of genes from the rtl operon might be an acceptable alternative to the use of bla.', 'en_US'),
(1442, 'Invasion of transgenes from salmon or other genetically modified organisms into natural populations', 'In recent years, there has been widespread concern about the ecological and genetic effects of genetically modified organisms. In salmon and other fishes, transgenic growth hormone genes have been shown to have large effects on size and various traits related to fitness. In this paper, I have shown by using a deterministic model that if such a transgene has a male-mating advantage and a general viability disadvantage, then the conditions for its invasion in a natural population are very broad. More specifically, for 66.7% of the possible combinations of the possible mating and viability parameters, the transgene increases in frequency, and for 50% of the combinations, it goes to fixation. In addition, by this increase in the frequency of the transgene, the viability of the natural population is reduced, increasing the probability of extinction of the natural population. These findings provide independent confirmation of previous concerns about the inherent risks of transgenic organisms, especially for native salmon populations potentially affected by commercial salmon production using transgenic stocks.', 'en_US'),
(1443, 'About GMOs.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1444, 'Dynamics, horizontal transfer and selection of novel DNA in bacterial populations in the phytosphere of transgenic plants', 'Horizontal gene transfer has played an important role in the evolution of bacterial genomes. In this review, we outline the factors influencing bacterial utilization of horizontally transferred DNA with reference to the capture of plant transgenes in the phytosphere; including soil, rhizosphere, phyllosphere and the digestive tracts of soil mesofauna invertebrates. Moreover, the release of transgenic plant DNA in the phytosphere and the transfer of bacterial genes in plant environments by natural transformation is reviewed.  Some characteristics of transgenes in transplastomic plants that may increase their likelihood of horizontal gene transfer are identified. Finally, new avenues for future studies with special reference to the elucidation of possible impacts of plant transgenes on the bacterial gene pool are suggested.', 'en_US'),
(1445, 'Attitudes of pulse farmers in Western Australia towards genetically modified organisms in agriculture', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1446, 'Detection of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in the food chain: an overview of the currently available methods', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1447, 'Population-scale laboratory studies of the effect of transgenic plants on nontarget insects', 'Studies of the effects of insect-resistant transgenic plants on beneficial insects have, to date, concd. mainly on either small-scale ''worst case scenario'' lab. expts. or on field trials. We present a lab. method using large population cages that represent an intermediate exptl. scale, allowing the study of ecol. and behavioral interactions between transgenic plants, pests and their natural enemies under more controlled conditions than is possible in the field. Previous studies have also concd. on natural enemies of lepidopteran and coleopteran target pests. However, natural enemies of other pests, which are not controlled by the transgenic plants, are also potentially exposed to the transgene product when feeding on hosts. The redn. in the use of insecticides on transgenic crops could lead to increasing problems with such nontarget pests, normally controlled by sprays, esp. if there are any neg. effects of the transgenic plant on their natural enemies. This study tested two lines of insect-resistant transgenic oilseed rape (Brassica napus) for side-effects on the hymenopteran parasitoid Diaeretiella rapae and its aphid host, Myzus persicae. One transgenic line expressed the .delta.-endotoxin Cry1Ac from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) and a second expressed the proteinase inhibitor oryzacystatin I (OC-I) from rice. These transgenic plant lines were developed to provide resistance to lepidopteran and coleopteran pests, resp. No detrimental effects of the transgenic oilseed rape lines on the ability of the parasitoid to control aphid populations were obsd. Adult parasitoid emergence and sex ratio were also not consistently altered on the transgenic oilseed rape lines compared with the wild-type lines.', 'en_US'),
(1448, 'Regulation of transgenic foods', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1449, 'International, EU and national legislative index on agricultural alimentary biotechnology. Part 2', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1450, 'In vivo experiments on the safety evaluation of GM components of feeds and foods', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1451, 'Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxin released from root exudates and biomass of Bt corn has no apparent effect on earthworms, nematodes, protozoa, bacteria, and fungi in soil', 'There were no significant differences in the percent mortality and weight of earthworms (Lumbricus terrestris) after 40 days in soil planted with Bt (NK4640Bt) or non-Bt corn or after 45 days in soil amended with biomass of Bt or non-Bt corn. The toxin was present in the guts and casts of earthworms in soil planted with Bt corn or amended with biomass of Bt corn, but it was cleared within 2-3 days from the guts after placing in fresh soil. There were no significant differences in the colony-forming units of culturable bacteria (including actinomycetes) and fungi and in the numbers of protozoa and nematodes between rhizosphere soil of Bt and non-Bt corn or between soil amended with biomass of Bt and non-Bt corn. The Cry1Ab protein in root exudates and biomass of Bt corn appears not to be toxic to earthworms, nematodes, protozoa, bacteria, and fungi. The presence of the toxin in the guts and casts of earthworms confirmed that the toxin released in root exudates and from transgenic biomass was bound on surface-active particles in soil, which protected the toxin from biodegradation, as has been observed in this laboratory with purified toxin.', 'en_US'),
(1452, 'Statistical considerations in seed purity testing for transgenic traits', 'Recent advances in agricultural biotechnology have produced many new crop varieties with valuable transgenic traits. These varieties are being, and will continue to be, marketed alongside conventional non-transgenic varieties. As a result, seed purity in commercial seed lots is of particular importance to both seed consumers and seed producers. A key step in the seed production process is the design of sampling and testing procedures used to evaluate seed lot purity. However, due to uncertainties in such methods, there is always a risk of incorrectly rejecting or accepting a seed lot. This paper discusses factors that should be considered when designing and implementing seed purity testing procedures to manage this misclassification risk - especially with regard to the presence or absence of transgenic traits. Many sources of uncertainty in both seed lot sampling and in the assay methods are described, and recommendations for reducing their impact are provided. This paper also explains the statistical concepts of misclassification risk as it affects seed producers and seed consumers. Sampling plans and formulas for determining the sample sizes necessary to control these misclassification errors when accepting or rejecting seed lots are also provided. Both simple, single-stage testing plans and the, often more efficient, double-stage testing plans are described. Testing seed pools rather than individual seeds is introduced as another way of adding efficiency to the testing process. Formulas are given for determining, from a seed sample, the confidence limits for the actual purity level of a commercial lot.', 'en_US'),
(1453, 'Bt corn and insect resistance: an economic assessment of refuges', 'This study extends the current biological framework used for evaluating refuge recommendations to include the trade-offs associated with measures of agricultural productivity, conventional pesticide use, and resistance when Bt maize is planted to control the European maize borer in the north central USA. Four results emerge from the analysis. First, planting refuge not only reduces resistance, but also benefits agricultural productivity in the long run because it preserves the efficacy of Bt. Second, the productivity benefits of resistance management as well as the costs are extremely sensitive to pest population dynamics. Third, while the average cost of increasing refuge to slow resistance is usually low, the marginal cost is often subtantial. Fourth, more refuge is needed for resistance management when supplemental spray applications are economical and frequent on refuge.', 'en_US'),
(1454, 'Fitness components and ecological risk of transgenic release: a model using Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes)', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1455, 'Environmental and food safety issues of genetically modified crops', 'An intense public debate has emerged in Europe concerning the introduction of genetically modified (GM) plants and food crops. While cultivation of GM crops has become very popular in the US, Canada and Argentina since 1996 (Fig. 1), in Europe commercial cultivation of transgenic crops is very limited till now. This is primarily due to cautious regulatory approaches taken by several Member States of the EU, motivated among others by concerns expressed by environmental and consumer groups regarding potential long-term negative effects on environment and human health. The purpose of this contribution is to identify and evaluate the relevant environmental and food safety issues associated with the cultivation of transgenic plants. This is a prerequisite for the acceptance of this relatively new technology, but other issues must also be dealt with such as traceability, guarantees for GM-free production, labelling, benefits for a sustainable agriculture, and transparency of authorisation procedures before this new technology can play an important role in agriculture.', 'en_US'),
(1456, 'Transgenesis may affect farm animal welfare: a case for systematic risk assessment', 'This paper considers (potentially) harmful consequences of transgenesis for farm animal welfare and examines the strategy of studying health and welfare of transgenic farm animals. Evidence is discussed showing that treatments imposed in the context of farm animal transgenesis are by no means biologically neutral and may compromise animal health and welfare. Factors posing a risk for the welfare of transgenic farm animals include integration of a transgene within an endogenous gene with possible loss of host gene function (insertional mutations), inappropriate transgene expression and exposure of the host to biologically active transgene-derived proteins, and in vitro reproductive technologies employed in the process of generating transgenic farm animals that may result in an increased incidence of difficult parturition and fetal and neonatal losses and the development of unusually large or otherwise abnormal offspring (large offspring syndrome). Critical components of a scheme for evaluating welfare of transgenic farm animals are identified, related to specific characteristics of transgenic animals and to factors that may interact with the effects of transgenesis. The feasibility of an evaluation of welfare of transgenic farm animals in practice is addressed against the background of the objectives and conditions of three successive stages in a long-term transgenic program. Concrete steps with regard to breeding and testing of transgenic farm animals are presented, considering three technologies to generate transgenic founders: microinjection, electroporation and nuclear transfer, and gene targeting including gene knockout. The proposed steps allow for unbiased estimations of the essential treatment effects, including hemi- and homozygous transgene effects as well as effects of in vitro reproductive technologies. It is suggested that the implementation of appropriate breeding and testing procedures should be accompanied by the use of a comprehensive welfare protocol, specifying which parameters to monitor, at which stages of the life of a farm animal, and in how many animals. Some prerequisites and ideas for such a protocol are given. It is anticipated that systematic research into the welfare of farm animals involved in transgenesis will facilitate the use of the safest experimental protocols as well as the selection and propagation of the healthiest animals and, thereby, enable technological progress that could be ethically justified.', 'en_US'),
(1457, 'Phosphomannose isomerase: an efficient selectable marker for plant transformation', 'Phosphomannose isomerase (PMI) catalyzes the reversible interconversion of mannose 6-phosphate and fructose 6-phosphate. Plant cells lacking this enzyme are incapable of surviving on synthetic medium containing mannose as a carbon source. Maize, wheat and barley plants, genetically modified to express the Escherichia coli manA gene (pmi) under the control of a plant promoter, were able to survive selection on mannose-containing medium. Transformation frequencies averaged 45% for maize transformation via Biolistics?, 35% for maize Agrobacterium-mediated transformation, 20% for wheat, 3% for barley, and 2% for watermelon transformation. Moreover, the frequencies exceeded those obtained for maize and wheat using the pat or bar gene with Basta® selection. A preliminary safety assessment has been conducted for PMI. Purified PMI protein demonstrates no adverse effects in an acute mouse toxicity test. Purified PMI protein was readily digested in simulated mammalian gastric and intestinal fluids. Plants derived from sugar beet and corn cells that had been genetically modified to express the E. coli manA gene were evaluated for biochemical changes in mannose-associated pathways. No detectable changes in glycoprotein profiles were detected in PMI-transformed plants as compared to non-transgenic controls. The yield and nutritional composition of grain from PMI-transformed corn plants compared to their non-transformed isogenic counterparts were also determined and no statistically significant differences were found. The inherent safety of a system based on simple sugar metabolism coupled with high transformation frequencies for monocots make pmi an ideal selectable marker for plant transformation.', 'en_US'),
(1458, 'Identification of a gene associated with Bt resistance in Heliothis virescens', 'Transgenic crops producing insecticidal toxins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) are widely used for pest control. Bt-resistant insect strains have been studied, but the molecular basis of resistance has remained elusive. Here, we show that disruption of a cadherin-superfamily gene by retrotransposon-mediated insertion was linked to high levels of resistance to the Bt toxin Cry1Ac in the cotton pest Heliothis virescens. Monitoring the early phases of Bt resistance evolution in the field has been viewed as crucial but extremely difficult, especially when resistance is recessive. Our findings enable efficient DNA-based screening for resistant heterozygotes by directly detecting the recessive allele.', 'en_US'),
(1459, 'Bt toxin resistance from loss of a putative carbohydrate-modifying enzyme', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1460, 'Genetic engineering and trade: panacea or dilemma for developing countries', 'Advocates of the use of genetic engineering techniques in agriculture contend that this new biotechnology promises increased productivity, better use of natural resources and more nutritious foods. Opponents are concerned about potentially adverse implications for the environment and food safety. In response to consumer reactions against genetically modified (GM) foods, in some countries crop production is being segregated into GM and non-GM varieties. This analysis finds that world markets for maize and soybeans adjust well to these changes and also that developing countries will divert their trade patterns in response to preference changes in important trading partner countries.', 'en_US'),
(1461, 'Transferring a cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) genetic engineering capability to the African environment: progress and prospects', 'The procedures required to produce genetically transformed cassava were developed and are now in place in three laboratories in the USA and Europe. Future implementation and sustainability of transgenic technologies for the agronomic improvement of cassava will depend, however, on transferring these capabilities to locations where cassava has an important socioeconomic niche. If successful, such countries can apply the technology towards their particular needs. Training scientists from the developing countries in the transgenic biotechnologies is of primary importance in this effort. There are, however, many other factors including the availability of laboratory supplies, equipment, suitably experienced support staff, sufficient funding levels and biosafety considerations, which must be addressed and put in place before a transgenic program can be fully implemented in a given country. A transgenic capability is being transferred from the International Laboratory for Tropical Agricultural Biotechnology (ILTAB), USA, to the University of Zimbabwe. Three southern African cassava varieties were induced to form embryogenic suspension cultures at ILTAB and have been transferred to Zimbabwe. These tissues are presently being used as the basis of genetic transformation programs in both laboratories. Problems encountered in the transfer process as well as possible solutions aimed at adapting the available protocols will be presented.', 'en_US'),
(1462, 'The deliberate release of genetically modified biocontrol agents. III. Towards an alternative risk assessment paradigm', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1463, 'Implications of transgenic, insecticidal plants for insect and plant biodiversity', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1464, 'Transgenic resistance in potato plants expressing potato leaf roll virus (PLRV) replicase gene sequences is RNA-mediated and suggests the involvement of post-transcriptional gene silencing', 'Genetically engineered expression of replicase encoding sequences has been proposed as an efficient system to confer protection against virus diseases by eliciting protection mechanisms in the plant. Potato leaf-roll was one of the first diseases for which this kind of protection was engineered in potato plants. However, details of the protecting mechanism were not reported, so far. The ORF2b of an Argentinean strain of PLRV was cloned and sequenced finding 94% and 97% of homology with Australian and Dutch strains, respectively. To elucidate the mechanism of protection against PLRV infection, three versions of ORF2b (non-translatable sense, translatable sense with an engineered ATG and antisense) were constructed under the control of the 35S CaMV promoter and the nos terminator and introduced in potato plants (cv. Kennebec) by Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation. Grafting infection experiments showed that resistant transgenic plants could be obtained with any of the constructs, suggesting that the mechanism of protection is independent of the expression of protein and is RNA mediated. Field trial infection confirmed that resistant transgenic events were obtained. Biolistic transient transformation experiments of leaves derived from transgenic plants using a gene coding for the fusion protein GUS-ORF2b, followed by scoring of the number of GUS expressing leaf spots, supported that the protection is mediated by a post-transcriptional gene silencing mechanism.', 'en_US'),
(1465, 'The precautionary principle for GM crops', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1466, 'Economic evaluation of HADSSTM computer program for weed management in nontransgenic and transgenic cotton', 'Field studies were conducted at four locations in North Carolina in 1998 and 1999 to evaluate the use of the Herbicide Application Decision Support System (HADSS?) for weed management in nontransgenic, bromoxynil-resistant, and glyphosate-resistant cotton. Weed management systems included trifluralin preplant incorporated (PPI) plus fluometuron preemergence (PRE) or no soil-applied herbicides. Postemergence (POST) options included bromoxynil, glyphosate, or pyrithiobac early POST (EPOST) followed by (fb) MSMA plus prometryn late postemergence-directed (LAYBY) or herbicide recommendations given by HADSS. Glyphosate-resistant systems provided control equivalent to or better than control provided by bromoxynil-resistant and nontransgenic systems for smooth pigweed, Palmer amaranth, large crabgrass, goosegrass, ivyleaf morningglory, and fall panicum. Trifluralin PPI fb fluometuron PRE fb HADSS POST provided equivalent or higher levels of weed control and yield than trifluralin PPI fb fluometuron PRE fb bromoxynil, glyphosate, or pyrithiobac EPOST fb MSMA plus prometryn LAYBY. The trifluralin PPI fb fluometuron PRE fb HADSS POST systems controlled large crabgrass at Goldsboro and fall panicum better than HADSS POST-only systems in nontransgenic cotton. Cotton yield and net returns in the glyphosate-resistant systems were always equal to or higher than the nontransgenic and bromoxynil-resistant systems. Net returns were higher for the soil-applied fb HADSS POST treatments in 8 of 12 comparisons with HADSS POST systems without soil-applied herbicides. Early-season weed interference reduced cotton lint yields and net returns in POST-only systems.', 'en_US'),
(1467, 'Herbicide-resistant genetically-modified crop: its risks with an emphasis on gene flow', 'Herbicide-resistant genetically-modified (GM) crops are the most widely cultivated worldwide, representing 78% of GM crops in 1999, followed by insect-resistant GM crops with Bt gene. Gene flow is the most touching risk arising from GM crops, and is categorized as three types: within species, between species and between GM crop and other organisms. This review shows that gene flow is a reality in the plant kingdom with evolutionary change. Herbicide resistance evolves naturally and spreads dynamically in weeds. One of the most concerning crop in relation to gene flow is Brassica napus, which has a high outcrossing rate and many relative species. In contrast, frequency of gene flow via outcrossing is relatively low in inbreeding cereal crops such as rice, wheat and barley, but published reports have shown that substantial gene flow is possible. Another possible and immediate risk is herbicide-resistant GM crops becoming volunteer weeds. Dry direct-seeded rice is one of the most likely crops in this respect. Stacking different resistance genes in a crop would accelerate multiple resistance evolution in weeds. Multiple resistance to three major herbicides has already been observed in oilseed rape cultivation. More efforts must be made for long-term risk assessment on GM crops in the natural ecosystem. More studies on weed biology and ecology, particularly reproductive processes in weeds, are essential for better understanding of gene flow and systematic management strategy. We hope that this review motivates researchers to analyze data available now, to collect fundamental information on crops and weeds in agro-ecosystem, and to lead to better risk assessment and management.', 'en_US'),
(1468, 'Herbicide-resistant genetically modified crop: assessment and management of gene flow', 'Genetically modified (GM) crops have become a reality in our cropping system. The experiences with GM oilseed rape have shown that gene flow from a GM crop causes genetic contamination of non-GM crops and natural flora. This review summarizes technically available methods for gene flow assessment and proposes possible management methods. Methods for direct monitoring of gene flow include direct bioassay of plants and detection of phenotypic and molecular genetic markers contained in GM crops. A recent green fluorescent protein (GFP) marker technique can be powerful in monitoring gene flow as GFP inserted into a plant can be observed macroscopically under UV light. Appropriate analysis of data from direct assessment may give more useful information to mitigate gene flow. Observation with direct method provides real-time data and mathematical-statistical approaches may enable the long-term consequence to be predictable. Although an estimated gene flow is less than an acceptable level, gene flow must be maintained as low as possible with a systematic management. The management should be conducted stepwise; selection of gene flow-proof GM crops in the stage of development, risk assessment and regulation in the registration stage, cultural management, produce handling/transportation and a long-term monitoring in cropping stage. Promising methods for developing gene flow-proof GM crops include conferring cleistogamy and chloroplast transformation to mitigate pollen flow, and breeding non- or minimum shedding cultivars to mitigate seed dispersal. We strongly suggest that very high expression of a transgene or stacking multiple transgenes in the chloroplast could disturb the function of normal physiology, hence decreased performance of the GM crop. Before the approval of GM crops, proposed GM crops must go through the risk assessment. If the estimated risk of a GM crop exceeds an acceptable level, approval must be suspended. Once a GM crop is allowed for commercial release, additional efforts must follow, such as a continued long-term monitoring of the impact of GM crop cultivation, crop and herbicide rotations, GM crop-suited cultural practices, ''right-time'' harvest, and all necessary gene flow-preventive practices. Such a systematic management incorporating various methods for the stages of GM crop utilization will minimize the risk of gene flow.', 'en_US'),
(1469, 'Abundance of Helicoverpa (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) pupae under cotton and other crops in central Queensland: implications for resistance management', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1470, 'Virus-resistant transgenic plants: potential impact on the fitness of plant viruses', 'Pathogen-derived resistance (PDR) was the basic concept whereby the first virus resistant transgenic plants (VRTPs) were obtained more than a decade ago using the coat protein gene of Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV). Since then, many viral sequences have been engineered into the genome of a no. of crops making them tolerant or resistant to specific viruses for which no corresponding natural resistance genes had been found. Although this represents an indisputable advantage, it is also reasonable that occurrence of potential reassortment (for viruses with segmented genome) and recombination, between endogenous sequences and those of an incoming virus should be taken into consideration. This would affect relative reproductive ability (fitness) of the viral population in a defined environment through the potential emergence of strains with novel epidemiol. traits and more damaging properties. The consensus is that the correct baseline for risk assessment is the current situation in the absence of VRTPs. An account is given of the most recent studies on population dynamics of some economically important plant viruses with the aim to discuss whether deployment of VRTPs would present risks different from those already present in the agricultural environment.', 'en_US'),
