INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(2019, 'Key issues for the assessment of the allergenic potential of genetically modified foods: breakout group reports', 'On the final afternoon of the workshop ''Assessment of the Allergenic Potential of Genetically Modified Foods,'' held 10-12 December 2001 in Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA, speakers and participants met in breakout groups to discuss specific questions in the areas of use of human clinical data, animal models to assess food allergy, biomarkers of exposure and effect, sensitive populations, dose-response assessment, and postmarket surveillance. Each group addressed general questions regarding allergenicity of genetically modified foods and specific questions for each subject area. This article is a brief summary of the discussions of each of the six breakout groups regarding our current state of knowledge and what information is needed to advance the field.', 'en_US'),
(2020, 'Assessment of alllergenic potential of genetically modified foods: an agenda for future research.', 'Speakers and participants in the workshop ''Assessment of the Allergenic Potential of Genetically Modified Foods'' met in breakout groups to discuss a number of issues including needs for future research. These groups agreeed that research should progress quickly in the area of hazard identification and that a need exists for more basic research to understand the mechanisms underlying food allergy. A list of research needs was developed.', 'en_US'),
(2021, 'Monopolization and the regulation of genetically modified crops: an economic model', 'Although genetically modified organisms (GMOs) have recently attracted a great deal of public attention, analysis of their economic impact has been far less common. This paper puts forward variants of a simple model of crop production, each one tailored to a particular aspect of transgenic food technology. The focus is on the possibility of monopolization and its consequential welfare costs. Risk factors identified include moderate cost savings from transgenic varieties, high seed storage costs, and high risks of crop loss. The paper also discusses some of the possible remedies including tighter regulation of anti-competitive practices and liberalization of the regulations governing the introduction of new GMOs.', 'en_US'),
(2022, 'Influence of glyphosate-tolerant (event nk603) and corn rootworm protected (event MON863) corn silage and grain on feed consumption and milk production in Holstein cattle.', 'Two studies were conducted to evaluate the effect of a glyphosate-tolerant (event nk603) and a corn rootworm protected (event MON863) corn hybrid on feed intake and milk production compared with the nontransgenic hybrid and two reference hybrids. In Experiment 1, 16 multiparous Holstein cows were assigned to one of four treatments in replicated 4 x 4 Latin squares with 28-d periods. Diets contained 40% (dry matter [DM] basis) of either 1) glyphosate-tolerant corn silage (GT), 2) nontransgenic control corn silage, or 3) two nontransgenic reference hybrids which are commercially available. Each diet also contained 23% corn grain from the same hybrid that supplied the silage. At ensiling, rapid drying conditions prevailed and the GT hybrid was the last to be harvested which resulted in greater DM content at similar physiological maturity. The 4% fat-corrected milk (FCM) yield and DMI were reduced for cows fed the GT corn diet due to the higher DM content of the GT silage (37.1 vs. 33.2 kg/d and 4.05 vs. 3.61% of BW, respectively). There was no effect of the GT diet on milk composition or efficiency of 4% FCM production that averaged 1.43 kg/kg of DM intake for all diets. In Experiment 2, 16 multiparous Holstein cows were assigned to one of four treatments in replicated 4 x 4 Latin squares with 21-d periods. Diets contained 26.7% (DM basis) corn grain from either 1) corn rootworm protected (event MON863) corn hybrid, 2) nontransgenic control corn hybrid, or 3) the same two nongenetically enhanced reference hybrids used in Experiment 1. The 4% FCM yield (34.8 kg/d) and DM intake (4.06% of BW) were unaffected by diet. Efficiency of FCM production (average 1.32 kg/kg of DMI) was not affected by diet. In summary, these two studies indicated that insertion of a gene for glyphosate tolerance or corn rootworm protection into a corn hybrid did not affect its nutritional value (as measured by efficiency of milk production) for lactating dairy cows compared with conventional corn hybrids.', 'en_US'),
(2023, 'Performance of lactating dairy cows fed corn as whole plant silage and grain produced from a glyphosate-tolerant hybrid (event NK603)', 'Sixteen multiparous Holstein cows averaging 74 d in milk were used in a replicated 4 x 4 Latin square to compare the effects on animal performance of feeding whole plant silage and grain from a glyphosate-tolerant corn hybrid (event NK603), a nontransgenic control hybrid, and two commercial nontransgenic hybrids (DK647 and RX740). The grain and silage from the four corn hybrids were produced using the same procedures and under similar agronomic conditions at the University of Illinois. On a dry matter (DM) basis, diets contained 30% corn silage and 27.34% corn grain produced either from event NK603, a nontransgenic control, or commercial hybrids. Apart from the DM content of silages, the chemical composition of both grain and silage produced from the four corn hybrids were substantially equivalent. Feeding diets that contained event NK603 and DK647 hybrids tended to decrease DM intake (DMI) compared with the control nontransgenic and RX740. The intakes of crude protein (CP), acid and neutral detergent fiber, and nonfiber carbohydrates were not different for cows fed event NK603 and control diets. The RX740 diet resulted in the highest intakes of fiber and CP, whereas the DK647 diet resulted in the lowest intake of CP. These differences in nutrient intake arose from small variations in both the DMI and the chemical composition of feed ingredients and experimental diets. Production of milk and 3.5% fat-corrected milk; milk fat, CP, and true protein percentage and yield; milk urea N; milk total solids percentage and yield; and somatic cell count were not affected by treatments. These data indicate that the stable insertion of the gene that confers tolerance to glyphosate (event NK603) in the corn line used in this experiment does not affect its chemical composition and nutritional value for lactating dairy cows when compared with conventional corn.', 'en_US'),
(2024, 'Effects of feeding silage and grain from glyphosate-tolerant or insect-protected corn hybrids on feed intake, ruminal digestion, and milk production in dairy cattle', 'Lactating dairy cows were used to determine effects of feeding glyphosate-tolerant or insect-protected corn hybrids on feed intake, milk production, milk composition, and ruminal digestibility. Corn resistant to European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis) infestation (Bt-MON810), or its nontransgenic control (Bt-CON), were planted in alternating fields during two successive years. One-half of each strip was harvested for whole plant corn silage and the remainder was allowed to mature and harvested as grain. Effects of feeding diets containing either Bt-MON810 or Bt-CON grain and silage were determined in two experiments (1 and 2) conducted during successive years. In experiment 3, glyphosate-tolerant Roundup Ready corn (RR-GA21) or its nontransgenic control (RR-CON) corn were grown in alternating fields during one cropping season. Diets contained 42 to 60% corn silage and 20 to 34% corn grain from Bt-MON810, RR-GA21, or the appropriate nontransgenic counterpart; treatments were applied using a switchback design. Cows were fed ad libitum and milked twice daily. There were no differences for nutrient composition between silage sources or between grain sources within an experiment. Data for experiments 1 and 2 indicated similar dry matter intake (DMI), 4% fat-corrected milk (FCM) production, and milk composition between Bt-MON810 and Bt-CON diets. There were no differences for DMI, 4% FCM production, and milk composition between RR-GA21 and RR-CON diets. There was no difference in ruminal degradability, determined separately for corn silage and corn grain, for RR-GA21 or Bt-MON810-hybrids compared with their respective controls. These data demonstrate equivalence of nutritional value and production efficiency for corn containing Bt-MON810 compared with its control and for RR-GA21 corn compared with its control.', 'en_US'),
(2025, 'In vivo studies on possible health consequences of genetically modified food and feed: with particular regard to ingredients consisting of genetically modified plant materials', 'This synopsis reviews published in vivo studies on possible health consequences of genetically modified food and feed where the ingredients in question have consisted of genetically modified plant materials. The following, however, have not been taken into consideration:--ingredients consisting of genetically modified microorganisms or parts of animals/fish--ingredients produced by/from genetically modified organisms but without any DNA present--studies on consequences for the environment or biodiversity--in vitro studies or computer simulations. According to a Norwegian report ''Gen-mat'' (NOU 2000:29), and a more recent search in Medline and Citations Index, to our knowledge a total of ten studies have been published on the health effects of GM-foods and feeds. In this minireview the data made available in these published studies is discussed.', 'en_US'),
(2026, 'A screening level approach for nontarget insect risk assessment: transgenic Bt corn pollen and the Monarch butterfly (Lepidoptera: Danaidae)', 'Quantitative risk assessment affords an objective approach for assessing ecological risk from crops produced using biotechnology. Ecological risk assessment for plant-incorporated insecticidal proteins necessitates consideration of risks to nontarget insects when species-specific hazard information may be lacking. Screening-level risk assessment methods afford a means by which risks to species of concern may be evaluated conservatively using exposure estimates, host-range information, and a probabilistic estimate of toxicity to sensitive species. This approach was applied to the special case of Bt corn pollen risk to monarch butterfly, Danaus plexippus (L.), populations; the results were compared with more highly refined risk assessment techniques in terms of the risk conclusions which can be developed with more highly certain information. Exposure analysis based on readily available literature showed pollen interception by the host for monarch butterfly larvae (common milkweed, Asclepias syriaca L.) declined exponentially with distance from the pollen source. Intra- and inter-genera sensitivity of lepidopteran species was used to project effect to monarch butterfly larvae. When the 90th percentile of effect (LC50) was used to estimate monarch butterfly sensitivity to Bt corn pollen expressing Cry1A(b) protein, the risk of lethality to individual larvae was negligible at >1 m from the edge of source corn fields. Subsequent field measurements of pollen distribution, interception by milkweed, and especially effects determinations for monarch butterfly larvae exposed to Cry1A(b) toxin indicate that the screening-level approach was effective in focusing the scope of the problem to exposure from high-expressing Cry1A(b) events occurring within source cornfields or at the near-field edge. Screening level risk assessment conservatively identifies the scope of concern and the uncertainties that need clarification so that subsequent research can be appropriately focused.', 'en_US'),
(2027, 'Influences of Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner cotton planting on population dynamics of the cotton aphid Aphis gossypii Glover in Northern China', 'The influence of Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner (Bt) cotton on population dynamics of cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii Glover, was investigated during 1999?2000 in northern China. The field experiments were conducted in plots of Bt cotton and conventional cotton that received no insecticide applications, and in plots of conventional cotton in which pyrethroid and organophosphate insecticides were used regularly for control of Helicoverpa armigera. The results indicate that resistance of cotton aphids to majority of insecticides used for control of H. armigera, and lower densities of predators in late June and early July caused by insecticide use, causes population densities of cotton aphids to become significantly higher in plots of insecticide-treated conventional cotton than in Bt cotton plots. These results suggest that Bt cotton planting not only played an important role in the control of H. armigera, but also efficiently prevented cotton aphid resurgence in response to insecticide use.', 'en_US'),
(2028, 'Select nontarget arthropod abundance in transgenic and nontransgenic field crops in Ohio', 'Nontarget arthropod populations were monitored in both transgenic and nontransgenic corn and soybean fields in western and central Ohio. A total of 24 fields, 12 corn and 12 soybean, were inspected weekly from late June through mid August. Half of the cornfields were Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) hybrids and half of the soybean fields were Roundup Ready (RR). Sweep net samples in soybean fields and unbaited Pherocon AM yellow sticky traps in both soybean and cornfields were used to collect nontarget arthropods. Soil samples were also taken from all 24 fields to compare soil mite populations. A select group of 15 readily identifiable arthropods composed mainly of beneficial insects commonly found in field crops, were recorded in weekly sweep net and sticky trap samples for later analysis. Sweep net data from soybean fields revealed no significant differences in nontarget arthropods. Yellow sticky trap data from soybean and corn fields found significantly more green lacewing adults (Chrysopa spp.) in six pooled non-RR soybean fields, significantly more rove beetles in one non-Bt cornfield, and significantly more Orius spp. in one Bt cornfield. There were also significantly more soil inhabiting mites at one non-RR soybean field. Based on the abundance of these arthropod populations in paired transgenic and nontransgenic fields, few negative effects on the 15 nontarget arthropods selected can be directly associated with transgenic soybean and corn crops in Ohio.', 'en_US'),
(2029, 'Codex guidelines for GM foods include the analysis of unintended effects', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2030, 'Food allergens of plant origin - their molecular and evolutionary relationships', 'Along with other forms of allergic disease, food allergies appear to be on the increase, with childhood allergies to foods such as peanuts being of particular concern. Around 7?10 foods are responsible for the majority of allergies, including several of plant origin, notably peanut. Allergies are usually triggered by the protein components in a food, which are also known as allergens. However, not all the proteins in an allergenic food like peanut are allergens. Why should this be? This question has been addressed by an EU-funded inter-disciplinary network of clinicians, food chemists and plant biochemists called Protall. From the groups considerations it is clear that, whilst the abundance of a protein in a food is one factor involved in determining its allergenic potential, this is not sufficient on its own to predict its allergenicity. Through an analysis of common properties of plant food allergens that trigger a reaction via the gastrointestinal tract it has become evident that they belong almost exclusively to three structurally related protein superfamilies??the prolamin superfamily (which includes the prolamin storage proteins of cereals, non specific lipid transfer proteins, alpha-amylase inhibitors, and 2S albumins), the cupin superfamily (specifically the 11S and 7S globulin storage proteins) and the cysteine proteases. Whilst we cannot as yet predict the allergenicity of a given protein, such an understanding of the structural attributes of proteins that predispose them to becoming allergens is important if we are to understand what makes some foods more allergenic than others. It is also highly relevant to developing more reliable means of assessing the allergenic risks posed by novel foods, developing effective processing strategies for reducing allergen loads in foods and developing novel therapeutic options as an alternative to dietary exclusion.', 'en_US'),
(2031, 'GE/GM food aid', 'We, like minded organisations from South Africa, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Tanzania, Uganda, Ghana, Ethiopia, US, UK, Malaysia and Malawi, meeting from 11 to 14 December 2002 in Malawi, would like to make our concerns known on the issue of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) and Food Aid in Africa to our governments, donors and the public. We appreciate the intentions of the donors and governments to save the people from starvation through provision of food aid. We have observed with disbelief, however, how GMO food aid is being forced on countries facing starvation in Africa. We believe that the whole subject surrounds the issue of choice made by all people in Africa related to Food Sovereignty. Governments are obliged to fulfill the needs of its people in ways that do not infringe on the rights of its people and we have arrived at the conclusion that Genetic Engineering GE) and Food Aid run contrary to democratic principles in the following ways.', 'en_US'),
(2032, 'Baseline resistance to Cry1Ac toxin in cotton bollworm Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) in south Indian cotton ecosystem', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2033, 'Chloroplast transformation as a tool for prevention of gene flow from GM crops to weedy or wild relatives', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2034, 'Media coverage of agrobiotechnology: did the butterfly have an effect?', 'This study examines media coverage of genetically modified (GM) crops in a risk communication framework. Content analysis is employed to investigate how specific environmental, food safety, and landmark events, such as the monarch butterfly and Pusztai controversies, and the cloning of Dolly-the-sheep, were reported by the media. Media coverage is from United Kingdom and United States newspapers over the period 1990 through 2001. On balance, findings show that the UK press has been more negative than the U.S. press in its coverage of GM crops. In addition, environmental and food safety events had a significant impact on the level and cycle of GM crop coverage.', 'en_US'),
(2035, 'Interactions of Atlantic salmon in the Pacific Northwest: VI. a synopsis of the risk and uncertainty', 'The paper collates conclusions of the five literature reviews of the possible interactions of Atlantic salmon in the environment of the Pacific Northwest, and prioritizes the issues in order of magnitude of risk to the aquatic ecosystem of Puget Sound. Two issues appear to carry the most risk for the region. These are the impact on the sediments beneath net-pen farms from bio-deposits, and the accumulation of heavy metals (zinc and copper), both of which can remediate within 1?2 years with fallowing. Eight issues appear to carry a low risk, the majority of which concern the effects on other biota in the immediate vicinity of net-pen farms. These include physiological effect of low dissolved oxygen levels in the water column; the toxic effect of hydrogen sulfide and ammonia emanating from the bio-deposits; the toxic effect of algal blooms which might be enhanced by the dissolved inorganic wastes; changes in the epifaunal community caused by the accumulation of organic wastes; the proliferation of human pathogens, and fish and shellfish pathogens in the environment; the increased incidences of disease among wild fish; and the displacement of wild salmon in the marketplace by farmed salmonids. Finally, three issues, and their sub-sets, carry very little or no risk. Two are specific to the environment, namely the escape of a non-native species and possible hybridization with other salmonids, colonization of salmonid habitat, competition with native species for forage, predation on indigenous species, and as vectors for the introduction of exotic pathogens; and the impact of antibiotic-resistant bacteria on native salmonids. The third concerns human health and safety regarding possible heavy metal contamination of farm products, rendered animal products in animal feeds, genetically modified (GM) ingredients in fish feeds, ingredients and additives in animal feeds, residual medicines and drugs in farmed products, biological hazards in farm products, transgenic farm fish, workers'' safety, public safety and navigational hazards, and impacts on nearby property values. The paper ends with discussion on the management of risk and uncertainty in the context of impacts on the environment, human health and safety, and the escape of farm animals.', 'en_US'),
(2036, 'Measuring gene flow from two birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus) field trials using transgenes as tracer markers', 'Genetic engineering is becoming a useful tool in the improvement of plants but concern has been expressed about the potential environmental risks of releasing genetically modified (GM) organisms into the environment. Attention has focused on pollen dispersal as a major issue in the risk assessment of transgenic crop plants. In this study, pollen-mediated dispersal of transgenes via cross-fertilization was examined. Plants of Lotus corniculatus L. transformed with either the Escherichia coli asparagine synthetase gene asnA or the b-glucuronidase gene uidA, were used as the pollen donor. Nontransgenic plants belonging to the species L. corniculatus L., L. tenuis Waldst. and Kit. ex Willd, and L. pedunculatus Cav., were utilized as recipients. Two experimental fields were established in two areas of central Italy. Plants carrying the uidA gene were partially sterile, therefore only the asnA gene was used as a tracer marker. No transgene flow between L. corniculatus transformants and the nontransgenic L. tenuis and L. pedunculatus plants was detected. As regards nontransgenic L. corniculatus plants, in one location flow of asnA transgene was detected up to 18 m from the 1.8 m2 donor plot. In the other location, pollen dispersal occurred up to 120 m from the 14 m2 pollinating plot.', 'en_US'),
(2037, 'Epigenetic interactions between Arabidopsis transgenes:  characterization in light of transgene integration sites', 'The stochastic variability of expression that is a characteristic of eukaryotic nuclear transgenes is often attributed to epigenetic mechanisms that are triggered by repetitive transgene locus structures and influenced by chromosomal position effects. In order to address the contribution of chromosomal position effects in the context of a fully sequenced genome, a novel set of transgene loci was established in the compact genome of Arabidopsis thaliana. Transgenes expressing GFP-tagged or GUS-tagged fusion proteins of Arabidopsis COP1 collectively displayed three types of gene silencing, which are distinguished by their developmental timing, gene dosage dependence, (post)transcriptional control, and extent of endogene co-suppression. Subsequently, the heritability of epistatic interactions between allelic and non-allelic transgene loci was investigated in light of both intrinsic transgene features, in particular T-DNA copy number per locus, and chromosomal insertion sites. The notion that chromosomal flanking sequences underlie the ability of transgenes to function as masters or targets of epigenetically heritable trans-silencing interactions was generally not favored by our data. Moreover, among single T-DNA loci at different chromosomal locations the great majority showed homozygosity-dependent posttranscriptional silencing. However, spontaneous silencing (in cis) may be promoted by a pericentromeric location. Instead, intrinsic transgene features correlated with all major aspects of silencing behavior tested.', 'en_US'),
(2038, 'Risk assessment of GM plants: avoiding gridlock?', 'Cultivation of genetically modified crops is presently based largely on four crops containing few transgenes and grown in four countries. This will soon change and pose new challenges for risk assessment. A more structured approach that is as generic as possible is advocated to study consequences of gene flow. Hazards should be precisely defined and prioritized, with emphasis on quantifying elements of exposure. This requires coordinated effort between large, multidisciplinary research teams.', 'en_US'),
(2039, 'Genetic modification removes an immunodominant allergen from soybean', 'The increasing use of soybean (Glycine max) products in processed foods poses a potential threat to soybean-sensitive food-allergic individuals. In vitro assays on soybean seed proteins with sera from soybean-sensitive individuals have immunoglobulin E reactivity to abundant storage proteins and a few less-abundant seed proteins. One of these low abundance proteins, Gly m Bd 30 K, also referred to as P34, is in fact a major (i.e. immunodominant) soybean allergen. Although a member of the papain protease superfamily, Gly m Bd 30 K has a glycine in the conserved catalytic cysteine position found in all other cysteine proteases. Transgene-induced gene silencing was used to prevent the accumulation of Gly m Bd 30 K protein in soybean seeds. The Gly m Bd 30 K-silenced plants and their seeds lacked any compositional, developmental, structural, or ultrastructural phenotypic differences when compared with control plants. Proteomic analysis of extracts from transgenic seed detected the suppression of Gly m Bd 30 K-related peptides but no other significant changes in polypeptide pattern. The lack of a collateral alteration of any other seed protein in the Gly m Bd 30 K-silenced seeds supports the presumption that the protein does not have a role in seed protein processing and maturation. These data provide evidence for substantial equivalence of composition of transgenic and non-transgenic seed eliminating one of the dominant allergens of soybean seeds.', 'en_US'),
(2040, 'Methionine sulfoximine, an alternative selection for the bar marker in plants', 'Methionine sulfoximine, like phosphinothricin (PPT), the active agent in the herbicide BASTA®, is a glutamate analogue that inhibits growth of wildtype Arabidopsis plants through its action on glutamine synthetase. The bar gene, which confers resistance to PPT, also confers resistance to methionine sulfoximine. In this study we show that methionine sulfoximine is an effective and economical alternative to PPT as a selective agent in agar medium.', 'en_US'),
(2041, 'PCR technology for screening and quantification of genetically modified organisms (GMO''s)', 'Although PCR technology has obvious limitations, the potentially high degree of sensitivity and specificity explains why it has been the first choice of most analytical laboratories interested in detection of genetically modified (GM) organisms (GMOs) and derived materials. Because the products that laboratories receive for analysis are often processed and refined, the quality and quantity of target analyte (e.g. protein or DNA) frequently challenges the sensitivity of any detection method. Among the currently available methods, PCR methods are generally accepted as the most sensitive and reliable methods for detection of GM-derived material in routine applications.The choice of target sequence motif is the single most important factor controlling the specificity of the PCR method. The target sequence is normally a part of the modified gene construct, for example a promoter, a terminator, a gene, or a junction between two of these elements. However, the elements may originate from wildtype organisms, they may be present in more than one GMO, and their copy number may also vary from one GMO to another. They may even be combined in a similar way in more than one GMO. Thus, the choice of method should fit the purpose. Recent developments include event-specific methods, particularly useful for identification and quantification of GM content. Thresholds for labelling are now in place in many countries including those in the European Union. The success of the labelling schemes is dependent upon the efficiency with which GM-derived material can be detected. We will present an overview of currently available PCR methods for screening and quantification of GM-derived DNA, and discuss their applicability and limitations. In addition, we will discuss some of the major challenges related to determination of the limits of detection (LOD) and quantification (LOQ), and to validation of methods.', 'en_US'),
(2042, 'From plant tissue culture to biotechnology: scientific revolutions, abiotic stress tolerance and forestry', 'Plant biotechnology - especially in vitro regeneration and cell biology, DNA manipulation and biochemical engineering - is already changing the agricultural scene in three major areas: control of plant growth, protecting plants against biotic stress, and production of specialty foods, biochemicals and pharmaceuticals. Plant biotechnology faces several major challenges in the coming decades: alleviating the hazards of abiotic stress (especially salinity, drought, and extreme temperatures), improving pest control, maintenance and improvement of the environment, improvement of food quality and design of ''specialty food'' using biochemical engineering, and production of biomaterials. Two parallel research approaches will most likely exist simultaneously in the near future: the transgenic approach (expression of unique genes and specific promoters and transcription factors), and the non-transgenic approach (genomics-assisted gene discovery, marker-assisted selection, efficient mutations, and clonal agriculture). Drought and salinity are the most serious threats to agriculture and to the environment in many parts of the world. Key molecular factors that are being used for genetic engineering of stress-tolerant plants include: over-expression of specific transcription factors, characterization of dehydrin proteins, over-production of osmoprotectants, expression of water channel proteins and ion transporters, expression and characterization of molecular chaperones, including a novel boiling-stable homo-oligomeric SP1 protein. Although molecular breeding is routine in agriculture, forest-tree species have been left far behind. However, the increasing demand for wood and its products and the reduction of available harvestable forests has recently led to the introduction of several molecular and biotechnological tools into forest-tree research and improvement. Among these are in vitro propagation, the identification of molecular markers, and genetic engineering for specific traits. Achievements today in plant biotechnology have already surpassed all previous expectations. The full realization and impact of the new developments depend not only on continued successful and innovative research and development activities, but also on a favorable regulatory climate and public acceptance. Plant scientists now have a central role in society.', 'en_US'),
(2043, 'The phantom forest: research on gene-altered trees leaps ahead, into a regulatory limbo', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2044, 'Assessing the persistence of DNA in decomposing leaves of genetically modified poplar trees', 'DNA transformation of forest tree species is now a striking reality and offers the possibility to generate transgenic trees with useful new characteristics. However, it is important to make the proper environmental assessment of these transgenic trees when established in field trials. For instance, the DNA released into the soil by decaying leaves and roots from the transgenic trees may become available for incorporation by soil microbes. The objective of this study was to investigate the persistence of recombinant plant marker genes in decomposing transgenic poplar leaf material. We studied the stability of the DNA encoding the neomycin phosphotransferase II resistance marker used in tree genetic engineering. DNA persistence in the environment was determined by placing transgenic poplar leaves in permeable bags that were located on weeds, on the soil, and below the soil and left under natural conditions on the site of a field trial for up to 12 months. This work is the first quantitative analysis of tree DNA stability in a natural forest environment. Our data indicate that fragments of the genetically modified DNA are not detectable in the field for more than 4 months.', 'en_US'),