(1471, 'Transgenic resistance to plant pathogens: benefits and risks', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1472, 'Genetically modified biocontrol agents: environmental impact and risk analysis', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1473, 'Legislation affecting science and technology -- need for more public debate', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1474, 'Relationship between bollworm (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) pheromone trap catches and yield differences in sprayed and nonsprayed Bt cotton', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1475, 'Bollgard cotton: an assessment of global economic, environmental, and social benefits', 'Insect-protected crops like Bollgard (Monsanto Company, St. Louis) Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) cotton are bringing cotton growers new alternatives to broad-spectrum insecticide use in integrated pest management. After five years (1996-2000) of commercial use, a number of benefits of Bt cotton technology to growers, the environment, and society at large have been reported; however, the benefits of the technology have not been examined to date from a holistic point of view. Accordingly, the objectives of this paper were to examine the potential economic, environmental, and social benefits of Bt cotton compared with broad-spectrum insecticide use, as reported in current literature, and to determine whether the benefits are directly (primary) or indirectly (secondary) related to growing Bt cotton. Data reported are from current scientific literature, conference proceedings, government and institutional reports, market research, and company literature. The direct benefits of Bt cotton include reduced broad-spectrum insecticide use, improved control of target pests, better yield and profitability, lower production costs, and farming risk, expanded opportunities to grow cotton, and a brighter economic outlook for the cotton industry. The indirect benefits of Bt cotton are associated with a reduction in broad-spectrum insecticide use and include increased effectiveness of beneficial arthropods as pest control agents, and better control of non-target pests, reduced risks for farmland wildlife species, less runoff of broad-spectrum insecticides, reduced fuel usage, lower levels of air pollution and related waste production, and improved safety for farm workers and neighbors. While more focused research is needed to fully assess the economic, environmental, and social benefits and risks of Bt cotton, the findings after 5 yr of commercial use on >2 × 106 ha globally indicate that Bt cotton provides an effective method for lepidopteran control that is safer to humans and the environment than conventional broad-spectrum insecticides, making Bt cotton a valuable new tool in integrated pest management.', 'en_US'),
(1476, 'Baseline toxicity of Cry1A toxins to Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in India', 'The baseline toxicity of Cry1A i-endotoxins (derived from Bacillus thruringiensis (Kurstaki)) on field populations of the cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera (Hub.), was determined through log dose probit analysis. All the three Cry1A proteins were found to be toxic to the bollworm larvae. Cry1Ac was found to be the most toxic followed by Cry1Aa andCry1Ab. LC50 values ranged from 0.07 to 0.99 wg/ml(14- fold) for Cry1Aa, 0.69 to 9.94 wg/ml (14-fold) for Cry1Ab and 0.01 to 0.67 wg/ml of diet (67-fold) for Cry1Ac. The LC50 values deduced from the cumulative log dose probit response of the data pooled from all assays, were 0.62 wg/ml for Cry1Aa, 4.43 wg/ml for Cry1Ab and 0.100 wg/ml of diet for Cry1Ac. The respective LC50 values represent the baseline susceptibility indices for resistance monitoring through the conventional log dose probit assays. The LC99 values derived from the cumulative data were 515 wg/ml for Cry1Aa, 13385 wg/ml for Cry1Ab and 75 wg/ml of diet for Cry1Ac. These values represent the diagnostic doses for routine monitoring of resistance to the respective toxins through discriminating dose assays after the introduction of Bt transgenic crops.', 'en_US'),
(1477, 'Fecundity of transgenic wild-crop hybrids of Cucurbita pepo (Cucurbitaceae): implications for crop-to-wild gene flow', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1478, 'Larval mortality and injury patterns of the African stalk borer, Busseola fusca (Fuller) on various plant parts of Bt-transgenic maize', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1479, 'Gene stability in transgenic aspen (Populus). II. Molecular characterization of variable expression of transgene in wild and hybrid aspen', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1480, 'The monarch butterfly controversy: scientific interpretations of a phenomenon', 'The future development and use of agricultural biotechnology has been challenged by two preliminary studies indicating potential risk to monarch butterfly populations by pollen from corn engineered to express proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis. Likewise, these studies have also challenged the way in which science should be performed, published in scientific journals and communicated to the public at large. Herein, we provide a history of the monarch controversy to date. We believe a retrospective view may be useful for providing insights into the proper roles and responsibilities of scientists, the media and public agencies and the consequences when they go awry.', 'en_US'),
(1481, 'Development and commercial use of Bollgard(R) cotton in the USA -- early promises versus today''s reality', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1482, 'Butterflies and biotech: a cautionary principle', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1483, 'Extraction and amplification of DNA from 55 foodstuffs', NULL, 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(1484, 'Is opposition to GM crops science or politics?', 'During the last century, the world population tripled to 6 billion. While food production has increased accordingly, some 800 million people, primarily in the developing world, still do not have access to sufficient food. Forty thousand people die every day from malnutrition, over half being children under the age of 5. In addition to lack of food, deficiencies in micronutrients, such as vitamins and iron, leading to illness and death are widespread. The World Health Organization estimates that the earth''s population will reach 9 billion by 2050. The vast majority of this increase will occur in the developing countries of South East Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, and it is estimated that >50% of this population will live in urban areas. To meet this challenge over the next 50 years, we must double-to-triple the production of food on, essentially, the same area of land in the face of decreasing water supplies and with respect to the environment. This will be made more difficult by the consequences of global warming, such as increased climatic variability, changing patterns of rainfall and new pests and diseases. At the same time there must be a cessation of wilderness erosion to protect biodiversity and maintain ecosystems. Since the 1970s, the world has also seen a revolution in our understanding of how organisms function at the molecular, biochemical and physiological level. An integral part of this revolution has been the development of technologies that allow the transfer of genes from one species to another. Many scientists believe that the application of biotechnology to agriculture?together with plant breeding and improved agricultural practice?may provide solutions to some of the challenges outlined above. We do not claim that GM crops will feed the world or eliminate poverty. But in order to both satisfy the environmental concerns that come with modern agriculture and global warming, while still feeding the increasing world population in a sustainable and nutritious manner, we must assume responsibility for fully evaluating this technology for future generations. As with many new technologies, people are keen to embrace the benefits but reluctant to accept potential risks. The manner of introduction of GM crops onto the market has led to widespread loss of public confidence, which has been exploited by non-representative groups and activists for their own political ends. Some hypothesised threats of GM crops to the environment are elevated as being more important than the security of mankind. And the future that the critics offer is bleak: hard-won knowledge is rejected in favour of ideology. They require an absolute safety guarantee for GM crops, but such a warranty cannot be given since we can never know everything about anything. Thus, a standard of absolute certainty will effectively stop the attainment of the benefits of this or any other technology. As well as the ethical obligation to do no harm there is an obligation to strive for good in an imperfect world. Many of these concerns were submitted to the US Environmental Protection Agency in 1997. In their response, the EPA thoroughly addressed each of the questions raised (EPA, 2000). Our own response is unfortunately limited by space. However, we wish to address the most important criticisms that opponents of GM crops make to try and block their introduction.', 'en_US'),
(1485, 'Genetic transformation of crop plants: risks and opportunities for the rural poor', 'The world population is increasing at an alarming rate and is expected to increase from 6.5 billion at present to 7.5 billion by 2025. Most of this population lives in the rural areas in the developing countries where poverty, food insecurity and nutritional deficiencies are the major problems. Low crop productivity, limited use of inputs such as fertilizers and pesticides and losses due to biotic and abiotic stress factors are a major constraint to increase production and productivity of crops. With the advent of genetic engineering, it has become possible to clone and insert genes into the crop plants to confer resistance to insect pests and improve the nutritional quality. Genetically transformed crops with Bacillus thuringiensis and herbicide resistance genes have been deployed for cultivation in USA, Canada, China and Australia. However, very little has been done to use this technology for improving crop production in the harsh environments of the tropics, where the need for increasing food production is most urgent. However, there is a need to follow the biosafety regulations and a better presentation of the results to the general public for a rational deployment of the genetically transformed crops for improving the livelihoods of the rural poor.', 'en_US'),
(1486, 'Public concerns and legal issues over genetically modified organisms in agriculture', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1487, 'Dynamics of horizontal gene transfer and the ecological risk assessment of genetically engineered organisms', 'The extensive published discussion of potential ecological impacts of introduced genetic sequences and genetically engineered organisms has lacked a quantified delineation of the critical questions for the estimation of risk. Ultimately, the ecological risk assessment of introduced gene sequences is the application of evolution, population genetics, and ecology to risk estimation and decision making. This paper provides a framework for the estimation of risk due to introduced sequences in bacteria, and the principles should also hold for many diploid species. Horizontal genetic exchange poses new challenges for ecological risk assessment. Plasmid transfer can occur without any impacts, although the sequence can become ubiquitous in the population. Conversely, the introduction of a plasmid can change the dynamics of the host population, potentially altering the population minimum and maximum characteristics of its dynamics. Because of genetic exchange, new genetic information is unlikely to be constrained among one type of prokaryote. An example of the use of the model is given using genetic exchange data from a series of published soil microcosm experiments. The model demonstrates the increase in plasmid frequency when using experimentally derived conjugation frequencies. Application of these results to ongoing discussion of the risks of genetically engineered organisms is presented. Particular attention is paid to the transfer of genetic material and the resultant changes in host population dynamics.', 'en_US'),
(1488, 'Expression of an antimicrobial peptide via the chloroplast genome to control phytopathogenic bacteria and fungi', 'The antimicrobial peptide MSI-99, an analog of magainin 2, was expressed via the chloroplast genome to obtain high levels of expression in transgenic tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum var. Petit Havana) plants. Polymerase chain reaction products and Southern blots confirmed integration of MSI-99 into the chloroplast genome and achievement of homoplasmy, whereas northern blots confirmed transcription. Contrary to previous predictions, accumulation of MSI-99 in transgenic chloroplasts did not affect normal growth and development of the transgenic plants. This may be due to differences in the lipid composition of plastid membranes compared with the membranes of susceptible target microbes. In vitro assays with protein extracts from T1 and T2 plants confirmed that MSI-99 was expressed at high levels to provide 88% (T1) and 96% (T2) inhibition of growth against Pseudomonas syringae pv tabaci, a major plant pathogen. When germinated in the absence of spectinomycin selection, leaf extracts from T2 generation plants showed 96% inhibition of growth against P. syringae pv tabaci. In addition, leaf extracts from transgenic plants (T1) inhibited the growth of pregerminated spores of three fungal species, Aspergillus flavus, Fusarium moniliforme, and Verticillium dahliae, by more than 95% compared with non-transformed control plant extracts. In planta assays with the bacterial pathogen P. syringae pv tabaci resulted in areas of necrosis around the point of inoculation in control leaves, whereas transformed leaves showed no signs of necrosis, demonstrating high-dose release of the peptide at the site of infection by chloroplast lysis. In planta assays with the fungal pathogen, Colletotrichum destructivum, showed necrotic anthracnose lesions in non-transformed control leaves, whereas transformed leaves showed no lesions. Genetically engineering crop plants for disease resistance via the chloroplast genome instead of the nuclear genome is desirable to achieve high levels of expression and to prevent pollen-mediated escape of transgenes.', 'en_US'),
(1489, 'GFP-tagged pollen to monitor pollen flow of transgenic plants', 'In this study, the pollen-active LAT59 promoter from tomato was used to express a green fluorescent protein (GFP) encoding gene in Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco) pollen. This promoter is preferentially expressed in anthers and pollen. Pollen in transgenic plants segregated in a 1 : 1 Mendelian ratio, and the plants were polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-positive. GFP-tagged pollen was developed as a tool for tracking the movement of transgenic plant pollen in the environment. Specifically, it should be a useful tool for characterizing the spatial distribution patterns of transgenic pollen, to determine pollination mechanisms, to monitor the effects on nontarget organisms, and to monitor gene flow in field conditions.', 'en_US'),
(1490, 'Genetically modified foods: threat or opportunity?', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1491, 'Assessing risks and benefits: Bt maize in Kenya', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1492, 'The impact of ''terminator'' technology', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1493, 'New European regulations regarding transgenic products', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1494, 'Papaya ringspot virus resistance of transgenic Rainbow and SunUp is affected by gene dosage, plant development, and coat protein homology', 'R1 plants of the transgenic papaya line 55-1, which expresses a single coat protein (CP) gene of the mild strain of the papaya ringspot virus (PRSV) HA from Hawaii, were previously shown to be resistant only to PRSV isolates from Hawaii. Two transgenic papaya cultivars were subsequently derived from line 55-1. UH SunUp (SunUp) is homozygous for the CP gene insertion and UH Rainbow (Rainbow) is hemizygous for the CP gene because it is a F1 hybrid of a cross between SunUp and the nontransgenic papaya cultivar Kapoho. To determine the various parameters that affect the resistance of SunUp and Rainbow, plants at different developmental stages (younger and older) were inoculated with PRSV isolates from Hawaii, Brazil, Jamaica, and Thailand. Hawaiian isolates shared nucleotide sequence identities of 96.7-99.8% to the CP transgene, and the other isolates shared sequence identities of 89.5-92.5%. Resistance was affected by CP gene dosage, plant developmental stage, and CP sequence identity of the challenge isolate. Young and older hemizygous Rainbow plants were resistant to the homologous PRSV HA (99.8% homology to CP transgene), while only older Rainbow plants were resistant to the other Hawaiian isolates (96.7% homology). However, all inoculated Rainbow plants were susceptible to PRSV isolates collected from Jamaica, Brazil, and Thailand. In contrast, SunUp was resistant to all PRSV isolates, except the one from Thailand, regardless of the plant developmental stage. Resistance to the Thailand isolate, which shares 89.5% homology to the transgene, was observed only with SunUp plants inoculated at an older stage. Steady state RNA analysis and nuclear run-on experiments suggested that resistance of the transgenic papaya is RNA-mediated via post-transcriptional gene silencing.', 'en_US'),
(1495, 'Labelling GMOs in food: Trojan horse or good policy?', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1496, 'Comparative reactions of recombinant papaya ringspot viruses with chimeric coat protein (CP) genes and wild-type viruses on CP-transgenic papaya', 'Transgenic papaya cultivars SunUp and Rainbow express the coat protein (CP) gene of the mild mutant of papaya ringspot virus (PRSV) HA. Both cultivars are resistant to PRSV HA and other Hawaii isolates through homology-dependent resistance via post-transcriptional gene silencing. However, Rainbow, which is hemizygous for the CP gene, is susceptible to PRSV isolates from outside Hawaii, while the CP-homozygous SunUp is resistant to most isolates but susceptible to the YK isolate from Taiwan. To investigate the role of CP sequence similarity in overcoming the resistance of Rainbow, PRSV HA recombinants with various CP segments of the YK isolate were constructed and evaluated on Rainbow, SunUp and non-transgenic papaya. Non-transgenic papaya were severely infected by all recombinants, but Rainbow plants developed a variety of symptoms. On Rainbow, a recombinant with the entire CP gene of YK caused severe symptoms, while recombinants with only partial YK CP sequences produced a range of milder symptoms. Interestingly, a recombinant with a YK segment from the 5'' region of the CP gene caused very mild, transient symptoms, whereas recombinants with YK segments from the middle and 3'' parts of the CP gene caused prominent and lasting symptoms. SunUp was resistant to all but two recombinants, which contained the entire CP gene or the central and 3''-end regions of the CP gene and the 3'' non-coding region of YK, and the resulting symptoms were mild. It is concluded that the position of the heterologous sequences in the recombinants influences their pathogenicity on Rainbow.', 'en_US'),
(1497, 'Transgenic crops and developing countries', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1498, 'Why US farmers have adopted genetically modified crops and the impact on US agriculture', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1499, 'Public acceptance: a challenge for the strengthening of biotechnology R & D in Brazil', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1500, 'Comparison of Bt maize hybrids with their non-transgenic counterparts and commercial varieties for resistance to European corn borer and for agronomic traits', 'The European corn borer (ECB), Ostrinia nubilalis (Hubner), major pest of maize (Zea mays L.) in Central Europe. In order compare transgenic Bt maize hybrids with their non-transgenic counterparts and commercial hybrids, field trials and a laboratory bioassay were conducted. The field experiments were performed at four locations with natural and manual infestation of ECB larvae in 1998 and 1999. Transgenic Bt hybrids showed significantly lower means than their corresponding non-transgenic counterparts and commercial hybrids for all resistance traits (damage rating of stalks, number larvae per plant, and percentage of damaged plants or ears under infestation). Bt hybrids containing the CryIA(b) gene under control of green tissue and pollen-specific promoters (event 176) showed a significantly higher percentage of damaged ears than hybrids carrying the CryIA(b) gene under the control of a constitutive promoter (Mon810). Bt and non-Bt hybrids showed no significant differences for all agronomic traits, except for plant height under insecticide protection and grain yield reduction under infestation, whereas Bt hybrids had significantly lower means than their nontransgenic counterparts and other commercial hybrids. All resistance traits were significantly correlated with grain yield reduction. laboratory bioassay confirmed the level of antibiosis of Bt hybrids against neonate ECB larvae. Bt hybrids showed the highest level ECB resistance and therefore are an attractive method of preventing ECB damage within an integrated pest-management system.', 'en_US'),
(1501, 'Mechanisms of food allergy', 'The prevalence of food allergy continues to rise, particularly in ''westernized'' societies; it has been linked to the ''hygiene hypothesis'' and the increased diversity of food consumption worldwide. The pathogenic mechanisms and Th1/Th2 paradigm are being closely examined with respect to the occurrence of inflammatory and injury/repair responses at different mucosal sites. Genetically modified plants as potential food sources and allergenicity are current topics of controversy.', 'en_US'),
(1502, 'How real are the biosafety concerns from commercialization of Bt cotton in India?', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1503, 'Effects of transgene products on honey bees (Apis mellifera) and bumblebees (Bombus sp.)', 'As more transgenic crop plants become commercialised, there is an increasing need for information on their impacts on honey bees and bumblebees. Direct effects on bees may arise upon ingestion of proteins encoded by transgenes, if they are expressed in pollen, nectar or resin. Indirect effects may occur if plant transformation inadvertently changes flower phenotype. This review summarises current findings on effects of purified transgene product ingestion on adult bee gut physiology, food consumption, olfactory learning behaviour and longevity. Bt, protease inhibitor, chitinase, glucanase and biotin-binding protein genes are discussed. Results from tests conducted in the laboratory with individual adult bees and with colonies in the field are presented. Observations of bee foraging on transgenic plants kept under containment are also summarised. Results so far suggest that transgenic plant impacts on pollinators will depend on a case-by-case analysis of the gene concerned and its expression in the parts of the plant ingested by bees.', 'en_US'),
(1504, 'Genetically modified feeds in animal nutrition 1st communication: Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) corn in poultry, pig and ruminant nutrition', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1505, 'Genetically modified feeds in animal nutrition 2nd communication: glufosinate tolerant sugar beets (roots and silage) and maize grains for ruminants and pigs', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1506, 'Expression of GFP and Bt transgenes in Brassica napus and hybridization with Brassica rapa', 'It is possible to monitor the movement of transgenes by tagging them with green fluorescent protein (GFP). In order to develop a model to study transgene flow, canola (Brassica napus cv Westar) was transformed with two GFP constructs, mGFP5er (GFP only) and pSAM 12 [GFP linked to a synthetic Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) cry1Ac endotoxin gene]. Transformed callus sectors that fluoresced green were preferentially selected in the tissue culture process. Four independent GFP canola events and 12 events of GFP/Bt canola were regenerated through tissue culture. GFP fluorescence was macroscopically detectable throughout the entire life cycle of canola. The GFP/Bt events were insecticidal to neonate corn earworm (Helicoverpa zea) larvae and prevented herbivory damage. Fluorescence intensity at 508 nm varied between the independent transformation events, and ranged from 7.6×105 to 13.8×105 (counts per second) in contrast with the wild-type at 5.3×105 cps. Nine GFP/Bt and three GFP events were hybridized with three wild accessions of B. rapa. The resultant hybrids fluoresced green and were insecticidal to neonate corn earworm larvae to the same degree as the transgenic canola parents. However, fluorescence intensities of the hemizygous F1 hybrid lines were lower than the respective original homozygous canola parents. Each F1 hybrid line was backcrossed by hand onto the B. rapa parent, and transgenic backcrosses were produced at rates ranging from 15% to 34%. These data suggest that GFP can be used as a tool to monitor transgene flow from crop species to wild relatives.', 'en_US'),
(1507, 'New technology for improved vaccine safety and efficacy', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1508, 'Transgenic crops and the environment: missing markets and public roles', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1509, 'Genetic engineering of plants to enhance resistance to fungal pathogens -- a review of progress and future prospects', 'Recent applications of techniques in plant molecular biology and biotechnology to the study of host?pathogen interactions have resulted in the identification and cloning of numerous genes involved in the defense responses of plants following pathogen infection. These include: genes that express proteins, peptides, or antimicrobial compounds that are directly toxic to pathogens or that reduce their growth in situ; gene products that directly inhibit pathogen virulence products or enhance plant structural defense genes, that directly or indirectly activate general plant defense responses; and resistance genes involved in the hypersensitive response and in the interactions with avirulence factors. The introduction and expression of these genes, as well as of antimicrobial genes from nonplant sources, in a range of transgenic plant species have shown that the development of fungal pathogens can be significantly reduced. The extent of disease reduction varies with the strategy employed as well as with the characteristics of the fungal pathogen, and disease control has never been complete. Manipulation of salicylic acid, ethylene, and cytokinin levels in transgenic plants have provided some interesting results with regard to enhanced disease tolerance or susceptibility. The complex interactions among the expressed gene product, plant species, and fungal pathogen indicate that the response of transgenic plants cannot be readily predicted. Combinations of defense gene products have shown considerably more promise in reducing disease than single-transgene introductions. The use of tissue-specific or pathogen-inducible promoters, and the engineered expression of resistance genes, synthetic antimicrobial peptides, and elicitor molecules that induce defense responses have the potential to provide commercially useful broad-spectrum disease resistance in the not-too-distant future. The issues and challenges that will need to be addressed prior to the widespread utilization of these transgenic plants are highlighted.', 'en_US'),
(1510, 'Biotechnology for developing-country agriculture: problems and opportunities', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1511, 'The rapid emergence of genetic modification in world agriculture: contested risks and benefits', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1512, 'Allergy to plant seed proteins', 'Allergenicity is defined as the ability of proteins and other agents to sensitize genetically predisposed individuals to develop IgE antibodies, which bind to mast cells and basophils through the Fc portion of the IgE antibody. Upon subsequent exposures to the same protein, the proteins (allergens) bind to and cross-link cellbound IgE stimulating the release of mediators (histamine) that lead to an allergic reaction (Immediate Hypersensitivity). Seed proteins represent one important class of proteins that can induce a variety of allergic syndromes. Aerosolized particles released during pollination, harvest, transport and storage of grains and seed crops can cause inhalant allergy in susceptible individuals. In creased use of cereal grains, legumes and nuts in the diet has been suggested to con tribute to the rise in the prevalence of food allergies. Plant biotechnology affords unique opportunities to identify individual components of seeds or seed products that may cause allergies and to remove or alter allergens from the food source, so that the food can be consumed safely by allergic individuals. These topics are high lighted to provide in sight into the risks and benefits attributed to seed proteins.', 'en_US'),
(1513, 'Gene flow from genetically modified crops', 'Currently in the UK there is a programme of ''Farm Scale Evaluations'' of genetically modified (GM) crops. The programme is designed to compare the effects on biodiversity of GM herbicide tolerant oilseed rape, sugar beet and maize with those of conventional varieties of these crops. The evaluations have highlighted concerns about gene flow from the GM plants to conventional crops or wild relatives.', 'en_US'),