(2045, 'Safety and countermeasures of insect-resistant transgenic crops', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2046, 'Generation of cyanogen-free transgenic cassava', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2047, 'Consumer risk perceptions toward agricultural biotechnology, self-protection, and food demand: The case of milk in the United States', 'This study is an econometric systems approach to modeling the factors and linkages affecting risk perceptions toward agricultural biotechnology, self-protection actions, and food demand. This model is applied to milk in the United States, but it can be adapted to other products as well as other categories of risk perceptions. The contribution of this formulation is the ability to examine how explanatory factors influence risk perceptions and whether they translate into behavior and ultimately what impact this has on aggregate markets. Hadden''s outrage factors on heightening risk perceptions are among the factors examined. In particular, the article examines the role of labeling as a means of permitting informed consent to mitigate outrage factors. The effects of attitudinal, economic, and demographic factors on risk perceptions are also explored, as well as the linkage between risk perceptions, consumer behavior, and food demand. Because risk perceptions and self-protection actions are categorical variables and demand is a continuous variable, the model is estimated as a two-stage mixed system with a covariance correction procedure suggested by Amemiya. The findings indicate that it is the availability of labeling, not the price difference, between that labeled milk and milk produced with recombinant bovine Somatotropin (rbST) that significantly affects consumer''s selection of rbST-free milk. The results indicate that greater availability of labeled milk would not only significantly increase the proportion of consumers who purchased labeled milk, its availability would also reduce the perception of risk associated with rbST, whether consumers purchase it or not. In other words, availability of rbST-free milk translates into lower risk perceptions toward milk produced with rbST.', 'en_US'),
(2048, 'Improving risk assessment for nontarget safety of transgenic crops', 'In many countries, government regulations require environmental risk assessment prior to commercial sale and widespread planting of transgenic crops. Here I evaluate the design and statistical rigor of experiments used by industry to assess the safety of transgenic plants for nontarget organisms, as required under U.S. regulations. This review reveals that a few simple improvements in experimental design could greatly increase the rigor and information content of studies required under current regulations. For example, although most experiments were conducted for 1-4 wk, some of the tested species can live a year or more and could experience much longer periods of exposure. Moreover, the number of replicates used in these studies was generally quite small (usually 2-6 replicates per treatment), resulting in experiments that had little chance of detecting real effects. Clearly, sample sizes should be bolstered, and nonsignificant results should be accompanied by an analysis of statistical power. In addition, information readily available over the Internet is insufficient for a quantitative assessment of a transgenic crop''s safety. Improved access to information regarding the details of risk assessment studies could greatly increase the public''s ability to evaluate industry''s claims of safety.', 'en_US'),
(2049, 'Influence of transgenic insecticidal crops on non-target insects: overview from the data to date.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2050, 'Intellectual property protection for plant-related inventions in Europe', 'The economic and political issues that accompany the commercial growing of genetically modified crops, as well as the risk of transgene spread, are often top of the agenda for debate. But one important aspect is frequently overlooked - the intellectual property protection of plant-related inventions. What protection does European patent law afford to such inventions, how does it compare with the United States law and what are the consequences of the differences between them?', 'en_US'),
(2051, 'The production of recombinant pharmaceutical proteins in plants', 'PrefaceImagine a world in which any protein, either naturally occurring or designed by man, could be produced safely, inexpensively and in almost unlimited quantities using only simple nutrients, water and sunlight. This could one day become reality as we learn to harness the power of plants for the production of recombinant proteins on an agricultural scale. Molecular farming in plants has already proven to be a successful way of producing a range of technical proteins. The first plant-derived recombinant pharmaceutical proteins are now approaching commercial approval, and many more are expected to follow.Summary·', 'en_US'),
(2052, 'Transgene introgression from genetically modified crops to their wild relatives', 'PrefaceTransgenes engineered into annual crops could be unintentionally introduced into the genomes of their free-living wild relatives. The fear is that these transgenes might persist in the environment and have negative ecological consequences. Are some crops or transgenic traits of more concern than others? Are there natural genetic barriers to minimize gene escape? Can the genetic transformation process be exploited to produce new barriers to gene flow? Questions abound, but luckily so do answers.Summary·', 'en_US'),
(2053, 'The GM public debate: context and communication strategies', 'Science communication is developing a new approach that promotes dialogue between scientists and the public.  A recent example is the debate on the possible introduction of genetically modified crops in the United Kingdom.  As this exercise in public engagement draws to a close, we consider the context in which this debate has taken place, and the challenges of developing such interactions between science and society.', 'en_US'),
(2054, 'A future for transgenic livestock', 'The techniques that are used to generate transgenic livestock are inefficient and expensive.  This, coupled with the fact that most agriculturally relevant traits are complex and controlled by more than one gene, has restricted the use of transgenic technology.  New methods for modifying the genome will underpin a resurgence of research using transgenic livestock.  This will not only increase our understanding of basic biology in commercial species, but might also lead to the generation of animals that are more resistant to infectious disease.', 'en_US'),
(2055, 'Effects of genetically modified plants on microbial communities and processes in soil', 'The development and use of genetically modified plants (GMPs) has been a topic of considerable public debate in recent years. GMPs hold great promise for improving agricultural output, but the potential for unwanted effects of GMP use is still not fully understood. The majority of studies addressing potential risks of GMP cultivation have addressed only aboveground effects. However, recent methodological advances in soil microbial ecology have allowed research focus to move underground to try to gain knowledge of GMP-driven effects on the microbial communities and processes in soil that are essential to key terrestrial ecosystem functions. This review gives an overview of the research performed to date on this timely topic, highlighting a number of case studies. Although such research has advanced our understanding of this topic, a number of knowledge gaps still prevent full interpretation of results, as highlighted by the failure of most studies to assign a definitively negative, positive or neutral effect to GMP introduction. Based upon our accumulating, yet incomplete, understanding of soil microbes and processes, we propose a synthesis for the case-by-case study of GMP effects, incorporating assessment of the potential plant/ecosystem interactions, accessible and relevant indicators, and tests for unforeseen effects.', 'en_US'),
(2056, 'Assessment of the allergenic potential of proteins', 'The development of novel foods, including foods derived from genetically modified plants, has generated considerable interest in the design and application of appropriate safety assurance measures. A specific focus of attention has been on allergenicity, and in particular the need to determine whether the products of novel genes introduced into food plants have the potential to cause allergic sensitization. Among the approaches applied currently are considerations of whether a new protein has structural, sequence and/or antigenic similarities with known food allergens, and whether or not it displays resistance to digestion within a simulated gastric fluid, or by pepsin. Although such data are useful in an overall hazard assessment, they are neither individually, nor collectively, able to provide a direct evaluation of inherent sensitising potential. For this reason there is a need to develop and apply appropriate animal models that will offer a more holistic view of sensitising activity. Several methods have been suggested, but as yet none has been evaluated fully or validated. Nevertheless, significant progress has been made and in this article an experimental approach using BALB/c strain mice in which animals are exposed to the test protein via systemic (intraperitoneal, or in certain circumstances, intradermal) administration is described. Inherent sensitising potential is measured as a function of induced IgE antibody responses. Experience to date is encouraging and the data available reveal that this method is able to distinguish between proteins of different allergenic potential.', 'en_US'),
(2057, 'Risk assessment of virus-resistant transgenic plants', 'Virus-resistant transgenic plants (VRTPs) hold the promise of enormous benefit for agriculture. However, over the past ten years, questions concerning the potential ecological impact of VRTPs have been raised. In some cases, detailed study of the mode of action of the resistance gene has made it possible to eliminate the source of potential risk, notably the possible effects of heterologous encapsidation on the transmission of viruses by their vectors. In other cases, the means of eliminating likely sources of risk have not yet been developed. When such residual risk still exists, the potential risks associated with the VRTP must be compared with those associated with nontransgenic plants so that risk assessment can fully play its role as part of an overall analysis of the advantages and disadvantages of practicable solutions to the problem solved by the VRTP. ', 'en_US'),
(2058, 'Considerations for conducting research in agricultural biotechnology', 'Science has shown its increased vulnerability because of two recent high-profile articles published in major journals on corn produced through biotechnology: a laboratory report suggesting profound consequences to monarch butterfly populations due to Bt corn pollen and a report suggesting transgenic introgression into Mexican maize. While both studies have been widely regarded as having flawed methodology, publishing these studies has created great consternation in the scientific community, regulatory agencies and the general public. There are roles and responsibilities of scientists, scientific journals, the public media, public agencies, and those who oppose or advocate a specific technology, and serious consequences when those roles and responsibilities go awry. Modern communication may exacerbate the flow of misinformation and easily lead to a decline in public confidence about biotechnology and science. However, common sense tells us that scientific inquiry and the publication and reporting of results should be performed with high standards of ethical behavior, regardless of one''s personal perspective on agricultural biotechnology.', 'en_US'),
(2059, 'Regulation of Bt crops in Canada', 'The Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) regulates environmental releases of plants with novel traits, which include transgenic plants such as Bt crops. Bt crops are regulated in Canada because they express insect resistance novel to their species. Commercialization of crops with novel traits such as the production of insecticidal Bt proteins requires an approval for environmental release, as well as approvals for use as feed and food. Environmental factors such as potential impacts on non-target species are considered. Insect resistance management (IRM) may be imposed as a condition for environmental release of Bt crops to delay the development of resistance in the target insect. Bt potato and European corn borer-resistant Bt corn have been released with mandatory IRM. The CFIA imposes an IRM plan consisting of appropriate refugia, education of farmers and seed dealers, and monitoring and mitigation. Industry, regulators, government extension staff and public researchers provide expert advice on IRM.', 'en_US'),
(2060, 'Precautionary risk assessment of Bt maize: what uncertainties?', 'GM crops have become a test case for the conflicting slogans of `the precautionary principle'' versus `sound science.'' The issues can be illustrated by developments in regulatory science for Bt maize in the European Union. As this case study suggests, risk assessment is always framed by some account of the relevant uncertainties. These in turn depend upon how the environment is valued and how scientific questions are posed about cause?effect pathways of potential harm. The slogan of `sound science'' hides such judgements, by representing ignorance or value-judgements as `science.'' By contrast, precaution can challenge such judgements, identify new unknowns, generate different criteria for evidence, open up new scientific questions, and make these judgements more transparent. It is doubtful whether these complexities have been fully acknowledged by specialists, and thus whether the continued risk debate is due solely to a public misunderstanding of science.', 'en_US'),
(2061, 'Regulatory and associated political issues with respect to Bt transgenic maize in the European Union', 'Legislation at the national level in Europe as well as that developed by the European Union (EU) generally permits release and commercialization of genetically modified organisms (GMOs). However, only 10 plant/event combinations were registered as of 2002: three maize events (Bt176, Mon810, and Bt11), with the other seven divided among carnation (3), oil-seed rape (2), tobacco (1), and raddiccio (1). Of these, only one maize event (Bt176) has been registered as a legal variety, and this was in Spain, where 22,000ha have been planted annually since 1998. In this paper, we first provide an overview on the complexity of EU GMO legislation. Then we discuss the minor role that results of EU-funded biosafety research have had on governmental policy. Finally, we provide information about initiatives for post-commercialization monitoring plans of Bt maize in Europe. As a result of the slow progress to date, we conclude that commercialization of GMOs will be seriously delayed in the EU for the next several years.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(2062, 'Influence of herbicide tolerant soybean production systems on insect pest populations and pest-induced crop damage.', 'Conventional soybean weed management and transgenic herbicide-tolerant management were examined to assess their effects on soybean insect pest populations in south Georgia in 1997 and 1998. Soybean variety had very little impact on the insect species observed, except that maturity group effects were observed for stink bug, primarily Nezara viridula (L.), population densities on some sampling dates. Stink bugs were more abundant on the early maturing varieties in mid-season. Velvetbean caterpillar, Anticarsia gemmatalis Hübner, potato leafhopper, Empoasca fabae (Harris), and grasshoppers Melanoplus spp. were more numerous on either conventional or herbicide-tolerant varieties on certain dates, although these differences were not consistent throughout the season. Soybean looper, Pseudoplusia includens (Walker), threecornered alfalfa hopper, Spissistilus festinus (Say), and whitefringed beetles, Graphognathus spp., demonstrated no varietal preference in this study. Few weed treatment differences were observed, but if present on certain sampling dates, then pest numbers were higher in plots where weeds were reduced (either postemergence herbicides or preplant herbicide plus postemergence herbicide). The exception to this weed treatment effect was grasshoppers, which were more numerous in weedy plots when differences were present. In postemergence herbicide plots, there were no differences in insect pest densities between the conventional herbicides (e.g., Classic, Select, Cobra, and Storm) compared with specific gene-inserted herbicide-tolerant materials (i.e., Roundup and Liberty). Defoliation, primarily by velvetbean caterpillar, was different between soybean varieties at some test sites but not different between herbicide treatments. We did not observe differences in seasonal abundance of arthropod pests between conventional and transgenic herbicide-tolerant soybean.', 'en_US'),
(2063, 'Environmental implications of gene flow from sugar beet to wild beet-current status and future research needs.', 'Gene flow via seed or pollen is a basic biological process in plant evolution. The ecological and genetic consequences of gene flow depend on the amount and direction of gene flow as well as on the fitness of hybrids. The assessment of potential risks of transgenic plants should take into account the fact that conventional crops can often cross with wild plants. The precautionary approach in risk management of genetically modified plants (GMPs) may make it necessary to monitor significant wild and weed populations that might be affected by transgene escape. Gene flow is hard to control in wind-pollinated plants like beet (Beta vulgaris). In addition, wild beet populations potentially can undergo evolutionary changes which might expand their geographical distribution. Unintended products of cultivated beets pollinated by wild beets are weed beets that bolt and flower during their first year of planting. Weed beets cause yield losses and can delay harvest. Wild beets are important plant genetic resources and the preservation of wild beet diversity in Europe has been considered in biosafety research. We present here the methodology and research approaches that can be used for monitoring the geographical distribution and diversity of Beta populations. It has recently been shown that a century of gene flow from Beta vulgaris ssp. vulgaris has not altered the genetic diversity of wild Beta vulgaris L. ssp. maritima (L.) Arcang. in the Italian sugar beet seed production area. Future research should focus on the potential evolution of transgenic wild beet populations in comparison to these baseline data. Two monitoring models are presented describing how endpoints can be measured: (1) ''Pre-post'' crop commercialization against today''s baseline and (2) ''Parallel'' to crop commercialization against GMP free reference areas/populations. Model 2 has the advantage of taking ongoing changes in genetic diversity and population dynamics into account. Model 1 is more applicable if gene flow is so strong that most areas/populations contain GMPs. Important traits that may change the ecology of populations are genes that confer tolerance to biotic and abiotic stress. An assessment of environmental effects can realistically only be based on endpoints and consequences of gene introgression, which may include economic values of biodiversity in littoral and other ecosystems containing wild beet. In general, there is still a great need to harmonize worldwide monitoring systems by the development of appropriate methods to evaluate the environmental impact of introgressed transgenes.', 'en_US'),
(2064, 'Selection of relevant non-target herbivores for monitoring the environmental effects of Bt maize pollen', 'Genes of Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki (Berliner) that encode lepidopteran-specific toxins were engineered into maize for protection against the European Corn Borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (Hbn.). Recent data suggest that Lepidoptera may be negatively affected, if maize pollen contains high amounts of Bt toxin and is diposited on host plants near maize fields. Monitoring the environmental effects of commercial Bt maize fields requires effective use of limited financial and logistical resources. The aim of this study was to develop and apply tools for selecting relevant herbivore species for the field monitoring of environmental Bt toxin effects via pollen deposition. We first present a theoretical selection tree based on ''risk index of Bt pollen for herbivores'' (I ). Our index consists of five classes from zero (not relevant) to four (highly relevant) derived from data on potential temporal and spatial coincidence of pollen exposure (A), feeding mode (B), susceptibility to lepidopteran-specific Bt toxins (C) and hazard to rare and/or endangered species (''Red List'') (D). We then screened the Macrolepidoptera database LEPIDAT to identify relevant species in Germany. Finally, we also applied the index to species found in a local biocoenotic field study (Bonn, Western Rhineland, Germany). Approximately 7% of the German Macrolepidoptera species mainly occur in farmland areas and were selected as being potentially affected by Bt pollen exposure. Of these species, 14% (= 1% of total) were found to be potentially exposed on a regional scale. The combination of I and database screening enables us to pre-select species for monitoring purposes.', 'en_US'),
(2065, 'General principles for risk assessment of living modified organisms: lessons from chemical risk assessment', 'Modern biotechnology has led to the development and use of Living Modified Organisms (LMOs) for agriculture and other purposes. Regulators at the national level are increasingly depending on risk assessment as a tool for assessing potential adverse effects of LMOs on the environment and human health. In addition, the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, an international agreement expected to enter into force in the near future, requires risk assessment as the basis for decision-making regarding import of some LMOs. While LMO risk assessment is relatively new, there are other risk assessment disciplines which have developed over longer time periods. The field of assessment of the environmental and human health risks of chemicals is particularly well developed, and is similar in application to LMO risk assessment. This paper aims to draw lessons for LMO risk assessment from the vast experience with chemical risk assessment. Seven general principles are outlined which should serve as a useful checklist to guide assessments of risks posed by LMOs.', 'en_US'),
(2066, 'Possible effects of (trans)gene flow from crops on the genetic diversity from landraces and wild relatives', 'Gene flow is a potential concern associated with the use of transgenic crops because it could affect genetic diversity of related landraces and wild relatives. This concern has taken on added importance with the looming introduction of transgenic crops in centers of crop domestication (Mexico, China) and those producing pharmaceutical compounds. For gene flow to take place among cultivars and their wild relatives, several steps have to be fulfilled, including the presence of cultivars or wild relatives within pollen or seed dispersal range, the ability to produce viable and fertile hybrids, at least partial overlap in flowering time, actual gene flow by pollen or seed, and the establishment of crop genes in the domesticated or wild recipient populations. In contrast with domestication genes, which often make crops less adapted to natural ecosystems, transgenes frequently represent gains of function, which might release wild relatives from constraints that limit their fitness. In most sexually reproducing organisms, the chromosomal region affected by selection of a single gene amounts to a small percentage of the total genome size. Because of gene flow, the level of genetic diversity present in the domesticated gene pool becomes a crucial factor affecting the genetic diversity of the wild gene pool. For some crops, such as cotton and maize, the introduction of transgenic technologies has led to a consolidation of the seed industry and a reduction in the diversity of the elite crop gene pool. Thus, diversity in improved varieties grown by farmers needs to be monitored. Several areas deserve further study, such as the actual magnitude of gene flow and its determinants in different agroecosystems, the long-term effects of gene flow on genetic diversity both across gene pools and within genomes, the expression of transgenes in new genetic backgrounds, and the effects of socio-economic factors on genetic diversity.', 'en_US'),
(2067, 'Genetically modified food crops and their contribution to human nutrition and food quality', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2068, 'Genetically modified fish and their effects on food quality and human health and nutrition', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2069, 'Genetically modified livestock and poultry and their potential effects on human health and nutrition', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2070, 'Genetically modified microorganisms and their potential effects on human health and nutrition', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2071, 'The scientific basis for risk assessment and regulation of genetically modified foods', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2072, 'Biotechnology as an alternative to chemical pesticides: a case study of Bt cotton in China', 'The overall goal of this study is to determine the extent by which genetically engineered (GE) crops in China can lead to reductions of pesticide use, the nature and source of the reductions, and whether or not there are any non-pecuniary externalities. One of the first studies of the effect of plant biotechnology on poor farmers, the study is based on a data set collected by the authors in 2000 in North China. The paper''s descriptive, budget and multivariate analysis find that Bt cotton significantly reduces the number of sprayings, the quantity of pesticides used and the level of pesticide expenditures. All Bt cotton varieties??both those produced by foreign life science companies and those created by China''s research system are equally effective. In addition to these input-reducing effects, the paper also demonstrates that such reductions in pesticides also likely lead to labour savings, more efficient overall production, as well as positive health and environmental impacts.', 'en_US'),
(2073, 'Challenges in comparing transgenic and nontransgenic soybean cultivars', 'Genetically modified soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] cultivars containing herbicide resistance have become the predominant cultivars marketed in the USA. This technology dramatically changed weed management strategies in the USA and created controversy and new challenges within various segments of the industry. This review seeks to summarize many of the issues that arose within the soybean industry surrounding the introduction of the world''s first major transgenic crop. Hopefully, the experiences gained during this transition period will benefit future efforts to commercialize transgenic crops. Initially, the new transgenics made the already difficult, yet critically important, task of cultivar selection even more arduous and confusing. Lack of university data, high cultivar turnover rates, and the added burden of factoring in technology fees, yield lag, and weed control costs into the decision of which cultivar to plant were frustrating to most producers. Industry''s early insistence on separate cultivar performance trials for Roundup Ready (RR) cultivars taxed limited testing resources and increased the size of the already massive data sets generated. Most often, the end result did not provide a direct comparison with popular conventional cultivars. As this new technology has become fully accepted and assimilated into our industry, comparisons with conventional cultivars are less important since most farmers are selecting only among RR cultivars. The current literature indicates that soybean variety test (SVT) programs with limited resources can effectively compare soybean cultivar performance using combined trials treated only with conventional herbicides with little risk of yield loss or herbicide x cultivar interactions. However, the use of a systems approach or separate RR trials to evaluate the performance of soybean cultivars is now commonplace in the USA due to the sheer dominance of RR cultivars. Many larger SVT programs will soon consider discontinuing separate trials for conventional cultivars as their numbers and importance diminish.', 'en_US'),
(2074, 'Transgenic herbicide tolerant canola - The Canadian experience', 'Canola is a Canadian development, having been derived through conventional plant breeding of rapeseed (Brassica napus L. and B. rapa L.). The acceptance of canola in the marketplace has been assisted by the proliferation of new cultivars registered under the mandate of the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA). New cultivars, whether conventional or transgenic, are evaluated and approved for registration by a national committee known as the Western Canada Canola/Rapeseed Recommending Committee (WCC/RRC). Regulatory approval for transgenics is granted by the CFIA and Health Canada, who oversee the confined and unconfined release of these products into the environment. Transgenic canola cultivars, Roundup Ready {glyphosate [N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine] tolerant}, and Liberty Link {glufosinate [2-amino-4-(hydroxymethylphosphinyl)butanoic acid] tolerant} were first registered in Canada in 1995, while Navigator [bromoxynil (3,5-Dibromo-4-hydroxybenzonitrile) tolerant] cultivars appeared later. Herbicide tolerant (HT) transgenics have enjoyed increased market share since their development, and now occupy 55% of the canola acreage in western Canada. The popularity of these cultivars appears to arise more from agronomic rather than economic advantages. Tolerance tests have failed to show any significant effect of the herbicides on the cultivars.', 'en_US'),
(2075, 'Challenges in testing transgenic and nontransgenic cotton cultivars', 'Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) cultivars transgenically enhanced to impart herbicide resistance to either bromoxynil [3,5-dibromo-4-hydroxybenzonitrile; BXN (Bayer Advanced, Peoria, IL)] or glyphosate [N-(phosphonomethyl)-glycine; Roundup Ready (Monsanto Co., St. Louis, MO)], and/or Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki [Bt; Bollgard (Monsanto)] mediated resistance to certain lepidopteran insects were planted to 77% of the 2002 U.S. cotton hectarage, yet Official Cultivar Trial (OCT) protocols remain little changed since inception. The presence of transgenic, pest-managing, and nontransgenic cultivars in OCTs poses challenges to provide unbiased cultivar performance because OCTs impose herbicide and insect management regimes appropriate for nontransgenic cultivars. Our objectives were to assess the merits of OCTs to test transgenic and nontransgenic cultivars and to recommend alternatives. Because OCTs levy common pest management on all cultivars, value-added transgenic traits are not demonstrated, cultivar variation in their expression is not shown, and main effects and interaction of cultivar and pest management regime are confounded. Examples of pest management main effects that potentially affect cultivar ranks in OCTs include yield penalties imposed on herbicide-resistant cultivars from routinely used, soil-applied herbicides and yield advantages imparted to Bt cultivars from added insect control of OCT insecticide regimes. One recommendation to more comprehensively test cultivars is to augment OCTs with trials wherein the best performing transgenic and nontransgenic cultivars in OCTs are produced with their respective pest management programs. Such trials simultaneously evaluate cultivars and transgenic traits for yield, fiber quality, and economic returns. Still, bias imposed by nontransgenic pest management regimes in OCTs can only be quantified through trials levying transgenic and OCT-type pest management treatments on transgenic cultivars', 'en_US'),
(2076, 'Opportunities for improvement of nutritive value in sorghum and pearl millet residues in South Asia through genetic enhancement', 'Cereal crop residues are important feed resources for ruminants in developing countries. However, they are poor in nutritive value because digestible energy, crude protein and mineral contents are all low. Techniques to improve the feeding value of crop residues by chemical or biological means have not been adopted widely by small farmers in developing countries. Genetic enhancement may provide an alternative and practical strategy for improvement of nutritive value in cereal straws and stovers. This paper reviews the opportunities for the improvement of nutritive value by plant breeding, with particular reference to dual-purpose cultivars of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) and pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) in South Asia.', 'en_US'),
(2077, 'A generational study of glyphosate-tolerant soybeans on mouse fetal, postnatal, pubertal and adult testicular development', 'The health safety of transgenic soybeans (glyphosate-tolerant or Roundup Ready) was studied using the mammalian testis (mouse model) as a sensitive biomonitor of potential toxic effects. Pregnant mice were fed a transgenic soybean or a non-transgenic (conventional) diet through gestation and lactation. After weaning, the young male mice were maintained on the respective diets. At 8, 16, 26, 32, 63 and 87 days after birth, three male mice and an adult reference mouse were killed, the testes surgically removed, and the cell populations measured by flow cytometry. Multi-generational studies were conducted in the same manner. The results showed that the transgenic foodstuffs had no effect on macromolecular synthesis or cell growth and differentiation as evidenced by no differences in the percentages of testicular cell populations (haploid, diploid, and tetraploid) between the transgenic soybean-fed mice and those fed the conventional diet. Additionally, there were no differences in litter sizes and body weights of the two groups.', 'en_US'),
(2078, 'Effect of Bt corn for corn rootworm control on nontarget soil microarthropods and nematodes', 'The western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), is a major pest of corn in Kansas. Planting Bt corn hybrids resistant to this pest is being tested as a method to control the larval stage of corn rootworms. These hybrids express Cry3Bb1 toxin and are expected to only directly impact chrysomelids and possibly related taxa. Soil samples were examined to evaluate the effect of Bt corn for corn rootworm control on soil microarthropods and nematodes in Kansas in 2000 and 2001. Soil samples from soil close to Bt corn and to its isoline were taken on three occasions (early, mid, and late season) from eight locations in 2000 and three locations in 2001. Soil mites and Collembola were extracted using a modified Tullgren high-gradient extractor. Nematodes were extracted using a centrifugal-flotation procedure. In general, numbers of soil mites (Prostigmata, Mesostigmata, and Oribatei), Collembola, and nematodes were similar in soil planted with Bt corn and soil planted with its isoline.', 'en_US'),
(2079, 'Towards an ecological systems approach in public research for environmental regulation of transgenic crops', 'A review of current research shows insufficient monitoring and testing have been conducted to reliably assess the degree of environmental risks posed by transgenic crops. The major risks include increased resistance to particular pesticides, gene flow into related plant species, and negative effects on non-target organisms. Significant gaps in knowledge, often stemming from missing markets for ecological services, warrant a cautious environmental regulatory approach for transgenic crops. The objective of this paper is to identify the types of ecological systems public research to implement effective biosafety controls. US biosafety regulatory processes tend to focus on controlling type I error, i.e. restricting the release of the crops when significant environmental risks do not exist, because the economic losses from denying commercialization can be estimated. However, the precautionary principle, which focuses on controlling type II errors, i.e. releasing the crops when serious ecosystem damage will occur, adds a necessary criterion given the current deficit in ecological science. The key challenge facing regulators is to find the appropriate balance of controlling type I versus type II errors. The research program should embed the lessons of evolutionary biology and ecological sciences. Viewing the plant as a production machine that can be ''brute-force'' reengineered for more efficiency is a poor analogy. Unanticipated and unintended results, positive and negative, will emerge from such engineering because plants are complex systems embedded in poorly understood, complex, and interacting ecosystems. An ideal public research program should capture the interconnectedness of ecological systems, the essential roles of ecosystem services, nonlinear and threshold responses to accumulating stresses, and global expansion of the technology. Basic elements of such a program include long-term studies of cumulative and synergistic pesticide resistance effects, potential gene flow problems for those transgenic crop trait-weed complexes with high probabilities of outcrossing and ecological disruption, and scientific protocols for assessing deleterious effects on non-target organisms. For all three effects, expanded ecosystem monitoring of the commercialized crops in varied settings is needed for improved type II error definitions and estimates. The development of improved risk analysis methodologies and protocols should also be a priority. Finally, scientific effort to stimulate precautionary research, such as the development of transgenic crops that mimic ecological systems functioning, could avert many risks. Creating information to avoid significant ecological damages and foster precautionary research and development for transgenic crops are neglected roles of public biotechnology research.', 'en_US'),
(2080, 'The use of consumption data to assess exposure to biotechnology-derived food and the feasibility of identifying effects on human health through post-market monitoring', 'The pre-market safety assessment of foods derived through biotechnology provides a scientific basis for concluding reasonable certainty of no harm and ensuring safety. At a minimum, the outcome of such an assessment provides sufficient information to estimate the likelihood of adverse effects on consumers, generally precluding the need for post-market monitoring. Post-market monitoring (PMM) may be appropriate under certain conditions where a better estimate of dietary exposure and/or nutritional consequence of a biotechnology-derived food is required, when a potential safety issue, such as allergenicity, cannot be adequately addressed through pre-market studies, or to corroborate dietary intakes of a nutritionally improved food with beneficial effects on human health. Monitoring programs must be hypothesis-driven, and are dependent upon the availability of accurate consumption data. Exposure assessment methods include both deterministic and probabilistic estimates of intakes using food supply data, individual dietary surveys, household surveys, or total diet studies. In the development of a monitoring approach, resource allocation should be dependent upon both the desired level of conservatism and the endpoint of interest. However, the cost of monitoring varies substantially, and the potential to determine causation may be limited.', 'en_US'),
(2081, 'Comparative safety assessment for transgenic crops', 'Since the first discussions on strategies to assess the food safety of genetically modified (GM) crop plants, assessment of GM plants and derived tissues has been based on comparisons with their traditionally bred counterparts. This was termed the Principle of Substantial Equivalence. However, implementation of the principle led to controversy and hampered the precision of the actual safety assessment. Here, we propose the principle be rephrased into the Comparative Safety Assessment strategy. This describes the analytical nature of the first step of the entire (GM) food safety assessment in combination with consecutive toxicological and nutritional evaluations. Further development of advanced analytical methods will help to improve the efficacy of assessment strategies.', 'en_US'),
(2082, 'Risk perceptions, endogenous demand and regulation of agricultural biotechnology', 'This paper presents a dynamic model of optimal product regulation in which consumer acceptance and the rate of product innovation are included as endogenous variables. Insights derived from the model are used to critically evaluate recent policy controversies regarding regulation of agricultural biotechnology. The results of the analysis indicate that if regulatory policy significantly affects consumer risk perceptions, more stringent regulatory requirements than those based solely on scientific risk assessment may be economically efficient. When demand is endogenously affected by regulatory policies, industry may also benefit from stronger regulations even if this results in a significant increase in product development costs.', 'en_US'),
(2083, 'Perceptions of genetically modified foods by consumers in Argentina', 'Perception of genetically modified foods (GMF) by consumers in Argentina was investigated using the repertory grid method in conjunction with generalized Procrustes analysis. The following factors were considered: type of genetic modification (microbial, plant or animal), rationale for modification (nutritional, sensory or economic), labeling or not labeling as genetically modified, controls (local or international) and associated risks (health or environment). 20 men and 20 women were recruited from a typical Argentine town. Differences in perception between men and women were not significant. Participants used a greater number of negative constructs (''risky to health'' and ''changing the environment'') than positive constructs (''beneficial'', ''improvements in nourishment''). They want these foods to be regulated and labeled as such, showing distrust in Argentine health organizations. Some participants considered GMF as ''beneficial'' if produced to improve their nutritional value, but ''superficial'' and ''whimsical'' if produced to improve sensory properties. Participants separated statements according to the rationale for modification, but not according to whether the modification was on an animal, plant or microorganism.', 'en_US'),
(2084, 'Bt-transgenic rice straw affects the culturable microbiota and dehydrogenase and phosphatase activities in a flooded paddy soil', 'There have been few investigations of the possible effects of genetically engineered plants on the microbiota and enzyme activities in flooded soil. We studied the influence of the transgenic rice KeMingDao (KMD) straw on the culturable microbiota and enzymatic activities in a flooded paddy soil under laboratory conditions. KMD contained a synthetic cry1Ab gene from Bacillus thuringiensis under the control of a maize ubiquitin promoter and linked in tandem with the gusA and hpt genes. The results showed that there were only some occasional significant differences (P<0.05) in the number of Colony forming units of aerobic bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi and in the number of anaerobic fermentative bacteria, denitrifying bacteria, hydrogen-producing acetogenic bacteria, and methanogenic bacteria between the paddy soil amended with Bt-transgenic rice straw and with the non-Bt parental rice straw during the early stages of incubation. From d14 to d84 there were significant increases (P<0.05) in soil dehydrogenase and soil neutral phosphatase activity in soils amended with rice straw compared to soil without added straw. The dehydrogenase activity was significantly greatly (almost 1.95-fold) in soil amended with Bt-transgenic straw from d7 to d14 but from d21 to d49 there was significantly greater activity (about 1.47-fold) in the soil amended with non-Bt-straw. There were no apparent differences between the activity of soil neutral phosphatase in the soils to which non-Bt-straw and Bt-straw had been added. However, both soils to which rice straws were added demonstrated significant differences in the number of microorganisms except for aerobic bacteria and enzymatic activities with respect to the control soil throughout the incubation. The above results indicated that the Bt-straw from KMD transgenic rice is not toxic to a variety of culturable microorganisms in the studied flooded paddy soil.', 'en_US'),
(2085, 'Insect resistance to transgenic Bt crops: lessons from the laboratory and field.', 'Transgenic crops that produce insecticidal toxins from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) grew on >62 million ha worldwide from 1996 to 2002. Despite expectations that pests would rapidly evolve resistance to such Bt crops, increases in the frequency of resistance caused by exposure to Bt crops in the field have not yet been documented. In laboratory and greenhouse tests, however, at least seven resistant laboratory strains of three pests (Plutella xylostella [L.], Pectinophora gossypiella [Saunders], and Helicoverpa armigera [Hübner]) have completed development on Bt crops. In contrast, several other laboratory strains with 70- to 10,100-fold resistance to Bt toxins in diet did not survive on Bt crops. Monitoring of field populations in regions with high adoption of Bt crops has not yet detected increases in resistance frequency. Resistance monitoring examples include Ostrinia nubilalis (Hübner) in the United States (6 yr), P. gossypiella in Arizona (5 yr), H. armigera in northern China (3 yr), and Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) in North Carolina (2 yr). Key factors delaying resistance to Bt crops are probably refuges of non-Bt host plants that enable survival of susceptible pests, low initial resistance allele frequencies, recessive inheritance of resistance to Bt crops, costs associated with resistance that reduce fitness of resistant individuals relative to susceptible individuals on non-Bt hosts (''fitness costs''), and disadvantages suffered by resistant strains on Bt hosts relative to their performance on non-Bt hosts (''incomplete resistance''). The relative importance of these factors varies among pest-Bt crop systems, and violations of key assumptions of the refuge strategy (low resistance allele frequency and recessive inheritance) may occur in some cases. The success of Bt crops exceeds expectations of many, but does not preclude resistance problems in the future.', 'en_US'),
(2086, 'Production, identity preservation, and labeling in a marketplace with genetically modified and non-genetically modified foods', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2087, 'Additive transgene expression and genetic introgression in multiple green-fluorescent protein transgenic crop X weed hybrid generations', 'The level of transgene expression in crop × weed hybrids and the degree to which crop-specific genes are integrated into hybrid populations are important factors in assessing the potential ecological and agricultural risks of gene flow associated with genetic engineering. The average transgene zygosity and genetic structure of transgenic hybrid populations change with the progression of generations, and the green fluorescent protein (GFP) transgene is an ideal marker to quantify transgene expression in advancing populations. The homozygous T1 single-locus insert GFP/Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) transgenic canola (Brassica napus, cv Westar) with two copies of the transgene fluoresced twice as much as hemizygous individuals with only one copy of the transgene. These data indicate that the expression of the GFP gene was additive, and fluorescence could be used to determine zygosity status. Several hybrid generations (BC1F1, BC2F1) were produced by backcrossing various GFP/Bt transgenic canola (B. napus, cv Westar) and birdseed rape (Brassica rapa) hybrid generations onto B. rapa. Intercrossed generations (BC2F2 Bulk) were generated by crossing BC2F1 individuals in the presence of a pollinating insect (Musca domestica L.). The ploidy of plants in the BC2F2 Bulk hybrid generation was identical to the weedy parental species, B. rapa. AFLP analysis was used to quantify the degree of B. napus introgression into multiple backcross hybrid generations with B. rapa. The F1 hybrid generations contained 95?97% of the B. napus-specific AFLP markers, and each successive backcross generation demonstrated a reduction of markers resulting in the 15?29% presence in the BC2F2 Bulk population. Average fluorescence of each successive hybrid generation was analyzed, and homozygous canola lines and hybrid populations that contained individuals homozygous for GFP (BC2F2 Bulk) demonstrated significantly higher fluorescence than hemizygous hybrid generations (F1, BC1F1 and BC2F1). These data demonstrate that the formation of homozygous individuals within hybrid populations increases the average level of transgene expression as generations progress. This phenomenon must be considered in the development of risk-management strategies.', 'en_US'),
(2088, 'Engineering of Bt transgenic rice for insect pest protection.', 'Stem borer is a serious pest that causes considerable yield losses of rice in Asia. Pesticides have been used broadly to control this pest. Transgenic Bt rice for a wide variety of cultivation conditions have been developed and reported on earlier. We review work done to develop Bt rice with multiple Bt genes that have different receptor binding domains, and with a fusion cry gene, cry1B/cry1Ab. Generation of Bt rice has been performed in different cultivars and recently in the hybrid ''Shanyou 63'', which gains protection against four insect pests. The Bt-rice hybrid line is free of the selectable marker gene, hph, and has been successfully field evaluated in China for 4 years. Transgene pyramiding with Bt genes alone or in combination with other genes for plant protection has been developed in rice. Bt rice in Asia has the potential to provide plant protection while curbing use of pesticides and reducing yield losses from infestation. The deployment of insect protection genes using a gene pyramiding strategy is presented as a vital strategy for maximizing crop protection and countering the development of resistant pests.', 'en_US'),
(2089, 'Fulfilling the promise of Bt potato in developing countries.', 'Potato production is expanding rapidly in developing countries, particularly in Asia. For many poor farmers potatoes represent a staple food and an important cash crop. Potato insect pests have a substantial negative impact on the livelihood of farmers. Bt potatoes have been effective on a commercial scale in controlling Colorado potato beetle in North America. Small-scale tests have demonstrated Bt''s efficacy in controlling potato tuber moth. Reliance on chemical pesticides can be reduced and/or replaced by pest-protected potato, genetically engineered to express genes from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). Reductions in insecticide use would provide significant economic, health and environmental benefits. Unintentional Bt gene escape into wild relatives of cultivated potato should be rare and unlikely to persist. However, a monitoring system should be in place in areas where sexually compatible relatives of potato occur. The potential of Bt varieties to displace land races or reduce crop genetic diversity should be addressed by the creation of sanctuaries or germplasm banks. Because farmers in developing countries exchange their seeds and mandatory labeling would likely exclude small-scale farmers, Bt genes should be introduced only into varieties handled through the formal seed systems, providing the basis for a variety-based system for segregating genetically engineered (GE) and non-GE produce. We conclude that properly managed Bt potato technology offers substantial benefits for developing countries.', 'en_US'),
(2090, 'Ecological impact of Bt cotton.', 'An overview of the ecological impact of transgenic crops, especially Bt cotton, is given in this paper. Crops expressing insecticidal crystal protein (ICP) genes from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) were among the first transgenic products approved for commercial use in the USA and several other countries. The cotton farming community in the USA embraced the transgenic technology because of potential benefits such as reducing (1) costs of operation and (2) damage to the environment and ground water supply, due to the repeated use of pesticides. However, concerns about genetically modified crops and foods remain in the USA and elsewhere. The transfer of Bt genes to wild relatives and neighboring crops, impact of Bt on non-target organisms, effects on crop yield and the possibility of insect pest populations developing resistance have all been items of concern. Key aspects of these benefits and concerns are summarized here.', 'en_US'),
(2091, 'Current resistance management requirements for Bt cotton in the United States.', 'The United States Environmental Protection Agency has required an unprecedented insect resistance management (IRM) program for Bt cotton. The specific IRM strategies and requirements for Bt cotton (Bollgard? cotton) in the United States have been developed by a coalition of stakeholders including EPA, USDA, academic scientists, public interest groups, Monsanto Company, and grower organizations. There are seven basic IRM requirements: structured refuge, resistance monitoring, remedial action plan, compliance assurance, grower education, grower agreements, and annual reports. The mandatory refuge requirements for Bollgard cotton are: (1) 5% external, unsprayed refuge option, (2) 20% external, sprayed refuge option, (3) 5% embedded refuge option, or (4) a community refuge option that may utilize the 5% external, unsprayed refuge option and/or the 20% external, sprayed refuge option. Each refuge option also has specific deployment requirements. The current registration for Cry1Ac plant-incorporated protectant as expressed in cotton (known as Bollgard cotton) expires September 30, 2006, except for the 5% external, unsprayed structured refuge option, which will expire September 30, 2004. Additional research data will be integral to strengthening the existing IRM plans for Bollgard cotton and promoting greater sustainability.', 'en_US'),
(2092, 'The safety of Bacillus thuringiensis for human consumption.', 'Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) provides one of the most prominent biologically based pesticides. Bt affords a high degree of safety to the environment, non-target organisms and humans in combination with its effectiveness in controlling numerous insect pests. These features fill a pressing need to produce food and fiber for a growing population without eroding environment and health. Extensive safety testing and a history of human exposure without adverse effects have proven Bt to be one of the most important reduced risk pesticides. Not only is Bt effective against targeted pests, but it is safe enough to humans to be exempted from many of the precautions that apply to conventional synthetic chemical pesticides.', 'en_US'),
(2093, 'Effects of Bt on non-target organisms.', 'The development of Bt crops is one of the most significant advances in crop protection technology of the past fifty years. Current Bt crops are based on highly specific insecticidal Cry proteins of Bacillus thuringiensis. Foliar Bt insecticides based on the same proteins have been used for more than forty years and have a remarkable safety record, with no known detrimental effects reported on vertebrate or non-target invertebrate populations. Bt cotton and Bt corn have been widely adopted by farmers in the United States, with acreage averaging 40-50% of the area planted with cotton or corn in 2002. Concern has been raised about the safety of Bt crops. However, most evidence shows that these crops, like foliar Bt insecticides, are safe for non-target organisms, especially in comparison to chemical insecticides. Evidence for safety comes from knowledge of Cry protein mode of action as well as from studies of the effects of Cry proteins on non-target organisms tested in the laboratory and under operational growing conditions. These studies indicate that Bt crops, owing to their high degree of safety, can serve as the cornerstone for more environmentally sound integrated pest management programs.', 'en_US'),
(2094, 'The role of microbial Bt products in U.S. crop protection.', 'Microbial Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) insecticides have been used for over 40 years. In the United States, Bt formulations are primarily applied to control lepidopteran pests on fruit and vegetable crops, to control gypsy moth in forests and to control dipteran pests (mosquitoes and blackflies) that bite humans. A highly selective insecticide with activity conferred primarily by insecticidal crystal proteins (ICPs), Bt is generally not harmful to humans, non-target wildlife or beneficial arthropods. Its selectivity and unique mode of action make it an important alternative to conventional chemical insecticides, and many integrated pest management (IPM) programs for particular fruit and vegetable crops as well as certified organic production include the use of Bt. Agricultural commercialization and adoption of plant-incorporated Bt presents new opportunities to expand the use of Bt ICPs for agricultural pest control, but also raises concerns about the potential for accelerated development of pest resistance to Bt. The relative risks and benefits of microbial and plant-incorporated Bt products are introduced.', 'en_US'),
(2095, 'The utility and management of transgenic plants with Bacillus thuringiensis genes for protection from pests.', 'Recombinant DNA technology offers opportunities for widening the available gene pool for crop improvement. Genetic engineering also allows the introduction of several desirable genes in a single event, and can reduce the time to introgress novel genes into elite backgrounds. Genes conferring resistance to insects have been inserted into crop plants such as cotton, maize, potato, tobacco, rice, broccoli, lettuce, walnut, apple, alfalfa, and soybean. Genetically transformed crops with Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) genes have been deployed for cultivation primarily in the USA, China, Argentina, Canada, Mexico, South Africa, and Australia. The potential of insect-resistant transgenic plants with Bt genes can be enhanced when deployed in combination with alternate protective genes such as protease inhibitors, enzymes, and plant lectins, or in combination with insect-resistant cultivars derived through conventional breeding. While several transgenic crops with insecticidal genes have been introduced in the temperate regions, very little has been done to use this technology for improving crop production in the harsh environments of the tropics, where the need for increasing food production is most urgent. This may be due to the lack of infrastructure, biosafety regulations, intellectual property rights, or market potential. There is an urgent need to develop a scientifically sound strategy to deploy exotic and plant derived genes through transgenic plants for minimizing the extent of losses caused by insect pests. Equally important is the need for observance of biosafety regulations, a responsible public debate, and a better presentation of the benefits to sustainable crop production of a rational deployment of genetically transformed plants.', 'en_US'),
(2096, 'Current and potential role of transgenic crops in U.S. agriculture', 'Transgenic crop cultivars with resistance to insects, pathogens, and herbicides offer growers powerful new pest management tools. We reviewed the observed and potential farm-level impacts of transgenic cultivars, including those with regulatory approval and commercial availability as well as those still being researched and developed. Direct grower benefits, such as yield and production increases and decreased management costs, have led to rapid and extensive adoption of Bt corn and cotton, herbicide-resistant cotton, soybean, and canola, and virus-resistant papaya. Other transgenic crops, including Bt sweet corn and potato, and herbicide-resistant sugar beet and corn, have not been adopted despite strong agronomic and pest management performance, largely because growers fear there will be no market for their harvests. Despite inconsistent adoption of transgenic cultivars, demonstrated benefits of the technology encourage ongoing efforts to incorporate pest management traits into a wider variety of crops, including broccoli, tomato, lettuce, grape, citrus, pineapple, raspberry, peanut, wheat, barley, and rice. Potential impacts of these upcoming transgenic cultivars range from a decrease in weed management costs for lettuce and tomato growers, to the defense of stone fruit, grape, and citrus against devastating new pests.', 'en_US'),
(2097, 'Assessing the risks of insect resistant transgenic plants on entomophagous arthropods: Bt-maize expressing Cry1Ab as a case study', 'One of the primary concerns related to the adoption of insect resistant transgenic plants in the environment is the detrimental effect that these may pose on non-target organisms, including entomophagous arthropods (parasitoids and predators) which have an important function in regulating pests. Despite the fact that regulatory bodies require information regarding the potential risk of releasing transgenic plants in the environment, to date, no specific protocols have been designed for assessing the risks of insect resistant transgenic crops on entomophagous arthropods. Here a framework for risk assessment is proposed to evaluate the effects of insect resistant plants on entomophagous arthropods. Using maize expressing the Bacillus thuringiensis gene which codes for the Cry1Ab toxin, we illustrate the procedure necessary for assessing the risks. As a first step, it is required to determine which entomophagous arthropods play a major role in regulating maize pests, and which may be at risk. Because the risk which transgenic plants pose to entomophagous arthropods depends on both, their exposure, and their sensitivity to the insecticidal protein, it is essential to determine, as a second step, if and at what level organisms are exposed to the transgene compound. Exposure will be associated with the feeding behaviour of phytophagous and entomophagous arthropods together with the tissue and cell specific temporal and spatial expression of the insecticidal protein. For those organisms which could potentially be exposed to the insecticidal protein, sensitivity tests, as a third step, should be performed to assess toxicity. The testing procedure and the type of tests which should be adopted to quantify the effects of insect resistant plants on natural enemies are subsequently illustrated. Taking the green lacewing Chrysoperla carnea as an example, we propose a procedure on how to perform tests and give evidence that Bt-maize poses no risk to this predator.', 'en_US');

INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(2134, 'Transgenic maize and the evolution of landrace diversity in Mexico: the importance of farmers'' behavior', 'The discovery of transgenic products in maize (Zea mays) landraces planted by small-scale Mexican farmers (Quist and Chapela, 2001, 2002; Christou, 2002; Editorial Note, 2002) raised questions about how the commercial introduction of transgenic maize varieties might affect the traditional agricultural systems of small-scale farmers. A key concern is whether their introduction will have a deleterious effect on the diversity of maize landraces that these farmers maintain. Mexican agriculture, including maize production, has a bimodal structure (Bailey and Roberts, 1983; Nadal, 2000). On the one hand, a large number of small-scale farmers in rain-fed areas grow maize mainly for domestic consumption, though they may occasionally sell some surplus. On the other hand, a relatively small number of commercially oriented farmers practice large-scale maize production, mainly in irrigated areas, and their objectives and technological needs resemble those of their counter-parts in the industrialized world. These large-scale farmers are the logical market for commercial transgenic maize varieties. Although small-scale farmers, who rarely purchase commercial seed, are an unlikely market for transgenic varieties, the introduction of transgenic maize varieties may nevertheless have important consequences for them. In this paper, we identify some of those consequences and explore their implications. Specifically, we examine how transgenes may diffuse in traditional agricultural systems, describe the mechanisms that encourage their diffusion, and discuss the implications for the loss of maize diversity and for biosafety risk assessment. Finally, we indicate how the issues surrounding the diffusion of transgenic varieties in Mexico''s traditional systems may prove relevant in other countries and crop species. An important concern in assessing the risk of growing a genetically modified crop in its center of domestication (i.e. where its wild relatives are present) is gene flow between the transgenic crop and its wild relatives. Even though data on this subject are limited, the potential impact of such gene flow has been under discussion for some time (Serratos et al., 1997; Blancas et al., 2002; Gepts and Papa, 2003). In this paper, we will focus on the less-explored issue of maize-to-maize gene flow, which plays an important role in the evolution of maize populations in Mexico (Louette et al., 1997; Perales et al., 2003a, 2003b) and other countries, such as Burkina Faso (Sanou et al., 1997).', 'en_US'),