(1514, 'Novel synthetic Bacillus thuringiensis cry1B gene and the cry1B-cry1Ab translational fusion confer resistance to southwestern corn borer, sugarcane borer and fall armyworm in transgenic tropical maize', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1515, 'Agronomic and output trait development in crops', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1516, 'Food allergy -- towards predictive testing for novel foods', 'The risks associated with IgE-mediated food allergy highlight the need for methods to screen for potential food allergens. Clinical and immunological tests are available for the diagnosis of food allergy to known food allergens, but this does not extend to the evaluation, or prediction of allergenicity in novel foods. This category includes foods produced using novel processes, genetically modified (GM) foods, and foods that might be used as alternatives to traditional foods. Through the collation and analysis of the protein sequences of known allergens and their epitopes, it is possible to identify related groups which correlate with observed clinical cross-reactivities. 3-D modelling extends the use of sequence data and can be used to display eptiopes on the surface of a molecule. Experimental models support sequence analysis and 3-D modelling. Observed crossreactivities can be examined by Western blots prepared from native 2-D gels of a whole food preparation (e.g. hazelnut, peanut), and common proteins identified. IgEs to novel proteins can be raised in Brown Norway rat (a high IgE responder strain), and the proteins tested in simulated digest to determine epitope stability. Using the CSL serum bank, epitope binding can be examined through the ability of an allergen to cross-link the high affinity IgE receptor and thereby release mediators using in vitro cell-based models. This range of methods, in combination with data mining, provides a variety of screening options for testing the potential of a novel food to be allergenic, which does not involve prior exposure to the consumer.', 'en_US'),
(1517, 'Genetically modified crops (GMO) in animal nutrition', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1518, 'Determination of Cry9C protein in corn-based foods by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay: interlaboratory study', 'The performance of a commercially available enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kit (Enviro- Logix) was assessed for the determination of Cry9C protein, which is produced by the genetically modified corn StarLink, in 8 types of corn-based foods (starch, refined oil, soft tortillas, tortilla chips, corn flakes, corn puffs, corn muffins, and corn bread) in an interlaboratory study involving 7 laboratories in the United States. The assay kit is a double antibody sandwich and is based on the specific interaction between antibody and antigen. The Cry9C protein analyte is sandwiched between 2 antibodies, one to capture the analyte and the other is conjugated to the enzyme, horseradish peroxidase. The enzyme uses tetramethylbenzidine/peroxide for color development. A strong acid stopping reagent is then used to change the color from blue to a stable yellow. The intensity of the color is proportional to the concentration of the Cry9C protein. In this study blind duplicates of control samples (blank material prepared from non- StarLink corn), spiked samples (blank material with the addition of Cry9C protein), and samples containing incurred analyte (products prepared with StarLink corn) were analyzed. Cry9C protein from 2 different sources was used to spike the food products. Cry9C protein produced and purified from a bacterial host was used to prepare spiked test samples at 2.72 and 6.8 ng/g. Cry9C protein from StarLink corn flour was used to prepare spiked samples at 1.97 ng/g. Average recoveries for samples spiked with corn flour Cry9C protein at 1.97 ng/g ranged from 73 to 122%, within-laboratory relative standard deviations (RSDr) ranged from 6 to 22%, and between-laboratories relative standard deviations (RSDR) ranged from 16 to 56%. Average recoveries for samples spiked with bacterial Cry9C protein at 2.72 and 6.8 ng/g ranged from 27 to 96% and from 32 to 113%, respectively; RSDr values ranged from 10 to 35% and from 7 to 38%, respectively; and the RSDR ranged from 28 to 84% and 15 to 75%, respectively. The incurred test samples were found to contain Cry9C protein at levels ranging from 0.8 to 3187 ng/g depending on the product, RSDr values ranged from 5 to 16% and RSDR values ranged from 11 to 71%. Results of the statistical analysis indicate that this method is applicable to the determination of Cry9C protein in the 8 types of collaboratively studied corn-based products containing Cry9C protein (from StarLink ) at levels of ³2 ng/g.', 'en_US'),
(1519, 'GMOs and food market commercial realities', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1520, 'Genetic engineering for insect resistance in vegetable crops', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1521, 'Genetically modified food: evaluating the economic risks', 'Public opposition to the genetic engineering of food crops (GM food) has not been based solely on concern about biological risks. Economic risks have been widely cited too: the fear that the world''s food supply will be concentrated in the hands of a few large firms, the fear that such firms will engage or are already engaging in anticompetitive practices, and the fear of the transfer of ownership rights over genetic resources to the private sector. Are these fears justified? We argue that the GM food industry may be on course for further consolidation, and this could be anticompetitive. In fact, policymakers face a dilemma: a stringent regulatory approval process enhances food safety, but at the cost of increasing market concentration. We argue also that the integration of seed and agrichemical manufacturers may bias the introduction of GM traits in undesirable directions. Some business practices (such as tiein contracts between seeds and complementary products such as herbicides) may have an exclusionary motive that warrants scrutiny on anticompetitive grounds, while some other practices (such as the use of terminator genes) appear more benign. Finally, we argue against granting patents on genes or even on gene ''functions''. Doing so may delay the development of socially beneficial applications.', 'en_US'),
(1522, 'Effective transgenic resistance to Globodera pallida in potato field trials', 'A cysteine proteinase inhibitor expressed in potato plants provides the first demonstration that transgenic resistance to nematodes such as the potato cyst nematode Globodera pallida can be effective under field conditions. The highest level of resistance obtained in the field for one of the four transformed lines of the normally fully susceptible Solanum tuberosum tuberosum cv. Désirée was 70±9%. The partially resistant cv. Sante that is currently of commercial use in the UK showed a resistance of 85±3%. In containment experiments a change in G. pallida population to one known to be virulent against cv. Sante caused a significant loss of its resistance from 80±4% to only 51±6%. In contrast, the resistance of transgenic Désirée was similar for challenge by the avirulent and virulent populations with values of 68±6% and 71±4%, respectively. Constitutive expression of the cystatin had no detrimental effect on either number or weight of tubers and the weight of the haulm for 3 of the 4 lines in the field. The results establish that transgenic field resistance against G. pallida can be achieved. Clearly food and environmental safety must be assured before commercialisation can be contemplated. However, a prima facie case can be made that the technology is benign and can reduce the use of environmentally hazardous nematicides.', 'en_US'),
(1523, 'Transgenic DNA introgressed into traditional maize landraces in Oaxaca, Mexico', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1524, 'GM crops: rationally irresistible', 'Genetically modified (GM) crops have a great role to play in Indian agriculture, when we need more from lesser resources. The transgenics have the potentiality to resist biotic and abiotic stresses and result in increased productivity in addition to better nutritional quality. The hue and cry on the impact of GM crops on biodiversity has created hypes regarding economic, social and ethical concerns. Though several workers have contradicted the fears expressed regarding the risks and hazards of GM crops, concerns on the safety of GM foods are still creating controversies. India must avoid taking extreme decisions and has to develop a symbiotic relationship between the public and private sectors, to use new technological inputs to complement the traditional methods for making an ''Evergreen Revolution''.', 'en_US'),
(1525, 'The bacterial cytosine deaminase gene used as a conditional negative selection marker in transgenic rice plants', 'The bacterial gene cod A encodes cytosine deaminase (CD), which converts 5-fluorocytosine (5-FC) to 5-fluorouracil (5-FU), a compound that is toxic to cell growth. Consequently, CD can potentially be used as a conditional negative selection marker when 5-FC is applied. Rice seedlings and calli are sensitive to low concentrations of 5-FU, while the substrate of CD, 5-FC, is not toxic. To test whether the cod A gene can be used as a conditional negative selection marker in rice, we developed transgenic rice plants to contain the cod A coding sequence fused with the phloem-specific promoter of rice tungro bacilliform virus. The transgenic rice plants containing the cod A gene can be killed by the addition of 5-FC to the medium. The first generation of rice transgenic lines with the cod A gene showed a 3:1 segregation pattern of 5-FC sensitivity. We therefore conclude that the cod A gene from E. coli can be used as a conditional negative selection gene in rice.', 'en_US'),
(1526, 'Bt toxin is released in root exudates from 12 transgenic corn hybrids representing three transformation events', 'The anti-lepidopteran toxin (Cry1Ab protein) encoded by truncated genes from Bacillus thuringiensis was released in the root exudates from all hybrids of Bt corn studied and which represented three transformation events (Bt11, MON810, and 176). In vitro and in situ studies indicated that the toxin released in root exudates accumulates in soil, as it adsorbs and binds rapidly on surface-active particles (e.g. clays and humic substances), and retains insecticidal activity for at least 180 d, the longest time studied. The results indicated that the release of the Cry1Ab protein by roots is a common phenomenon with transgenic Bt corn and is not restricted to only the one Bt corn hybrid (NK4640Bt) and tranformation event (Bt11) studied initially.', 'en_US'),
(1527, 'Diversity of bacterial communities in the rhizosphere and root interior of field-grown genetically modified Brassica napus', 'Plant roots significantly affect microbial diversity in soil, but little is known on how genetically modified plants influence soil microbial communities. We conducted a 2-year field study to assess the effects of herbicide-tolerant genetically modified canola (oilseed rape, Brassica sp.) on microbial biodiversity in the rhizosphere. During the 1998 and 1999 field seasons, four genetically modified and four conventional canola varieties were grown at four different field locations across Saskatchewan, Canada. The rhizosphere and root interior microbial communities were characterized through fatty acid methyl ester analysis and community level physiological profiles. Principal component analysis indicated that the root interior and rhizosphere bacterial community associated with the genetically modified variety Quest (Brassica napus) was different from conventional varieties Excel (B. napus) and Fairview (Brassica rapa), based on both fatty acid composition and carbon substrate utilization. In addition, all root-associated microbial communities associated with genetically modified canola varieties had significantly higher levels of 10:02OH, 12:02OH, 12:03OH, a15:0, 15:15c, cy17:0, 18:36,9,12c, 19:08c and Sum in Feature 3, suggesting alterations in the composition of the microbial community associated with plants. This study indicates that the composition and functional diversity and the microbial community were influenced by plant variety.', 'en_US'),
(1528, 'The effect of the cowpea trypsin inhibitor in strawberry on damage by vine weevil under field conditions', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1529, 'Genetic engineering of crop for insect resistance and its biosafety', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1530, 'Gene expression and insect resistance in transgenic broccoli containing a Bacillus thuringiensis cry1Ab gene with the chemically inducible PR-1a promoter', 'We produced 49 broccoli plants (Brassica oleracea L. ssp. italica) containing a Bacillus thuringiensis cry1Ab gene under control of the chemically inducible PR-1a promoter from tobacco. Most of them showed substantial or complete control of neonate diamondback moth larvae, regardless of whether the transgene was induced or not. Ten plants were selected for detailed study via northern and western analysis and insect bioassays. They expressed the cry1Ab gene and gave complete insect control when treated with the chemical inducers INA (2,6-dichloroiso-nicotinic acid) or BTH (1,2,3-benzothiadiazole-7-carbothioic acid S-methyl ester); however, leaves treated with water alone were also partially or completely protected from insect damage. Transgenic progeny plants showed greater inducibility than primary transformants at the molecular level. Two progeny lines produced cry1Ab mRNA and Cry1Ab protein and gave insect control only after induction, both when detached leaves and intact plants were tested. The relevance of these results to resistance management strategies is discussed.', 'en_US'),
(1531, 'Genetically modified plants: the stakes', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1532, 'Identity, traceability, acceptability and substantial equivalence of food', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1533, 'Virus coat protein transgenic papaya provides practical control of papaya ringspot virus in Hawaii', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1534, 'Consumer response to genetically modified foods: market segment analysis and implications for producers and policy makers', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1535, 'Safety aspects of novel foods', 'The use of gene technology in food production has enabled microbiologists, and animal and plant breeders, to establish genetic combinations that could not be obtained by means of classical breeding procedures. Thereby it has proved feasible to add or improve specific (qualitative) characteristics in microbial, plant and animal species. Novel foods, when related to genetic modification, may either contain food ingredients produced by genetically modified organisms, or consist of or contain such organisms.Because of these scientific developments, national and international regulatory bodies have considered the question of how adequate existing regulation is with respect to food safety aspects of novel foods derived from genetically modified organisms. This has resulted in a number of advisory reports proposing different strategies for risk assessment. In the proposal for a European Parliament and Council regulation'' these issues are summarized as: 1) The products should be safe for the consumer when consumed at the intended level of use.2) The products should not mislead the consumer.3) The products should not differ from similar food or food ingredients that they may replace in the diet in such a way that their normal consumption would be nutritionally disadvantageous for the consumer.In this paper the differences between proposed risk assessment strategies are briefly discussed, as well as ways to improve such strategies in the future.', 'en_US'),
(1536, 'Novel feeds -- a review of experiments at our institute', 'Incorporation of the Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxin gene or the glufosinate (phosphinothricin) tolerance (Pat) gene into the genetic construction of maize and sugar-beets did not significantly affect chemical composition and digestibility of crude nutrients and has no consequences on energy content, as demonstrated. This is supported by results from feeding trials carried out with poultry, pigs and ruminants. Although the rations were formulated to have high incorporation rates of transgenic or alternatively isogenic feedstuffs, their production power did not differ. From the nutritional point of view the results confirm the thesis that these types of genetic modifications (first generation of GM-plants without substantial changes in composition) do not significantly affect chemical composition and energetic feeding value. Fragments of plant DNA could be detected in some animal tissues (e.g. muscle from chicken), but fragments of transgenic DNA were not found.', 'en_US'),
(1537, 'Finding a precautionary approach to technological developments -- lessons for the evaluation of GM crops', 'The introduction of genetically modified (GM) crops and foods into Europe has generated considerable controversy. Despite a risk assessment system that is intended to be precautionary in nature, the decisions that have been taken have not gathered public confidence. Key attributes of a precautionary appraisal system include humility, completeness, assessing benefits and justifications, making comparisons, allowing for public participation, transparency, diversity, and the ``mapping'''' of alternative views rather than the prescription of single solutions. A comparison of the European GM regulatory system with a different (more precautionary) approach using a ``multi-criteria mapping'''' technique reveals a number of problems. These include the narrow framing of the established risk assessment system (thereby excluding many issues of public concern), a lack of public involvement in the process, and a failure to include appropriate comparisons or a diversity of options. Recent changes to the European regulatory system only go part of the way to addressing these issues. Further controversy may therefore be expected. However, practical ways of undertaking a more broad-based precautionary approach are now available (including the multi-criteria mapping method). These new approaches to technology assessment offer a means for decision making to earn greater public confidence in this complex and difficult area.', 'en_US'),
(1538, 'Ethical and value-based aspects of the European Commission''s precautionary principle', 'In February 2000, the European Commission adopted a Communication on the precautionary principle. This states how the Commission intends to apply the principle and establishes guidelines for its application. The document is intended to inform discussions on international agreements. In particular, it provides a defense of European Union (EU) precautionary policies in case of trade disputes, for example, in case the EU is accused of imposing unfair trade barriers on exports of genetically-modified (GM) products from the United States under the rules of the World Trade Organisation. In the communication, the Commission emphasizes the scientific aspects of the precautionary principle, perhaps partly to counter claims from US officials that the EU''s reluctance to accept GM imports is not based on science but is politically-motivated. However, a principle is by definition a moral guide to behavior. In other words, it is an ethic. The precautionary principle should be viewed as a complement to science, to be invoked when a lack of scientific evidence means that outcomes are uncertain. Any interpretation of this principle needs to place at least as much emphasis on its ethical and value-based aspects as on its scientific justification. The Commission''s interpretation risks undermining the painstaking progress made among European Union member states in responding to public concern about GM crops and food by adopting increased precaution. This paper explores the balance between the scientific and ethical/value-based aspects of the precautionary principle as set out in the Commission''s communication, to make the case that it is the ethical and value-based aspects rather than the scientific aspects of the guidelines that need strengthening.', 'en_US'),
(1539, 'The precautionary principle: scientific uncertainty and omitted research in the context of GMO use and release', 'Commercialization of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) have sparked profound controversies concerning adequate approaches to risk regulation. Scientific uncertainty and ambiguity, omitted research areas, and lack of basic knowledge crucial to risk assessments have become apparent. The objective of this article is to discuss the policy and practical implementation of the Precautionary Principle. A major conclusion is that the void in scientific understanding concerning risks posed by secondary effects and the complexity of cause-effect relations warrant further research. Initiatives to approach the acceptance or rejection of a number of risk-associated hypotheses is badly needed. Further, since scientific advice plays a key role in GMO regulations, scientists have a responsibility to address and communicate uncertainty to policy makers and the public. Hence, the acceptance of uncertainty is not only a scientific issue, but is related to public policy and involves an ethical dimension.', 'en_US'),
(1540, 'Biotechnology: a solution for improving nutrient bioavailability', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1541, 'Transgenic fish: an evaluation of benefits and risks', 'Transgenic fish have many potential applications in aquaculture, but also raise concerns regarding the possible deleterious effects of escaped or released transgenic fish on natural ecosystems. In this review the potential applications of transgenic fish are considered, the probable benefits reviewed, the possible risks to the environment identified and the measures which might be taken to minimize these risks are evaluated. Growth trials of transgenic fish have already been carried out in outdoor facilities and some of these are discussed in the light of possible risks and benefits. Regarding the hazards associated with release or escape, whilst there is some evidence to suggest that transgenic fish may be less fit compared to their wild counterparts, there is insufficient evidence to say that this will be true in all cases. Using mathematical models, we have attempted to predict the magnitude of the genetic effects in a range of different scenarios. A number of possible containment techniques are considered, amongst which containment by sterility is probably the most promising. This can be engineered either by triploidy or by transgenic methods. The conclusions include a tabulated balance sheet of likely benefits and risks, with appropriate weighting.', 'en_US'),
(1542, 'Gene transfer in the environment', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1543, 'Bee-mediated pollen and gene flow from GM plants', 'Recent advances in biotechnology offer the possibility of growing a wide range of insect-pollinated crops to which genes have been introduced from other organisms by genetic modification (GM). Evaluation of their potential environmental impact must include risk assessment of the likely spread of transgenes via pollen by their insect-pollinators, largely bees, to other crops or to sexually-compatible wild relatives. Bee-mediated pollen and gene flow is a function of the deposition of viable, compatible pollen from donor to recipient plants along bee foraging routes, and of the spatial dynamics of those foraging routes within bee forage areas. Knowledge of bee foraging behaviour aids the design of appropriate confinement strategies for experimental releases, monitoring protocols, and mitigation procedures for risk management.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(1544, 'The role of honeybees (Apis mellifera) and other insect pollinators in gene flow between oilseed rape (Brassica napus) and wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum)', 'The transfer of pollen from oilseed rape to a weedy relative (wild radish) by insects was studied with the aim of predicting the risk of the release of a transgene (resistance to herbicide conferred to oilseed rape) in the environment. The pollinating entomofauna present on both plant species was compared in a preliminary study. Two trials were conducted. At site A, the trial consisted of an area of oilseed rape (780m²), including 1m² of wild radish in the centre. At site B, there was a 750m² area of wild radish, including some plants of oilseed rape. The insect diversity, abundance and foraging behaviour (number of flowers visited /min) were observed on both sites simultaneously. Moreover, at site A, the movement of insects between both plant species were observed in the central place by several methods (individual observation, passing ratio of a foraging population during 3 minutes, flower constancy and avoidance of wild radish). In addition, some parameters of floral attractiveness were assessed (flower density, morphology, pollen and nectar production) to understand insect preference for one of the plant species. The results showed both plants had the same flower density at full flowering but differed in their floral morphology and did not offer equal quantities of food (wild radish had deeper and narrower corolla, smaller petals, less pollen and more variable amounts of nectar). Both plants were attractive to pollinators but to differing degrees, depending on the insect taxon. Wild radish was significantly less visited by honeybees. With regard to the risk of pollen transfer between the two species, results showed that when honeybees were foraging on an area predominantly planted with oilseed rape (site A), they avoided wild radish because of their high flower constancy. The constancy of bumblebees differed between species: Bombus terrestris were more constant to oilseed rape, whereas Bombus lapidarius were more constant to wild radish. This led to a relatively low frequency of movement between plant species although bumblebees visited flowers at a higher rate than any other pollinators. Solitary bees and flies seemed to be indifferent to the plant species. The role of each insect group in pollen transfer between oilseed rape and wild radish is discussed with regard to its relative density and foraging behaviour.', 'en_US'),
(1545, 'Control of volunteer potatoes in GM herbicide-tolerant sugar beet and the consequences for populations of potato cyst nematodes', 'This article describes experiments that investigated the effects of controlling volunteer potato plants with glyphosate (Roundup Biactive) in fields of genetically modified glyphosate-tolerant sugarbeet.', 'en_US'),
(1546, 'Recombinant and classically selected factors of potato plant resistance to the Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata, variously affect the potato aphid parasitoid Aphidius nigripes', 'Different forms of crop resistance developed against major potato pests such as the Colorado potato beetle (CPB), Leptinotarsa decemlineata, may be variously compatible with biological control of secondary pests such as aphids. We compared the performance of the parasitoid Aphidius nigripes developing in the aphid host Macrosiphum euphorbiae, on five potato lines, including a transgenic `Superior-BT'' line expressing the CryIIIA toxin of Bacillus thuringiensis, which is specific to Coleoptera; and the `NYL 235-4'' line derived from Solanum berthaultii, characterized by relatively unspecific resistance to herbivores based on moderately-high density of glandular trichomes. The other lines tested were a `Kennebec-OCI'' transgenic line expressing the protease inhibitor rice cystatin I (OCI), a potential resistance factor against coleopteran pests; and the commercial cultivars `Superior'' and `Kennebec'' used as controls. Parasitoid immature survival and adult size were reduced compared to controls when the wasps developed on aphids fed the `Superior-BT'' potato. In contrast, parasitoid size and fecundity increased above control when the wasps developed on aphids fed the `Kennebec-OCI'' potato. Parasitoids reached the adult stage faster and were more fecund on `NYL 235-4'' than control lines. The results indicate that the different forms of potato resistance currently developed mainly against the CPB had various unexpected effects on aphid parasitoid fitness. These effects on the parasitoid were complex but were generally interpretable in terms of host aphid quality variation among potato lines used as food by the aphids during parasitoid development.', 'en_US'),