(2135, 'Gene flow from cultivated rice (Oryza sativa) to its weedy and wild relatives', 'Background and Aims: Transgene escape through gene flow from genetically modified (GM) crops to their wild relative species may potentially cause environmental biosafety problems. The aim of this study was to assess the extent of gene flow between cultivated rice and two of its close relatives under field conditions. Methods:  Experiments were conducted at two sites in Korea and China to determine gene flow from cultivated rice (Oryza sativa L.) to weedy rice (O. sativa f. spontanea) and common wild rice (O. rufipogon Griff.), respectively, under special field conditions mimicking the natural occurrence of the wild relatives in Asia. Herbicide resistance (bar) and SSR molecular finger printing were used as markers to accurately determine gene flow frequencies from cultivated rice varieties to their wild relatives. Key Results:  Gene flow frequency from cultivated rice was detected as between approx. 0·011 and 0·046% to weedy rice and between approx. 1·21 and 2·19% to wild rice under the field conditions. Conclusions: Gene flow occurs with a noticeable frequency from cultivated rice to its weedy and wild relatives, and this might cause potential ecological consequences. It is recommended that isolation zones should be established with sufficient distances between GM rice varieties and wild rice populations to avoid potential outcrosses. Also, GM rice should not be released when it has inserted genes that can significantly enhance the ecological fitness of weedy rice in regions where weedy rice is already abundant and causing great problems.', 'en_US'),
(2136, 'Sustainability of insect resistance management strategies for transgenic Bt corn', 'Increasing interest in the responsible management of technology in the industrial and agricultural sectors of the economy has been met thorough the development of broadly applicable tools to assess the ''sustainability'' of new technologies. An arena ripe for application of such analysis is the deployment of transgenic crops. The new transgenic pesticidal or plant-incorporated protectant (PIP) crops have seen widespread application in the United States based on the features of higher yield, lower applications of insecticides, and control of mycotoxin content. However, open rejection of these new crops in Europe and in other countries has been a surprising message and has limited their worldwide acceptance. The US Environmental Protection Agency''s (USEPA) Office of Pesticide Programs (OPP) has worked on the development and analysis of insect resistance management (IRM) strategies and has mandated specific IRM requirements for Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) crops since 1995 under the Food, Fungicide, Insecticide, and Rodenticide Act. Improvement of data quality and sustainability of IRM strategies have been targeted in an ongoing partnership between the USEPA Office of Research and Development and the Office of Pesticide Programs that will further enhance the agency''s ability to develop sustainable insect resistance management strategies for transgenic field corn (Bt corn) producing B. thuringiensis (Bt) insecticidal proteins.', 'en_US'),
(2137, 'Capacity building in agricultural biotechnology in Turkey', 'Turkey, situated at the junction of two continents, benefits both from its rich Asian legacy and its proximity to neighboring European countries. Although the level of socioeconomic development places the country clearly in the group of developing countries, Turkey has been a candidate country for admission to the European Union (EU) since 1999. As a result, the conditions for capacity building in agricultural biotechnology include elements from both the industrialized and developing countries. Because of its favorable climate and time-tested farming traditions dating back to ancient Mesopotamia, the country possesses one of the richest floras in the world. This review attempts to illuminate the role and importance of local actors in introducing modern biotechnology to the Turkish agricultural system. Agricultural biotechnology, specifically plant biotechnology, has a high priority in the Turkish government''s program. Public-funded research and education in this field is given due priority, but research by the private sector is relatively poorly funded. The ongoing field trials with genetically modified seeds are conducted mostly by multinational companies whose aim it is to commercialize the genetically modified organisms (GMOs) as soon as legislation concerning biotechnology is implemented. The attitude of the big farm owners to genetically modified crops is positive because they expect economic advantages from these crops. On the other hand, public awareness about genetically modified food is quite low, and neither the consumer organizations nor the media represent a particular power in this area. Thus, the power centers in agricultural biotechnology are the government and the multinational biotech companies. The local industry, the consumers, and the media have relatively less input. Moreover, communication between groups is fairly poor, and this contributes to a growing gap between the strong and the weak actors. Turkey has already decided to implement the EU regulation in contained use and the deliberate release of GMOs, which has been shaped in the European sociopolitical environment where the consumers and their organizations represent a powerful force, and where the power constellation between the actors is quite different. Nevertheless, it can be argued, that this route might still be the right choice for Turkey during the phase of introducing this high-tech method of production to its agriculture.', 'en_US'),
(2138, 'The environmental impacts of genetically modified plants: challenges to decision making', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2139, 'Consumers'' acceptance of (and resistance to) genetically modified foods in high-income countries: effects of labels and information in an uncertain environment', 'No abstract', 'en_US'),
(2140, 'Nutritional and safety assessments of foods and feeds nutritionally improved through biotechnology:  an Executive Summary.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2141, 'Horticultural biotechnology faces significant economic and market barriers', 'Technological change has driven economic progress in agriculture and will continue to play a crucial role in the 21st century. The latest wave of technological change in agriculture is based in molecular biology. Will horticulture participate? Genetically engineered crop varieties have been adopted on a wide scale in some agronomic crops, but horticultural crops face larger hurdles. High costs for research, development and regulatory approval combined with the small acreages planted and the diversity of varieties, will limit the potential for profitable applications of biotechnology to many fruits and vegetables, tree fruits and nuts, and nursery crops. In addition, there are market barriers. Like most important changes in agriculture, modern biotechnology has met with spirited political opposition from some quarters. Threats of political action may discourage food manufacturers and retailers from adopting biotech products that are wanted by some consumers and may be profitable for growers.', 'en_US'),
(2142, 'Impact of genetically-modified crops on soil- and plant-associated microbial communities.', 'Transgenic or genetically modified plants possess novel genes that impart beneficial characteristics such as herbicide resistance. One of the least understood areas in the environmental risk assessment of genetically modified crops is their impact on soil- and plant-associated microbial communities. The potential for interaction between transgenic plants and plant residues and the soil microbial community is not well understood. The recognition that these interactions could change microbial biodiversity and affect ecosystem functioning has initiated a limited number of studies in the area. At this time, studies have shown the possibility that transgenes can be transferred to native soil microorganisms through horizontal gene transfer, although there is not evidence of this occurring in the soil. Furthermore, novel proteins have been shown to be released from transgenic plants into the soil ecosystem, and their presence can influence the biodiversity of the microbial community by selectively stimulating the growth of organisms that can use them. Microbial diversity can be altered when associated with transgenic plants; however, these effects are both variable and transient. Soil- and plant-associated microbial communities are influenced not only by plant species and transgene insertion but also by environmental factors such as field site and sampling date. Minor alterations in the diversity of the microbial community could affect soil health and ecosystem functioning, and therefore, the impact that plant variety may have on the dynamics of the rhizosphere microbial populations and in turn plant growth and health and ecosystem sustainability, requires further study.', 'en_US'),
(2143, 'New biotechnological applications of coconuts', 'Coconut is a major crop of many poor nations. The present paper shows with inexpensive fluorescence microscopy of the enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP), that coconut water has the capability of synthesizing proteins from recombinant DNA vectors.  After only 4 hrs of 100 pM application of the EGFP plasmid (pEGFP), a strong fluorescent signal was detected with an off-the-shelf, low-tech CCD webcam.  Since natural coconut water is sterile, this heat-stable delivery system may be a good option for the dissemination of food supplements and pharmaceuticals in poor nations. As expensive substances could be expressed in coconut water, through bioreactor technology or micropropagation, the concepts presented here may prove invaluable to the economic and social advancement of many developing countries.', 'en_US'),
(2144, 'Cassava and the future of starch', 'The nutritive reserves of cassava is made up of starch,  which is one of the most important products synthesized by plants that is consumed as food and used in industrial processes.  The currently increasing cassava production will lead to higher amount of starch available making it cheaper for industrial processes, and opening up new markets.  There is also abundant capacity in many tropical countries such as Nigeria to increase cassava production.', 'en_US'),
(2145, 'The multinational biosafety project of the Organization of American States', 'The Organization of American States is supporting the project ''Biosafety Regulations in Latin America and The Caribbean within the framework of the International Biosafety Protocol''. The general objective is to strengthen national skills for the assessment and management of risks of biotechnology food products, and to build up public awareness about their benefits and risks in the participant countries, with the ultimate goal to promote their safe and sustainable use within a protective and trusting environment for the public. The first phase has been focused on the evaluation of the political and regulatory systems in Chile, Peru and Colombia, identification of needs, and development of a series of biosafety seminar-workshops in the three countries, with the participation of distinguished foreign experts. The second phase, which started in March 2003, has been extended to six countries of Central America and The Caribbean. The project is helping to identify the weaknesses and needs for the establishment of the biosafety protocol in each participating country. It has also establish the specific training needs and is given the bases for the design of general outlines of biosafety training plans, which will contribute to an efficient implementation of the International Biosafety Protocol. The project it is also allowing to coordinate actions between the countries for a better implementation of the protocol at a regional level. On the other hand, the project has allowed to assemble, around discussion tables, international experts with the main representatives of regulatory and academic institutions, business enterprises and NGOs, as well as with congressmen in scientific and technological matters and the protection of biodiversity. Thus, the project has permitted the establishment of cooperation linkages and has contributed to reinforce the notion of the importance of biosafety for national development and the preservation of local biodiversity.', 'en_US'),
(2146, 'Soybean natural cross-pollination rates under field conditions', 'Recent concerns regarding within-crop transgene flow stimulated this research to update natural crosspollination rates in conventional sowings of modern soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] in the Mississippi Delta.  Two experiments were conducted in 2001 and 2002 using two soybean cultivars, ''Pace'' (white-flowered) and ''DP3588'' (purple-flowered), selected for their equivalent flowering dates. The experiments utilized the dominance of purple flower color over white flower color to identify natural cross-pollinations. In the first experiment, 12 rows of Pace (white-flowered) flanked on each side by four rows of DP3588 (purple flowered) were sown on 10 May 2001. Seed were harvested by row from each of the Pace rows and examined for natural cross-pollinations in the next generation. In total, 73 512 potential hybrid plants were examined and natural cross-pollination rates ranged from 0.41% at 0.9 m from the pollen source to 0.03% at 5.4 m from the pollen source. These values were consistent with values previously reported in the literature. In the second experiment, seed of Pace and DP3588 were alternately sown 15.2 cm apart within a row in 2001. At maturity, 167 Pace plants (white-flowered) were harvested and a total of 19 151 progeny were evaluated for natural cross-pollinations in the next generation. The progeny of 56 (33.5%) of the 167 parent plants showed no evidence of natural crosspollination.  The progeny of the remaining 111 plants exhibited natural cross-pollination rates ranging from 0.65 to 6.32% and averaged 1.8%. The maximum rates reported here are considerably higher than most previously reported rates. The results of these two experiments highlight the potential for within-crop transgene flow in soybean.', 'en_US'),
(2147, 'Effect of Bt corn leaf suspension on food consumption by Chilo partellus and life history parameters of its parasitoid Cotesia flavipes under laboratory conditions', 'Laboratory scale experiments were conducted in order to assess the potential effect of Bacillus thuringiensis-corn leaf material on the parasitized herbivore Chilo partellus Swinhoe (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) and on its parasitoid Cotesia flavipes (Cameron) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). Food consumption and relative consumption rate of parasitized hosts exposed to Bt-corn leaf-material were strongly reduced compared to the control. The number of hosts allowing parasitoid larvae to complete their development was also reduced in the Bt group. Moreover, the fresh weight of parasitoid pupae and the dry weight of parasitoid adults was lower than in the control. Only in the Bt group, were strong negative correlations found between food intake by the host, and the number of parasitoid cocoons. Strong positive correlations were also only found in the Bt group, between food intake and parasitoid development time. As effects of Bt on the oviposition behaviour of C.flavipes could be excluded, differences between the Bt group and the control could only be due to the effect of Bt toxin on the parasitoid larva developing inside the host. Whenever food consumption can be measured, the methods used in this study are proposed as a model for future risk assessments on different types of insect-resistant transgenic plants, herbivores, parasitoids, and predators.', 'en_US'),
(2148, 'Relative stability of transgene DNA fragments from GM rapeseed in mixed ruminal cultures', 'The use of transgenic crops as feeds for ruminant animals has prompted study of the possible uptake of transgene fragments by ruminal micro-organisms and/or intestinal absorption of fragments surviving passage through the rumen. The persistence in buffered ruminal contents of seven different recombinant DNA fragments from GM rapeseed expressing the 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS) transgene was tracked using PCR. Parental and transgenic (i.e. glyphosphate-tolerant; Roundup Ready®, Monsanto Company, St Louis, MO, USA) rapeseed were incubated for 0, 2, 4, 8, 12, 24 and 48 h as whole seeds, cracked seeds, rapeseed meal, and as pelleted, barley-based diets containing 65 g rapeseed meal/kg. The seven transgene fragments ranged from 179 to 527 bp and spanned the entire 1363 bp EPSPS transgene. A 180 bp ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco) small subunit fragment and a 466 bp 16S rDNA fragment were used as controls for endogenous rapeseed DNA and bacterial DNA respectively. The limit of detection of the PCR assay, established using negative controls spiked with known quantities of DNA, was 12·5 pg. Production of gas and NH3 was monitored throughout the incubation and confirmed active in vitro fermentation. Bacterial DNA was detected in all sample types at all time points. Persistence patterns of endogenous (Rubisco) and recombinant (EPSPS) rapeseed DNA were inversely related to substrate digestibility (amplifiable for 48, 8 and 4 h in whole or cracked seeds, meal and diets respectively), but did not differ between parental and GM rapeseed, nor among fragments. Detection of fragments was representative of persistence of the whole transgene. No EPSPS fragments were amplifiable in microbial DNA, suggesting that transformation had not occurred during the 48 h incubation. Uptake of transgenic DNA fragments by ruminal bacteria is probably precluded or time-limited by rapid degradation of plant DNA upon plant cell lysis.', 'en_US'),
(2149, 'Immune response in mice to ingested soya protein: antibody production, oral tolerance and maternal transfer', 'While allergic reactions to soya are increasingly investigated, the normal immune response to ingested soya is scarcely described. In the present study, we wanted to characterise the soya-specific immune response in healthy mice ingesting soya protein. Mice fed a soya-containing diet (F0) and mice of the first (F1) and second (F2) offspring generation bred on a soya protein-free diet were used either directly or were transferred between the soya-containing and soya protein-free diet during pregnancy or neonatal life. The mice were compared as to levels of naturally occurring specific antibodies analysed by ELISA, and to the presence of oral tolerance detected as a suppressed antibody and cell-proliferation response upon immunisation with soya protein. F0 mice generated soya-specific antibodies, while oral tolerance to the same soya proteins was also clearly induced. When F0 dams were transferred to soya protein-free feed before mating, the F1 and F2 offspring generations showed no significantly different response, indicating that soya-specific immune components were not maternally transmitted. However, the ingestion of dietary soya protein by F1 mice during late pregnancy and lactation caused a lasting antibody response in the offspring, but in this case in the absence of oral tolerance. This indicates that, under certain conditions, factors involved in spontaneous antibody production can be transmitted from mother to offspring. Understanding the immune response to soya protein ingested under healthy conditions is important in the assessment of adverse effects of soya protein and in the use of animal allergy models. The present results add to this understanding.', 'en_US'),
(2150, 'A faunistic approach to assess potential side effects of genetically modified Bt corn on non-target arthropods under field conditions', 'A faunistic study investigating the potential side-effects of corn (Zea mays) genetically modified to express a truncated Cry1Ab protein derived from Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki, on non-target arthropods was carried out under field conditions. The communities of non-target arthropods in the soil, on the leaves and flying in the crop area were monitored throughout the growing season. Water-treated, untransformed corn served as a control, and a spray application of a bacterial Bt insecticide (Delfin WG) and a synthetic insecticide (Karate Xpress) used to control the European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis; Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) acted as positive reference treatments. Results were analyzed using a principal response curve. Significantly lower infestations by the lepidopteran target species O. nubilalis were observed in the Bt-corn plots compared to the control. No effects of Bt-corn on the communities of soil dwelling and non-target plant dwelling arthropods were observed. A trend towards a community effect on flying arthropods was observed with lower abundance of adult Lepidoptera, flies in the families Lonchopteridae, Mycetophilidae and Syrphidae, and the hymenopteran parasitoids Ceraphronidae. Effects were weak and restricted to two sampling dates corresponding to anthesis. A short but statistically significant effect of Karate Xpress and Delfin was observed on the community of plant dwellers and a prolonged effect of Karate Xpress on the soil dwellers.', 'en_US'),
(2151, 'Engineered plants with elevated vitamin E: a nutraceutical success story', 'Vitamin E has been touted as a panacea for age-related diseases, including cardiovascular disease and Alzheimer''s disease and, thus, the demand for this nutraceutical has increased dramatically in recent years. This demand has, in turn, driven research to increase vitamin E production from plant sources. We have summarized the cumulative work of several groups in this area, describing the current status of efforts to bioengineer plants for elevated vitamin E content.', 'en_US'),
(2152, 'How can genetically modified foods be made publicly acceptable?', 'A recent study by Lusk suggests that consumers might voluntarily pay more for a genetically modified (GM) food than a non-GM equivalent if made aware of the possible health benefits. However, other research indicates that the acceptability of novel hazards is affected by a variety of factors, in addition to benefits, and that making agricultural biotechnology publicly acceptable will be more complex than indicated by the results from Lusk''s study.', 'en_US'),
(2153, 'Consumer willingness to pay for genetically modified food labels in a market with diverse information: evidence from experimental auctions', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2154, 'Effects of the GM controversy on Iowa corn-soybean farmers'' acreage allocation decisions', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2155, 'Liquid phase hybridization based PCR ELISA for detection of genetically modified organisms in food', 'Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) screening for presence of transgenic components in food is becoming a routine method in modern food analysis. To develop a high throughput method for quantitation of the PCR products is needed for automatic industry analysis. Here we described an in situ liquid-phase hybridization (LPH) for PCR-enzyme linked immunoabsorbent assays (PCR-ELISA) that was widely used for quantitation of PCR products. In LPH-PCR-ELISA, the biotinylated PCR product was hybridized with digoxigenin-labeled probes in the PCR reaction mixture immediately after PCR cycles and the hybridizations was incorporated into the PCR program. Subsequent enzyme conversion of substrate gave distinct OD values when detecting samples with genetically modified organisms (GMOs) labels in the different concentrations. The described method enabled a fast, specific, and accurate detection of GMOs components in food products and thus can be developed to a full-automatic method for routine analysis of raw and processed food products in large sample number.', 'en_US'),
(2156, 'GMO and sustainable development in less favoured regions-the need for alternative paths of development', 'The risk assessment for new technologies, like the use of GMO in the agricultural production, becomes enormously complex. It cannot be limited to purely natural?scientific analysis. Socio-economic factors need to be considered as well. The active promotion of GMO-free areas is discussed as a means for an alternative path of development. Economically less favoured and at the same time ecologically sensitive areas are suitable for the territorial application of this concept. The state of discussion on the influences of the agricultural use of GMO on the regional development of less favoured and ecologically sensitive regions is presented. The social acceptance of GMO-free areas was tested in a survey, which was conducted in 1999 in Austria. The results suggest that the idea is worth being pursued. A case study for local application is presented: GMO-free areas as part of a biosphere park stimulate economically sustainable endogenous development.', 'en_US'),
(2157, 'Bacillus thuringiensis toxin (Cry1Ab) has no direct effect on larvae of the green lacewing Chrysoperla carnea (Stephens) (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae).', 'Earlier studies have shown that larvae of the green lacewing predator Chrysoperla carnea are negatively affected when preying on lepidopteran larvae that had been fed with transgenic maize expressing the cry1Ab gene from Bacillus thuringiensis. To test whether the observed effects were directly caused by the Cry1Ab toxin, we have developed a bioassay which allows us to feed high concentrations of the toxin directly to the predator. The results of these feeding studies show no direct toxic effect of Cry1Ab on C. carnea larvae. The amount of toxin ingested by first instar C. carnea in the present study was found to be a factor 10,000 higher than the concentration ingested when feeding on Bt-reared lepidopteran larvae, a treatment that was previously shown to have a negative impact on the predator. In addition, feeding first instar C. carnea with the Cry1Ab toxin did not affect the utilisation of subsequently provided prey. Furthermore, the quality of the prey provided to first instars did not affect the sensitivity of second and third instar C. carnea to the Bt-toxin. The presented results strongly suggest that C. carnea larvae are not sensitive to Cry1Ab and that earlier reported negative effects of Bt-maize were prey-quality mediated rather than direct toxic effects. These results, together with the fact that lepidopteran larvae are not regarded as an important prey for C. carnea in the field, led us to conclude that transgenic maize expressing Cry1Ab poses a negligible risk for this predator.', 'en_US'),
(2158, 'Adjusting management practices using glyphosate resistent soybean cultivars', 'Glyphosate [N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine]-resistant soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] cultivars have increased drastically in usage and acceptance. Little information exists to see how glyphosate-resistant soybean cultivars should be managed. The objective of this study was to evaluate different row-spacing and plant population systems using three weed management systems. A field study was conducted from 1997 through 1999 at six locations in Wisconsin. Soybean was planted in 19-, 38-, and 76-cm rows at a recommended (optimum), low, and high plant population for each row-spacing system with three weed management systems [glyphosate-resistant soybean cultivars with glyphosate (GRS/G), glyphosate-resistant soybean cultivars with conventional herbicides (GRS/CN), and conventional soybean cultivars with conventional herbicides (CN/CN)]. In northern Wisconsin, soybean yield in a GRS/G system did not respond to plant population while GRS/CN and CN/CN systems yielded 6% more in high than in low plant population. Additionally, soybean yield responded positively to plant population in 76-cm row CN/CN and GRS/CN systems in northern Wisconsin. In southern Wisconsin, GRS/G and GRS/CN systems yielded 6% less than the CN/CN system. No differences were observed among weed management systems in central and northern Wisconsin. Averaged across weed management systems and plant population, 19- and 38-cm rows yielded 7, 9, and 10% more than 76-cm rows in southern, central, and northern Wisconsin, respectively. No yield differences were observed between optimum and high plant population across Wisconsin, averaging 4% greater yield than the low plant population. The results demonstrated that it might be beneficial to alter management practices when using glyphosate-resistant soybean in some production environments in Wisconsin.', 'en_US'),
(2159, 'Managing the spatial and temporal location of refugia to manage resistance in Bt transgenic crops', 'The present paper explores the use of refugia in the high dose-refugia resistance management strategy for Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) transgenic crops. The model used represents a patchy population of an insect pest in which recessive resistance is conferred by a single locus with two alleles. The frequency of the resistance allele between generations in the insect population was based on the selection intensity, the fitness cost, the percentage of refugia, the percentage mortality in refugia due to insecticide sprays, the initial frequency of the resistance allele and the rate of insect movement. The simulation was run using four different spatial patterns of refugia inside the field crop (border, central, equidistant and random), four crop rotation patterns, five different sizes of refuge (5?50%), and two levels of non-Bt insecticide efficacy plus an untreated control in the refugia. It was found that: (a) the greater the size of refugia the lower the rate of increase in the frequency of resistance, (b) positioning patches of refugia at random in the field resulted in a higher rate of increase in the frequency of resistance compared with non-random positions, (c) positioning refugia in a border resulted in a lower rate of increase in the frequency of resistance compared with equidistant and central patterns, (d) the frequency of the resistance allele increased markedly when the refugium was less than 10%, (e) use of temporal refugia (rotation with a non-Bt insect host crop) led to a decline in the frequency of the resistance allele, (f) higher rates of movements increased the rate at which the frequency of resistance increased and (g) the frequency of the resistance allele also increased when the refugium was sprayed with insecticide. Possible mechanisms to optimize the use of refugia on resistance management are discussed.', 'en_US'),