(1547, 'Prospects of biotechnology in increasing agriculture production', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1548, 'Binding analyses of Bacillus thuringiensis Cry delta-endotoxins using brush border membrane vesicles of Ostrinia nubilalis', 'Transgenic corn expressing the Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Ab gene is highly insecticidal to Ostrinia nubilalis (European corn borer) larvae. We ascertained whether Cry1F, Cry9C, or Cry9E recognizes the Cry1Ab binding site on the O.nubilalis brush border by three approaches. An optical biosensor technology based on surface plasmon resonance measured binding of brush border membrane vesicles (BBMV) injected over a surface of immobilized Cry toxin. Preincubation with Cry1Ab reduced BBMV binding to immobilized Cry1Ab, whereas preincubation with Cry1F, Cry9C, or Cry9E did not inhibit BBMV binding. BBMV binding to a Cry1F-coated surface was reduced when vesicles were preincubated in Cry1F or Cry1Ab but not Cry9C or Cry9E. A radioligand approach measured 125I-Cry1Ab toxin binding to BBMV in the presence of homologous (Cry1Ab) and heterologous (Cry1Ac, Cry1F, Cry9C, or Cry9E) toxins. Unlabeled Cry1Ac effectively competed for 125I-Cry1Ab binding in a manner comparable to Cry1Ab itself. Unlabeled Cry9C and Cry9E toxins did not inhibit 125I-Cry1Ab binding to BBMV. Cry1F inhibited 125I-Cry1Ab binding at concentrations greater than 500nM. Cry1F had low-level affinity for the Cry1Ab binding site. Ligand blot analysis identified Cry1Ab, Cry1Ac, and Cry1F binding proteins in BBMV. The major Cry1Ab signals on ligand blots were at 145kDa and 154kDa, but a strong signal was present at 220kDa and a weak signal was present at 167kDa. Cry1Ac and Cry1F binding proteins were detected at 220and 154kDa. Anti-Manduca sexta aminopeptidase serum recognized proteins of 145,154,and 167kDa, and anti-cadherin serum recognized the 220kDa protein. We speculate that isoforms of aminopeptidase and cadherin in the brush border membrane serve as Cry1Ab, Cry1Ac, and Cry1F binding proteins.', 'en_US'),
(1549, 'Status of genetically modified food crops in India', 'The food situation in India is worsening day by day, mainly due to an ever increasing human population. It is difficult to increase crop productivity with the current availability of land, water resources, labour, finance and crop production technology. Among the newer technologies, the cultivation of genetically modified crops (GMCs) may help in improving food availability, nutritional quality and shelf life of harvested produce and in developing plants resistant to insect pests, disease pathogens and herbicides. However, GMCs have attracted many critics because of their potential impacts on biodiversity, toxicity to non-target organisms, cross-resistance in pests, the higher prices of seeds and foods, monopoly of companies, patent and regulatory approval, and safety to consumers. Some consider that GMCs are unwanted, unsafe and unnecessary, while others favour their introduction and use in India. The debate continues among scientists, policy makers, social activists, farmers and consumers, but this situation may change in the near future because of the impact of World Trade Organization (WTO) policies on globalization and the free market.', 'en_US'),
(1550, 'Does large-scale cropping of herbicide-resistant cultivars increase the incidence of polyphagous soil-borne plant pathogens?', 'Transgenic resistance to broad-spectrum herbicides is increasingly seen in various crops. With transgenic herbicide-resistant (THR) cultivars, application of broad-spectrum herbicides is no longer limited to the pre-emergence stage of the crop. Post-emergence application of these herbicides may be more effective in obtaining sufficient weed control compared with currently used herbicides, and herbicide treatment can be delayed compared with that in non-THR crops, thereby controlling weeds at a larger plant size. A well known side effect of glyphosate and glufosinate ammonium is the emergence of so-called ''herbicide-synergists'', ie opportunistic root pathogens that accelerate the killing of roots that are herbicide-sensitive. These opportunistic plant pathogens, multiplying in the dying roots of weeds, may affect THR crops. In addition, suppressive effects of glyphosate and/or glufosinate ammonium on the saprophytic and antagonistic microflora have been reported and may enhance the activity of root pathogens. The authors hypothesize that delaying herbicide use in THR cultivars to optimize weed control results in increased infections by root pathogens. Controlled field experiments on the interactions between crops, pathogens and weeds are required to test this hypothesis.', 'en_US'),
(1551, 'Glyphosate-resistant soybean as a weed management tool: opportunities and challenges', 'Transgenic soybean, resistant to glyphosate, represents a revolutionary breakthrough in weed control technology. Transgenic soybean is the most dominant among all transgenic crops grown commercially in the world. In 2000, glyphosate-resistant (GR) soybean was planted to 25.8 million hectares globally, which amounts to 58% of the total global transgenic crop area. The United States soybean area planted with GR soybean has increased from 2% in 1996 to 68% in 2001. Glyphosate-resistant soybean as a weed management tool has provided farmers with the opportunity and flexibility to manage a broad spectrum of weeds. The use of glyphosate in GR soybean offers another alternative to manage weeds that are resistant to other herbicides. The rapid increase in GR soybean area is caused by the simplicity of using only one herbicide and a lower cost for weed control. Adoption of GR soybean has resulted in a dramatic decrease in the area treated with other herbicides. Glyphosphate-resistant soybean should not be relied on solely to the exclusion of other weed control methods, and should be used within integrated weed management systems. Over-reliance on GR soybean could lead to problems such as shifts in weed species and population, and the development of glyphosate-resistant weeds. The challenge is for soybean farmers to understand these problems, and for weed scientists to communicate with farmers that continuous use of glyphosate may diminish the opportunity of GR soybean as a weed management tool in the future.', 'en_US'),
(1552, 'Regulation of biotechnology: will we ever ''freely'' trade GMOs?', 'In this paper, the issue of regulation of and trade in genetically modified organisms (GMOs) is examined. It is shown that, despite rapid adoption of GMOs by a few exporters, many importers have developed relatively restrictive procedures for premarket approval of GMOs, and are requiring mandatory labelling. Although exporters have yet to seek a ruling on these regulations, a trade dispute over GMOs is likely to occur. An analysis of the reasons for such a dispute is presented in the paper, along with a discussion of whether such a dispute can be resolved through existing World Trade Organization procedures.', 'en_US'),
(1553, 'Genetically modified crops: methodology, benefits, regulation and public concerns', 'The genetic modification of crop plants from the methodology involved in their production through to the current debate on their use in agriculture are reviewed. Techniques for plant transformation by Agrobacterium tumefaciens and particle bombardment, and for the selection of transgenic plants using marker genes are described. The benefits of currently available genetically modified (CM) crops in reducing waste and agrochemical use in agriculture, and the potential of the technology for further crop improvement in the future are discussed. The legal requirements for containment of novel GM crops and the roles of relevant regulatory bodies in ensuring that GM crops and food are safe are summarized. Some of the major concerns of the general public regarding GM crops and food: segregation of GM and non-CM crops and cross-pollination between GM crops and wild species, the use of antibiotic resistance marker genes, the prevention of new allergens being introduced in to the food chain and the relative safety of GM and non-GM foods are considered. Finally, the current debate on the use of CM crops in agriculture and the need for the government, scientists and industry to persevere with the technology in the face of widespread hostility is studied.', 'en_US'),
(1554, 'Environmental benefits of genetically modified crops: global and European perspectives on their ability to reduce pesticide use', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1555, '''Feed scares'': long-term issues', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1556, 'Genetically modified food and the consumer', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1557, 'The regulation of biologic products derived from bioengineered plants', 'Recently, there has been a large increase in the number and types of biological products -- from therapeutic antibodies to vaccines for the prevention of infectious diseases -- that are produced in bioengineered plant systems. We anticipate that this technology will be used increasingly on a commercial scale for the manufacture of human and animal products. These production systems have the capacity to produce very large quantities of products at lower costs and with reduced risks compared with mammalian systems.', 'en_US'),
(1558, 'Field assessments of gene flow from transgenic to cultivated rice (Oryza sativa L.) using a herbicide resistance gene as tracer marker', 'Development of plant genetic engineering has led to the deployment of transgenic crops and, simultaneously, to the need for a thorough assessment of the risks associated with their environmental release. This study investigated the occurrence of gene flow from transgenic rice to non-transgenic rice plants under agronomic conditions using a herbicide resistance gene as a tracer marker. Two field experiments were established in the paddy fields of two main Mediterranean rice-growing areas of Spain and Italy. In both locations analyses of phenotypic, molecular and segregation data showed that pollination of recipient plants with pollen of the transgenic source occurred at a significant frequency. A gene flow slightly lower than 0.1% was detected in a normal side-by-side plot design. Similar results were found in a circular plot when the plants were placed at 1-m distance from the transgenic central nucleus. A strong asymmetric distribution of the gene flow was detected among this circle and highest values (0.53%) were recorded following the direction of the dominant wind. A significant lowest value (0.01%) was found in the other circle (5 m from the transgenic plants) as was expected according to the characteristics of rice pollen. Such circular-field trial designs could also prove to be very useful in studying the gene flow to other commercial cultivars of rice with the aim of establishing strategies to prevent pollen dispersal from commercial transgenic fields to the neighbouring conventional fields.', 'en_US'),
(1559, 'Plot-to-plot, row-to-row and plant-to-plant outcrossing studies in oilseed rape', 'Unidirectional outcrossing rates were assessed between neighboring plots, rows (spaced 40, 80 and 120 cm apart) and plants of oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) grown in simulated plant breeding field trials, using the transgenic dominant bromoxynil herbicide resistance gene as a marker. Bromoxynil susceptible (pollen recipient) plots, rows and plants were planted in the field and surrounded by bromoxynil-resistant plots, rows and plants, respectively. The field trials were conducted at Winnipeg, Carman, and Portage la Prairie, Manitoba, in 1996 and 1997. Seed produced on the susceptible plots and rows was harvested and then planted in the field the following year with all emerged seedlings sprayed at 750 g a.i. ha-1 bromoxynil to identify resistant individuals. Approximately 420000 seedlings were screened in 1997 and 1998 with 23816 resistant individuals identified, each resistant individual being the result of an outcrossing event. The overall mean plot-to-plot outcrossing rate was 4.0% (± 0.23). The overall mean row-to-row outcrossing rate was 9.5% (± 0.62) for the 40-cm row spacing, 5.6% (± 0.37) for the 80-cm row spacing and 3.9% (± 0.25) for the 120-cm row spacing. For the plant-to-plant trials, seed produced on the susceptible plants was harvested and then a sample was planted in the greenhouse with all emerged seedlings sprayed at 560 g a.i. ha-1 bromoxynil to identify resistant individuals. The overall mean plant-to-plant outcrossing rate was 21.0% (± 1.73). Outcrossing rates of this magnitude have significant implications for all oilseed rape breeding programs. Methods to minimize outcrossing are discussed.', 'en_US'),
(1560, 'Genetic modification of lignin concentration affects fitness of perennial herbaceous plants', 'Populations of four perennial herbaceous species that were genetically modified for altered lignin content (or associated forage digestibility) by conventional plant breeding were evaluated for two agricultural fitness traits, plant survival and plant biomass, in three Northcentral USA environments for more than 4 years. Reduced lignin concentration or increased digestibility resulted in increased winter mortality in two of four species and reduced biomass in one species. Results from other experiment indicate that these apparent genetic correlations may be ephemeral, suggesting that selection for fitness can be successful within high-digestibility or low-lignin germplasm. Results indicate that perennial plants genetically engineered with altered lignin concentration or composition for use in livestock, pulp and paper, or bioenergy production should be evaluated for fitness in field environments prior to use in agriculture.', 'en_US'),
(1561, 'GM crops -- is there a food safety issue?', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1562, 'Metabolite profiling -- a fractionation method for analysis of major and minor compounds in rice grains', 'A metabolite profiling methodology was developed using rice as model crop. The approach is based on consecutive extraction of lipids and polar compounds and subsequent fractionations of both extracts. Transesterification-solid phase extraction (lipids) and selective hydrolysis of silylated derivatives (polar compounds) are applied to separate major from minor constituents. The method covers a broad spectrum of chemical classes. Preliminary investigation of the four fractions by gas chromatography/ mass spectrometry (GC/MS) analysis of silylated derivatives identified more than 100 compounds. This unbiased approach can serve as an additional analytical tool for the safety assessment of genetically modified crops and may help to increase the chance to detect unintended effects due to the application of recombinant DNA techniques.', 'en_US'),
(1563, 'Examination of the F2 screen for rare resistance alleles to Bacillus thuringiensis toxins in the diamondback moth (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae)', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1564, 'Oviposition on and mining in bolls of Bt and non-Bt cotton by resistant and susceptible pink bollworm (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae)', 'Transgenic cotton that produces insecticidal crystal protein Cry1Ac of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) has been effective in controlling pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders). We compared responses to bolls of Bt cotton and non-Bt cotton by adult females and neonates from susceptible and Cry1Ac-resistant strains of pink bollworm. In choice tests on caged cotton plants in the greenhouse, neither susceptible nor resistant females laid fewer eggs on Bt cotton bolls than on non-Bt cotton bolls, indicating that the Bt toxin did not deter oviposition. Multiple regression revealed that the number of eggs laid per boll was negatively associated with boll age and positively associated with boll diameter. Females also laid more eggs per boll on plants with more bolls. The distribution of eggs among bolls of Bt cotton and non-Bt cotton was clumped, indicating that boll quality rather than avoidance of previously laid eggs was a primary factor in oviposition preference. Parallel to the results from oviposition experiments, in laboratory no-choice tests with 10 neonates per boll, the number of entrance holes per boll did not differ between Bt cotton and non-Bt cotton for susceptible and resistant neonates. Also, like females, neonates preferred younger bolls and larger bolls. Thus, acceptance of bolls by females for oviposition and by neonates for mining was affected by boll age and diameter, but not by Bt toxin in bolls. The lack of discrimination between Bt and non-Bt cotton bolls by pink bollworm from susceptible and resistant strains indicates that oviposition and mining initiation are independent of susceptibility to Cry1Ac.', 'en_US'),
(1565, 'Soybean meal from Roundup Ready or conventional soybeans in diets for growing-finishing swine', 'Dehulled soybean meal prepared from genetically modified, herbicide (glyphosate)-tolerant Roundup Ready soybeans containing the CP4 EPSPS protein and near-isogenic conventional soybeans were assessed in an experiment with growing-finishing pigs. The soybeans were grown in the yr 2000 under similar agronomic conditions except that the Roundup Ready soybeans were sprayed with Roundup herbicide. Both were processed at the same plant. The composition of the two types of soybeans and the processed soybean meal were similar. Corn-soybean meal diets containing conventional or Roundup Ready soybean meal and fortified with minerals and vitamins were fed to 100 cross-bred pigs from 24 to 111 kg BW. Diets contained approximately 0.95% lysine initially and were reduced to 0.80 and 0.65% lysine when pigs reached 55 and 87 kg BW, respectively. There were 10 pens (five pens of barrows and five pens of gilts) per treatment with five pigs per pen. All pigs were scanned at 107 kg mean BW and all barrows were killed at the end of the test for carcass measurements and tissue collection. Rate and efficiency of weight gain, scanned backfat and longissimus area, and calculated carcass lean percentage were not different (P > 0.05) for pigs fed diets containing conventional or Roundup Ready soybean meal. Gilts gained slower, but they were more efficient and leaner (P < 0.05) than barrows. Responses to the type of soybean meal were similar for the two sexes with no evidence of a diet x sex interaction for any of the traits. In most instances, carcass traits of barrows were similar for the two types of soybean meal. Longissimus muscle samples from barrows fed conventional soybean meal tended (P = 0.06) to have less fat than those fed Roundup Ready soybean meal, but water, protein, and ash were similar. Sensory scores of cooked longissimus muscles were not influenced (P > 0.05) by diet. The results indicate that Roundup Ready soybean meal is essentially equivalent in composition and nutritional value to conventional soybean meal for growing-finishing pigs. ', 'en_US'),
(1566, 'Hazard identification by methods of animal-based toxicology', 'This paper is one of several prepared under the project ''Food Safety In Europe: Risk Assessment of Chemicals in Food and Diet'' (FOSIE), a European Commission Concerted Action Programme, organised by the International Life Sciences Institute, Europe (ILSI). The aim of the FOSIE project is to review the current state of the science of risk assessment of chemicals in food and diet, by consideration of the four stages of risk assessment, that is, hazard identification, hazard characterisation, exposure assessment and risk characterisation. The contribution of animal-based methods in toxicology to hazard identification of chemicals in food and diet is discussed. The importance of first applying existing technical and chemical knowledge to the design of safety testing programs for food chemicals is emphasised. There is consideration of the presently available and commonly used toxicity testing approaches and methodologies, including acute and repeated dose toxicity, reproductive and developmental toxicity, neurotoxicity, genotoxicity, carcinogenicity, immunotoxicity and food allergy. They are considered from the perspective of whether they are appropriate for assessing food chemicals and whether they are adequate to detect currently known or anticipated hazards from food. Gaps in knowledge and future research needs are identified; research on these could lead to improvements in the methods of hazard identification for food chemicals. The potential impact of some emerging techniques and toxicological issues on hazard identification for food chemicals, such as new measurement techniques, the use of transgenic animals, assessment of hormone balance and the possibilities for conducting studies in which common human diseases have been modelled, is also considered.', 'en_US'),
(1567, 'Genetically modified poplars in context', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1568, 'Agricultural biotechnology', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1569, 'Plant-based vaccines for protection against infectious and autoimmune diseases', 'Over the last 2 decades, the number of emergent infectious diseases has increased at an alarming rate. Also disheartening is the rise of known infectious pathogens that have acquired extensive drug resistance and reemerged with greater virulence. More recently, the threat of bioweapons has rekindled an urgency for the development of mass immunization programs. In response to this increased infectious disease threat, efforts have been intensified to identify more effective, inexpensive, and more easily deliverable mucosal vaccination methods. One area of research currently under development is the genetic modification of plants for production of immunoprotective proteins. The ability of plants to synthesize complex proteins using the elements of sunlight, soil, air, and water makes them ideal organisms for harvesting large quantities of therapeutic proteins. The introduction of antigen or antibody encoding genes into the genome of a plant through stable transformation enables them to manufacture vaccine proteins that are directly applicable for use in disease treatment, unlike yeast, bacterial, insect or other expression systems that require purification steps before delivery. As an alternative to stable transformation, plants can be used to generate large quantities of vaccines by acting as hosts for genetically altered plant viruses in which antigen proteins can be expressed and later purified from infected plant tissues. In this review, we survey current experimental strategies for using edible plants to achieve passive and active immunization against infectious disease organisms. In addition, methods are described for the construction of transformed plants that can provide protection against autoimmune diseases. Concerns and present obstacles to effective immunization with plant-based vaccines for animals and humans are presented.', 'en_US'),
(1570, 'The biosafety files, a new link in biosafety information', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1571, 'Toxicological evaluation of transgenic rice flour with a synthetic cry1Ab gene from Bacillus thuringiensis', 'Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) transgenic (KMD1) and non-transgenic (KMD1''s parental variety Xiushui 11) rice flours were assessed in a 90 day feeding test with rats. KMD1 contained a synthetic cry1Ab gene from Bt, and selection marker genes nptII and hpt linked in tandem. In the .ltoreq.64g kg-1 body wt. (BW) dosage range (Bt transgenic rice flour composed 64% of the ingredients of the diet), no adverse effects of Bt rice on rats were obsd. in terms of animal behavior, wt. gain and feed utilization rate. Necropsy at the end of the expt. indicated that neither pathol. lesions nor histopathol. abnormalities were present in organs such as liver, kidneys, intestines and testes of rats in both test and control groups by macroscopic and microscopic pathol. In addn., no significant differences (P>0.05) were obsd. in relative organ wts., haemograms and blood indexes of rats between test and control groups. Several serum parameters of female rats were found to be significantly different between Bt and non-Bt diets, but the values of these parameters were still within the normal ranges of values for rats of this age and sex. These results demonstrated that Bt rice flour at a dosage of 64g kg-1 BW, Bt toxin and NPTII and HPT proteins have no toxic effects on rats.', 'en_US'),
(1572, 'The potential for gene flow from transgenic crops to related wild species: a case study in strawberry', 'The risk of gene escape is a major concern when transgenic crops are released into the environment, especially for crops that are outcrossing, spread vegetatively, and produce fruit dispersed by animals. However, gene flow from crops with these traits can be difficult to quantify. One such crop, strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa), is cultivated in the southeastern USA, often near populations of the native species Fragaria virginiana, which can cross with the crop. In the present study, we examined molecular marker variation in Fragaria species, identified markers that are present in cultivated strawberry and absent/rare in wild F. virginiana populations isolated from strawberry farms, and used 24 of the ''cultivar markers'' to estimate rates of past and present gene flow from cultivated strawberry to five F. virginiana populations located 100 m to 7.5 km from strawberry crop fields. Eighty percent of the cultivar markers were present in the populations, including markers unique to modern cultivars and markers unique to cultivars no longer grown in the region. Within populations, the plants had different combinations of markers. In three populations, plants were identified that had markers derived from more than one cultivar. The markers were present at widely varying frequencies, suggesting differences in persistence. These results are consistent with past and present gene flow, from strawberry cultivars to F. virginiana and among hybrid and nonhybrid plants.', 'en_US'),
(1573, 'Different cross-resistance patterns in the diamondback moth (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae) resistant to Bacillus thuringiensis toxin Cry1C', 'Two strains of the diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella (L.), were selected using Cry1C protoxin and transgenic broccoli plants expressing a Cry1C toxin of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). Both strains were resistant to Cry1C but had different cross-resistance patterns. We used 12 Bt protoxins for cross-resistance tests, including Cry1Aa, Cry1Ab, Cry1Ac, Cry1Bb, Cry1C, Cry1D, Cry1E, Cry1F, Cry1J, Cry2Ab, Cry9Aa, and Cry9C. Compared with the unselected sister strain (BCS), the resistance ratio (RR) of one strain (BCS-Cry1C-1) to the Cry1C protoxin was 1,090-fold with high level of cross-resistance to Cry1Aa, Cry1Ab, Cry1Ac, Cry1F, and Cry1J (RR > 390-fold). The cross-resistance to Cry1A, Cry1F, and Cry1J in this strain was probably related to the Cry1A resistance gene(s) that came from the initial field population and was caused by intensive sprayings of Bt products containing Cry1A protoxins. The neonates of this strain can survive on transgenic broccoli plants expressing either Cry1Ac or Cry1C toxins. The other strain (BCS-Cry1C-2) was highly resistant to Cry1C but not cross-resistant to other Bt protoxins. The neonates of this strain can survive on transgenic broccoli expressing Cry1C toxin but not Cry1Ac toxin. The gene(s) conferring resistance to Cry1C segregates independently from Cry1Ac resistance in these strains. The toxicity of Cry1E and Cry2Ab protoxins was low to all of the three strains. The overall progress of all work has resulted in a unique model system to test the stacked genes strategy for resistance management of Bt transgenic crops.', 'en_US'),
(1574, 'Chronic exposure of the European corn borer (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) to Cry1Ab Bacillus thuringiensis toxin', 'Transgenic corn expressing the insecticidal toxin from Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner is gaining support as an effective control technology for use against lepidopteran pests, particularly European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis Hübner (Lepidoptera: Crambidae). However, there is concern that widespread adoption of transgenic plants will rapidly lead to B. thuringiensis toxin resistance. Thus, long-term selection of O. nubilalis populations with the Cry1Ab B. thuringiensis toxin has been undertaken in several laboratories in the United States and in Europe. We present results from two independent selection experiments performed in laboratories at the University of Nebraska and at the Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique in France. Although the protocols and methods used by the two laboratories were different, the results were comparable. The highest level of resistance occurred at generation 7 (14-fold), generation 9 (13-fold), and generation 9 (32-fold) for three different strains. For each strain, the level of resistance fluctuated from generation to generation, although there were consistently significant decreases in toxin susceptibility across generations for all selected strains. These results suggest that low levels of resistance are common among widely distributed O. nubilalis populations. ', 'en_US'),