(2160, 'Performance of growing-finishing pigs fed diets containing Roundup Ready corn (event NK603), a nontransgenic genetically similar corn, or conventional corn lines', 'Two studies were conducted at two locations to evaluate growth performance and carcass characteristics of growing-finishing pigs fed diets containing either glyphosate-tolerant Roundup Ready (event nk603) corn, a nontransgenic genetically similar control corn (RX670), or two conventional sources of nontransgenic corn (RX740 and DK647). A randomized complete block design (three and four blocks in Studies 1 and 2, respectively) with a 2 x 4 factorial arrangement of treatments (two genders and four corn lines) was used. Study 1 used 72 barrows and 72 gilts (housed in single-gender groups of six; six pens per dietary treatment) with initial and final BW of approximately 22 and 116 kg, respectively. Study 2 used 80 barrows and 80 gilts (housed in single-gender groups of five; eight pens per dietary treatment) with initial and final BW of approximately 30 and 120 kg, respectively. Pigs were housed in a modified open-front building in Study 1 and in an environmentally controlled finishing building in Study 2. The test corns were included at a fixed proportion of the diet in both studies. Animals had ad libitum access to feed and water. Pigs were slaughtered using standard procedures and carcass measurements were taken. In Study 1, overall ADG, ADFI (as-fed basis), and gain:feed (G:F) were not affected (P > 0.05) by corn line. In Study 2, there was no effect of corn line on overall ADFI (as-fed basis) or G:F ratio. In addition, overall ADG of barrows fed the four corn lines did not differ (P > 0.05); however, overall ADG of gilts fed corn DK647 was greater (P < 0.05) than that of pigs fed the other corn lines. There was no effect (P > 0.05) of corn line on carcass yield or fatness measurements in either study. Differences between barrows and gilts for growth and carcass traits were generally similar for both studies and in line with previous research. Overall, these results indicate that Roundup Ready corn (nk603) gives equivalent animal performance to conventional corn for growing pigs. ', 'en_US'),
(2161, 'Viability and longevity of pollen from transgenic and nontransgenic tall fescue', 'Pollen is an important vector of gene flow in plants, particularly for outcrossing species like tall fescue. Several aspects of pollination biology were investigated using pollen from transgenic and nontransgenic plants of tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.), the most important forage species worldwide of the Festuca genus. To effectively assess in vitro pollen viability in tall fescue, an optimized germination medium (0.8 mol/L sucrose, 1.28 mmol/L boric acid and 1.27 mmol/L calcium nitrate) was developed. Treatment with relatively high temperatures (36° and 40°C) and high doses of UV-B irradiation (900-1500 µW/cm2) reduced pollen viability, while relative humidity did not significantly influence pollen viability. Viability of pollen from transgenic progenies (T1 and T2) was similar to that from seed-derived control plants. Pollen from primary transgenics (T0) and primary regenerants (R0) had various levels of viability. Hand pollination using the primary regenerants and transgenics revealed that no seed set could be obtained when pollen viability was lower than 5%. Pollen from transgenic progenies and nontransgenic control plants could survive up to 22 h under controlled conditions in growth chamber. However, under sunny atmospheric conditions, viability of transgenic and nontransgenic pollen reduced to 5% in 30 min, with a complete loss of viability in 90 min. Under cloudy atmospheric conditions, pollen remained viable up to 240 min, with about 5% viability after 150 min. This report is the first on pollen viability and longevity in transgenic forage grasses and could be useful for risk assessment of transgenic plants', 'en_US'),
(2162, 'Movement of coat protein genes from a commercial virus-resistant transgenic squash into a wild relative', 'We monitored pollen-mediated transgene dissemination from commercial transgenic squash CZW-3 into its wild relative Cucurbita pepo ssp. ovifera var. texana (C. texana). Transgenic squash CZW-3 expresses the neomycin phosphotransferase II (nptII) gene and the coat protein (CP) genes of Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV), Zucchini yellow mosaic virus (ZYMV), and Watermelon mosaic virus (WMV); thereby, it is resistant to these three aphid-borne viruses. The rate of NPT II and CP transgene introgression increased with overlapping flowering patterns and a high ratio of transgenic F1 hybrids (C. texana × CZW-3) to C. texana. Transgene transfer also readily occurred from transgenic F1 hybrids into C. texana over three generations in field settings where test plants grew sympatrically and viruses were not severely limiting the growth, and fruit and seed production of C. texana. In contrast, introgression of the transgenes into C. texana was not sustained under conditions of high viral disease pressure. As expected, C. texana progeny that acquired the CP transgenes exhibited resistance to CMV, ZYMV, and WMV. This is the first report on transgene dissemination from a transgenic crop that exhibits disease resistance and hybridizes with a wild plant species without loss of fertility.', 'en_US'),
(2163, 'Comparative fitness of a wild squash species and three generations of hybrids between wild × virus-resistant transgenic squash', 'We compared some fitness components of the wild squash species Cucurbita pepo spp. ovifera var. texana (C. texana) and three generations of hybrids (F1, BC1, and BC2) between C. texana and commercial transgenic squash CZW-3 over three consecutive years under field conditions of low (LDP) and high disease pressure (HDP) by Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV), Zucchini yellow mosaic virus (ZYMV) and Watermelon mosaic virus (WMV). Transgenic squash CZW-3 expresses the coat protein (CP) genes of CMV, ZYMV, and WMV, and is resistant to these three aphid-borne viruses. Across all HDP trials, transgenic BC1 and BC2 hybrids expressing the three CP genes grew more vigorously, displayed resistance to CMV, ZYMV, and WMV, and produced a greater number of mature fruits and viable seeds than nontransgenic hybrid segregants and C. texana. Transgenic F1 hybrids behaved similarly to BC1 and BC2 hybrids but grew less vigorously than C. texana. In contrast, across all LDP trials, C. texana outperformed the transgenic and nontransgenic hybrid segregants. Further, only one back cross was necessary to recover individuals with most of the C. texana characteristics and yet maintain virus resistance. Our data suggest that C. texana acquiring CP transgenes upon hybridization and introgression could have a selective advantage if CMV, ZYMV, and WMV are severely limiting the growth and reproductibility of wild squash populations.', 'en_US'),
(2164, 'Assessing some of the regulatory approaches to transgenic plants: What can we learn from the regulation of other technologies?', 'Transgenic plants result from the isolation and insertion of genes into plants by means other than conventional breeding techniques, making it possible to isolate a gene that controls a valuable trait without also inserting thousands of other genes, as can occur with other methods. Transgenic plants potentially can provide substantial benefits to humans, but they can also pose risks to ecosystems, nontarget species and even to humans. I utilize the U.S. regulatory experience with chemical substances to provide some background for locating the strengths and weaknesses of different legal structures as well as providing an opportunity to learn from them. Learning from that case study and different legal structures utilized therein, as well as from the state of the world in which transgenic plants will be introduced and the state of the relevant sciences combined with a National Research Council Report on transgenic plants, this essay assesses the regulatory procedures that the U.S. Department of Agriculture uses to evaluate the risks from transgenic plants. These legal structures, although well suited for identifying risks before there is extensive exposure, have a number of shortcomings for reviewing the products of a new and not well-understood technology. The U.S. could take some steps toward improving its reasonable, tiered, pre-market approach for reviewing the risks from transgenic plants by following the NRC recommendations and learning from shortcomings of the regulation of chemical risks. Whether it will be or not remains to be seen.', 'en_US'),
(2165, 'Inheritance of GFP-Bt transgenes from Brassica napus in backcrosses with three wild B. rapa accessions', 'Transgenes from transgenic oilseed rape, Brassica napus (AACC genome), can introgress into populations of wild B. rapa (AA genome), but little is known about the long-term persistence of transgenes from different transformation events. For example, transgenes that are located on the crop''s C chromosomes may be lost during the process of introgression. We investigated the genetic behavior of transgenes in backcross generations of wild B. rapa after nine GFP (green fluorescent protein)-Bt (Bacillusthuringiensis) B. napus lines, named GT lines, were hybridized with three wild B. rapa accessions, respectively. Each backcross generation involved crosses between hemizygous GT plants and non-GT B. rapa pollen recipients. In some cases, sample sizes were too small to allow the detection of major deviations from Mendelian segregation ratios, but the segregation of GT:non-GT was consistent with an expected ratio of 1:1 in all crosses in the BC1 generation. Starting with the BC2 generation, significantly different genetic behavior of the transgenes was observed among the nine GT B. napus lines. In some lines, the segregation of GT:non-GT showed a ratio of 1:1 in the BC2, BC3, and BC4 generations. However, in other GT B. napus lines the segregation ratio of GT:non-GT significantly deviated from 1:1 in the BC2 and BC3 generations, which had fewer transgenic progeny than expected, but not in the BC4 generation. Most importantly, in two GT B. napus lines the segregation of GT:non-GT did not fit into a ratio of 1:1 in the BC2, BC3 or BC4 generations due to a deficiency of transgenic progeny. For these lines, a strong reduction of transgene introgression was observed in all three B. rapa accessions. These findings imply that the genomic location of transgenes in B. napus may affect the long-term persistence of transgenes in B.rapa after hybridization has occurred.', 'en_US'),
(2166, 'Monitoring the impact of Bt maize on butterflies in the field: estimation of required sample sizes', 'The monitoring of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) after deliberate release is important in order to assess and evaluate possible environmental effects. Concerns have been raised that the transgenic crop, Bt maize, may affect butterflies occurring in field margins. Therefore, a monitoring of butterflies was suggested accompanying the commercial cultivation of Bt maize. In this study, baseline data on the butterfly species and their abundance in maize field margins is presented together with implications for butterfly monitoring. The study was conducted in Bavaria, South Germany, between 2000-2002. A total of 33 butterfly species was recorded in field margins. A small number of species dominated the community, and butterflies observed were mostly common species. Observation duration was the most important factor influencing the monitoring results. Field margin size affected the butterfly abundance, and habitat diversity had a tendency to influence species richness. Sample size and statistical power analyses indicated that a sample size in the range of 75 to 150 field margins for treatment (transgenic maize) and control (conventional maize) would detect (power of 80%) effects larger than 15% in species richness and the butterfly abundance pooled across species. However, a much higher number of field margins must be sampled in order to achieve a higher statistical power, to detect smaller effects, and to monitor single butterfly species.', 'en_US'),
(2167, 'Comparison of broiler performance when fed diets containing Roundup Ready (Event RT 73), nontransgenic control, or commercial canola meal.', 'A 42-d experiment compared the nutritional value of genetically modified glyphosate-tolerant (Roundup Ready event RT73) canola meal to that of conventional canola meal when fed to rapidly growing Ross × Ross 508 broilers using a randomized complete block design. Five pens of males and 5 pens of females were used in each of 8 canola meal treatments (glyphosate-tolerant, nontransgenic control, and 6 commercial varieties). Broilers (10 birds/pen) were fed approximately 25% wt/wt canola meal during the first 20 d and 20% wt/wt canola meal thereafter. In general, performance response variables for glyphosate-tolerant canola meal were not different (P > 0.05) than those for the nontransgenic and commercial canola meals. Carcass fat pad, breast meat, thighs, legs, and wings (on a percentage basis) were similar across treatments (P > 0.05). Expressed as percentage of live weight, chill weight of the broilers fed diets containing glyphosate-tolerant canola meal was not different from those fed all other diets, but some differences were observed between the nontransgenic control and commercial diets. No major differences were observed in percentage of moisture, protein, and fat in breast or thigh meat (P > 0.05) across treatments. Comparisons of the glyphosate-tolerant canola diet to the population of all other diets (combining sexes) showed no major differences (P > 0.05) in performance, carcass yields, or moisture, protein, and fat in breast and thigh meat. Broilers fed diets containing glyphosate-tolerant canola meal had similar growth performance to birds fed nontransgenic control and commercial canola diets.', 'en_US'),
(2168, 'Glyphosate biomonitoring for farmers and their families:  Results from the Farm Family Exposure Study', 'Glyphosate is the active ingredient in Roundup agricultural herbicides and other herbicide formulations that are widely used for agricultural, forestry, and residential weed control. As part of the Farm Family Exposure Study, we evaluated urinary glyphosate concentrations for 48 farmers, their spouses, and their 79 children (4-18 years of age). We evaluated 24-hr composite urine samples for each family member the day before, the day of, and for 3 days after a glyphosate application. Sixty percent of farmers had detectable levels of glyphosate in their urine on the day of application. The geometric mean (GM) concentration was 3 ppb, the maximum value was 233 ppb, and the highest estimated systemic dose was 0.004 mg/kg. Farmers who did not use rubber gloves had higher GM urinary concentrations than did other farmers (10 ppb vs. 2.0 ppb). For spouses, 4% had detectable levels in their urine on the day of application. Their maximum value was 3 ppb. For children, 12% had detectable glyphosate in their urine on the day of application, with a maximum concentration of 29 ppb. All but one of the children with detectable concentrations had helped with the application or were present during herbicide mixing, loading, or application. None of the systemic doses estimated in this study approached the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency reference dose for glyphosate of 2 mg/kg/day. Nonetheless, it is advisable to minimize exposure to pesticides, and this study did identify specific practices that could be modified to reduce the potential for exposure.', 'en_US');

INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(2209, 'GM crops: A Potential for Pest Mismanagement', 'In the absence of equivalent research on genetically modified (GM) pest-resistant crops, their impact in pest management can be predicted from experience with traditionally bred varieties which share with GM crops the characteristic that the resistance is based on high expression of a single toxin. Such varieties lead to the rapid selection of tolerant pest strains, damage biological control and induce tolerance to synthetic pesticides. By contrast, polygenic and more broadly based resistant varieties will maintain their resistance for longer, and often synergise beneficially with biological control. The pests also become more susceptible to insecticides, giving the opportunity for applications which are selective in favour of natural enemies. However, although GM crops compare badly with traditional pest-resistant varieties, they compare favourably with insecticides, the technology they are most likely to replace.', 'en_US'),
(2210, 'GM plants and protection against insects - alternative strategies based on gene technology', 'Insect resistant genetically modified (GM) crops may provide a partial substitution technology for chemical pesticides. Those which are available commercially are all based on modified Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxins. It is desirable to have a pool of alternative genes that encode insect control proteins (ICPs) having entirely different modes of action. Various classes of compound have been suggested although most have one or more disadvantages compared with Bt toxins. A pool of alternative ICPs would allow pyramiding of resistance genes, which should have a number of advantages: multifactorial resistance is expected to be more durable, to increase the spectrum of pests targeted and to be more effective. Some of these compounds address concerns about durability, spectrum of activity, reliability, environmental impact and public acceptability of GM crops. More speculative alternative approaches which might remove other key constraints on the transgenic approach to crop protection are discussed. The fundamental research necessary for their development is unlikely to be funded from commercial sources.', 'en_US'),
(2211, 'Resistance management: slowing pest adaptation to transgenic crops', 'Transgenic crops that are genetically modified to produce insecticidal proteins from the common bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) can help to control pests while reducing reliance on insecticide sprays. So far, no insects have evolved resistance in the field to Bt transgenic crops. However, diamondback moth populations have evolved resistance to Bt sprays in the field and many pests have evolved resistance to Bt toxins in the laboratory. To delay resistance, the refuge strategy provides host plants that do not produce Bt toxins, thereby promoting survival of susceptible pests. In Arizona, Bt cotton has been extremely effective in controlling the pink bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella), a major pest. Despite a surprisingly high frequency of resistance in 1997, resistance did not increase in Arizona field populations of pink bollworm from 1997 to 1999. Nonetheless, pink bollworm and other insects will eventually evolve resistance, so any particular transgenic crop variety is not a permanent solution to pest problems. Instead, transgenic crops can be used in harmony with other tactics as part of integrated pest management. Evaluations of transgenic crops should consider their advantages and disadvantages compared with alternatives. If transgenic crops can greatly reduce use of hazardous insecticides, as achieved in Arizona cotton, great benefits may occur.', 'en_US'),
(2212, 'Genetically modified crops: a US farmer''s versus an EU citizen''s point of view', 'Genetically modified (GM) crops have been widely adopted by American farmers. Mainly two traits, herbicide resistance and insect resistance, constitute the area of GM crops. The commercial success of these crops derives from benefits in farm management and more generally from greater efficiency in production. European population surveys continue to show widespread opposition to GM crops and other applications of gene technology in food production. Danish focus group interviews reveal general concerns that seem to form the basis for the negative perception of GM crops. The aim of the paper is to explain why American farmers and European citizens adopt opposing attitudes to GM crops. It is argued that there is a clear conflict of interest between the two groups. At present GM crops provide no genuine benefits to the consumer, who is therefore unwilling to run even very small risks arising from the use of gene technology in food production. European citizens also connect GM crops with intensive agricultural practices, which are perceived as unsustainable. Here values may diverge, but discussion about sustainable agriculture is not primarily about GM crops: it is much broader.', 'en_US'),
(2213, 'Functional genomics from a plant biochemist''s perspective', 'The lipids derived from plant seeds provide approximately 20% of dietary calories in developed nations. The fatty acid composition of these dietary oils can influence several components of long-term health. Almost all the genes involved in producing dietary oils are now isolated, allowing rational modifications in saturated and polyunsaturated fatty acid content in foods. Several of these genes have been identified using genomic approaches. However, many questions about the regulation of plant lipid metabolism seem difficult to solve using conventional biochemical or molecular approaches. For example, we have little understanding of why or how some seeds produce >50% oil whereas other seeds store largely carbohydrate or protein. Major control over complex plant biochemical pathways may only become possible by understanding regulatory networks which provide ''global'' control over these pathways. To begin to discover such networks and provide a broad analysis of gene expression in developing oilseeds, we have taken two genomic approaches: 1) We have sequenced 10,500 expressed sequence tags (EST) from developing Arabidopsis seeds and analyzed these using different bioinformatics tools. Approximately 30% of the ESTs have no match in dbEST, suggesting many represent mRNAs derived from genes that are specifically expressed in seeds. ''Electronic northern'' analysis of EST abundance data has provided insights into the import of photosynthate into developing embryos, its conversion into seed oil and the regulation of this pathway. 2) We have produced microarrays which display ca. 4000 seed-expressed Arabidopsis genes. Sensitivity of the arrays is estimated at 1-2 copies mRNA/cell. The arrays have been hybridized with probes derived from seeds, leaves, and roots and analysis of expression ratios between the different tissues has allowed the tissue-specific expression patterns of many hundreds of genes to be described for the first time. Approximately 10% of the genes were expressed at ratios S10-fold higher in seeds than leaves or roots. We also identified several transcription factors, as well as kinases and phosphatases, whose expression changed during the seed development, and which may be involved in the regulation of the storage compound synthesis. Moreover, cluster analysis of the expression profiles established distinct groups of co-regulated genes.', 'en_US'),
(2214, 'The present status of the use of genetically modified crops in the EU - the current situation and a vision for the future', 'Since the beginning of the mandate of the present European Commission in September 1999, genetically modified organisms (GMOs) have been high up on the political agenda and presented an important political and legal challenge. Considerable work has been invested in tackling the present situation of public concern for GMOs and the current standstill in the authorization process of GM products. The challenge is to find ways and means to meet the current consumer concerns, and to restore public and market confidence in the authorization procedure for GMOs. In order to upgrade the legislative framework, a new Directive has been adopted in 2001, establishing that GMOs cannot be released into the environment without a prior assessment of any potential risks to human health or the environment and without explicit approval from the authorities. The Directive has been complemented by draft legislation on traceability and labelling of GM products, which are currently debated in the Council and in the Parliament. However, a new, more stringent, regulatory framework might not be sufficient to restore public confidence in terms of the purchase and consumption of genetically modified food products. It will be necessary for all stakeholders, Member States, the European institutions, industry and research as well as NGOs and the media, to reflect upon their responsibilities and provide a balanced response to public concerns.', 'en_US'),
(2215, 'Monitoring glyphosate residues in transgenic glyphosate-resistant soybean.', 'The availability of Roundup Ready (RR) varieties of soybean has increased the use of glyphosate for weed control in Argentina. Glyphosate [(N-phosphonomethyl)glycine] is employed for the eradication of previous crop vegetation and for weed control during the soybean growing cycle. Its action is effective, and low environmental impact has been reported so far. No residues have been observed in soil or water, either of glyphosate or its metabolite, AMPA (aminomethylphosphonic acid). The objective of this work was to monitor glyphosate and AMPA residues in soybean plants and grains in field crops in Santa Fe Province, Argentina. Five sites were monitored in 1997, 1998 and 1999. Individual soybean plants were sampled from emergence to harvest, dried and ground. Analysis consisted in residue extraction with organic solvents and buffers, agitation, centrifugation, clean-up and HPLC with UV detection. In soybean leaves and stems, glyphosate residues ranged from 1.9 to 4.4 mg kg-1 and from 0.1 to 1.8 mg kg-1 in grains. Higher concentrations were detected when glyphosate was sprayed several times during the crop cycle, and when treatments approached the flowering stage. AMPA residues were also detected in leaves and in grains, indicating metabolism of the herbicide.', 'en_US'),
(2216, 'Long-term selection for resistance to transgenic cotton expressing Bacillus thuringiensis toxin in Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)', 'Selection experiments for resistance to transgenic Bt cotton expressing Cry1Ac toxin in Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) were conducted using a leaf-feeding method with 42 selection episodes over 45 generations. The cotton bollworm developed resistance to transgenic Bt cotton after 12 generations (F12) of selection. The survival rate of F12 neonates feeding on leaves of seedling stage for 4 days and boll-opening stage for 5 days of R19 line were ca 34 and 72%, respectively, compared with ca 0 and 40% for a non-selected sister strain (NYCS), but lower than or similar to that of F12 feeding on leaves of non-Bt cotton, Sumian 12 (ca 87 or 76%). Resistance to B thuringiensis HD-1 Dipel in neonates (F12) was ca 6-fold. After 42 generations of selection, the strain developed a very high level of resistance to Cry1Ac protoxin, 210 g kg-1 MVPII wettable powder and 200 g litre-1 MVPII liquid formulation, the resistance ratios being 1680-, 1780- and ca 1200-fold, respectively, compared with a laboratory susceptible strain (HZS). When compared with the non-selected NYCS, the resistance ratios to the above toxins were ca 540-, 580- and 510-fold, respectively, but to Dipel only ca 16-fold. The results indicated that it is very important to develop and implement effective resistance-management strategies and to detect early resistance to Bt cotton in field populations.', 'en_US'),
(2217, 'Stable Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxin content in interspecific F1 and backcross populations of wild Brassica rapa after Bt gene transfer', 'Stable expression of a transgene may lead to increased fitness for wild plants after acquiring the transgene via crop-weed hybridization. Here, we investigate the stability of Bt toxin content in wild Brassica rapa acquiring the Bt gene from Bt Brassica napus. The Bt toxin content in nine Bt-expressing B. napus lines was 0.80-1.70 µg/g leaf tissue throughout the growing season. These nine lines were crossed with three accessions of wild B. rapa and the Bt gene was successfully transferred to interspecific hybrids (F1) and successive backcross generations (BC1 to BC4). The Bt toxin level in F1 and BC progenies containing the Bt gene remained at 0.90-3.10µg/g leaf tissue. This study indicates that the Bt gene can persist and be stably expressed in wild B. rapa.', 'en_US'),
(2218, 'Amelioration of biodiversity impacts of genetically modified crops: predicting transient versus long-term effects.', 'It has been suggested that genetically modified herbicide-tolerant crops may benefit biodiversity because spraying of crops may be delayed until later in the growing season, allowing weeds to grow during the early part of the year. This provides an enhanced resource for arthropods, and potentially benefits birds that feed on these. Thus, this technology could enhance biodiversity. Using a review of weed phenologies and a population model, we show that many weeds are unlikely to benefit because spraying is generally delayed insufficiently late in the season to allow most to set seed. The positive effects on biodiversity observed in trials lasting one or two seasons are thus likely to be transient. For one weed of particular significance (Chenopodium album, fat hen) we show that it is unlikely that the positive effects observed could be maintained by inputs of seed during other parts of the rotation. However, we find preliminary evidence that if spraying can be ceased earlier in the season, then a viable population of late-emerging weeds could be maintained. This strategy could benefit weeds in both genetically modified (GM) and non-GM crops, but would probably lead to reduced inputs in GM systems compared with conventional ones.', 'en_US'),
(2219, 'Selectable marker genes in transgenic plants: applications, alternatives and biosafety', 'Approximately fifty marker genes used for transgenic and transplastomic plant research or crop development have been assessed for efficiency, biosafety, scientific applications and commercialization. Selectable marker genes can be divided into several categories depending on whether they confer positive or negative selection and whether selection is conditional or non-conditional on the presence of external substrates. Positive selectable marker genes are defined as those that promote the growth of transformed tissue whereas negative selectable marker genes result in the death of the transformed tissue. The positive selectable marker genes that are conditional on the use of toxic agents, such as antibiotics, herbicides or drugs were the first to be developed and exploited. More recent developments include positive selectable marker genes that are conditional on non-toxic agents that may be substrates for growth or that induce growth and differentiation of the transformed tissues. Newer strategies include positive selectable marker genes which are not conditional on external substrates but which alter the physiological processes that govern plant development. A valuable companion to the selectable marker genes are the reporter genes, which do not provide a cell with a selective advantage, but which can be used to monitor transgenic events and manually separate transgenic material from non-transformed material. They fall into two categories depending on whether they are conditional or non-conditional on the presence of external substrates. Some reporter genes can be adapted to function as selectable marker genes through the development of novel substrates. Despite the large number of marker genes that exist for plants, only a few marker genes are used for most plant research and crop development. As the production of transgenic plants is labor intensive, expensive and difficult for most species, practical issues govern the choice of selectable marker genes that are used. Many of the genes have specific limitations or have not been sufficiently tested to merit their widespread use. For research, a variety of selection systems are essential as no single selectable marker gene was found to be sufficient for all circumstances. Although, no adverse biosafety effects have been reported for the marker genes that have been adopted for widespread use, biosafety concerns should help direct which markers will be chosen for future crop development. Common sense dictates that marker genes conferring resistance to significant therapeutic antibiotics should not be used. An area of research that is growing rapidly but is still in its infancy is the development of strategies for eliminating selectable marker genes to generate marker-free plants. Among the several technologies described, two have emerged with significant potential. The simplest is the co-transformation of genes of interest with selectable marker genes followed by the segregation of the separate genes through conventional genetics. The more complicated strategy is the use of site-specific recombinases, under the control of inducible promoters, to excise the marker genes and excision machinery from the transgenic plant after selection has been achieved. In this review each of the genes and processes will be examined to assess the alternatives that exist for producing transgenic plants.', 'en_US'),