(1575, 'Fitness costs and maternal effects associated with resistance to transgenic cotton in the pink bollworm (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae)', 'Transgenic cotton producing a Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxin is widely used for controlling the pink bollworm, Perctinophora gossypiella (Saunders). We compared performance of pink bollworm strains resistant to Bt cotton with performance of their susceptible counterparts on non-Bt cotton. We found fitness costs that reduced survival on non-Bt cotton by an average of 51.5% in two resistant strains relative to the susceptible strains. The survival cost was recessive in one set of crosses between a resistant strain and the susceptible strain from which it was derived. However, crosses involving an unrelated resistant and susceptible strain indicated that the survival cost could be dominant. Development time on non-Bt cotton did not differ between the two related resistant and susceptible strains. A slight recessive cost affecting development time was suggested by comparison of the unrelated resistant and susceptible strains. Maternal effects transmitted by parents that had eaten Bt-treated artificial diet as larvae had negative effects on embryogenesis, adult fertility, or both, and reduced the ability of neonates to enter cotton bolls. These results provide further evidence that fitness costs associated with the evolution of resistance to Bt cotton are substantial in the pink bollworm.', 'en_US'),
(1576, 'Field efficacy and seasonal expression profiles for terminal leaves of single and double Bacillus thuringiensis toxin cotton genotypes', 'Evaluation of commercial Cry1Ac transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner (Bt) cotton varieties (Bollgard, Monsanto, St. Louis, MO) and an experimental Cry1Ac + Cry2Ab transgenic Bt cotton variety (Bollgard II, Monsanto) for lepidopteran field efficacy was conducted during the 2000 growing season. In addition, a commercially available (Envirologix, Portland, ME) quantification assay (ELISA) was used to measure and profile the expression levels of Cry proteins in two of these varieties [''DP 50B, Bollgard''; ''DP 50BII, Bollgard II'' (Delta & Pine Land, Scott, MS)]. Populations of beet armyworms, Spodoptera exigua (Hübner), and soybean loopers, Pseudoplusia includens (Walker), were significantly lower (P < 0.05) in Bollgard II plots compared with Bollgard. Population numbers for fall armyworms, Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith), and salt marsh caterpillars, Estigmene acrea (Drury), were lower in Bollgard II plots compared with Bollgard but means did not differ significantly (P > 0.05). Single and dual-toxin genotypes remained superior (P < 0.05) compared with conventional cotton against the tobacco budworm, Heliothis virescens (F.). The addition of Cry2Ab had no significant (P > 0.05) impact on Cry1Ac expression in Bollgard II compared with Cry1Ac expression in Bollgard. Furthermore, throughout the season Cry2Ab was present at much higher levels in the plant compared with Cry1Ac for Bollgard II plants. Possible species-specific reasons for increased efficacy of Bollgard II over Bollgard are discussed.', 'en_US'),
(1577, 'Biochemistry and genetics of insect resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis', 'Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a valuable source of insecticidal proteins for use in conventional sprayable formulations and in transgenic crops, and it is the most promising alternative to synthetic insecticides. However, evolution of resistance in insect populations is a serious threat to this technology. So far, only one insect species has evolved significant levels of resistance in the field, but laboratory selection experiments have shown the high potential of other species to evolve resistance against Bt. We have reviewed the current knowledge on the biochemical mechanisms and genetics of resistance to Bt products and insecticidal crystal proteins. The understanding of the biochemical and genetic basis of resistance to Bt can help design appropriate management tactics to delay or reduce the evolution of resistance in insect populations.', 'en_US'),
(1578, 'Economic, ecological, food safety, and social consequences of the deployment of Bt transgenic plants', 'Transgenic plants expressing insecticidal proteins from the bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), are revolutionizing agriculture. Bt, which had limited use as a foliar insecticide, has become a major insecticide because genes that produce Bt toxins have been engineered into major crops grown on 11.4 million ha worldwide in 2000. Based on the data collected to date, generally these crops have shown positive economic benefits to growers and reduced the use of other insecticides. The potential ecological and human health consequences of Bt plants, including effects on nontarget organisms, food safety, and the development of resistant insect populations, are being compared for Bt plants and alternative insect management strategies. Scientists do not have full knowledge of the risks and benefits of any insect management strategies. Bt plants were deployed with the expectation that the risks would be lower than current or alternative technologies and that the benefits would be greater. Based on the data to date, these expectations seem valid.', 'en_US'),
(1579, 'The relationship between homozygous and hemizygous transgene expression levels over generations in populations of transgenic rice plants', 'Segregating T1, T2 and T3 transgenic rice populations, derived from independent particle-bombardment-mediated transformation events were examined in order to assess the effect of gene dosage on transgene expression levels and stability. The expression level of the unselected <beta>-glucuronidase (gusA) reporter gene was quantified in plants from these populations. The gusA gene dosage was determined by segregation analysis of progeny seedlings at the structural level (by PCR) and at the expression level. For some transformation events a gene dosage effect on transgene expression was observed, leading to higher transgene expression levels in homozygous progeny than in hemizygous progeny or primary transgenic plants. However, in many other transformation events, the homozygous state appears to be disadvantageous, being associated with lower transgene expression levels, gene silencing or counter-selection of homozygous plants across generations. Change of gene dosage is probably one of the key factors influencing transgene expression levels and stability in transgenic rice. This is particularly important when considering molecular genetic studies and crop improvement programmes. The possible influence of matrix attachment regions (MARs) in increasing the likelihood of an additive effect on transgene expression level is discussed.', 'en_US'),
(1580, 'Hazard identification and risk assessment procedure for genetically modified plants in the field -- GMHAZID', 'The safe application of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) requires a risk assessment prior to their proposed use. Based on methods from the chemical industry, we developed a hazard identification procedure for the risk assessment of field tests with genetically modified plants. This risk assessment method, GMHAZID, is carried out in the form of guided brainstorm sessions. GMHAZID was tested with a case study for which a risk assessment had previously been made, and the results of the assessments were compared. The results showed that some new hazards potentially leading to uncontrolled spreading, in addition to those from the previous assessment, were identified using GMHAZID. GMHAZID also recognised some hazards leading to failures in the field experiments. We suggest that GMHAZID provides systematics, reliability, and transparency to the risk assessment procedure.', 'en_US'),
(1581, 'Appetizing solutions: an edible vaccine for measles', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1582, 'Analysis of a national biosafety system: regulatory policies and procedures in Argentina', 'Considerable public debate has emerged over the perceived benefits and risks of genetically modified organisms (GMOs), which in many countries is leading to increased government regulation of R&D and trade in GMOs. Under terms of the Convention on Biological Diversity, negotiations began in 1995 to develop a protocol on biosafety. In January 2000, over 130 governments reached agreement on the legally binding Protocol, which will regulate the safe transfer, handling, and use of GMOs. The ultimate goal of the agreement is to ensure an adequate level of protection against potential adverse effects on the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity. Biosafety is achieved by assessing and managing environmental and health risks of new technologies, evaluating the potential ecological and health consequences, and weighing these against potential benefits. During the past decade, national biosafety systems have gained importance as mechanisms for ensuring the safe use of biotechnology products without imposing unacceptable risk to human health or the environment, or unintended constraints to technology transfer. This country report presents an analysis of the development and present status of the biosafety system in Argentina and its impact on the commercialization of genetically modified organisms. The specific objectives of the report are:1. to assess the efficacy of biosafety policies and procedures associated with the introduction of biotechnology development in Argentina;2. to develop recommendations for enhancing the operation of Argentina''s biosafety system and minimizing potential constraints to technology transfer;3. to identify areas where ISNAR and other international providers can provide further assistance.The study focused on the human and organizational aspects of the Argentine biosafety system. Major points of interest were (1) the organization, membership, and operations of the government agencies involved in regulating GMOs; (2) the nature and availability of information on biosafety procedures and requirements; (3) the path of regulatory review and approval leading to commercial release; and (4) the personal experiences of applicants and reviewers in dealing with the biosafety system. Findings and recommendations in the report may serve as the basis for discussions to strengthen and adapt the biosafety system to the changing context for biotechnology products in Argentina. They may also serve to advance efforts in the areas of public acceptance, technology transfer and regulatory harmonization.', 'en_US'),
(1583, 'Plant biotechnology and its international regulation -- FAO''s initiative', 'The FAO has been working on various aspects of biotechnology including genetically modified organisms (GMOs). In the area of a food safety assessment of GMOs, FAO and WHO have recently embarked in the development of international principles and guidelines for the safety assessment of plant GMOs in the framework of the Intergovernmental Codex Task Force for Foods derived from Biotechnology. The scientific input for the development of these principles and guidelines was provided by a series of Joint FAO/WHO Expert Consultations on Foods derived from Biotechnology. This review provides a general overview of the work carried out so far, including the results of the expert consultations and the present situation of the discussions in the Intergovernmental Codex Task Force.', 'en_US'),
(1584, 'New feeds from genetically modified plants: substantial equivalence, nutritional equivalence, digestibility, and safety for animals and the food chain', 'The introduction by recombinant DNA technology of new genes into major crops used by animals has raised important questions; about the safety of novel feeds. The recently amended European Council Directive 2001/18/EC requires an assessment of risks for human, animals and the environment before viable seeds can be imported or the plant itself can be cultivated in Europe. In addition, the Novel Food and the Novel Food Ingredient Regulation (EC Council Directive, 1997) covers the use of non-viable products of any genetically modified (GM) plant intended for food purposes. The conceptual basis for the analysis of risks remains that of substantial equivalence. In practice, compositional analysis of key nutrients and key toxicants used to compare a GM plant with its conventional counterpart is the major source of data used to establish substantial equivalence. Although laboratory animals are used in toxicological studies of the products of introduced genes, animals are rarely fed the entire transformed plants or their by-products. Despite not being required or recommended by the existing legislation, many new products have been intensively tested with farm animals to measure effects on performance and animal health, digestibility of key nutrients, wholesomeness and feeding value. In this paper, we consider the value of such studies for establishing the safety of GM feedstuffs for the target animals and whether animal feeding studies are always necessary to establish the safety for the consumer of products of animals fed GM material. Compositional analysis has always shown the genetically modified plants to fall within the range of established values. The equivalence in digestible energy and crude protein between isogenic and transformed plants expressing a wide range of modifications (insect resistance, herbicide tolerance, or the barnase/barstar system of sterility/fertility restoration genes) also has been clearly demonstrated in different species. In none of these experiments was animal performance, whether measured as growth rate, feed efficiency and carcass merit in beef cattle, egg mass in laying hens, milk production, composition and quality in dairy cows or digestibility in rabbits, affected by feeding transformed plants compared to animals fed control or isogenic plants. Detection of chloroplasts-specific gene fragments by polymerase chain reaction showed the presence of plant DNA fragments (199 base pairs) in lymphocytes and duodenal juice of the dairy cow, and in muscle, liver, kidney and spleen of broilers, However, tDNA expressing Bt, usually found as a single copy gene, could not be detected in milk, tissues sample or eggs of livestock fed Bt maize and is probably not cause for concern.', 'en_US'),
(1585, 'The economics of non-GMO segregation and identity preservation', 'Rejection of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) by some consumers worldwide has led to the creation of market signals encouraging the segregation and identity preservation (IP) of non-genetically modified grain from genetically modified (GM) grain. This article examines the costs of non-GMO segregation and IP for seed producers, farmers and grain handlers in the United States. We find that a small fraction of farmers'' total costs of segregation and IP actually come from the steps farmers take to clean planting and harvesting equipment. Costs appear to come mainly from the production process itself (i.e. from foregoing planting of cost-reducing GM varieties). We argue that a major cost for handlers comes from a flexibility loss due to the necessity of dedicating equipment to one of two handling channels (one for GMOs and one for non-GMOs). For maize, an additional major cost comes from the necessity of preventing pollination of non-GM varieties by GM pollen at the seed and farm production stages. Tolerance levels are a key element of costs of segregation, and zero-tolerance levels may be impossible to obtain without major organisational and economic costs.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(1586, 'New feeds from genetically modified plants: the US approach to safety for animals and the food chain', 'The US regulatory review process for novel crops is accomplished jointly by three federal agencies through a science-based, integrated and multidisciplinary approach. This process assesses safety for inserted genes and recipient plants, potential for allergenicity, integrity for genes, functionality for novel proteins, agronomic characteristics and environmental safety for novel crops, and composition for key nutrients and toxicants for crops and important products. To date, more than 50 crops produced through biotechnology have been approved for commercialization and the vast majority of these have been compositionally comparable to conventional counterparts for nutrient content and known toxicants. Experimental data that are required for the process are clearly defined by a decision-tree approach, and for crops approved to date, feeding studies using livestock have not been required as part of the regulatory process. Further, the United States Food and Drug Administration considers the consumption of DNA to be ''Generally Regarded as Safe.'' Findings from independently conducted studies have indicated no differences for nutrient composition, digestibilities, and animal performance when livestock were fed feedstuffs from conventional and biotech crops. In addition, in independent studies conducted to determine whether transgenic DNA and proteins can be detected in animal products, no transgenic plant-source DNA and proteins have been found in milk, meat, and eggs.', 'en_US'),
(1587, 'Considerations for the assessment of the safety of genetically modified animals used for human food or animal feed', 'Genetically modified food and feed crops have entered the Western market, and genetically modified animals may follow in the near future. The issues that are commonly addressed in the assessment of the safety of genetically modified crops are discussed, as well as the analogous issues that may arise for genetically modified animals. For safety assessment, the degree of substantial equivalence of the novel food- or feed-organism to an appropriate counterpart should be established. Based upon the differences thus found, a further strategy for the safety assessment is chosen. This may, for example, take the testing of a novel food or feed for its potential toxicity and allergenicity. Another issue is that of the possible transfer of genes from the genetically modified organism to others. This would be a concern, for example, if the introduced DNA comprised genes coding for resistance against clinically important antibiotics. Unanticipated long term health effects of the genetically modified food or feed can be monitored by postmarket surveillance. National regulations for food and feed derived from genetically modified organisms may differ, but they are based upon the same underlying principles. The regulatory status of genetically modified animals may differ from that of genetically modified crops, as the foreign gene in some animals will be regarded a veterinary medicine. National regulatory experience with transgenic food animals has been gained in a few cases so far. The FAO/WHO has initiated the harmonization of the food safety evaluation of genetically modified organisms.', 'en_US'),
(1588, 'Point of view on GM organisms and traditional products -- genuineness or innovation?', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1589, 'Special issue: GM organisms in the food chain -- animal products', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1590, 'Genetically engineered crops: their potential use for improvement of human nutrition', 'Great success has been achieved in increasing agriculture productivity to fulfill human needs during the second half of the 20th century. However, there will be much greater challenges in the future. Based on the current population growth rate of 1.4% per year, the world''s population is forecast to increase from the current level of approximately six billion to nine to twelve billion in 50 years. In addition to continuously increasing demand for agricultural production, there is an urgent need to improve the nutritional quality of human diets for this rapidly growing human population. Malnutrition is still a worldwide health issue. Macronutrient and micronutrient deficiencies are prevalent in developing countries, and over-consumption of certain nutrients in developed countries (e.g., saturated fatty acids) is associated with high incidence of certain chronic diseases. Furthermore, there will be declining natural resources such as arable land and water, and the challenges to humans must be met without further degrading the environment. Biotechnology offers a valuable tool to help achieve these goals. This review focuses on the most recent advances in biotechnology, which promise to improve human nutrition by enhancing the nutrient density of plant foods. Issues relating to the safety of food products from genetically engineered crops are also discussed.', 'en_US'),
(1591, 'Breeding forage crops for increased nutritional value', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1592, 'Influences of transgenic insect-resistant plants on honeybees', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1593, 'Agricultural and biological diversity in Latin America: implications for development, testing, and commercialization of herbicide-resistant crops', 'Genetically modified, herbicide-resistant crop (HRC) cultivars, which allow for simplified weed control decisions compared with conventional cultivars, have considerable potential in Latin America. The number of herbicide applications can be reduced in HRCs, and otherwise difficult-to-control species, including red rice in rice or herbicide-resistant weeds, can potentially be managed. The American tropics include the centers of origin of several crops, such as corn and potato, and natural or agrestal floras containing wild near relatives of introduced crops, including rice and cotton, for which HRCs could be used. Potential direct impacts of HRC adoption on biodiversity in Latin America include changes in the genetic diversity of crops, increased volunteer crop problems, and invasion by resistant cultivars of natural areas beyond the farm boundary. Additionally, there is a risk associated with the escape of transgenes from HRCs, involving introgression to weedy relatives on a field scale leading to amplification effects of existing weeds or modification of gene pools of crop progenitors in the centers of origin or diversity. Possible indirect effects of HRCs include the potential expansion of agriculture into uncleared wild areas made economically attractive by the more efficient cropping system, and adverse effects on nontarget organisms and ecosystem processes. The occurrence of spontaneous hybrids of crop-weed or near-relative complexes is known in the United States for rice and sunflower, and the development of HRC-weed hybrids would provide a particularly difficult set of weed management problems. For crops in which HRCs are currently in use or under development, the greatest risks in Latin America appear to be with corn, cotton, and potato. However, some of the genetic and geographical barriers reduce the risk of hybridization between these crops and their wild relatives. Furthermore, unlike the case of feral rapeseed on road verges in Europe, there is no known example of a conventionally bred crop or interfertile hybrid with a near relative becoming established outside of cultivation in Latin America. Soybean, the most widely adopted HRC in Latin America to date, is an exotic beyond the range of its wild relatives. With the exception of O. glumaepatula, there appears to be little threat to endemic wild species from HRC rice as strong infertility barriers should prevent transgene flow, but possible transgene movement to the conspecific red rice may become an issue. Beyond the field boundary, a key question concerns the possible persistence of HRC x wild relative hybrids and the manner in which resistance traits affect their overall fitness. Designing practical risk assessment protocols on which to base HRC release approval is a considerable challenge, and it is vital that Latin American states continue to build and maintain functional biosafety regulatory structures.', 'en_US'),
(1594, 'Safety assessment of genetically modified foods', 'The development of novel foods produced through agricultural biotechnology is a complex three-stage process: gene discovery, line selection, and product advancement to commercialization. The safety of genetically modified foods is an integral part of the overall developmental process throughout all of the stages. In the discovery stage, the safety of the gene, its source, and the gene products must be considered. If any questions arise at this stage, these questions must be answered later in the developmental process. During the line selection stage, the genetically modified seed progresses through a variety of greenhouse and field trials. At this stage, the biological and agronomic equivalence of the genetically modified crop to its traditional counterpart must be compared. While the evaluations made during this stage are not specifically directed toward a safety assessment, many potential products with unusual characteristics are eliminated during this stage of development. However, the elimination of products with unusual agronomic or biological characteristics enhances the likelihood that a safe product will be generated. Finally, in the pre-commercialization stage, the genetically modified product undergoes a detailed safety assessment process. This process focuses on the safety of the gene products associated with the introduced gene and any other likely toxicological or anti-nutrient factors associated with the source of the novel gene and the crop to which it was introduced. The safety of the genetically modified product for both food and feed uses is considered. Thus far, all of the genetically modified products brought into the marketplace have been subjected to such an intensive safety assessment. The safety assessment data have been reviewed by regulatory authorities around the world. The current generation of genetically modified products are quite safe for human and feed animal consumption.', 'en_US'),
(1595, 'Survival and fecundity of Bt-susceptible Colorado potato beetle adults after consumption of transgenic potato containing Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. tenebrionis Cry3A toxin', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1596, 'The case of the monarch butterfly: a verdict is returned', 'A publication reporting the harmful effects on the monarch butterfly of maize genetically modified to express insecticidal -endotoxins from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) caused much public interest. A series of ecologically based studies were subsequently carried out to evaluate rigorously the impact of pollen from such crops and to quantify the risks. The results demonstrated that the commercial large-scale cultivation of current Bt-maize hybrids did not pose a significant risk to the monarch population. Further studies also demonstrated that Bt-expressing crops posed little risk to other nontarget insects, including beneficial insects such as pollinators and natural enemies.', 'en_US'),
(1597, 'Transgenic plants in Argentina: present status and implications', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1598, 'Plant gene flow consequences', 'Biosafety research on transgenic plants has become an important issue in ecological risk assessment. We summarize and assess the current status and future prospects of different approaches related to gene flow and its consequences. Firstly, we explain three appropriate components of biosafety research that include (a) characteristics of the target plant species and its crossable relatives, (b) phenotypic characteristics of the transgenic plant, and (c) the range of scientific questions addressed in the study. Secondly, we identify five different types of biosafety research based on studies without the use of genetically modified plants (GMPs) and the scientific methods used for examining GMPs. We did not expect that any one of the recent studies would be able to address all the appropriate components we suggested, but we point out the strengths of representative studies as well as their weaknesses. Finally, we give an outlook on the future of biosafety research in the post-commercialization era. Gene flow alone should be not regarded as an adverse environmental effect of transgenic plants. Because biosafety research is a time- and resource-intensive process, we will have to concentrate on causal-analytic monitoring with adequate baseline controls.', 'en_US'),