(2220, 'Population genetics of transgene containment', 'Several strategies have been proposed for creating transgenic cultivars from which transgene escape to wild relatives would seem unlikely; for example, to impede escape through pollen, a transgene could be inserted into chloroplast DNA (cpDNA), which in many crops is rarely transmitted through pollen. None of these strategies would be failsafe; for example, the rate of cpDNA transmission through pollen may be low but non-zero in many crops. Here, we study how the probability distribution of escape time depends on the rates of pollen and seed flow from the crop to wild populations, the number and sizes of the wild populations, the selection coefficient for the transgene, and a leakage parameter characteristic of the strategy, for example, the rate of cpDNA transmission through pollen. We find that even with a leakage parameter as small as 103, the probability of escape within as few as 10 generations could be appreciable.', 'en_US'),
(2221, 'Crop transformation and the challenge to increase yield potential', 'Molecular transformation is commonly offered as a hope to overcome the apparent stagnation in crop yield potential. A basic understanding of the resource limits imposed on crops and the yield hierarchy going from gene expression to harvestable yield leads to a rather negative view that transformations of a few, or even of a complex of genes will result directly in major yield increases. Forty years of biochemical and physiological research illustrate the great difficulty in translating research at the basic level into improvements in crop yield. However, there are a few cases where physiological research has led to improved crop cultivars with increased yield. These successes are instructive in highlighting key elements required to achieve success in developing crop cultivars for increased yield.', 'en_US'),
(2222, 'Concentration in ownership of plant variety rights: some implications for developing countries', 'This paper explores concentration levels in the ownership of intellectual property rights over plant varieties worldwide. An analysis of data for 30 UPOV member-countries shows a high degree of concentration in the ownership of plant variety rights for six major crops at the national level in the developed world. Much of this concentration has arisen owing to the rapid consolidation of the seed industry through mergers and acquisitions, especially in the 1990s. A high degree of concentration in the ownership of plant variety rights, in combination with recent efforts to strengthen plant variety protection regimes, is likely to have significant effects on the prospects for future innovation in plant breeding and the distribution of market power between companies. For developing countries, concentration in intellectual property right ownership may have important implications for the structure of domestic seed industries and access to protected varieties and associated plant breeding technologies. These implications for developing countries are likely to become apparent in the context of the rapid spread of plant variety protection and access legislation, emerging changes in the international exchange regime for plant material and liberalised investment policies permitting foreign investment in the seeds sector.', 'en_US'),
(2223, 'Dual resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Ac and Cry2Aa toxins in Heliothis virescens suggests multiple mechanisms of resistance', 'One strategy for delaying evolution of resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis crystal (Cry) endotoxins is the production of multiple Cry toxins in each transgenic plant (gene stacking). This strategy relies upon the assumption that simultaneous evolution of resistance to toxins that have different modes of action will be difficult for insect pests. In B. thuringiensis-transgenic (Bt) cotton, production of both Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab has been proposed to delay resistance of Heliothis virescens (tobacco budworm). After previous laboratory selection with Cry1Ac, H. virescens strains CXC and KCBhyb developed high levels of cross-resistance not only to toxins similar to Cry1Ac but also to Cry2Aa. We studied the role of toxin binding alteration in resistance and cross-resistance with the CXC and KCBhyb strains. In toxin binding experiments, Cry1A and Cry2Aa toxins bound to brush border membrane vesicles from CXC, but binding of Cry1Aa was reduced for the KCBhyb strain compared to susceptible insects. Since Cry1Aa and Cry2Aa do not share binding proteins in H. virescens, our results suggest occurrence of at least two mechanisms of resistance in KCBhyb insects, one of them related to reduction of Cry1Aa toxin binding. Cry1Ac bound irreversibly to brush border membrane vesicles (BBMV) from YDK, CXC, and KCBhyb larvae, suggesting that Cry1Ac insertion was unaffected. These results highlight the genetic potential of H. virescens to become resistant to distinct Cry toxins simultaneously and may question the effectiveness of gene stacking in delaying evolution of resistance.', 'en_US'),
(2224, 'Tracking genes from seed to supermarket: techniques and trends', 'Analytical techniques to track plant genes in the environment and the food chain are essential for environmental risk assessment, government regulation and production and trade of genetically modified (GM) crops. Here, I review laboratory techniques to track plant genes during pre-commercialization research on gene flow and post-commercialization detection, identification and quantification of GM crops from seed to supermarket. At present, DNA- and protein-based assays support both activities but the demand for fast, inexpensive, sensitive methods is increasing. Part of the demand has been generated by stringent food labeling and traceability regulations for GM crops. The increase in GM crops, changes in GM crop design, evolution of government regulations and adoption of risk-assessment frameworks will continue to drive development of analytical techniques.', 'en_US'),
(2225, 'On risk and plant-based biopharmaceuticals', 'Research into plant-based expression of pharmaceutical proteins is proceeding at a blistering pace. Indeed, plants expressing pharmaceutical proteins are currently being grown in field environments throughout the USA. But how are these plants and proteins being assessed for environmental risk and how are they being regulated? Here, we examine the applicability of the risk assessment paradigm for assessing human and ecological risks from field-grown transgenic plants that express pharmaceutical proteins.', 'en_US'),
(2226, 'Detection of transgenic and endogenous plant DNA in rumen fluid, duodenal digesta, milk, blood, and feces of lactating dairy cows', 'The objective was to determine the presence or absence of transgenic and endogenous plant DNA in ruminal fluid, duodenal digesta, milk, blood, and feces, and if found, to determine fragment size. Six multiparous lactating Holstein cows fitted with ruminal and duodenal cannulas received a total mixed ration. There were two treatments (T). In T1, the concentrate contained genetically modified (GM) soybean meal (cp4epsps gene) and GM corn grain (cry1a[b] gene), whereas T2 contained the near isogenic non-GM counterparts. Polymerase chain reaction analysis was used to determine the presence or absence of DNA sequences. Primers were selected to amplify small fragments from single-copy genes (soy lectin and corn high-mobility protein and cp4epsps and cry1a[b] genes from the GM crops) and multicopy genes (bovine mitochondrial cytochrome b and rubisco). Single-copy genes were only detected in the solid phase of rumen and duodenal digesta. In contrast, fragments of the rubisco gene were detected in the majority of samples analyzed in both the liquid and solid phases of ruminal and duodenal digesta, milk, and feces, but rarely in blood. The size of the rubisco gene fragments detected decreased from 1176 bp in ruminal and duodenal digesta to 351 bp in fecal samples.', 'en_US'),
(2227, 'Prospects and benefits of biotechnology in agriculture', 'Recombinant DNA technology has significantly augmented the conventional crop improvement, and has a great promise to assist plant breeders to meet the increased food demand predicted for the 21st century. Progress has been made in manipulating genes from diverse and exotic sources, and inserting them into crop plants to confer resistance to insect pests and diseases, tolerance to herbicides, drought and soil salinity; improved post-harvest quality; enhanced nutrient uptake and nutritional quality and increased effectiveness of biocontrol agents. The development, testing and release of agricultural products generated through biotechnology-based processes should continuously be optimized based on the most recent experiences. This will require a dynamic and streamlined regulatory structure, clearly supportive of the benefits of biotechnology, but highly sensitive to the well being of humans and environment.', 'en_US'),
(2228, 'Population dynamics of volunteer oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) affected by tillage.', 'Volunteer plants of oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) from persistent seeds in soil can affect subsequent crops. Apart from the agricultural disadvantages, the environment and the marketing of the seeds may also be affected, particularly if plants with special ingredients or genetically modified (gm) plants are grown. In order to investigate the influence of soil cultivation and genotype on seed persistence and gene flow via volunteers, a field experiment was set up testing four tillage treatments and two cultivars in a split-plot design. The cultivars tested were near-isogenic to two gm cultivars. To simulate harvesting losses, 10000 seeds m-2 were broadcast on a soil in July. The subsequent tillage treatments were combinations of immediate or delayed stubble tillage by a rotary tiller, primary tillage with plough or cultivator, or zero tillage. Over the following year, the fate of the seeds was determined. Immediate stubble tillage with following cultivator or plough resulted in 586 resp. 246 seeds m-2 in the soil seed bank. After delayed stubble tillage with following plough, 76 seeds m-2 were found, and no soil seed bank was built up in the zero tillage treatment. Nevertheless, in the zero tillage treatment, several robust volunteer plants survived the herbicide application before the direct drilling in autumn until following spring. In the zero tillage treatment and in the cultivator treatment, 0.19 volunteers m-2 resp. 0.06 volunteers m-2 flowered simultaneously to ordinarily sown oilseed rape in the following crop of winter wheat and produced 73 resp. 18 seeds m-2. Delayed stubble tillage reduced the risk of gene escape via the soil seed bank, while zero tillage resulted in the highest risk of gene escape by pollen and by production of a new generation of seeds. In terms of a labelling threshold for gm food this number of seeds would be below the threshold of 0.9% of transgenic parts in conventially bred food or feed.', 'en_US'),
(2229, 'Ecological impact of GM potatoes', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2230, 'Persistence of DNA studied in different ex vivo and in vivo rat models simulating the human gut situation.', 'This study aimed to evaluate the possibility of DNA sequences from genetically modified plants to persist in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. PCR analysis and transformation assays were used to study DNA persistence and integrity in various ex vivo and in vivo systems using gnotobiotic rats. DNA studied was either plasmid DNA, naked plant DNA or plant DNA embedded in maize flour. Ex vivo experiments performed by incubating plant DNA in intestinal samples, showed that DNA is rapidly degraded in the upper part of the GI tract whereas degradation is less severe in the lower part. In contrast, plasmid DNA could be recovered throughout the GI tract when intestinal samples were taken up to 5 h after feeding rats with plasmid. Furthermore, DNA isolated from these intestinal samples was able to transform electro-competent Escherichia coli, showing that the plasmid was still biologically active. The results indicate that ingested DNA may persist in the GI tract and consequently may be present for uptake by intestinal bacteria.', 'en_US'),
(2231, 'Transgenic male mating advantage provides opportunity for Trojan gene effect in a fish', 'Genetically modified (GM) strains now exist for many organisms, producing significant promise for agricultural production. However, if these organisms have some fitness advantage, they may also pose an environmental harm when released. High mating success of GM males relative to WT males provides such an important fitness advantage. Here, we provide documentation that GM male medaka fish modified with salmon growth hormone possess an overwhelming mating advantage. GM medaka offspring possess a survival disadvantage relative to WT, however. When both of these fitness components are included in our model, the transgene is predicted to spread if GM individuals enter wild populations (because of the mating advantage) and ultimately lead to population extinction (because of the viability disadvantage). Mating trials indicate that WT males use alternative mating tactics in an effort to counter the mating advantage of GM males, and we use genetic markers to ascertain the success of these alternative strategies. Finally, we model the impact of alternative mating tactics by WT males on transgene spread. Such tactics may reduce the rate of transgene spread, but not the outcome.', 'en_US'),
(2232, 'Strategies for the detection of potential Beet necrotic yellow vein virus genome recombinations which might arise as a result of growing A type coat protein gene-expressing sugarbeets in soil containing B type virus.', 'We have searched for beet necrotic yellow vein virus (BNYVV) populations with a recombined genome which could possibly arise when transgenic sugarbeets expressing the coat protein gene of A type BNYVV are grown in soil containing Polymyxa betae carrying B type BNYVV, in soil samples from previous field release experiments and in a greenhouse model experiment. In order to accelerate the potential evolution of virus populations with recombined genomes in the model experiment, eight successive crops of sugarbeet plantlets were grown in the same soil samples over a period of 3 years. For the sensitive detection of recombined BNYVV genomes, we used nested PCRs with sense primers that are preferentially extended on the A type BNYVV sequence in the region of the coat protein gene and antisense primers which are preferentially extended on the B type BNYVV sequence in a region downstream of the coat protein gene which is not present in the transgene. Controls with mixtures of sap from plants which were singly infected with A or with B type BNYVV only revealed that, unless proper precautions are taken, PCR-mediated recombination artifacts may readily be produced. A method was developed that is able to detect A type/B type recombinant RNA molecules up to dilutions of one to a million in pure B type RNA molecules. Inspite of this high sensitivity we failed to detect any BNYVV with a recombined genome in the transgenic plants of the model experiment or at the sites of the previous field release experiments.', 'en_US'),
(2233, 'Regulating transgenic crops: a comparative analysis of different regulatory processes.', 'Transgenic crops have the potential to benefit both developed and developing countries. To ensure safe crops to humans and the environment, a strong, but not stifling, regulatory system needs to be established and properly implemented. This paper explores some essential components of a strong regulatory structure for transgenic crops. First, five different regulatory systems for transgenic crops ? the United States, the European Union, South Africa, Taiwan, and Argentina ? are described and explained. The major components of those systems are then compared to components necessary to a regulatory system that ensures safe products and engenders public trust. The key components discussed include: (1) mandatory pre-market approval; (2) established safety standards; (3) transparency; (4) public participation; (5) use of outside scientists for expert scientific advice; (6) independent agency decisions; (7) post-approval activities; and (8) enforcement authority and resources. Although no one of the existing systems analyzed adequately achieves all the necessary components of a strong regulatory system, those systems serve as models for deciding which regulatory procedures should be emulated and which should be avoided. A mandatory pre-market approval system that applies established safety standards in procedures that are transparent and allows for public participation with no pre-conceived notions or biases will best achieve both safe products and consumer trust.', 'en_US'),
(2234, 'Controversy about agricultural technology lessons from the green revolution', 'The development and introduction of transgenically modified organisms to enhance crop and animal production has generated considerable controversy about potential food safety and environmental impacts. The introduction, in tropical Latin America and Asia, of high yielding varieties of wheat, maize and rice beginning in the late 1960s was also controversial. Critics argued that the new technology was biased against the poor - it would make the rich richer and the poor poorer. In this paper, I review the equity and productivity impacts of the ''''green revolution'''' technology and draw several inferences about evaluation of the effects of the new biotechnologies in agricultural production.', 'en_US'),
(2235, 'Regulating biotechnology: GM food labels', 'Discussions of appropriate regulatory norms for foods derived through modern biotechnology date back to the early 1980s. Almost 20 years later, agreement among key trading countries on what such norms should be remains elusive.  Some countries, including the United States and Canada, consider biotech or genetically modified (GM) foods substantially equivalent to conventional counterparts and regulate them similarly. Others, including the European Union (EU) and Japan, scrutinize and require mandatory labeling of GM foods.Opponents of mandatory labeling have argued that it is unwarranted and costly. Proponents have argued that it is necessary to safeguard the informed consumer choice. Both such arguments have found acceptance in different parts of the world, raising questions about the optimal regulatory approach to GM food labels and the factors that influence regulatory decisions. I address these questions in this paper.', 'en_US'),
(2236, 'Insect resistant maize for Africa: Lab to field and challenges along the way', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2237, 'Detection of genetically modified soya in a range of organic and health food products: implications for the accurate labelling of foodstuffs derived from potential GM crops.', 'A selection of organic/health foods containing soya beans was tested for the presence of genetically modified (GM) material. Out of 25 samples of food products containing unrefined soya ingredients, ten tested positively for the presence of GM material. This was surprising because eight out of the ten GM-positive samples were either labelled as ''GM free'' and/or were labelled as ''organic'', both of which imply the absence of GM ingredients. In no case did any of the foods tested reach the mandatory 1 per cent threshold required for positive labelling as GM products under current European Union legislation, although one product was close to this limit. However, there was considerable batch-to-batch variation in the GM soya content of some of the food products, depending on the purchase date and retailer. The paper discusses the implications of these results regarding international regulations on food labelling and use of ''GM free'' labels or their equivalent.', 'en_US'),
(2238, 'Tracing residual recombinant feed molecules during digestion and rumen bacterial diversity in cattle fed transgenic maize', 'The aim of this study was to trace selected nucleic acid and protein components of isogene versus Bt transgene maize within the bovine gastrointestinal tract (GIT). After feeding 22 cattle for 4 weeks with Bt176 maize, different plant genes and the recombinant protein CryIAb were quantified during digestion. Furthermore, a first initial characterization of rumen bacteria was approached, using 16rDNA gene sequencing comparing isogene- against transgene-fed animals. Ingesta samples of different GIT sections (rumen, abomasum, jejunum, colon) were analysed for chloroplast, maize invertase, zein and Bt toxin (CryIAb) gene fragments using quantitative real-time PCR. First, the initial gene dose of these maize genes was detected in maize silage. During digestion, a significant reduction of high-to-medium abundant plant gene fragments was shown depending on the dwell-time and the initial gene copy number. Immunoreactive CryIAb protein was quantified by ELISA in intestinal samples indicating a significant loss of that protein. Remarkable amounts of Bt toxin were found in all contents of the GIT and the protein was still present in faeces. For the first time, the influence of CryIAb transgene maize on rumen bacterial microflora was investigated compared to isogene material through analysis of 497 individual bacterial 16S rDNA sequences. In principle, specific bacterial leader-species could be identified in all bovine rumen extracts, but no significant influence of Bt176 maize feed was found on the composition of the microbial population. This investigation provides supplementing data to further evaluate the fate of novel recombinant material originating from transgene feed or food within the mammalian GIT.', 'en_US'),
(2239, 'Interaction of Bacillus thuringiensis toxins with larval midgut binding sites of Helicoverpa armigera (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)', 'In 1996, Bt-cotton (cotton expressing a Bacillus thuringiensis toxin gene) expressing the Cry1Ac protein was commercially introduced to control cotton pests. A threat to this first generation of transgenic cotton is the evolution of resistance by the insects. Second-generation Bt-cotton has been developed with either new B. thuringiensis genes or with a combination of cry genes. However, one requirement for the ''stacked'' gene strategy to work is that the stacked toxins bind to different binding sites. In the present study, the binding of 125I-labeled Cry1Ab protein (125I-Cry1Ab) and 125I-Cry1Ac to brush border membrane vesicles (BBMV) of Helicoverpa armigera was analyzed in competition experiments with 11 nonlabeled Cry proteins. The results indicate that Cry1Aa, Cry1Ab, and Cry1Ac competed for common binding sites. No other Cry proteins tested competed for either 125I-Cry1Ab or 125I-Cry1Ac binding, except Cry1Ja, which competed only at the highest concentrations used. Furthermore, BBMV from four H. armigera populations were also tested with 125I-Cry1Ac and Cry1Ab to check the influence of the insect population on the binding results. Finally, the inhibitory effect of selected sugars and lectins was also determined. 125I-Cry1Ac binding was strongly inhibited by N-acetylgalactosamine, sialic acid, and concanavalin A and moderately inhibited by soybean agglutinin. In contrast, 125I-Cry1Ab binding was only significantly inhibited by concanavalin A. These results show that Cry1Ac and Cry1Ab use different epitopes for binding to BBMV.', 'en_US'),
(2240, 'Genetically modified organisms: the side not revealed by science.', 'The efforts on the part of Monsanto to introduce Roundup Ready (RR) soybeans into Brazil have been impeded since 1998 by court action by IDEC (a consumer rights organisation) and Greenpeace. The lack of toxicological studies concerning the specific environmental impact on Brazil is the main argument against the marketing of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in the country. Being unable to carry out such a rapid diffusion of GMOs in Brazil, which is the world''s second largest exporter of soybeans, has caused great uncertainty regarding the outlook for further investment in this kind of technology. The objective of this paper is to analyse the process of regulation of GMOs as an explanatory variable of the pace and the direction of technical progress. It is used as an element for the analysis of Monsanto''s strategies for obtaining fast approval of GMOs in Brazil, as well as the tactics of resistance adopted by Brazilian pressure groups. This dispute reveals a fundamental aspect of the firm selection environment that has not been sufficiently tackled in economic literature. Emphasis is given to the relationship between political power and economic power in the creation and implementation of laws and norms affecting the pace and direction of technical progress.', 'en_US'),
(2241, 'The StarLink controversy: the competing frames of risk disputes', 'The controversy over the containment of StarLink corn, a genetically modified product, is in many ways similar to risk disputes that have surrounded new technologies in the past. More than technical debates about the extent of risk, they are shaped by conflicting socio-political perspectives about the nature of risks, the ability of regulators to predict and control the effects of new technologies, and the appropriate ways to contain them so as to protect the public interest. In the biotechnology context of global markets, transnational corporations, and free trade regimes, these issues are amplified, and they have assumed new dimensions. This paper examines the containment issues revealed by the StarLink episode in the context of past disputes over new technologies; for these offer insights into the social and political dynamics ofcontroversies today.', 'en_US'),
(2242, 'Resistance monitoring of field popultaions of the corn borers Sesamia nonagrioides and Ostrinia nubilalis after 5 years of Bt maize cultivation in Spain', 'Approximately 22000 hectares (5% of the total maize growing area) of transgenic maize expressing the Cry1Ab toxin from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt maize) have been planted annually in Spain since 1998. Changes in the susceptibility to Cry1Ab of Spanish populations of the Mediterranean corn borer (MCB), Sesamia nonagrioides (Lefebvre) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), and the European corn borer (ECB), Ostrinia nubilalis (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae), were assessed by annual monitoring on Bt maize fields. No increase in resistance was detected in the MCB populations from Ebro, Albacete, and Badajoz, nor in the ECB populations from Ebro and Badajoz during the period 1999?2002. The susceptibility of the MCB population from Madrid fluctuated from year to year, but a gradual trend towards higher levels of tolerance was not observed. Laboratory selection assays for eight generations yielded selected strains of MCB and ECB that were 21- and 10-fold significantly more tolerant to Cry1Ab than the corresponding unselected strains, respectively. Nevertheless, none of the field-collected or laboratory-selected larvae were able to survive on Bt maize. Considering these data, no consistent shifts in susceptibility were found for Spanish populations of MCB nor ECB after 5years of Bt maize cultivation, but systematic field monitoring needs to be continued.', 'en_US'),
(2243, 'Accumulation, assembly and digestilibility of amarantin expressed in transgenic tropical maize.', 'An amaranth (Amaranthus hypochondriacus) 11S globulin cDNA, encoding one of the most important storage proteins (amarantin) of the seed, with a high content of essential amino acids, was used in the transformation of CIMMYT tropical maize genotype. Constructs contained the amarantin cDNA under the control of a tissue-specific promoter from rice glutelin-1 (osGT1) or a constitutive (CaMV 35S) promoter with and without the first maize alcohol dehydrogenase intron (AdH). Southern-blot analysis confirmed the integration of the amarantin cDNA, and copy number ranged from one to more than ten copies per maize genome. Western-blot and ultracentrifugation analyses of transgenic maize indicate that the expressed recombinant amarantin precursors were processed into the mature form, and accumulated stably in maize endosperm. Total protein and some essential amino acids of the best expressing maize augmented 32% and 8?44%, respectively, compared to non-transformed samples. The soluble expressed proteins were susceptible to digestion by simulated gastric and intestinal fluids, and it is suggested that they show no allergenic activity. These findings demonstrate the feasibility of using genetic engineering to improve the amino acid composition of grain crops.', 'en_US'),
(2244, 'Commercial plant breeding: what is in the biotech pipeline?', 'Of all of humankind''s endeavours, agriculture has led to the most pressure on land, its resources and biodiversity. Over the past 50 years, the need to increase food production has resulted in the loss of one-fifth of the world''s topsoil, one-fifth of its agricultural land and one-third of its forests. To slow down, and ideally reverse, this trend in the face of a predicted population increase of 50 per cent, a water shortage and climate change, new approaches will be needed. In this context, crop biotechnology and genomics have a major contributory role to play in the sustainable improvement of crop and livestock productivity, human and animal health and the development of renewable resources such as fibres, plastics, biofuels and plant-made pharmaceuticals. Manifestly, this will require both political will and international agreement.', 'en_US'),
(2245, 'The field-scale evaluations of herbicide-tolerant genetically modified crops conducted in the UK (1998-2003)', 'In 1998 the UK Government, in conjunction with Supply Chain Initiative on Modified Agricultural Crops (SCIMAC, a cross-industry group representing the supply chain), established a large-scale programme to examine the impact of genetically modified herbicide-tolerant crops on farmland biodiversity. The trials programme lasted three years and was conducted by a consortium of scientists who were responsible to an independent scientific subcommittee. The background to the establishment of these trials is described and the political pressures facing the Government at that time and the reactions of key stakeholders are discussed.The field-scale evaluations were a pioneering project to examine the impact of genetically modified crops on farmland biodiversity. The exercise was one of the largest experiments ever carried out to measure the environmental impact of specific farming practices, and shows that robust results can be obtained, while the resultant database represents a wealth of ecological information on three important arable crops ? beet, maize and oilseed rape. It is clear that other such trials could be carried out to test other variables as part of a longer-term effort to steer farm management systems in ways more acceptable to society. However, in view of their costs (both to the UK Government and the technology providers) together with the adverse response by the environmental campaign groups, and the length of time needed to carry out the work, it seems unlikely that an exercise of similar scale will be undertaken in the near future.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(2246, 'The regulatory system in the EU and further afield', 'The regulation of modern biotechnology began almost as soon as the potential benefits and risks became clear. In some countries a decision was made to use current law to address the new technologies, arguing that the changes that are able to be introduced into new products are not substantially different from those introduced by other techniques. In other jurisdictions new law was enacted to ensure that the products are at least as safe (or as some would have it, safer) than those currently on the market.New treaties that have attracted widespread support among ''consumer'' countries and indifference or hostility among ''producer'' countries have just come into force, requiring countries to address the regulation of biotechnology and assess the risks to biological diversity and to human health of introducing living modified organisms into their territory.Public perception of genetic engineering has led to changes in the regulatory system, which may not be justified by the risks posed by this technology. In particular, the national and international requirements that have been currently agreed require an analysis of risk only rather than a balancing of risk with the benefits that may accrue.', 'en_US'),