(1599, 'Effect of rice lines transformed with Bacillus thuringiensis toxin genes on the brown planthopper and its predator Cyrtorhinus lividipennis', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1600, 'Genetically modified plants and human health risks: can additional research reduce uncertainties and increase public confidence?', 'So long as the risks to human health from transgenic plants remain potential rather than actual, and, in any event, appear lower than those from traditional plant breeding, hazard assessment need not be extensive. However, in view of current public attitudes to transgenic plants, it is necessary that those tests that are required, be based on logic, on sound science, and in accordance with the best scientific methodology. This is particularly the case with testing for food allergenicity. Current testing is largely indirect and based on comparisons with other known food allergens. Development of direct tests that involve interaction between the actual transgenic protein in question and the immune system is essential if confidence in the regulatory system is to be restored.', 'en_US'),
(1601, 'Degradation of transgenic DNA from genetically modified soya and maize in human intestinal simulations', 'The inclusion of genetically modified (GM) foods in the human diet has caused considerable debate. There is concern that the transfer of plant-derived transgenes to the resident intestinal n''ucroflora could have safety implications. For these gene transfer events to occur, the nucleic acid would need to survive passage through the gastrointestinal tract. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the rate at which transgenes, contained within GM soya and maize, are degraded in gastric and small bowel simulations. The data showed that 80 % of the trans-gene in naked GM soya DNA was degraded in the gastric simulations, while no degradation of the transgenes contained within GM soya and maize were observed in these acidic conditions. In the small intestinal simulations. transgenes in naked. soya DNA were degraded at a similar rate to the material in the soya protein. After incubation for 30 min, the transgenes remaining in soya protein and naked DNA were 52 (SEM 13.1) % and 34 (SEM 17-5) %, respectively, and at the completion of the experiment (3 h) these values were 5 % and 3 %, respectively. In contrast to the soya transgene, the maize nucleic acid was hydrolysed in the small intestinal simulations in a biphasic process in which approximately 85 % was rapidly degraded, while the rest of the DNA was cleaved at a rate similar to that in the soya material. Guar gum and tannic acid, mol-ecules that are known to inhibit digestive enzymes, did not influence the rate of transgene degradation in soya protein. In contrast guar gum reduced the rate of transgene degradation in naked soya DNA in the initial stages, but the polysaccharide did not influence the amount of nucleic acid remaining at the end of the experiment. Tannic acid reduced the rate of DNA degradation throughout the small bowel simulations, with 21 (SEm 5-4) % and 2 (sum 1-8) % of the naked soya DNA remaining in the presence and absence of the phenolic acid, respectively. These data indicate that some transgenes in GM foods may survive passage through the small intestine.', 'en_US'),
(1602, 'Biotechnology regulations and the WTO', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1603, 'Agronomic, Economic and Environmental Impacts of the Commercial Cultivation of Glyphosate Tolerant Soybeans in Ontario', 'Glyphosate tolerant (GT) soybeans appear to be popular among many Ontario farmers. For example, Statistics Canada reports that 23% of the 2001 soybean acreage was planted to GT varieties, up from 18% in 2000. However,  the environmental impact of GT seeds is perceived as controversial in the minds of some members of the public.  This manifests itself in the form of public action on behalf of some activist groups, and a demand for products not containing GT soybeans. The apparent contradiction between producer preferences and public attitudes lies in a general lack of knowledge surrounding the environmental impact of GT soybeans. In this regard, the specific impact  of GT soybeans in Ontario is unknown.Two recent studies investigated the impacts of GT technology on soybean production in the United States. Similar studies have not been conducted that measure the agronomic, economic and environmental impacts of GT soybean technology in Canada. Based on the forgoing, an analogous study measuring these impacts in Ontario agriculture is warranted.  The purpose of this study is to assess the agronomic, economic and environmental impacts of Glyphosate tolerant soybeans in Ontario by conducting similar analyses as Hin et al. and ASA, but using Ontario data. As such, the study will provide a measurement of the agronomic, economic and environmental impacts of GT soybean technology.', 'en_US'),
(1604, 'Seed size variation and predation of seeds produced by wild and crop-wild sunflowers', 'The movement of pollen between crop and wild sunflowers (both Helianthus annuus) has led to concerns about the possible introduction of crop transgenes into wild populations. The persistence of crop traits in wild populations will depend in part on the relative fitness of crop-wild hybrid vs. wild plants. Using seeds from two large experimental field plots, we found that seeds produced by crop-wild plants were twice the size of wild seeds and differed in coloration. Head diameter, date of flowering, identity of mother plant, and levels of predispersal predation explained some variation in mean seed size. We hypothesized that postdispersal vertebrate seed predation would be affected by seed size, with hybrid seeds preferentially eaten. In each of three field trials, significantly more hybrid seeds were eaten (62% of hybrid seed; 42% of wild seed). Within the category of wild seeds, larger seeds were preferentially eaten; however among hybrid seeds, predation was not significantly related to seed size. In this study, differential predation thus reduces hybrid fitness and would presumably slow the spread of transgenes into wild populations.', 'en_US'),
(1605, '40 CFR Parts 152 and 174 Plant-Incorporated Protectants; Final Rules and Proposed Rule', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1606, 'Report of the thirtieth session of the CODEX committee on food labelling', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1607, 'Gene flow between cultivated and wild sunflowers', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1608, 'Pollen as a vehicle for the escape of engineered genes?', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1609, 'When transgenes wander, should we worry?', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1610, 'Structural biology of allergens', 'One of the major challenges of molecular allergy is to predict the allergenic potential of a protein, particularly in novel foods. Two aspects have to be distinguished: immunogenicity and cross-reactivity. Immunogenicity reflects the potential of a protein to induce IgE antibodies, whereas cross-reactivity is the reactivity of (usually preexisting) IgE antibodies with the target protein. In addition to these two issues, the relation between IgE-binding potential and clinical symptoms is of interest. This is influenced by physical properties (eg, stability and size) and immunologic properties (affinity and epitope valence). Discussions on immunogenicity and cross-reactivity of allergens rely on the establishment of structural similarities and differences among allergens and between allergens and nonallergens. For comparisons between the 3-dimensional protein folds, the representation as 2-dimensional proximity plots provides a convenient visual aid. Analysis of approximately 40 allergenic proteins (or parts of these proteins), of which the protein folds are either known or can be predicted on the basis of homology, indicates that most of these can be classified into 4 structural families: (1) antiparallel - beta strands: the immunoglobulin-fold family (grass group 2, mite group 2), serine proteases (mite group 3, 6, and 9), and soybean-type trypsin inhibitor (Ole e 1, grass group 11); (2) antiparallel beta-sheets intimately associated with one or more alpha-helices: tree group 1, lipocalin, profilin, aspartate protease (cockroach group 2); (3) (alpha+beta) structures, in which the alpha- and beta-structural elements are not intimately associated: mite group 1, lysozyme/lactalbumin, vespid group 5; and (4) alpha-helical: nonspecific lipid transfer protein, seed 2S protein, insect hemoglobin, fish parvalbumin, pollen calmodulin, mellitin from bee venom, Fel d 1 chain 1, serum albumin. Allergens with parallel beta-strands (in combination with an alpha-helix linking the two strands, a motif commonly found in, for example, nucleotide-binding proteins) seem to be underrepresented. The conclusion is that allergens have no characteristic structural features other than that they need to be able to reach (and stimulate) immune cells and mast cells. Within this constraint, any antigen may be allergenic, particularly if it avoids activation of TH2-suppressive mechanisms (CD8 cells and TH1 cells).', 'en_US'),
(1611, 'Molecular genetic assessment of the risk of gene escape in strawberry, a model perennial study crop', 'Concerns about genetically engineered crop plants are focused on three potential risks: (1) that transgenic crop plants will become aggressive weeds of agricultural fields or invasive in natural habitats; (2) that their engineered genes will be transferred by pollen to wild relatives whose hybrid offspring will then become more aggressive or invasive; or (3) that the transgenic crops will be a direct hazard to humans or domestic animals. The focus of our work is on the second of these risks, that of gene flow from a genetically engineered crop, strawberry, to a related wild species. Utilizing the molecular marker technology of Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP) and direct studies of the fitness of laboratory produced hybrids, we have documented that hybrids between cultivated and wild F. virginiana occur commonly and that they are highly fit, with the potential to persist and reproduce. In our molecular marker analyses, we have confirmed that F. virginiana populations near strawberry farms in our region contain substantial numbers of hybrid plants displaying DNA markers from cultivars currently grown cultivars no longer grown in our region. Additionally, studies of chloroplast DNAs polymorphism have allowed us to evaluate the contribution of seed dispersal versus pollen dispersal mechanisms for gene escape. Strawberries, unlike many crops, are perennial and clonal, and both these traits increase the risks of hybridization, introgression, and persistence. Our research is measuring the additional effects of these two life-history traits, and should provide guidance on how best to mitigate the risks of transgene escape from strawberries and perhaps from other outcrossing perennials as well.', 'en_US'),
(1612, 'Gene flow and hybrid fitness in the Sorghum bicolor - Sorghum halepense complex', 'The experimental evidence that cultivated plants and their wild relatives regularly exchange genes through pollen transfer under natural conditions is well documented in the literature.However, there has been no consensus regarding long-term ecological or evolutionary consequences of gene flow from cultivated plants into populations of their wild relatives. We review what is known regarding gene flow from crop sorghum, Sorghum bicolor, into populations of its feral congeners, particularly johnsongrass, S. halepense. Descriptions are given of studies conducted on crossability, spontaneous hybridization and fitness of hybrids. The data presented support the hypothesis that crop sorghum commonly contributes alleles to wild/weedy sorghums under field conditions. We focus on the possible consequences of continued gene flow from the crop to wild populations and point out future research needs in this crop/wild complex.', 'en_US'),
(1613, 'Patterns of genetic diversity in sympatric and allopatric populations of maize and its wild relative teosiinte in Mexico: evidence for hybridization', 'Genetic diversity in maize and its wild relative teosinte ( Zea mays ssp. mexicana) in Mexico is important for the sustainability and improvement of the third most important crop in the world. This study examines the genetic diversity of sympatric and allopatric populations of maize and teosinte and evidence for hybridization in Mexico using isozyme electrophoresis. We take a population level approach to the analysis of genetic diversity in standing Mexican populations. Our data provides evidence that hybridization contributes to the genetic similarity between sympatric pairs of maize and teosinte populations compared with allopatric populations of either subspecies. Introgressed populations of teosinte show an increase in diversity relative to isolated populations. To date, introgression from teosinte does not appear to play an important role in the genetic diversity of sympatric maize. Patterns of differentiation among sympatric and allopatric populations of maize and teosinte indicate that introgression occurs more often than previously thought. Additionally, recent introgression between maize and teosinte has resulted in morphological hybrids that often have genetically transgressed allele frequencies compared to adjacent maize and teosinte populations.', 'en_US'),
(1614, 'Gene flow from transgenic crops to wild relatives: what have we learned, what do we know, what do we need to know?', 'I present a brief history of the science of crop to wild gene flow and a glimpse into its future. Scientists have long recognized that crops can spontaneously mate with their wild relatives. However, for reasons probably associated with the cultures of basic vs. applied science, study of that process was largely neglected. The realization that transgenes could end up unintended in wild plants generated a closer examination of the process of crop-to-wild gene flow and its consequences. I expect that this field will continue to grow, with increased emphasis on using transgenic crops themselves as experimental organisms. However, a sister phenomenon, crop-to-crop transgene flow, and its consequences, may prove to be a more urgent emerging issue to be addressed by specialists in transgene flow.', 'en_US'),
(1615, 'Prevalence and management of herbicide-resistant weeds', 'Transgenic and non-transgenic herbicide resistant crops are increasingly being planted commercially in North America. The widespread use of herbicide resistant crops has the potential to increase or alter the use pattern of the herbicide to which a crop is resistant, which has implications for the further evolution of resistant weed species. Gene flow from the resistant crop to related weeds is another potential impact of adoption of this technology, although the relative importance of this phenomenon to increases in weed resistance is unknown. Weed management in agricultural systems is achieved through a combination of methods that include prevention, eradication, and control (reduction of weed densities to economically acceptable levels). Methods of weed control include biological, chemical, cultural, and mechanical techniques, as well as combinations of these approaches. In many parts of the world, however, chemical control with herbicides is the predominant method of weed management. Currently in the US and worldwide, herbicides outrank insecticides and fungicides in both volume used and total sales. As use of herbicides has increased, increased cases of selection for resistance in weeds have been documented. Since the first reported case of weed resistance in 1970, 258 weed species have evolved resistance to one or more of 18 herbicide classes. One of the most recent cases documented is weed resistance to glyphosate, the active ingredient in Roundup©, which has been found in the US and four other countries. To preserve the utility of herbicides in agriculture, active resistance management is essential, using methods such as herbicide rotation, mixing herbicides with different mechanisms of action, and employing combinations of chemical and nonchemical control techniques.', 'en_US'),
(1616, 'Fitness and population effects of gene flow from transgenic sunflower to wild Helianthus annuus', 'A widely acknowledged risk associated with transgenic crops is the possibility that hybridization with wild relatives will cause fitness-related transgenes to persist in wild populations. If wild plants acquire transgenes coding for resistance to herbivory, disease, environmental stress, and/or commonly used herbicides, they could become more abundant in their natural habitats or invade previously unsuitable habitat. In addition, wild populations containing transgenes that provide resistance to herbivores or disease may have additional effects on natural insect and pathogen populations. However, little is known about whether these concerns are justified. For example, many weedy species are affected by herbivores, yet the impact of insect damage on population densities and invasiveness has rarely been examined. In order to determine if a transgene poses a risk to wild populations, or to the species with which the wild plant interacts, three questions must be addressed. These are: 1) Are there genetic or geographic barriers to the escape of the transgene from the crop into wild populations? 2) Is the transgene expected to increase in frequency in wild populations? And 3) What are the ecological consequences of escape? We are investigating these questions in the cultivated/wild sunflower system. In answer to the first two questions we have found: few barriers to gene flow between the crop and wild population, and decreased lepidopteran herbivory and increased seed production in wild plants containing a Bt-toxin gene specific to lepidopterans. In answer to the third question, preliminary analyses suggest that increased seed production in individual plants (caused by, for example, a Bt gene) will lead to an increase in the size of wild populations. We are currently doing experimental and modeling work to determine if larger local populations will lead to larger or more persistent metapopulations.', 'en_US'),
(1617, 'Case study: gene flow from commercial transgenic Cucurbita pepo to ''free-living'' C. pepo populations', 'Field observations of natural populations of sexually compatible wild and weedy relatives of crop plants can provide useful data for assessing the risk of gene flow to these relatives, and theconsequences of that gene flow. Surveys conducted and samples collected during the summer and fall of 2000 and 2001 allowed an assessment of the opportunity for gene flow, as well as its potential consequences. The data from these field observations were supplemented by plot experiments to assess the relative impact of virus infection on free-living, nontransgenic andtransgenic genotypes of C. pepo.', 'en_US'),
(1618, 'Monitoring the environmental consequences of gene flow from transgenic sugar beet', 'Gene flow via seed or pollen is a basic biological principle of plant evolution. The genetic and ecological consequences of gene flow depend on the amount and direction of gene flow as well as on the fitness of hybrids. In Europe, wild relatives of cultivated beet are important plant genetic resources; the conservation of wild beet diversity has become an important task inbiosafety research. We have recently shown that a century of gene flow from Beta vulgaris ssp. vulgaris has not altered the genetic diversity of wild Beta vulgaris ssp. maritima in the Italian sugar beet seed production area. The assessment of potential risks of transgenic plants also has to take into account that conventional crops cross with wild plants. Unintended products of these crosses are weed beets that bolt and flower during their first year of planting. Weed beets cause harvest delays and yield losses. Gene flow is hard to control in wind-pollinated plants. At the same time, wild and weed beet populations undergo evolutionary changes and may expand their geographical distribution areas. The precautionary approach to risk management necessitates monitoring the local wild and weed populations that might be affected by transgene escape. Here, we present the methodology used for monitoring the geographical distribution and diversity of Beta populations in California and Italy. Future research should focus on the evolution of wild beet populations in comparison to baseline data. Two monitoring models are presented showing how endpoints can be measured: 1) ''Prior-After'' crop commercialization against today''s baseline and 2) ''Parallel'' to crop commercialization against GMO-free reference areas/populations. Model 2 has the advantage of taking dynamic changes into account. Model 1 is superior if gene flow is so strong that unaffected areas/populations will not be found. Any assessment should be carried out realistically in comparison to natural variation of plant population parameters.', 'en_US'),
(1619, 'Ecological risk assessment for the release of transgenic rice in Southeastern Arkansas', 'Swarms of hybrids between cultivated rice and its weeds have been known in Taiwan, Thailand, China and India since the 1920''s and appear now to be resident in the state of Arkansas. The USDA is currently funding work to evaluate the rate of pollen movement out of cultivars and into weeds, largely because of its interest in commercializing genetically modified rice. Greenhouse and limited field trials will determine, to some extent, the movement of cultivated genes into naturalized populations, but will provide only a snapshot of their history. Here we propose an approach to investigate the competitive dynamics and degrees of introgression between cultivated and weedy rice to assess the movement of transgenes in cultivation. Competition experiments provide a measure of population growth parameters for rice and red rice, as well as an indication of the commercial impact of transgenic-weed hybrids on rice production. Further, sampling genetic variation in hybrid swarms will provide an integrated, historical assessment of the movement of cultivated genes into weedy rice populations. The results of this work will assist in making decisions regarding the locations, and likely safe cultivars to consider for release as genetically modified organisms.', 'en_US'),
(1620, 'Gene flow and its consequences: Brassica napus (canola, oilseed rape) to wild relatives', 'Gene flow from transgenic canola ( Brassica napus) to weedy relatives is an extant risk in implementing biotechnology in agricultural systems. Wild relatives, such as Brassica rapa and Raphanus raphanistrum, have been shown to hybridize with transgenic canola, and future research must characterize the possible ramifications of transgenic phenotypes contained within introgressed weed populations. We have developed a system to track the movement of an insecticidal Bt transgene from genetically modified canola into relatives by a visual marker, green fluorescent protein (GFP). Whole plant fluorescence has been used to track gene flow into B. rapa, and future studies will use these transgenic hybrid lines to test the impact of an insecticidal transgene on agricultural crops through competition studies.', 'en_US'),
(1621, 'Gene flow in forest trees: from empirical estimates to transgenic risk assessment', 'The extent to which transgene flow from plantations can be effectively predicted, managed, and monitored, will be a critical biological and social factor influencing the adoption of transgenic plantations. Studies of historical and contemporary gene flow levels, via genetic structure surveys and parentage analyses, demonstrate that gene flow is generally extensive in both wind- and animal-pollinated forest tree species. Organelle genome studies have shown that pollen is by far the greatest source of gene dispersal, particularly for tree species with limited seed movement.Marker studies, however, give little insight into the extent and consequences of gene flow in actual deployment scenarios. For example, despite the potential for extensive gene flow, there appears to be extremely low levels of ''genetic pollution'' of wild poplar stands by plantations of hybrids. Factors such as dilution by regional seed and pollen clouds, deleterious impacts of genotype backgrounds, engineered sterility genes, and the effects of transgenes on competitiveness in the wild, can greatly influence observed levels. Case-by-case analyses are required for useful predictions.We introduce a spatial simulation model called STEVE that we have used to estimate the levels of future transgene flow from poplar plantations in the United States Pacific Northwest. It synthesizes data from a variety of ecological and genetic processes, and permits virtual experiments that investigate how diverse genetic, ecological, and management factors might influence the magnitude and variance of gene flow over a 50 to 100 year period. Similar approaches could be used elsewhere to help identify priority research needs, suggest means for mitigation where warranted, and to aid in design of monitoring programs for large-scale research and commercial applications.', 'en_US'),
(1622, 'U.S. regulatory oversight for the safe development and commercialization of plant biotechnology', 'Biotechnology is an enabling technology with broad application to many different areas of industry and commerce. Broadly defined, biotechnology ''includes any technique that uses living organisms (or parts of organisms) to make or modify products to improve plants or animals or to develop microorganisms for specific use.'' Products of biotechnology have entered mainstream American commerce in the human health care arena (pharmaceuticals) and now in agriculture. For American agriculture, biotechnology has the potential to increase productivity, enhance the environment, improve food safety and quality, and bolster American agricultural competitiveness. Its incorporation into agriculture and its ability to have a significant beneficial impact on agriculture in the U.S. have been aided by an oversight structure put in place to assure safety and facilitate transfer of the technology.', 'en_US'),
(1623, 'Gene flow in turf and forage grasses (Poaceae)', 'Currently, over 117 species of grasses are used for turf, forage and erosion control, with new species being evaluated every year. Only a relatively few number of these species have been genetically transformed through biotechnology. With DNA biotechnological enhancement being considered for virtually all commercially important plants, the number of field-tests for transgenic plants are increasing exponentially. This trend is also happening with turf and forage grasses, with an increase in the number of new species being tested each year. Currently the following species have permit/notifications through USDA/APHIS to conduct field tests: creeping bentgrass ( Agrostis stolonifera L.); Kentucky bluegrass ( Poa pratensis L.); perennial ryegrass ( Lolium perenne L.); tall fescue [ Festuca arundinacea Schreber or Lolium arundinaceum (Schreber) Darbyshire]; Bermuda grass [ Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.]; Russian wildrye [ Psathrostachys juncea (Fischer) Nevski]; Bahiagrass ( Paspalum notatum Flügge var. saurae Parodi); Kentucky bluegrass x Texas bluegrass ( Poa pratensis x P. arachnifera Torrey); St. Augustine grass [ Stenotaphrum secundatum (Walters) O. Kuntze]; and velvet bentgrass ( Agrostis canina L.). The significance of gene escape will vary with the biology of the plant donor, the wild recipient, and the introduced gene(s). In regards to the crop donor, primary risks will probably come from crops: 1) that have undergone little domestication because there would be minimal ecological and reproductive divergence from the wild progenitors (Ellstrand and Hoffman 1990); 2) grown sympatric with wild relatives (e.g. centers of origin) or crosscompatible species (or genera); 3) that have biotypes or related taxa that are already aggressive weeds; 4) that can also be weeds themselves; and 5) outcross with some degree of self- incompatibility. Because of the large number of grass species used for turf and forage, and since the potential for gene escape and its consequences will be different for each species or species complex, only those taxa currently in the APHIS Field Test program will be discussed at this time. What is known biologically and systematically about each taxon, and the complexes they form will be presented.', 'en_US'),
(1624, 'Gene flow assessment for plant-incorporated protectants by the Biopesticide and Pollution Prevention Division, U.S. EPA', 'The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act directs the U.S. EPA to examine all potentially adverse environmental impacts, including those which may arise from gene flow of plant-incorporated protectants (PIPs) to wild or feral populations of sexually compatible plants. In addition to this mandate, the Federal Food Drug and Cosmetic Act requires the issuance  of a food tolerance or exemption from the requirement of a tolerance for all pesticidal substances that may enter the food supply whether through seed mixing or cross pollination. To date, three crop species have been registered by the Agency as PIPs and all have received exemptions from the requirement of a tolerance. Maize, cotton and potato were reviewed for their potential to hybridize with wild and feral relatives of sexually compatible plants in the U.S., its territories and possessions. For Zea mays ssp. mays it was concluded that there was no biologically plausible avenue for gene flow to other plants within these geographical boundaries since there are no sexually compatible species present, other than in special plantings ( e.g., herbaria, research plots, demonstration plots). The conclusion for Bt-potato ( Solanum tuberosum ssp. tuberosum) was largely the same since the only compatible relatives are found at higher elevations in the southwest and are not found in areas where commercial potato production occurs. Upland cotton, Gossypium hirsutum, does have the potential to hybridize with Hawaiian cotton, G. tomentosum, and feral populations of G. hirsutum in the Florida Keys, and of G. hirsutum / G. barbadense on the U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico. For these reasons, restrictions on field plot experimental use permits and commercial planting of Bt-cotton has been instituted in these areas.', 'en_US'),
(1625, 'The evolution of a biological risk program: gene flow between wehat (Triticum aestivum L.) and jointed goatgrass (Aegilops cylindrica Host)', 'The development of a biological risk program to determine the potential for gene flow between a cultivated species to a wild species involves a series of steps that lead from determining if there is a problem to developing ways to minimize the potential for undesirable gene flow. In the case of wheat and jointed goatgrass the presence of seed on hybrids between the two species in the field led to the initial studies to determine if there was the potential for gene flow by backcrossing to jointed goatgrass. Greenhouse and field studies confirmed that not only was backcrossing possible but that partial self-fertility could be restored in the second backcross generation. This indicated that gene movement between the two species would be possible in the field with the hybrid acting as a bridge for gene transfer. Once the potential for gene flow was confirmed, studies were then initiated to determining ways to minimize gene movement. In the case of wheat and jointed goatgrass it may be possible to reduce the transfer and retention of wheat genes in a jointed goatgrass background by locating the gene in wheat on a genome not shared with jointed goatgrass, and by using cultural practices to prevent the hybrid or BC1 generation reducing the potential for restoration of self-fertility. These methods may reduce the potential for gene flow but it would still need to be determined if they reduce the risk to ''an acceptable level''.', 'en_US'),
(1626, 'Bt cotton in South Africa: adoption and impact on farm incomes amongst small- and large-scale farmers', 'South Africa is one of few developing countries, and the only one in Africa, that has adopted genetically modified crops for commercial production. Insect resistant cotton has been produced since the 1997/1998 season and insect resistant yellow maize since the 1998/1999 season. For the 2001/2002 season, herbicide tolerant cotton has been made available for commercial production and herbicide tolerant soybeans have been introduced on a small scale. Insect resistant white maize has also been released in limited quantities. In the 2000/2001 season, an estimated 300 large-scale commercial farmers produced 95% of South Africa''s cotton crop. The other 5% were produced by about 3,000 small-scale farmers on the Makhathini Flats (KwaZulu-Natal Province) and another 312 farmers in the Tonga area (Mpumalanga Province). A total of 157,515 bales (200kg each) were produced on 56,692 hectares, with smallholders contributing a total of 7,300 bales.', 'en_US'),
(1627, 'Overwintering of genetically modified sugar beet, Beta vulgaris var. altissima Doll, as a source for dispersal of transgenic pollen', 'The potential impact of transgenic crops on community ecology will depend on the distribution and establishment of the new transgenic traits, on the sexual transfer of their new genes to the environment (Bartsch & Pohl-Orf, 1996) and on the potential ecological impact of the transgenic trait. Flowering and pollen dispersal is important for outcrossing of the genetically engineered trait. For a biennial plant, like the cultivars of Beta vulgaris L., overwintering is normally necessary to become generative and to produce pollen and seeds (Abe et al., 1997), which usually does not happen with sugar beet as a field crop harvested in autumn (Longden 1989). The starting point for the project was a transgenic sugar beet, Beta vulgaris L. subsp. vulgaris (Lange et al., 1998), with rhizomania and herbicide ( Basta®, Liberty®) resistance. Cold tolerance is one of the most important factors for survival of sugar beet in Central- and North-Europe. Among other ways, spreading of transgenic traits into weed beet (Boudry et al., 1993) or wild beet can occur if genetically engineered - biennial - plants survive the winter, flower in spring and spread their pollen. Field experiments were performed with transgenic breeding lines and their hybrids, transgenic and non-transgenic hybrids with Swiss chard and three conventional beet cultivars to evaluate winter survival rates at seven different field sites. We could show that survival of sugar beet - transgenic as well as conventional ones - in Germany and at the Dutch border is possible. Survival rates were well correlated with temperature data and were unexpectedly high. Differences between sugar beet hybrids and breeding lines could be detected but not within different breeding lines or hybrids. There were no differences detectable between transgenic and non-transgenic plants. The data are crucial for the risk assessment of the release of transgenic sugar beet and are the basis for further experiments towards outcrossing and establishment.', 'en_US'),
(1628, 'Lessons we can learn from ecological biosafety research', 'The last decade has seen an increasing number of biosafety related publications focusing on transgenic organisms. Recent extensive field studies suggest that harmful laboratory effects on non-target organisms rarely occur in the environment. Moreover, biosafety studies typically show no difference in hybridisation between genetically modified plants (GMPs) or non-GMPs and related wild species. Since risk is a product of both exposure and hazard, biosafety research should clearly not only target gene flow exposure but specifically concentrate on expected hazards emerging from successful transgene flow to wild relatives of GMPs. Generally, transgenic plants behave in an ecologically similar manner to non-GMPs if the modified trait confers a neutral advantage under environmental or experimental conditions. However, GMPs perform better than non-GMPs if the new phenotype is challenged by conditions ecologically advantageous for the modified trait. Since biosafety research is a laborious process it will have to concentrate resources on thoughtful, thorough experiments, and target ecologically `riskier'' organisms. So far, we have no evidence that the use of GMPs contradicts sustainable agriculture and nature conservation per se.', 'en_US'),
(1629, 'Experience with biosafety research and post-market environmental monitoring in risk management of crops derived from plant biotechnology', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1630, 'A method to study competitive ability of hybrids between seabeet (Beta vulgaris ssp. maritima) and glyphosate tolerant sugarbeet (Beta vulgaris ssp. vulgaris)', NULL, 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(1631, 'Introgression between the cultivated sunflower and a sympatric wild relative, Helianthus petiolaris (Asteraceae)', 'High rates of hybridization and introgression have been reported between the cultivated sunflower and its wild progenitor (both Helianthus annuus), raising concerns that neutral or favorable transgenes might escape and persist in wild H. annuus populations. However, little consideration has been given to the possibility that other wild sunflower species may hybridize with the cultivated sunflower. Here, we estimate the frequency of hybridization and introgression between the cultivated sunflower and Helianthus petiolaris, a closely related wild species whose range almost completely overlaps that of the cultivated sunflower in the central and northern plains and which hybridizes extensively with wild H. annuus. Assays of 21 cultivar-specific AFLP (amplified fragment length polymorphism) markers in 159 individuals from four sympatric populations of H. petiolaris revealed low rates of introgression, with average marker frequencies per population ranging from 0.006 to 0.026. Twenty-seven individuals had a hybrid ancestry, and all hybrids appeared to represent later-generation backcrosses. There was significant heterogeneity in rates of introgression for different markers, and eight of the 21 markers failed to introgress into any of the four populations. This and other evidence indicate that the H. petiolaris genome may be differentially permeable to introgression. These data indicate that (1) beneficial and neutral transgenes will take much longer to move into H. petiolaris populations than into wild H. annuus; (2) the risk of escape may depend on the genomic location of the transgene; and (3) escape is likely to be sporadic, occurring in some populations and not others and at different times. Thus, risk assessment in wild H. annuus is of more immediate concern than in H. petiolaris.', 'en_US'),
(1632, 'Costs of transgenic herbicide resistance introgressed from Brassica napus into weedy B. rapa', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1633, 'Outcrossing and hybridization in wild and cultivated foxtail millets: consequences for the release of transgenic crops', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1634, 'Natural outcrossing of sorghum and Sudangrass in the Central Great Plains', 'Amount of natural outcrossing in a species is one of the primary determining factors in selection of breeding methods. Existing literature on natural outcrossing of sorghum is dated and limited in geographical reference. Experiments were designed to investigate natural outcrossing in contemporary sorghum, Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench, B- and R-lines, and in sudangrass, Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench. Four R-lines and four B-lines were seeded in rows in isolation at Mead, NE, and allowed to intercross in each of 2 yr. Bulked seed from each row was planted and proportion of offtypes recorded. Outcrossing ranged from 0.1 to 13% in R-lines, and from 0.5 to 9% in B-lines. Outcrossing among sudangrass plants with white or green midribs transplanted in isolation in each of 2 yr was estimated by utilizing the dominant gene for white midrib as a marker. Panicles from green midrib plants were tagged to indicate approximate date of pollination. At maturity, the panicles were divided into top, middle, and bottom thirds and threshed. Seed from each panicle section was planted and proportion of white midrib plants recorded. Outcrossing ranged from 0 to near 100% on individual sudangrass plants and was highly variable. Harvest of panicles pollinated during the middle of the pollination period should maximize outcrossing in sudangrass, but the use of nuclear male-sterility genes is still recommended for improvement of sudangrass through recurrent selection. For sorghum breeding procedures requiring a high degree of self-pollination, selfing under pollination bags is recommended.', 'en_US'),
(1635, 'Gene flow and the geographic structure of natural populations', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1636, 'Teosinte distribution in Mexico', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1637, 'The role of communication in ecological assessment of genetically modified crops', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1638, 'Effect of event 176 transgenic maize on susceptibility and fitness of the European corn borer', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1639, 'Large-scale management of insect resistance to transgenic cotton in Arizona: can transgenic insecticidal crops be sustained?', 'A major challenge for agriculture is management of insect resistance to toxins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) produced by transgenic crops. Here we describe how a large-scale program is being developed in Arizona for management of resistance to Bt cotton in the pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), and other insect pests of cotton. Financial support from growers makes this program possible. Collaboration between the Arizona Cotton Research and Protection Council, the University of Arizona, and government agencies has led to development of resistance management guidelines, a remedial action plan, and tools for monitoring compliance with the proposed guidelines. Direct participation in development of resistance management policies is a strong incentive for growers to invest in resistance management research. However, more research, regularly updated regulations, and increased collaboration between stakeholders are urgently needed to maintain efficacy of Bt toxins in transgenic crops. ', 'en_US'),
(1640, 'Overwintering cost associated with resistance to transgenic cotton in the pink bollworm', 'Fitness costs associated with resistance to transgenic crops producing toxins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) may have important effects on the evolution of resistance. We investigated overwintering costs in pink bollworm, Pectinophora gosypiella (Saunders), strains with different degrees of resistance to Bt cotton. Frequency of resistant individuals in a strain was not associated with induction of diapause or emergence from diapause in early winter. Emergence from diapause in the spring was 71% lower in three highly resistant strains than in two heterogeneous strains from which the resistant strains were derived. This underestimates the overwintering cost because the frequency of the resistance allele was relatively high in the heterogeneous strains. Emergence in the spring in hybrid progeny from crosses between the resistant and heterogeneous strains was greater than in resistant strains but did not differ from susceptible strains, showing that the overwintering cost was recessive to some extent. ', 'en_US'),
(1641, 'Assessing stakeholder attitudes to agricultural biotechnology in developing countries', 'The current global system governing biotechnology has largely been shaped by Western hopes and fears and more research is needed into how developing countries view this new technology. This article compares two surveys that took place in the Philippines and Mexico and assesses some of the findings. Such results may be useful in developing integrated global risk and benefit management strategies.', 'en_US'),
(1642, 'Why North Americans think what they do about GM food.', 'In North America concerns about genetically modified crops are concentrated within a minority of the population and are long-standing and consistent. They are rooted in philosophical objections to the manipulation of nature, and in opposition to private control and exploitation of the natural world. In pressing their case, however, the opponents of genetic engineering have adopted other arguments, less philosophical or overtly political in nature. They have had only moderate success.', 'en_US'),
(1643, 'Farmers'' perceptions and expectations of genetic engineering in Zambia.', 'The process of building public awareness about the implications and potential uses of biotechnology is just beginning in Zambia. At the moment there is considerable discussion about whether genetically modified crops can boost the country''s crises ridden agricultural economy. However, as this article shows, the country''s farmers, policy makers and consumers suffer from the consequences of a chronic lack of information.', 'en_US'),
(1644, 'Establishing acceptance: Biosafety regulation in Zambia', 'Despite the pressing need for biosafety regulations, Zambia still does not have any framework in place. Not only have there been problems in building and implementing a national biosafety regulatory structure, Zambian scientists themselves have been slow to sensitize the authorities to the need for legislation. The situation is not helped by the general perception that ''there is no serious biotechnology in Zambia'' and the lukewarm support for efforts to develop a national biosafety framework by the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources (MENR) whose portfolio covers the implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).', 'en_US'),
(1645, 'Uncertainty and reluctance: Europe and GM foods.', 'It was not until autumn 1996, when European environmental activists tried to block the first imports of genetically modified (GM) soya, that the USA and European media started getting serious about biotechnology. This article examines how regulatory structures to deal with GM crops have evolved within the European Union (EU) in recent years and describes how public uncertainties about foods containing GM products continue to shape legislation.', 'en_US'),
(1646, 'Regulations, negotiations and campaigns: introducing biotechnology into India.', 'This article focuses on the regulatory structures that have provided the context for the debate surrounding the introduction of gene technology into Indian agriculture and shows how protests against its introduction have influenced and been influenced by the evolution of international negotiations, national regulatory procedures and local interests.', 'en_US'),
(1647, 'Ethics: the key to public acceptance of biotechnology?', 'In academic circles and the no-nonsense boardrooms of transnational companies, it is acknowledged that bioethical issues are central to the societal controversy generated by recent developments in biotechnology. Human dignity, ownership of life, indigenous rights, animal welfare, the intrinsic value of the environment are all issues that divide society, and link biotechnology to ethics. The question is why has bioethics become so prominent in current public debate?', 'en_US'),
(1648, 'Psychological aspects of food allergy', 'Food allergies may impact the emotions of patients through both direct and indirect mechanisms. Direct mechanisms include the effects on the central nervous system from biologic mediators released during an allergic reaction to food. Indirect mechanisms include the stress of coping with a food allergy--for example, food preparation and avoidance--as well as managing the fear of the potential consequences of ingesting the food. Indirect effects may also be mediated through family members--for example, the impact of a parent''s stress on the child. These relationships are difficult to study, in part because many patients who report food allergy symptoms do not have objective symptoms when challenged with the offending food. Symptoms may be misinterpreted as food allergy more often by patients with certain psychological profiles. In this paper, relevant literature is reviewed, and clinical treatment designed to minimize the emotional suffering of patients and their families is presented through the description of a case vignette.', 'en_US'),
(1649, 'Tree nut allergy', 'Tree nuts are clinically associated with severe immunoglobulin E-mediated systemic allergic reactions independent of pollen allergy and with reactions that are usually confined to the oral mucosa in patients with immunoglobulin E directed toward cross-reacting pollen allergens. The latter reactions can progress to severe and life-threatening episodes in some patients. Many patients with severe tree nut allergy are co-sensitized to peanut. Clinical studies on cross-reactivity between the tree nuts are few in number, but based on reports to date, avoidance of the other tree nuts once sensitivity is diagnosed appears prudent unless specific challenges are performed to ensure clinical tolerance. Even then, great care must be taken to avoid cross-contamination. As with other severe food allergies, a recurrent problem in clinical management is the failure of physicians to prescribe self-injectable epinephrine to patients who are at risk of anaphylaxis.', 'en_US'),
(1650, 'Adverse reactions to food additives', 'There are thousands of additives used by the food industry for a variety of purposes in the foods we eat. However, only a small number have been implicated in causing adverse reactions in humans. Although there are reported cases of individuals who have reactions to single additives, most of the medical literature involves patients with asthma or chronic idiopathic urticaria/angioedema whose conditions are exacerbated after ingestion of food additives. Many of these reports are characterized by poorly controlled challenge procedures. Recent studies performed under properly controlled conditions imply that sensitivity to food additives in patients with chronic urticaria/angioedema is very uncommon.', 'en_US'),
(1651, 'Insect-resistant transgenic plants in a multi-trophic context', 'So far, genetic engineering of plants in the context of insect pest control has involved insertion of genes that code for toxins, and may be characterized as the incorporation of biopesticides into classical plant breeding. In the context of pesticide usage in pest control, natural enemies of herbivores have received increasing attention, because carnivorous arthropods are an important component of insect pest control.  However, in plant breeding programmes, natural enemies of herbivores have largely been ignored, although there are many examples that show that plant breeding affects the effectiveness of biological control. Negative infuences of modifed plant characteristics on carnivorous arthropods may induce population growth of new, even more harmful pest species that had no pest status prior to the pesticide treatment. Sustainable pest management will only be possible when negative effects on non-target, benefcial arthropods are minimized. In this review, we summarize the effects of insect-resistant crops and insect-resistant transgenic crops, especially Bt crops, from a food web perspective. As food web components, we distinguish target herbivores, non-target herbivores, pollinators, parasitoids and predators. Below-ground organisms such as Collembola, nematodes and earthworms should also be included in risk assessment studies, but have received little attention. The toxins produced in Bt plants retain their toxicity when bound to the soil, so accumulation of these toxins is likely to occur.Earthworms ingest the bound toxins but are not affected by them. However, earthworms may function as intermediaries through which the toxins are passed on to other trophic levels. In studies where effects of insect-resistant (Bt) plants on natural enemies were considered, positive, negative and no effects have been found. So far, most studies have concentrated on natural enemies of target herbivores. However, Bt toxins are structurally rearranged when they bind to midgut receptors, so that they are likely to lose their toxicity inside target herbivores. What happens to the toxins in non-target herbivores, and whether these herbivores may act as intermediaries through which the toxins may be passed on to the natural enemies, remains to be studied.', 'en_US'),
(1652, 'The release of genetically modified crops into the environment - Part II.  Overview of ecological risk assessment.', 'Despite numerous future promises, there is a multitude of concerns about the impact of GM crops on the environment. Key issues in the environmental assessment of GM crops are putative invasiveness, vertical or horizontal gene flow, other ecological impacts, effects on biodiversity and the impact of presence of GM material in other products. These are all highly interdisciplinary and complex issues. A crucial component for a proper assessment is defining the appropriate baseline for comparison and decision. For GM crops, the best and most appropriately defined reference point is the impact of plants developed by traditional breeding. The latter is an integral and accepted part of agriculture. In many instances, the putative impacts identified for GM crops are very similar to the impacts of new cultivars derived from traditional breeding. When assessing GM crops relative to existing cultivars, the increased knowledge base underpinning the development of GM crops will provide greater confidence in the assurances plant science can give on the risks of releasing such crops.', 'en_US'),
(1653, 'Transgenic crop, biotechnology and ownership rights: what scientists need to know', 'Ownership of intellectual and tangible property (IP/TP) rights in agricultural biotechnology (ag-biotech) and transgenic plants has become critically important. For scientists in all institutions, whether industrialized or developing country, public or private sector, an understanding of IP/TP rights is fundamental in both research and development. Transgenic plants and ag-biotech products embody numerous components and processes, each of which may have IP/TP rights attached. To identify these rights, a transgenic plant or ag-biotech product must be dissected into its essential components and processes, with each `piece'' analysed under the IP/TP `microscope''. This product deconstruction is an integral step in product clearance (PC) analysis leading to freedom to operate (FTO). To facilitate a PC analysis, the following points are important: (1) knowing what one has and where it''s from, (2) organizing material transfer agreements and licences, (3) researching scientiÆc and patent databases and relevant literature, (4) instituting a laboratory notebook policy, (5) keeping track of ownership of germplasm and plant genetic resources, and (6) promoting ongoing IP/TP management, awareness and training. However, a FTO opinion does not solve the IP/TP issues of releasing a transgenic plant or ag-biotech product; rather, it is a management tool for assessing the risks of litigation. When transferring transgenic plants or ag-biotech to developing nations, scientists from industrialized countries have the heightened responsibility of verifying that IP/TP issues are fully addressed and documented. Successful technology transfer goes beyond research, development and licensing; it is an holistic package leading to long-term partnerships in international development. Managing IP/TP requires capacity-building in scientists and technology transfer ofÆces, in both industrialized and developing countries.', 'en_US'),
(1654, 'The release of genetically modified crops into the environment. - Part I.  Overview of current status and regulations.', 'In the past 6 years, the global area of commercially grown, genetically modified (GM) crops has increased more than 30-fold to over 52 million hectares. The number of countries involved has more than doubled. Especially in developing countries, the GM crop area is anticipated to increase rapidly in the coming years. Despite this high adoption rate and future promises, there is a multitude of concerns about the impact of GM crops on the environment. Regulatory approaches in Europe and North America are essentially different. In the EU, it is based on the process of making GM crops; in the US, on the characteristics of the GM product. Many other countries are in the process of establishing regulation based on either system or a mixture. Despite these differences, the information required for risk assessment tends to be similar. Each risk assessment considers the possibility, probability and consequence of harm on a case-by-case basis. For GM crops, the impact of non-use should be added to this evaluation. It is important that the regulation of risk should not turn into the risk of regulation. The best and most appropriate baseline for comparison when performing risk assessment on GM crops is the impact of plants developed by traditional breeding. The latter is an integral and accepted part of agriculture.', 'en_US'),