(2247, 'Genetically modified crops: broader environmental issues', 'Looking back over the five years since a similar review of the field, this paper considers some of the research designed to address those uncertainties that, in part, led to the delay in the commercial-scale release of genetically modified (GM) crops in the UK. This research has included studies of the impact of transgenes on crop biology and invasiveness, the frequency and consequences of hybridisation between crops and their wild relatives and, in two costly large-scale investigations in the USA and UK respectively, attempts to assess the environmental impact of GM crops grown on a commercial scale. The first, on the effects of Bt corn on the Monarch butterfly, has important lessons for the risk assessment process. The second, farm-scale evaluations of GM herbicide-tolerant crops, should provide a blueprint for the management of the crops within an agricultural landscape delivering both food and biodiversity.', 'en_US'),
(2248, 'Recent developments in the regulatory system in the UK', 'Regulatory frameworks are the mechanisms to ensure that both genetically modified (GM) crops, which are to be released into the environment, and GM foods and feeds, which need to be approved before consumption, are evaluated from both environmental and human health viewpoints. Regulatory committees, comprising independent experts, carefully examine the detailed dossiers of information that accompany the applications and also review the current relevant scientific background information in coming to their decisions. This paper explains the work of two key GM advisory committees and describes progressive developmental regulatory changes, which have followed incremental increases in science knowledge, and have also been influenced by the needs of the society they serve. The paper does not attempt to detail the specific assessment stages of the processes ? these are described adequately elsewhere and for those the reader is referred to committee annual reports or websites.', 'en_US'),
(2249, 'GM food: the risk-assessment of immune hypersensitivity reactions covers more than allergenticity', 'Allergenicity of genetically modified food ( GM food ) has become a public concern and international expert panels e.g. WHO/FAO have depicted decision trees for a rigorous assessment and testing for GM foods, especially where no history of safe use is available. The way to use patient sera for the assessment of allergenicity is still under discussion in cases of proteins where stability and protein sequences may not be conclusive or for potential new allergies. The risk assessment of immune hypersensitivity reactions induced potentially by GM food needs also to consider effects on other type of immune responses e.g. activation of specific immune cell populations. The role of antigen presenting cells of the gut is now understood to direct immune responses resulting in humoral, cellular or IgE predominant characteristics. For GM microorganisms potential effects on the immune system need to be assessed.', 'en_US'),
(2250, 'Resistance management to Bt engineered crops', 'The goal of resistance management to insecticides is to slow the rate of resistance evolution in the pest population. The evolution of resistance involve the interaction of many genetic, biological, and agronomical factors like pest movements, functional dominance of resistance genes or number of toxin deployed. Since 1996, million of acres have been planted with Bt transgenic crops. The novelty for the resistance management is that in the Bt crop we have a controlled and constant dose expression of the insecticide. We review the population genetics, ecological and operational factors related with this strategy.', 'en_US'),
(2251, 'Pollen flow of cultivated rice measured under experimental conditions.', 'The pollen flow pattern of a cultivated rice variety, Minghui-63, was studied at horizontal and vertical levels under experimental conditions. Data obtained from pollen traps for six designed populations (as pollen sources) at different intervals showed that the dispersal of rice pollen decreased with the increase of distance from pollen sources and that the rice pollen flow was significantly influenced by weather conditions, particularly by wind direction and speed. For a mean wind speed of 2.52 m/s in a downwind direction, the observed distance of rice pollen dispersal was 38.4 m, indicating that rice pollen grains normally disperse at a relatively small range. However, the maximum distance of rice pollen flow could be up to 110 m, using regression analysis of pollen flow and wind speed, when the wind speed reached 10 m/s in this study. The frequency of pollen flow was positively correlated with pollen source size within a given range, suggesting that pollen flow will occur effectively at a considerable rate in rice fields with sufficiently large pollen sources. In addition, many more pollen grains were detected at the height of 1.0?1.5 m than at 2.0 m, indicating that rice pollen mainly disperses at relatively low heights. Results from this study are useful both for minimizing transgene escape from transgenic rice and in situ conservation of wild relatives of rice, as well as for hybrid seed production, where an effective isolation buffer zone needs to be established.', 'en_US'),
(2252, 'Assessing the survival of transgenic plant DNA in the human gastrointestinal tract', 'The inclusion of genetically modified (GM) plants in the human diet has raised concerns about the possible transfer of transgenes from GM plants to intestinal microflora and enterocytes. The persistence in the human gut of DNA from dietary GM plants is unknown. Here we study the survival of the transgene epsps from GM soya in the small intestine of human ileostomists (i.e., individuals in which the terminal ileum is resected and digesta are diverted from the body via a stoma to a colostomy bag). The amount of transgene that survived passage through the small bowel varied among individuals, with a maximum of 3.7% recovered at the stoma of one individual. The transgene did not survive passage through the intact gastrointestinal tract of human subjects fed GM soya. Three of seven ileostomists showed evidence of low-frequency gene transfer from GM soya to the microflora of the small bowel before their involvement in these experiments. As this low level of epsps in the intestinal microflora did not increase after consumption of the meal containing GM soya, we conclude that gene transfer did not occur during the feeding experiment.', 'en_US'),
(2253, 'Targeting transgene expression in research, argicultural, and environmental applications: promoters used in plant transformation.', 'Plant genetic engineering has contributed substantially to the understanding of gene regulation and plant development, in the generation of transgenic organisms for widespread usage in agriculture, and has increased the potential uses of crops for industrial and pharmaceutical purposes. As the application of genetically engineered plants has widened, so has the need to develop methods to fine-tune control of transgene expression. The availability of a broad spectrum of promoters that differ in their ability to regulate the temporal and spatial expression patterns of the transgene can dramatically increase the successful application of transgenic technology. Indeed, a variety of promoters is necessary at all levels of genetic engineering in plants, from basic research discoveries, concepts and questions, to development of economically viable crops and plant commodities, to addressing legitimate concerns raised about the safety and containment of transgenic plants in the environment. This review covers the characterization and usage of a broad range of promoters employed in plant genetic engineering, including the widespread use of plant promoters with viral and plant origin that drive constitutive expression. Also covered are selected tissue-specific promoters from fruit, seed and grain, tubers, flowers, pistils, anther and pollen, roots and root nodules, and leaves and green tissue. Topics also include organellar promoters, and those found in specific cell types, as well as the development and evaluation of inducible (endogenous and exogenous origin) and synthetic plant promoter systems. Discussions on the relevance and potential pitfalls within specific applications are included.', 'en_US'),
(2254, 'A model of pollen-mediated gene flow for oilseed rape.', 'The development of genetically modified (GM) crops has precipitated the need for risk assessment and regulation of pollen-mediated gene flow. In response to this need we present a mathematical model to predict the spatial distribution of outcrossing between progenitor populations of oilseed rape. The model combines the processes of pollen dispersal and pollination, resulting from wind and insect activity. It includes the effects of post-pollination reproductive processes by relating the number of progeny to both pollen deposition and competition at the stigma. Predictions compare well with a range of experimental results for different-sized GM source crops (i.e. 0.0064-0.8 ha) and non-GM target crops with different fertilities (i.e. self-fertile to 80% male-sterile). For these comparisons, we represent the variation caused by wind and insect exposure as a constrained set of random functions and limit the range of insect transport to typical plant-scale distances. In addition, the model is used to examine the relative sensitivity to the factors that determine gene flow. Target-crop fertility and source-crop size are shown to be more important than other factors, including background pollen and the natural range of insect activity. The concept of isolation distance to regulate gene flow is most effective for self-fertile target crops, but is ineffective for male-sterile target crops with low background pollen.', 'en_US'),
(2255, 'A field study of pollen-mediated gene flow from Mediterranean GM rice to conventional rice and the red rice weed.', 'The objective of this study was to assess the frequency of pollen-mediated gene flow from a transgenic rice line, harbouring the gusA and the bar genes encoding respectively, â-glucuronidase and phosphinothricin acetyl transferase as markers, to the red rice weed and conventional rice in the Spanish japonica cultivar Senia. A circular field trial design was set up to investigate the influence of the wind on the frequency of pollination of red rice and conventional rice recipient plants with the transgenic pollen. Frequencies of gene flow based on detection of herbicide resistant, GUS positive seedlings among seed progenies of recipient plants averaged over all wind directions were 0.036 ± 0.006% and 0.086 ± 0.007 for red rice and conventional rice, respectively. However, for both red rice and conventional rice, a clear asymmetric distribution was observed with pollination frequency favoured in plants placed under the local prevailing winds. Southern analyses confirmed the hemizygous status and the origin of the transgenes in progenies of surviving, GUS positive plants. Gene flow detected in conventional rice planted at 1, 2, 5 and 10 m distance revealed a clear decrease with increasing distance which was less dramatic under the prevailing wind direction. Consequences of these findings for containment of gene flow from transgenic rice crops to the red rice weed are discussed. The precise determination of the local wind conditions at flowering time and pollination day time appear to be of primary importance for setting up suitable isolation distances.', 'en_US'),
(2256, 'Multitrophic interactions involving genetically modified potatoes, nontarget aphids, natural enemies and hyperparasitoids.', 'Genetically modified (GM) potatoes expressing a cysteine proteinase inhibitor (cystatin) have been developed as an option for the management of plant parasitic nematodes. The relative impact of such plants on predators and parasitoids (natural enemies) of nontarget insects was determined in a field trial. The trial consisted of GM plants, control plants grown in soil treated with a nematicide and untreated control plants. The quantity of nontarget aphids and their quality as hosts for natural enemies were studied. Aphid density was significantly reduced by nematicide treatment and few natural enemies were recorded from treated potatoes during the study. In contrast, similar numbers of aphids and their more adundant predators were recorded from the untreated control and the GM potatoes. The size of aphids on GM and control plants was recorded twice during the study. During the first sampling period (2?9 July) aphids clip-caged on GM plants were smaller than those on control plants. During the second sampling period (23?30 July) there was no difference in aphid size between those from the GM and control plants. Host size is an important component of host quality. It can affect the size and fecundity of parasitoid females and the sex ratio of their offspring. However, neither the fitness of females of Aphidius ervi, the most prevalent primary parasitoid, nor the sex ratio of their progeny, were affected when the parasitoids developed on aphids feeding on GM plants. Two guilds of secondary parasitoid were also recorded during the study. The fitness of the most abundant species, Aspahes vulgaris, was not affected when it developed on hosts from GM plants. The transgene product, OC IDD86, was not detected in aphids that had fed on GM plants in the field, suggesting that there is minimal secondary exposure of natural enemies to the inhibitor. The results indicate that transgenic nematode resistance is potentially more compatible with aphid biological control than is current nematicide use.', 'en_US'),
(2257, 'Tandem constructs to mitigate transgene persistence: tobacco as a model', 'Some transgenic crops can introgress genes into other varieties of the crop, to related weeds or themselves remain as ''volunteer'' weeds, potentially enhancing the invasiveness or weediness of the resulting offspring. The presently suggested mechanisms for transgene containment allow low frequency of gene release (leakage), requiring the mitigation of continued spread. Transgenic mitigation (TM), where a desired primary gene is tandemly coupled with mitigating genes that are positive or neutral to the crop but deleterious to hybrids and their progeny, was tested as a mechanism to mitigate transgene introgression. Dwarfism, which typically increases crop yield while decreasing the ability to compete, was used as a mitigator. A construct of a dominant ahasR (acetohydroxy acid synthase) gene conferring herbicide resistance in tandem with the semidominant mitigator dwarfing Dgai (gibberellic acid-insensitive) gene was transformed into tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum). The integration and the phenotypic stability of the tandemly linked ahasR and Dgai genomic inserts in later generations were confirmed by polymerase chain reaction. The hemizygous semidwarf imazapyr-resistant TM T1 (=BC1) transgenic plants were weak competitors when cocultivated with wild type segregants under greenhouse conditions and without using the herbicide. The competition was most intense at close spacings typical of weed offspring. Most dwarf plants interspersed with wild type died at 1-cm, >70% at 2.5-cm and 45% at 5-cm spacing, and the dwarf survivors formed no flowers. At 10-cm spacing, where few TM plants died, only those TM plants growing at the periphery of the large cultivation containers formed flowers, after the wild type plants terminated growth. The highest reproductive TM fitness relative to the wild type was 17%. The results demonstrate the suppression of crop?weed hybrids when competing with wild type weeds, or such crops as volunteer weeds, in seasons when the selector (herbicide) is not used. The linked unfitness would be continuously manifested in future generations, keeping the transgene at a low frequency.', 'en_US'),
(2258, 'Absence of non-target effects of two Bacillus thuringiensis coleopteran active delta-endotoxins on the bulb mite, Rhizoglypus robini (Claparede) (Acari, Acaridae)', 'Transgenic crops with plant-incorporated protectants are often more specific than synthetic insecticides and have the potential to reduce impacts on non-target organisms. In this study we assessed the impact of Cry3Aa and Cry3Bb1 coleopteran-active d-endotoxins on the bulb mite, Rhizoglypus robini. The effect of Cry3Aa prototoxin in solutions of the biopesticide Novodor® on mite survival was assessed in laboratory studies. Survival of R. robini exposed to Cry3Aa in a short-term contact and ingestion experiment was not affected, although R. robini was significantly affected by the insecticide Fipronil® used as a positive control. Similarly, R. robini exposed in a longer duration feeding trial to the Cry3Aa toxin in artificial diet were also not significantly affected. When Cry3Aa was tested on the positive control insect, Leptinotarsa decemlineata, reduced weight of larvae and increased mortality was recorded. The effect of Cry3Bb1 toxin in transgenic corn tissues on R. robini food choice was assessed in a laboratory study. In no-choice tests a greater proportion of R. robini were found on garlic roots than on Cry3Bb1 transgenic corn and a near-isogenic non-transgenic corn. In a choice test, more R. robini was recovered on garlic roots than on either corn variety, and on Cry3Bb1 corn than on non-transgenic corn. In large field plots using specific mite traps across the growing season, R. robini mite populations were not significantly different between Cry3Bb1 corn and non-transgenic corn alone or non-transgenic corn treated with different combinations of two insecticides. Our results, combined with results from other studies, suggest that transgenic plants expressing the Cry3Aa or Cry3Bb1 Bacillus thuringiensis toxins are likely to have negligible impact on R. robini mite populations.', 'en_US'),
(2259, 'Insect transgenesis and its potential in agriculture and human health', 'The ability to genetically engineer insects other than Drosophila melanogaster has further extended modern genetic techniques into important insect pest species ranging from fruit fly pests of horticulture to mosquito vectors of human disease. In only a relatively short period of time, a range of transgenes have been inserted into more than 10 insect pest species. Genetic transformation of these pest species has proven to be a very important laboratory tool in analyzing gene function and effects on phenotype however the full extension of this technology into the field is yet to be realized. Here we briefly review the development of transgenic technology in pest insect species and discuss the challenges that remain in this applied area of insect genetics and entomology.', 'en_US'),
(2260, 'Understanding and improving transgene stability and expression in insects for SIT and conditional lethal release programs', 'Genetically transformed insect pests provide significant opportunities to create strains for improved sterile insect technique and new strategies based on conditional lethality. A major concern for programs that rely on the release of transgenic insects is the stability of the transgene, and maintenance of consistent expression of genes of interest within the transgene. Transgene instability would influence the integrity of the transformant strain upon which the effectiveness of the biological control program depends. Loss or intra-genomic transgene movement would result in strain attributes important to the program being lost or diminished, and the mass-release of such insects could significantly exacerbate the insect pest problem. Instability resulting in intra-genomic movement may also be a prelude to inter-genomic transgene movement between species resulting in ecological risks. This is less of a concern for short-term releases, where transgenic insects are not expected to survive in the environment beyond two or three generations. Transgene movement may occur, however, into infectious agents during mass-rearing, and the potential for movement after release is a possibility for programs using many millions of insects. The primary methods of addressing potential transgene instability relate to an understanding of the vector system used for gene transfer, the potential for its mobilization by the same or a related vector system, and methods required to identify transformants and determine if unexpected transgene movement has occurred. Methods also exist for preventing transposon-mediated mobilization, by deleting or rearranging vector sequences required for transposition using recombination systems. Stability of transgene expression is also a critical concern, especially in terms of potential epigenetic interactions with host genomes resulting in gene silencing that have been observed in plants and fungi, and it must be determined if this or related phenomena can occur in insects.', 'en_US'),
(2261, 'Bt crops: predicting effects of escaped transgenes on the fitness of wild plants and their herbivores.', 'One prominent concern about genetically modified crops is the possibility of environmental impacts from the movement of fitness-enhancing traits to wild plant populations. Decisions to deregulate Bt crops in the USA have relied strongly on arguments that these crops will not interbreed with wild relatives in the permitted growing regions. Limited attention therefore has been directed to analyses of the consequences of gene flow. To provide a transparent evaluation process for risks associated with insecticidal transgene escape, we crafted a series of questions designed to guide this aspect of the risk assessment. We then explored the current knowledge base available for answering such risk-related questions for three Bt crops (cotton, rapeseed, and rice). First, we generated a list of wild relatives of these crops. A definitive list of potential transgene recipients is not yet possible for some crops. Sufficient data are not available for some crops to eliminate certain related plant species from consideration of fertile hybrid formation, thus making lists for these crops subject to speculation. Second, we queried the HOSTS database (UK) to obtain a worldwide listing of lepidopteran species that feed on these crops and their wild relatives, and to determine the host range of the larvae. To our knowledge, this list of 502 lepidopteran species is the first such list published for these crops and wild crop relatives. Third, we used a data set maintained by the Canadian Forest Service to assess Bt toxin susceptibility for these lepidopterans. Only 3% of those species have been tested for susceptibility; and the literature suggests that generalizations about susceptibility among taxa are difficult due to the variability within families. Fourth, we consulted the literature to interpret what is known about the ability of lepidopterans to regulate plant fitness or invasiveness. We could not eliminate the possibility of ecological release due to plant resistance against lepidopterans. In fact, there is strong experimental evidence that lepidopteran herbivores do limit the distribution and/or abundances of at least some wild plant species. Neither could we eliminate the possibility that non-target lepidopterans might have important functions in the ecosystem as pollinators or alternate hosts to natural enemies of pest species. This study suggests that crucial data are lacking for the development of a credible scientific basis to confirm or deny environmental risks associated with the escape of Bt transgene constructs to wild relatives. Given the absence of information on the identity, level of susceptibility, and ecological roles of lepidopterans exploiting specific wild relatives of Bt crops, we suggest that new efforts be directed to assessing possible consequences of lepidopteran mortality on resistant wild relatives.', 'en_US'),
(2262, 'Major heretofore intractable biotic constraints to African food security that may be amenable to novel biotechnological solutions', 'The input costs of pesticides to control biotic constraints are often prohibitive to the subsistence farmers of Africa and seed based solutions to biotic stresses are more appropriate. Plant breeding has been highly successful in dealing with many pest problems in Africa, especially diseases, but is limited to the genes available within the crop genome. Years of breeding and studying cultural practices have not always been successful in alleviating many problems that biotechnology may be able to solve. We pinpoint the major intractable regional problems as: (1) weeds: parasitic weeds (Striga and Orobanche spp.) throughout Africa; grass weeds of wheat (Bromus and Lolium) intractable to herbicides in North Africa; (2) insect and diseases: stem borers and post-harvest grain weevils in sub-Saharan Africa; Bemesia tabaci (white fly) as the vector of the tomato leaf curl virus complex on vegetable crops in North Africa; and (3) the mycotoxins: fumonisins and aflatoxins in stored grains. Abiotic stresses may exacerbate many of these problems, and biotechnological alleviations of abiotic stress could partially allay some predicaments. Some of these constraints are already under study using biotechnological procedures, but others may require longer-term research and development to alleviate the problems. Despite the huge impacts of post-harvest weevils and of mycotoxins in grains, these issues had not been given high priority in national biotechnological programs, possibly due to a lack of knowledge of their immensity. The need for public sector involvement is accentuated for cases where immediate profits are not perceived (e.g. lowering mycotoxin levels in farmer utilized grain, which does not increase yield) but where the public weal will gain, and will be invaluable, especially where the private sector supplies genes already isolated. ', 'en_US'),
(2263, 'Science policy and society: the British debate over GM agriculture', 'The outcome of ''GM Nation?'' ? a public debate on genetic modification and the commercial growing of GM crops in Britain ? was published in 2003. The objective of this public consultation was ''to promote an innovative, effective and deliberative programme of debate, against the background of the possible commercial production of GM crops in the UK ? [and] provide meaningful information to Government about the nature and spectrum of the public''s views, particularly at the grass roots level, to inform decision making''. Complementing an independent evaluation of GM Nation?, this article puts the debate into context, comments on the legitimacy of this, and similar exercises in public consultation, and develops some ideas on the future of public consultation on technological innovation.', 'en_US'),
(2264, 'Antennal response of cotton bollworm ( Heliocoverpa armigera) to volatiles in transgenic Bt cotton', 'Volatile compositions in transgenic Bt cotton variety ''GK-97'' and its parental variety ''Simian No. 3'' were analysed, and antennal response of cotton bollworm (Heliocoverpa armigera) to the volatiles were investigated. Volatile components in Bt cotton and regular cotton were almost same, except for absence of a sesquiterpene and a minor unknown compound in regular cotton. The results of gas chromatography-electroantennographic detection (GC-EAD) experiments showed that cotton bollworm antennae responded to seven compounds and two minor unknown compounds in Bt volatiles, among which concentrations of a -pinene and b-pinene in Bt cotton were relatively higher than those in regular cotton, and one minor unknown compound was absent in regular cotton.', 'en_US'),
(2265, 'Extent of cross-fertilization in maize by pollen from neighbouring transgenic hybrids', 'There is an increasing concern about the preservation of genetic identity of conventional maize (Zea mays L.) and of distance required to segregate non-genetically modified (non-GM) from GM grain production since the introduction of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) and other transgenic events into commercial hybrids. Field experiments were conducted at three sites in Ottawa, Canada, for 3 yr to determine (i) the extent of cross-fertilization of a maize genotype by foreign pollen of neighboring hybrids and (ii) the practical distance required to isolate conventional maize hybrids from neighboring GM maize fields. At each site, yellow-kernel Bt maize was planted in the center (27 by 27 m) of a field surrounded in all directions by the distance equivalent to 24 or 48 rows (37 m) of white-kernel maize, and a 200-m non-maize crop was maintained in all directions. Phenology and weather conditions were closely monitored during the tasseling and silking period. At maturity, a thorough examination on the cross-fertilization was conducted in the white maize population. Our results showed that the rate of cross-fertilization in maize was dependent upon the distance from the pollen source, wind direction and synchronization of silking and pollen shedding of the two genotypes involved. Up to 82% out-cross was measured in the first row adjacent to the Bt maize. The level of out-cross was <1% beyond the 37th border row (28 m) downwind and the 13th row (10 m) upwind in all site-years. An exponential decline model was fitted well (P < 0.01) to the cross-fertilization data as a function of distance from the yellow maize pollen source with R2 up to 0.64. Our data suggested that it is possible to produce non-GM maize grains by removing the outside rows of non-GM maize plants (about 30 m) neighboring the GM maize field in concern if the acceptance level is set at 1% out-cross. The generally recommended 200-m distance between two genotypes (inbreds, populations, hybrids, and wild relatives) appears to be appropriate for Bt or other GM maize, as well. Abbreviations: Bt, Bacillus thuringiensis ? CHU, crop heat unit ? GM, genetically modified', 'en_US'),
(2266, 'Hybridization and introgression between bread wheat and wild and weedy relatives in North America', 'Introgression between cultivars and wild relatives is common in several angiosperm taxa including the grass family Poaceae. Bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is a domesticated allohexaploid species (genome formula BBAADD) without any known wild hexaploid relative in the genus Triticum. Bread wheat is also related to the genus Aegilops L., which has probably contributed two of the three genomes of bread wheat. A few tetraploid Aegilops species, including Ae. cylindrica Host. and Ae. triuncialis L., occur as weeds both in the Mediterranean basin and in West Asia. Introduced populations of these weeds are also known to occur in North America. These species have been known to introgress occasionally with bread wheat when grown near wheat fields. Similarly, rye (Secale cereale L.), a species from a distant genus, has a potential to introgress with bread wheat. A few natural introgressive hybrids between herbicide resistant wheat and Ae. cylindrica and between wheat and rye have been created or recovered in North America. Natural hybrids between wheat and Ae. triuncialis have not been observed in North America. The available data do not suggest the prevalence of large-scale introgression between bread wheat and its wild relatives in North America. Nevertheless, with modern bread wheat cultivars being developed with novel traits, such as herbicide and disease resistance, an in-depth evaluation of the extent and nature of introgression between weedy Aegilops or Secale species and bread wheat is useful both for assessing potential ecological risks that may be associated with trait presence in hybrids and for formulating strategies to manage gene transfer to hybrids. In this review, we discuss the existing literature on reproductive ecology of bread wheat and on introgression between bread wheat and its wild relatives in the genera Aegilops and Secale that occur in North America. We also discuss the implications of introgression in consideration of the current and possible future development of transgenic wheat.', 'en_US'),