(1655, 'Direct measurement of the transfer rate of chloroplast DNA into the nucleus', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1656, 'Five years of Bt cotton in China - the benefits continue', 'Bt cotton is spreading very rapidly in China, in response to demand from farmers for technology that will reduce both the cost of pesticide applications and exposure to pesticides, and will free up time for other tasks. Based on surveys of hundreds of farmers in the Yellow River cotton-growing region in northern China in 1999, 2000 and 2001, over 4 million smallholders have been able to increase yield per hectare, and reduce pesticide costs, time spent spraying dangerous pesticides, and illnesses due to pesticide poisoning. The expansion of this cost-saving technology is increasing the supply of cotton and pushing down the price, but prices are still sufÆciently high for adopters of Bt cotton to make substantial gains in net income.', 'en_US'),
(1657, 'Introduction to the special issues on plant GM technology', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1658, 'Exploring the links between science, risk, uncertainty, and ethics in regulatory controversies about genetically modified crops', 'Just as a stream of genetically modified crops looked set to be approved for commercial production in the European Union, the approval procedure appears to have become bogged down once again by disagreements among and within member states. Old controversies have resurfaced in new forms. The intractability of the issues suggests that the regulatory procedure has had too narrow a focus, leaving outside its boundary many of the more fundamental aspects that cause people in the European Union most concern. Regulators have come under considerable pressure to ensure their risk assessment decisions are soundly science-based. Ethical issues have been deemed to lie beyond the scope of the regulatory procedure, as a matter to be considered separately by professional ethicists. Yet it has been suggested that all environmental controversies at root involve disputes about fundamental ethical principles. This paper examines how the ethical issues are currently suppressed or sidelined. It discusses how an appreciation of systems thinking and a check on the values that underpin decisions, using boundary testing questions, might contribute to a more constructive regulatory dialogue, with ethical issues considered as integral in a way that takes better account of people''s concerns.', 'en_US'),
(1659, 'A framework for the ethical analysis of novel foods: the ethical matrix', 'The paper addresses the issue of how in democratic societies a procedure might be formulated to facilitate ethical judgements on modern biotechnologies used in food production. A framework for rational ethical analysis, the Ethical Matrix, is proposed. The Matrix adapts the principles described by Beauchamp and Childress for application to medical issues, to interest groups (e.g., producers, consumers, and the biotic environment) affected by these technologies. The use of the Matrix is illustrated by applying it to an example of a ``novel food,'''' viz., a form of genetically modified maize.', 'en_US'),
(1660, 'Environmental risks of pesticides versus genetic engineering for agricultural pest control', 'Despite the application of 2.5 million tons of pesticides worldwide, more than 40% of all potential food production is lost to insect, weed, and plant pathogen pests prior to harvest. After harvest, an additional 20% of food is lost to another group of pests. The use of pesticides for pest control results in an estimated 26 million human poisonings, with 220,000 fatalities, annually worldwide. In the United States, the environmental and public health costs for the recommended use of pesticides total approximately $9 billion/yr. Thus, there is a need for alternative non-chemical pest controls, and genetic engineering (biotechnology) might help with this need. Disease and insect pest resistance to various pests has been slowly bred into crops for the past 12,000 years; current techniques in biotechnology now offer opportunities to further and more rapidly improve the non-chemical control of disease and insect pests of crops. However, relying on a single factor, like the Bacillus thuringiensis toxin that has been inserted into corn and a few other crops for insect control, leads to various environmental problems, including insect resistance and, in some cases, a threat to beneficial biological control insects and endangered insect species. A major environmental and economic cost associated with genetic engineering applications in agriculture relates to the use of herbicide resistant crops (HRC). In general, HRC technology results in increased herbicide use but no increase in crop yields. The heavy use of herbicides in HRC technology pollutes the environment and can lead to weed control costs for farmers that may be 2-fold greater than standard weed control costs. Therefore, pest control with both pesticides and biotechnology can be improved for effective, safe, economical pest control.', 'en_US'),
(1661, 'Beyond substantial equivalence: ethical equivalence', 'The concept of substantial equivalence, introduced for the risk assessment of genetically modified (GM) food, is a reducing concept because it ignores the context in which these products have been produced and brought to the consumer at the end of the food chain. Food quality cannot be restricted to mere substance and food acts on human beings not only at the level of nutrition but also through their relationship to environment and society. To make this context explicit, I will introduce an ``equivalence scale'''' for the evaluation of food chains (GM or not GM). By contrast with substantial equivalence, which involves mainly quantitative, analytical methods of evaluation, ``qualitative equivalence'''' refers to ``less'''' or non-substantial factors that require new methods of evaluation based on qualitative principles. ``Ethical equivalence'''' refers to factors that show the moral value contained in food products. To analyze the different levels at which ethics is needed in food chains, I will use the French principles: ``Liberty, Equality, Fraternity,'''' or freedom, equality, solidarity, and add a fourth principle: sustainability. Sustainability, solidarity, and freedom can be applied to the evaluation of environmental, socio-economic, and socio-cultural ethical equivalence, respectively. Equality refers to justice and should operate so as to guarantee that sustainability, solidarity, and freedom are satisfied. I suggest that ethics can provide a basis for a renewal of the food chain concept. Besides Quality Assurance, it is now essential to develop an ``Ethical Assurance'''' and this equivalence scale could provide a basis to set up ``Ethical Assurance Standards'''' (EAS) for food chains.', 'en_US'),
(1662, 'Genetic engineering in agriculture: who stands to benefit?', 'The use of genetic engineering in agriculture has been the source of much debate. To date, arguments have focused most strongly on the potential human health risks, the flow of genetic material to related species, and ecological consequences. Little attention appears to have been given to a more fundamental concern, namely, who will be the beneficiaries of this technology?Given the prevalence of chronic hunger and the stark economics of farming, it is arguable that farmers and the hungry should be the main beneficiaries of agricultural research. However, the application of genetic engineering appears unlikely to benefit either of these two groups. This technology is largely controlled by the private sector, and its continued development hinges on its profitability. Thus, the only likely beneficiaries of the application of genetic engineering in agriculture are companies with the capacity to use it.', 'en_US'),
(1663, 'Agricultural biotechnology and the future benefits argument', 'In the face of criticisms about the current generation of agricultural biotechnology products, some proponents of agricultural biotechnology offer a ``future benefits argument'''' (FBA), which is a utilitarian ethical argument that attempts to justify continued R&D. This paper analyzes several logical implications of the FBA. Among these are that acceptance of the FBA implies (1) acceptance of a precautionary approach to risk, (2) the need for a more proportional and equitable distribution of the benefits of agricultural biotechnology, and most important, (3) the need to reorient and restructure biotechnology R&D institutions (and the agricultural biotechnology community''s values and attitudes) so that future benefits are indeed achieved through agricultural biotechnology.', 'en_US'),
(1664, 'What''s the moral of the GM food story?', 'This paper is an attempt to examine issues and problems raised by agricultural biotechnology by drawing on the richness of contemporary ideas in ethical theory and thereby contribute to the project of establishing new approaches to these problems. The fundamental argument is that many of the negative aspects of agricultural biotechnology are generated at the level of the underlying conceptual frameworks that shape the technology''s internal modes of organization, rather than the unintended effects of the application of an inherently benevolent set of techniques. If ``food ethics'''' is to address the adverse impacts of agricultural biotechnology, it must ultimately challenge these conceptual frames, which, I argue, emerge from Enlightenment, liberal, political, and economic theory. The translation of traditional bioethics (focusing on principles such as autonomy and rights, justice, and well being) into food ethics does not produce the critical tools that are able adequately to challenge the harmful legacy of Enlightenment thinking. What is needed are reorientations of ethics that are capable of formulating concepts and approaches that to some extent break with the presuppositions that underpin biotechnology at its foundation. This paper suggests that narrative and feminist critiques of medical bioethics are a good place to start in this project.', 'en_US'),
(1665, 'The harm principle and genetically modified food', 'It is suggested that the Harm Principle can be viewed as the moral basis on which genetically modified (GM) food is currently regulated. It is then argued (a) that the concept of harm cannot be specified in such a manner as to render the Harm Principle a plausible political principle, so this principle cannot be used to justify existing regulation; and (b) that even if the Harm Principle were a plausible political principle, it could not be used alone in the regulation of GM food, since it does not express a concern for the expected benefits of such food.', 'en_US'),
(1666, 'Ethical considerations at the various stages in the development, production, and consumption of GM crops', 'The aim of this paper is to clarify the ethical issues surrounding GM crops by examining the various stages or levels in their development, production, and consumption. Previous work about the acceptability or non-acceptability of GM crops has tended to conflate these various levels, partly as a result of which GM crops are all-too-often simply said to be ``good'''' or ``bad.'''' There are, though, various problems with such a binary categorization. I look in particular at the duties of scientists, companies, regulatory systems, farmers, retailers, and consumers.', 'en_US'),
(1667, 'Food safety and ethics: the interplay between science and values', 'The general public in Europe seems to have lost its confidence in food safety. The remedy for this, as proposed by the Commission of the EU, is a scientific rearmament. The question, however, is whether more science will be able to overturn the public distrust. Present experience seems to suggest the contrary, because there is widespread distrust in the science-based governmental control systems. The answer to this problem is the creation of an independent scientific Food Authority. However, we argue that independent scientific advice alone is unlikely to re-establish public confidence. It is much more important to make the scientific advice transparent, i.e., to state explicitly the factual and normative premises on which it is based. Risk assessments are based on a rather narrow, but well-defined notion of risk. However, the public is concerned with a broader value context that comprises both benefits and risks. Transparency and understanding of the public''s perception of food risks is a necessary first step in establishing the urgently required public dialogue about the complex value questions involved in food production.', 'en_US'),
(1668, 'Ranking genetically modified plants according to familiarity', 'In public debate GMPs are often referred to as being unnatural or a violation of nature. Some people have serious moral concerns about departures from what is natural. Others are concerned about potential risks to the environment arising from the combination of hereditary material moving across natural boundaries and the limits of scientific foresight of long-term consequences. To address some of these concerns we propose that an additional element in risk assessment based on the concept of familiarity should be introduced. The objective is to facilitate transparency about uncertainties inherent in the risk assessment of the GMP. Familiarity conventionally involves data and experience relating to the plant species and the ecosystem in question. We would like to extend this concept to the molecular level of plant breeding and suggest that GMP characteristics should be compared to a reference baseline determined by conventional breeding techniques. Three GMPs are ranked according to familiarity at the plant and ecosystem level and the molecular level. The approach may help to integrate discussion of the scientific arguments and moral questions raised in the debate about GMOs by providing an operational scheme within which moral concerns are brought within the framework of science-based risk assessment.', 'en_US'),
(1669, 'A social contract for biotechnology: shared visions for risky technologies?', 'Future technological developments concerning food, agriculture, and the environment face a gulf of social legitimation from a skeptical public and media, in the wake of the crises of BSE, GM food, and foot and mouth disease in the UK (House of Lords, 2000). Key ethical issues were ignored by the bioindustry, regulators, and the Government, leaving a legacy of distrust. The paper examines agricultural biotechnology in terms of a social contract, whose conditions would have to be fulfilled to gain acceptance of novel applications. Various current and future GM applications are evaluated against these conditions. Success would depend critically on how far a shared vision can be found with the public. To re-establish trust, significant changes are identified in the planning and pursuit of biotechnology.', 'en_US'),
(1670, 'The food debate: ethical versus substantial equivalence', 'Substantial equivalence (SE) has been introduced to assess novel foods, including genetically modified (GM) food, by means of comparison with traditional food. Besides a number of objections concerning its scientific validity for risk assessment, the main difficulty with SE is that it implies that food can be qualified on a purely substantial basis. SE embodies the assumption that only reductive scientific arguments are legitimate for decision-making in public policy due to the emphasis on legal issues. However, the surge of the food debate clearly shows that this technocratic model is not accepted anymore. Food is more than physico-chemical substance and encompasses values such as quality and ethics. These values are legitimate in their own right and require that new democratic processes are set up for transverse, transdisciplinary assessment in partnership with society. The notion of equivalence can provide a reference scale in which to examine the various legitimate factors involved: substance (SE), quality (Qualitative Equivalence: QE), and ethics (Ethical Equivalence: EE). QE requires that new qualitative methods of evaluation that are not based on reductive principles are developed. EE can provide a basis for the development of an Ethical Assurance as a counterpart of Quality Assurance in the food sector. In France, a second circle of expertise is being set up to address the social issues in food public policy beside classical risk assessment by the first circle of expertise. Since ethics is likely to become an organizing principle of the second circle, the equivalence ethical framework can prove instrumental in this context.', 'en_US'),
(1671, 'Safety assurance of foods: risk management depends on good science but it is not a scientific activity', 'We make many decisions in our lives and we weigh the benefits against the drawbacks. Our decisions are based on what benefits are most important to us and what drawbacks we are willing to accept. Decisions about what we eat are made in the same way; but when it comes to safety, our decisions are usually made more carefully. Food contains natural chemicals and it can come into contact with many natural and artificial substances during harvest, production, processing, and preparation. They include microorganisms, chemicals, either naturally present or produced by cooking, environmental contaminants, and pesticides. Since the chance of being harmed by these potential hazards is called risk, risk analysis might be better termed as the science of safety, because risk management is an essential part of it. It would, however, be difficult and shortsighted to maintain that questions about risk and safety can have no moral dimension. Risk and safety become matters of moral concern when they raise further questions about responsibility, accountability, and justifiability. The question of risk cannot be ignored in any ethical investigation of genetic engineering, novel foods, animal welfare, and individual choices. However, food is more than metabolic fuel. It has physiological, psychological, social, cultural, and aesthetic associations that merge to form a gestalt that people endanger and maintain. The contribution of any food towards an individual''s well being is as complex as the individual himself. In this context, the benefits of consuming food that contains hazards may outweigh the risk.', 'en_US'),
(1672, 'Global trade in GM food and the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety: consequences for China', 'The UN Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety adopted in Montreal, 29 January, 2000 and opened for signature in Nairobi, 15?26 May, 2000 will exert a profound effect on international trade in genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and their products. In this paper, the potential effects of various articles of the Protocol on international trade in GMOs are analyzed. Based on the present status of imports of GMOs and domestic research and development of biotechnology in China, likely trends in imports of foreign GM food and related products after China accedes to WTO is explored. Also, China''s potential countermeasures to control and regulate imports of GMOs in line with implementation of the Protocol are discussed. China, in recent times, has increased its food and agricultural imports substantially from USA and Canada. China imported soybean 10.42 mill. tons in 2000 and about 15 mill tons in 2001, of which majority are from USA where GM soybean accounts for 60%. The plantation of US Monsanto''s transgenic Bt cotton was increased to more than 1 million ha in China in 2001. Though China has paid great attention to develop biotechnology, it appears to have little scope to export GMOs and GM products. So China may consider a range of administrative measures to implement the Cartagena Protocol and to regulate its import of GMOs and GM agricultural products. Consequently, the Regulation on Safety of Agri-GMOs was issued on June, 2001 and followed three detailed rules issued in Jan. of 2002, with a priority to limit foreign GMOs importing by safety certification and labeling system. These were outlined taking into account policies adopted in Western countries such as green barriers to international trade.', 'en_US'),
(1673, 'Ethics of sustainable development - a study of Swedish regulations for genetically modified organisms', 'In spite of stricter provisions in the new EU directive on deliberate release of genetically modified organisms (GMOs), critics still advocate a moratorium on permits for cultivation of GMOs. However, in an attempt to meet concerns raised by the public, the directive explicitly gives Member States the possibility to take into consideration ethical aspects of GMOs in the decision-making. This article investigates the potential effects of such formulation by means of an empirical analysis of experiences gained the last years from similar Swedish regulations for GMOs, aiming at promoting sustainable development. The faulty implementation shown in the Swedish case indicates that legal stipulations for ethics as such have limited importance. It is suggested that public participation is an important factor for successful implementation of the ethics of sustainable development.', 'en_US'),
(1674, 'Renewable resources and the idea of nature - what has biotechnology got to do with it?', 'The notion that the idea of nature is not quite the unbiased rule to design sustainable futures is obvious. But, nevertheless, questions about nature, how it functions and what it might aim at, is leading the controversial debates about both sustainability and biotechnology. These two research areas hardly have the same theory background. Whereas in the first concept, the idea of eternal cyclical processes is basic, the latter focuses on optimization. However, both concepts can work together, but only under a narrow range of public acceptance in Europe. The plausibility of arguments for using biotechnology within sustainable technologies varies according to the assumed part nature itself plays for reaching optimized states. The culture related vision of nature''s functions has impact on agricultural biotechnology, dealing not only with food crops but also with non-food plants like renewable resources that are used for energy or fiber production. These plants are grown to reach sustainable development. However, there is a fundamental difference between regarding biofuels as ``renewable'''' and ``regenerative,'''' due to the tension between the concepts of ``the natural'''' and ``the sustainable.'''' Arguments of optimization, efficiency, and efficacy are critically discussed in order to take the present need for sustainable technologies for serious.', 'en_US'),
(1675, 'The precautionary principle and ecological hazards of genetically modified organisms', 'This paper makes three points relevant to the application of the precautionary principle to the regulation of GMOs. i) The unavoidable arbitrariness in the application of the precautionary principle reflects deeper epistemological problem affecting scientific analyses of sustainability. This requires understanding the difference between the concepts of ''risk'', ''uncertainty'' and ''ignorance''. ii) When dealing with evolutionary processes it is impossible to ban uncertainty and ignorance from scientific models. Hence, traditional risk analysis (probability distributions and exact numerical models) becomes powerless. Other forms of scientific knowledge (general principles or metaphors) may be useful alternatives. iii) The existence of ecological hazards per se should not be used as a reason to stop innovations altogether. However, the precautionary principle entails that scientists move away from the concept of ''substantive rationality'' (trying to indicate to society optimal solutions) to that of ''procedural rationality'' (trying to help society to find ''satisficing'' solutions).', 'en_US'),
(1676, 'A functional antigen in a practical crop: LT-B producing maize protects mice against Escherichia coli heat labile enterotoxin (LT) and cholera toxin (CT)', 'We have produced a functional heat labile enterotoxin (LT-) B subunit of Escherichia coli in maize. LT-B is a multimeric protein that presents an ideal model for an edible vaccine, displaying stability in the gut and inducing mucosal and systemic immune responses. Transgenic maize was engineered to synthesize the LT-B polypeptides, which assembled into oligomeric structures with affinity for GM1 gangliosides. We orally immunized BALB/c mice by feeding transgenic maize meal expressing LT-B or non-transgenic maize meal spiked with bacterial LT-B. Both treatments stimulated elevated IgA and IgG antibodies against LT-B and the closely related cholera toxin B subunit (CT-B) in serum, and elevated IgA in fecal pellets. The transgenic maize induced a higher anti-LT-B and anti-CT-B mucosal and serum IgA response compared to the equivalent amount of bacterial LT-B spiked into maize. Following challenge by oral administration of the diarrhea inducing toxins LT and CT, transgenic maize-fed mice displayed reduced fluid accumulation in the gut compared to non-immunized mice. Moreover, the gut to carcass ratio of immunized mice was not significantly different from the PBS (non-toxin) challenged control group. We concluded that maize-synthesized LT-B had features of the native bacterial LT-B such as molecular weight, GM1 binding ability, and induction of serum and mucosal immunity. We have demonstrated that maize, a major food and feed ingredient, can be efficiently transformed to produce, accumulate, and store a fully assembled and functional candidate vaccine antigen.', 'en_US'),
(1677, 'Expression of cholera toxin B subunit in transgenic tomato plants', 'Cholera toxin, secreted by Vibrio cholerae, consists of A and B subunits. The latter binds to GM1-ganglioside receptors as a pentamer (~55 kDa). Tomato plants were transformed with the gene encoding cholera toxin B subunit (ctxB) along with an endoplasmic reticulum retention signal (SEKDEL) under the control of the CaMV 35S promoter via Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. PCR and Southern analysis confirmed the presence of the ctxB gene in transformed tomato plants. Northern analysis showed the presence of the ctxB-specific transcript. Immunoblot assays of the plant-derived protein extract showed the presence of cholera toxin subunit B (CTB) with mobility similar to purified CTB from V. cholerae. Both tomato leaves and fruits expressed CTB at levels up to 0.02 and 0.04% of total soluble protein, respectively. The GM1-ELISA showed that the plant-derived CTB bound specifically to GM1-ganglioside receptor, suggesting that it retained its native pentameric form. This study forms a basis for exploring the utility of CTB to develop tomato-based edible vaccines against cholera.', 'en_US'),
(1678, 'Field assessment of outcrossing from transgenic pea (Pisum sativum L.) plants', 'The frequency of outcrossing from a transgenic line of peas into three cultivars (''Carneval'', ''Montana'', ''Tipu'') was studied in the field in 1997 and 1999. Two dominant traits, normal leaf form and a highly-expressed â-glucuronidase (gusA) gene, were used as markers of pollen transfer. Because of heterogeneity in the commercial seed sources, leaf form alone was unreliable for assessing pollen migration into ''trap'' plants. Of approximately 9000 offspring tested, only five plants scored positive for the presence of both markers. All five were located in ''trap'' plots situated near the transgenic line. This represents a mean outcrossing rate of 0.07%.', 'en_US'),
(1679, 'Pear biotechnology: recent progresses and future breeding applications', 'The contribution of in vitro methods and molecular tools to pear genetic studies and breeding has advanced considerably during the last decade. Haploidization via in situ parthenogenesis induced by irradiated pollen and in vitro rescue of the haploid plantlets has been developed for pear. Techniques of adventitious bud regeneration from in vitro leaves have been developed for several genotypes of European and Asian pear and for quince. So far, applications of these techniques for the induction of somaclonal variation have been very limited. Increased tolerance to fire blight has been obtained in somaclonal variants of the cultivar Durondeau, and selection of quince rootstocks tolerant to iron deficiency has been achieved with adventious regeneration followed by in vitro selection. A major evolution of pear biotechnology is the recent development of Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. Since the first report in 1996, several teams have succeeded to transform about ten different genotypes of varieties and rootstocks. Projects have started in several countries to express various trangenes in pear (lytic peptides, rolC and SAMase genes). Molecular markers developed on pear now include isozymes, RAPDs and RFLPs. They have been used mostly for varietal identification of european as well as asian pears. Markers have been developed recently for a few genes of interest, such as a black-spot resistance gene and an ACC synthase gene. But no genetic map of pear is yet available. Finally, about 20 genes have already been cloned in pear, most of them from P. pyrifolia. They are mostly involved in fruit ripening or quality and self-incompatibility.', 'en_US');