(2267, 'Enumerating lepidopteran species associated with maize as a first step in risk assessment in the USA', 'Pest management can have substantial impacts on non-target species both within and outside the units being managed. Assessment of these impacts is hampered by the lack of even the most basic checklist of the species present in most systems. The maize agroecosytem is of particular interest because of the large area covered and the intensity of widely varying forms of pest management. In this study a database of lepidopteran species that occur within the maize agroecosystem in the United States was compiled. The process was initiated by developing a list of plants present in maize using published sources and the first-hand knowledge of ''weed'' experts. This list of plant species associated with maize was then cross-listed with lepidopteran host feeding records using published sources. Finally, phenological profiles and conservation rankings were added. Although our list is not exhaustive, we found 132 plant species in 33 families associated with maize, and 229 lepidopteran species in 21 families that feed on these plants. The database of plants and lepidopteran species can be a starting point for assessment of risk to non-target Lepidoptera in maize from chemical control, biological control, and the use of transgenic Bt maize. The lepidopteran species associated with maize were found to be significantly less imperiled, as measured by their conservation rankings, than lepidopteran species as a whole in all habitats. This finding suggests that rare or endangered lepidopteran species are unlikely to be impacted by pest management in maize. Based on the likely lack of impact of pest management in maize on individual species, future studies should focus on potential impacts on the ecological services that lepidopteran species provide.', 'en_US'),
(2268, 'Transgenic Bt-producing Brassica napus: Plutella xylostella selection pressure and fitness of weedy relatives.', 'Release of transgenic insect-resistant crops creates the potential not only for the insect pest to evolve resistance but for the escape of transgenes that may confer novel or enhanced fitness-related traits through hybridization with their wild relatives. The differential response of diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella) populations in eastern and western Canada to Bt-producing (GT) Brassica napus and the potential for enhanced fitness of GT B. napus and weedy GT Brassica rapa  X B. napus hybrid populations (F 1, BC 1, BC 2) were studied. Comparative bioassays using neonates and 4th instars showed that GT B. napus and GT B. rapa X B. napus hybrids are lethal to larvae from both populations. No measurable plant fitness advantage (reproductive dry weight) was observed for GT B. napus (crop) and GT B. rapa X B. napus hybrid populations at low insect pressure (1 larva per leaf). At high insect densities ( >10 larvae per leaf), vegetative plant weight was not significantly different for GT B. napus and non-GT B. napus, whereas reproductive plant weight and proportion of reproductive material were significantly higher in GT B. napus. Establishment of the Bt trait in wild B. rapa populations may also increase its competitive advantage under high insect pressure.', 'en_US'),
(2269, 'A modelling approach of the sustainability of Bt Cotton grown by small farmers in West Africa.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2270, 'Post-market surveillance of novel foods: enhancing food safety assurance in a changing marketplace', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2271, 'Monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) larvae and Bt maize pollen: a review of ecological risk assessment for non-target species', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2272, 'Environmental and human health impacts of growing genetically modified herbicide-tolerant sugar beet: a life cycle assessment', 'There is ongoing debate concerning the possible environmental and human health impacts of growing genetically modified (GM) crops. Here, we report the results of a life-cycle assessment (LCA) comparing the environmental and human health impacts of conventional sugar beet growing regimes in the UK and Germany with those that might be expected if GM herbicide-tolerant (to glyphosate) sugar beet is commercialized. The results presented for a number of environmental and human health impact categories suggest that growing the GM herbicide-tolerant crop would be less harmful to the environment and human health than growing the conventional crop, largely due to lower emissions from herbicide manufacture, transport and field operations. Emissions contributing to negative environmental impacts, such as global warming, ozone depletion, ecotoxicity of water and acidification and nutrification of soil and water, were much lower for the herbicide-tolerant crop than for the conventional crop. Emissions contributing to summer smog, toxic particulate matter and carcinogenicity, which have negative human health impacts, were also substantially lower for the herbicide-tolerant crop. The environmental and human health impacts of growing GM crops need to be assessed on a case-by-case basis using a holistic approach. LCA is a valuable technique for helping to undertake such assessments.', 'en_US'),
(2273, 'Field performance and starch characteristics of high-amylose potatoes obtained by antisense gene targetting of two branched enzymes', 'Potato is an important crop for starch production, but there are limitations regarding the genetic variation of starch quality. In maize, starches with various properties have been available for a long time by mutational breeding. Amylose starch from potatoes differs from cereal amyloses in several functionally important aspects, such as a higher degree of polymerization. Areas of application in which the degree of polymerization is of importance include film forming and the polymeric properties of bioplastics. High-amylose potato lines have been achieved by inhibiting the two known branching enzyme forms of potato. A single inserted gene construct for the inhibition of both forms resulted in structural changes of the starch to levels of branching that were below the commercially available amylose standards of potato. The high-amylose potato lines were tested in multiple year field trials of agronomic performance and were used for the pilot plant production of starch. The introduced trait was confirmed to be stable over multiple years. The consequences of the modification were found to be an increased tuber yield, reduced starch content, smaller granule size and an increase in reducing sugars.', 'en_US'),
(2274, 'Diffusion of agricultural biotechnology and intellectual property rights: emerging issues in India', 'Agriculture in developing economies is rural based with a majority of poor people dependent on it. Hence, any new technology that would result in improving the crop yield or reducing the cost will be highly useful. Particularly, biotechnology innovations have several useful applications in agriculture and are useful for developing countries. However, when such new technologies are protected by intellectual property the implications are different. The plant protection system available in India enables the farmer to save, use, sow, resow, exchange, or share the seeds of protected variety, besides offering protection on farmers'' variety, extant variety and essentially derived variety. Such a system has scope for adoption of new technology as well as diffusion of the same. Whereas plant protection could boost research in the area of plant biotechnology by both public and private bodies, it could also result in higher prices for seeds, thus naturally excluding the small and marginal farmers from accessing such new technology.', 'en_US'),
(2275, 'Composition of grain and forage from corn rootworm-protected corn event MON863 is equivalent to that of conventional corn (Zea mays L.)', 'Insect-protected corn hybrids containing event MON 863 protect corn plants against feeding damage from corn rootworm (Diabrotica), a major North American insect pest. Corn event MON 863 contains a gene that expresses an amino acid sequence variant of the wild-type Cry3Bb1 insecticidal protein from Bacillus thuringiensis. The purpose of this study was to compare the composition of corn containing event MON 863 with that of conventional nontransgenic corn. Compositional analyses were conducted to measure proximates, fiber, amino acids, fatty acids, minerals, folic acid, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin E, antinutrients, and certain secondary metabolites in grain and proximates and fiber content in forage collected from a total of eight field sites in the U.S. and Argentina. Compositional analyses demonstrated that the grain and forage of event MON 863 are comparable in their nutritional content to the control corn hybrid and conventional corn. These comparisons, together with the history of the safe use of corn as a common component of animal feed and human food, support the conclusion that corn event MON 863 is compositionally equivalent to, and as safe and nutritious as, conventional corn hybrids grown commercially today. ', 'en_US'),
(2276, 'Effect of glyphosate on fruit retention, yield and fiber quality of glyphosate resistant cotton', 'Glyphosate-resistant cotton allows growers greater .exibility in timing herbicide applications, as well as a broader spectrum of weed control, than that offered by other herbicide systems. Despite overwhelming adoption of glyphosate-resistant cotton, concern for reproductive tolerance to glyphosate in glyphosate-resistant cotton has been raised.  Field and greenhouse studies were conducted to investigate the effect of labeled and off-label glyphosate treatments on fruiting patterns, abnormal boll abscission, and yield of glyphosate-resistant cotton. Two separate .eld studies were conducted in 2000 and 2001 in Greene County, and Clayton, NC. In Greene County, NC, fruit reductions of .rst position sympodial bolls on node 1 through 10 were evident in 2000 and 2001 at the cutout and mid-bloom stages, respectively, when glyphosate was applied postemergence after the 4-leaf stage.  These same treatments reduced seed cotton by 160 kg ha-1 compared with plants treated within label guidelines. In Clayton, NC (2000), and in a controlled environment greenhouse, reductions in total, .rst position, and sympodial bolls located on nodes 1 through 10 occurred when glyphosate was applied at the 4-leaf stage postemergence and at the 8-leaf stage postemergence-directed compared with the non-treated control. Abnormal boll abscission, when a deceased boll remains attached to plant, was increased with off-labeled glyphosate treatments in Greene County, NC. Overall, differences in fruit retention due to glyphosate applications were not evident in all locations, environments, or years.', 'en_US'),
(2277, 'Review of data on possible toxicity of GM potatoes', 'The Royal Society published a review of what was known scientifically about the suitability of GM plants for food use in September 1998. Because of the current controversy, we are looking again at several issues, and in particular we have reviewed all available data related to work at the Rowett Research Institute on the possible toxicity of genetically modifiedpotatoes. Our main conclusions are as follows.', 'en_US'),
(2278, 'Transgenic birds for the production of recombinant proteins', 'Transgenic birds were expected to be an excellent transgenic bioreactor for the production of recombinant pharmaceutical proteins. However, the only successful transgenic bioreactors have been based on mammals. We have developed two key techniques for obtaining transgenic birds. For bird embryo culture, we identified that the low rate of hatchability of cultured embryos is caused by limited oxygen and calcium availability. In quail embryo culture using a chicken eggshell as a culture vessel, hatchability increased to 80% by the supplement of calcium lactate in addition to oxygen aeration. A fully artificial vessel for quail embryo culture using a gas-permeable Teflon membrane was also designed. Although the hatchability was lower than that of cultures using a surrogate eggshell, we succeeded in hatching of bird embryos using a fully artificial vessel. For transgene introduction, a replication-defective pantropic retroviral vector based on Moloney murine leukemia virus (MoMLV) pseudotyped with vesicular stomatitis virus G protein (VSV-G) was injected to laid embryos at the blastodermal stage, and the embryos were hatched in vitro to generate G0 birds. The viral vector sequence was detected in the tissues of all G0 birds. The germ-line transmission efficiency was more than 80%. Plural copies of the transgene were inserted into the genome of G1 transgenic progeny.', 'en_US'),
(2279, 'Asymmetric gene flow between traditional and hybrid rice varieties (Oryza sativa) indicated by nuclear simple sequence repeats and implications for germplasm conservation', '?Mixed-planting of traditional and hybrid rice (Oryza sativa) varieties is an ecological approach for rice disease control and yield increase, in addition to its effective role in in situ conservation of traditional rice varieties. To estimate gene flow between traditional and hybrid rice varieties, an experiment involving Huangkenuo and Shanyou-63 was conducted to allow free gene flow by mixed-planting of the two varieties in different cultivation patterns.?A simple sequence repeat (SSR) marker RM167 was used to detect natural hybrids between the two varieties by examining seeds collected randomly from both varieties in the experiment.?The result showed an extremely low number of hybrids between the two varieties with an average frequency of 0.04% in Huangkenuo and 0.18% in Shanyou-63.?It is concluded that no significant gene flow occurs naturally between Huangkenuo and Shanyou-63, and that crop diversity management is a proper means for in situ conservation of traditional rice varieties. It is also implied that the potential transgene flow from transgenic hybrid rice to traditional rice variety would be extremely low.', 'en_US'),
(2280, 'The potential of genetically enhanced plants to address food insecurity', 'Food insecurity is one of the most important social issues faced today, with 840 million individuals enduring chronic hunger and three billion individuals suffering from nutrient deficiencies. Most of these individuals are poverty stricken and live in developing countries. Strategies to address food insecurity must aim to increase agricultural productivity in the developing world in order to tackle poverty, and must provide long-term improvements in crop yields to keep up with demand as the world''s population grows. Genetically enhanced plants provide one route to sustainable higher yields, either by increasing the intrinsic yield capability of crop plants or by protecting them from biotic and abiotic constraints. The present paper discusses a range of transgenic approaches that could increase agricultural productivity if applied on a large scale, including the introduction of genes that confer resistance to pests and diseases, or tolerance of harsh environments, and genes that help to lift the intrinsic yield capacity by increasing metabolic flux towards storage carbohydrates, proteins and oils. The paper also explores how the nutritional value of plants can be improved by genetic engineering. Transgenic plants, as a component of integrated strategies to relieve poverty and deliver sustainable agriculture to subsistence farmers in developing countries, could have a significant impact on food security now and in the future.', 'en_US');

INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(2326, 'Field release and environmental fate of a transgenic entomopathogenic nematode', 'A strain of the entomopathogenic nematodeHeterorhabditis bacteriophora,genetically enhanced for thermotolerance by introduction of a heat-shock protein gene from the free-living nematodeCaenorhabditis elegans,was released in turfgrass field microplots in the spring, summer, and fall of 1996. As predicted, transgenic and wildtype strains did not differ in their ability to persist. We document the regulatory procedures at the federal, state, university, and local levels needed before field release, none of which posed any significant difficulties. Our risk assessment study supports the regulatory view that the transgenic nematode strain is an unlikely environmental threat. Subsequent regulatory reviews in the United States appear likely to continue to be decided on a case-by-case basis according to organism phenotype rather than the techniques used to generate them. This is the first report of a nonmicrobial, genetically engineered insect natural enemy being released into the environment.', 'en_US'),
(2327, 'Risk from genetically engineered and modified marine fish', 'In support of the emerging industries of warmwater marine fish mariculture, genetic engineering and classical genetic improvement programmes have been initiated for a variety of exclusively marine fish. These programmes have the potential to perturb allele and genotype frequencies, or introduce novel alleles and genes into conspecific wild populations. Despite concerns to the contrary, the following hypothesis remains to be falsified: ''laboratory induced allele frequency/genotype changes and novel alleles or genes have a negligible probability of being selectively favoured in wild populations under natural selection, and accordingly, without sustained large scale releases, have little potential for ecological impact''', 'en_US'),
(2328, 'Persistence and containment of Metaseiulus occidentalis (Acari: Phytoseiidae) in Florida: Risk assessment for possible release of transgenic strains', 'Metaseiulus occidentalis (Nesbitt) is a phytoseiid mite which is commercially available as a biological control agent of spider mites. Genetic manipulation of this phytoseiid species has yielded transgenic strains, but none have been released into the environment. Previous data suggested that M. occidentalis could not survive the wet, humid summers in Florida. A non-transgenic strain of M. occidentalis was released into field plots in Gainesville on soybean plants infested with the two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch. Populations were monitored from April-October 1994, and weather data were gathered at the release site. Permethrin-treated barrier rows were monitored to determine if the mites dispersed outside the plots, and aerial dispersal was monitored with sticky traps. Predator and spider-mite populations repeatedly crashed during the summer months, and population growth was negatively correlated with rainfall. CLIMEX, a population growth model which uses climatic factors to determine whether a given poikilothermic species can colonize and persist in new geographic areas, also indicated that M. occidentalis cannot persist through the wet season in Florida, although it may be able to establish and persist through the fall, winter and spring months.', 'en_US'),
(2329, 'Environmental safety issues for genetically-modified animals', 'Organisms modified by the techniques of modern biotechnology may differ significantly from normal organisms or organisms modified by other methods. Before transgenic organisms are introduced into the environment, the potential environmental effects should be assessed. In general, modification of ecologically important traits in undomesticated species presents the greatest environmental risk. Transgenic livestock probably pose low risk to the environment. Transgenic fish and live virus-based vaccines pose greater risks and present challenging questions for environmental risk assessment', 'en_US'),
(2330, 'Implications of introduction of transgenic fish into natural ecosystems', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2331, 'Spatially structured population dynamics in feral oilseed rape', 'We studied the population dynamics of feral oilseed rape (Brassica napus) for 10 years (1993-2002) in 3658 adjacent permanent 100 m quadrats in the verges of the M25 motorway around London, UK. The aim was to determine the relative importance of different factors affecting the observed temporal patterns of population dynamics and their spatial correlations. A wide range of population dynamics was observed (downward or upward trends, cycles, local extinctions and recolonizations), but overall the populations were not self-replacing (? < 1). Many quadrats remained unoccupied throughout the study period, but a few were occupied at high densities for all 10 years. Most quadrats showed transient oilseed rape populations, lasting 1-4 years.There were strong spatial patterns in mean population density, associated with soil conditions and the successional age of the plant community dominating the verge, and these large-scale spatial patterns were highly consistent from year to year. The importance of seed spilled from trucks in transit to the processing plant at Erith in Kent was confirmed: rape populations were significantly higher on the ''to Erith'' verge than the ''from Erith'' verge (overall mean 2.83-fold greater stem density). Quadrats in which ? > 1 were much more frequent in the ''to Erith'' verge, indicating that seed immigration can give the spurious impression of self-replacing population dynamics in time-series analysis.There was little evidence of a pervasive Moran effect, and climatic forcing did not produce widespread large-scale synchrony in population dynamics for the motorway as a whole; just 23% of quadrats had significant rank correlations with the mean time-series. There was, however, significant local spatial synchrony of population dynamics, apparently associated with soil disturbance and seed input. This study draws attention to the possibility that different processes may impose population synchrony at different scales. We hypothesize that synchrony in this system is driven by at least three processes: small-scale, local forcing caused by soil disturbance, intermediate-scale forcing as a result of seed input, and large-scale climatic forcing (e.g. winter rainfall) that affects the motorway as a whole.', 'en_US'),
(2332, 'Evidence for gene flow via seed dispersal from crop to wild relatives in Beta vulgaris (Chenopodiaceae): consequences for the release of genetically modified crop species with weedy lineage', 'Gene flow and introgression from cultivated to wild plant populations have important evolutionary and ecological consequences and require detailed investigations for risk assessments of transgene escape into natural ecosystems. Sugar beets (Beta vulgaris ssp. vulgaris) are of particular concern because: (i) they are cross-compatible with their wild relatives (the sea beet, B. vulgaris ssp. maritima); (ii) crop-to-wild gene flow is likely to occur via weedy lineages resulting from hybridization events and locally infesting fields. Using a chloroplastic marker and a set of nuclear microsatellite loci, the occurrence of crop-to-wild gene flow was investigated in the French sugar beet production area within a ''contact-zone'' in between coastal wild populations and sugar beet fields. The results did not reveal large pollen dispersal from weed to wild beets. However, several pieces of evidence clearly show an escape of weedy lineages from fields via seed flow. Since most studies involving the assessment of transgene escape from crops to wild outcrossing relatives generally focused only on pollen dispersal, this last result was unexpected: it points out the key role of a long-lived seed bank and highlights support for transgene escape via man-mediated long-distance dispersal events.', 'en_US'),
(2333, 'Corn pollen dispersal: Quasi-mechanistic models and field experiments', 'To make quantitative predictions about the pollen dispersal of a plant species under different environmental conditions, it is necessary to determine its individual pollen dispersal function, i.e., the two-dimensional density function describing the probability that a pollen grain emitted in (0, 0) fertilizes an ovule in (x, y). This function will depend on biological and climate parameters. We present models for the individual dispersal function of corn. These models are based on Brownian motion with drift and integrate biological (difference of height between male and female flowers) and aerodynamic (settling velocity, wind speed, air turbulence) parameters. The models presented differ in the importance of vegetation in stopping the paths of pollen grains. The models were fitted to data from two large field experiments of corn using the color of kernels as a phenotypic marker for pollen dispersal. The resulting estimations for the parameters of the models and comparisons between models indicate that (1) these models can provide good predictions of the observed data, (2) vegetation is not the major obstacle that stops pollen paths, and (3) there is a benefit in considering the difference in height between male and female flowers. Furthermore, values of the parameters estimated from dispersal data appear consistent with meteorological and biological data acquired independently.', 'en_US'),
(2334, 'Can transgenic rice cause ecological risks through tranegene escape?', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2335, 'Using empirical data to model transgene dispersal', 'One element of the current public debate about genetically modified crops is that gene flow from transgenic cultivars into surrounding weed populations will lead to more problematic weeds, particularly for traits such as herbicide resistance. Evolutionary biologists can inform this debate by providing accurate estimates of gene flow potential and subsequent ecological performance of resulting hybrids. We develop a model for gene flow incorporating exponential distance and directional effects to be applied to windpollinated species. This model is applied to previously published data on gene flow in experimental plots of Agrostis stolonifera L. (creeping bentgrass), which assessed gene flow from transgenic plants resistant to the herbicide glufosinate to surrounding non-transgenic plants. Our results show that although pollen dispersal can be limited in some sites, it may be extensive in others, depending on local conditions such as exposure to wind. Thus, hybridization under field conditions is likely to occur. Given the nature of the herbicide resistance trait, we regard this trait as unlikely to persist in the absence of herbicide, and suggest that the ecological consequences of such gene flow are likely to be minimal.', 'en_US'),
(2336, 'Current knowledge of gene flow in plants: implications for transgene flow', 'Plant evolutionary biologists'' view of gene flow and hybridization has undergone a revolution. Twenty-five years ago, both were considered rare and largely inconsequential. Now gene flow and hybridization are known to be idiosyncratic, varying with the specific populations involved. Gene flow typically occurs at evolutionarily significant rates and at significant distances. Spontaneous hybridization occasionally has important applied consequences, such as stimulating the evolution of more aggressive invasives and increasing the extinction risk for rare species. The same problems have occurred for spontaneous hybridization between crops and their wild relatives. These new data have implications for transgenic crops: (i) for most crops, gene flow can act to introduce engineered genes into wild populations; (ii) depending on the specific engineered gene(s) and populations involved, gene flow may have the same negative impacts as those observed for traditionally improved crops; (iii) gene flow''s idiosyncratic nature may frustrate management and monitoring attempts; and (iv) intercrop transgene flow, although rarely discussed, is equally worthy of study.', 'en_US'),
(2337, 'Qualitative theory of the spread of a new gene into a resident population', 'This work addresses the problems that arise in the estimation of the risk of invader/unwanted GMO spread and the optimal release of desired genes into a population through the release of transgenic individuals. On the basis of a general model of the propagation of an advantageous allele through a population we analyze the thresholds and critical aggregations in gene frequency necessary for the spread of new gene carriers. It is shown that if the invader appears at one place in the ecosystem then it will not spread throughout the ecosystem unless it exceeds some critical threshold, where the critical threshold is defined in terms of both the amount and distribution of the invader. The value of the critical threshold will depend on the fitness of the invader relative to the fitness of the resident organisms in the ecosystem and the mechanism of its dispersion. It is also shown that typically an invader will not spread symmetrically, even if the environment is isotropic, but rather develops clusters that form filaments within the ecosystem. We also demonstrate that if the invader aggregation is sufficiently large then after an initial period the advance of the invader into the resident population takes the form of a traveling wave. The speed of this wave tends to a speed characteristic of the relative fitness and dispersive mechanisms of the invader.', 'en_US'),
(2338, 'Gene flow from cultivated rice to the wild species Oryza rufipogon under experimental field conditions.', '?Here, the gene flow from a cultivated rice variety (Minghui-63) to common wild rice (Oryza rufipogon) was investigated to assess the biosafety risk associated with the environmental release of transgenic varieties.?Four experimental designs differing in the spatial arrangement of the Minghui-63 and O. rufipogon plants were used in experiments conducted in an isolated rice field in Hunan Province, southern China, where O. rufipogon occurs naturally.?Natural hybridization events between the two species were detected by scoring a simple sequence repeat (SSR) molecular marker. A total of 296 hybrids were identified from 23776 seedlings that were randomly germinated from >80000 seeds collected from O. rufipogon. The occurrence of the crop-to-wild gene flow was significantly associated with wind direction and frequencies of the gene flow, which decreased significantly with distance from the pollen sources. The maximum observed distance of gene flow was 43.2m.?The results indicated that gene flow from cultivated rice to O. rufipogon occurred at a considerable rate. Therefore, isolation measures should be considered when deploying transgenic rice in the sympatric regions of the wild rice, and when establishing in situ conservation of O. rufipogon. The experimental system in this study can be used for biosafety assessment of transgene escape of other wind-pollinated crops.', 'en_US'),
(2339, 'Homology-dependent DNA transfer from plants to a soil bacterium under laboratory conditions: implications in evolution and horizontal gene transfer', 'DNA transfer was demonstrated from six species of donor plants to the soil bacterium, Acinetobacter spp. BD413, using neomycin phosphotransferase (nptII) as a marker for homologous recombination. These laboratory results are compatible with, but do not prove, DNA transfer in nature. In tobacco carrying a plastid insertion of nptII, transfer was detected with 0.1 g of disrupted leaves and in oilseed rape carrying a nuclear insertion with a similar quantity of roots. Transfer from disrupted leaves occurred in sterile soil and water, without the addition of nutrients. It was detected using intact tobacco leaves and intact tobacco and Arabidopsis plants in vitro. Transfer was dose-dependent and sensitive to DNase, and mutations in the plant nptII were recovered in receptor bacteria. DNA transfer using intact roots and plants in vitro was easily demonstrated, but with greater variability. Transfer varied with plant genome size and the number of repeats of the marker DNA in the donor plant. Transfer was not detected in the absence of a homologous nptII in the receptor bacteria. We discuss these results with reference to non-coding DNA in plant genomes (e.g., introns, transposons and junk DNA) and the possibility that DNA transfer could occur in nature.', 'en_US'),
(2340, 'A model of pollinator-mediated gene flow between plant populations with numerical solutions for bumblebees pollinated oilseed rape', 'We present a model that predicts the level of gene flow mediated by animal pollinators from a source population to a sink population.  The model requires specification of three elements: (1) the paternity that originates from a single flower, the paternity shadow; (2) the mean number of flowers that pollinators visit during stays in the sink population, the residence; (3) the proportion of pollinators arriving at the sink that carry pollen from the source population.  Provided that pollinators visit enough flowers in the sink to exhaust the paternity shadows from the source, the general results are that gene flow is inversely proportional to the mean pollinator residence in the sink population, and is proportional to the fraction of pollinators arriving with pollen from the source.  These results are used to propose explanations for two of the widely observed patterns in gene flow among plant populations.  Numerical solutions to the model are derived using experimentally determined values of elements (1) and (2) that represent bumblebees, Bombus spp., visiting agricultural fields of oilseed rape, Brassica napus L.   In B. napus, the paternity shadow attenuates rapidly over approximately 20 recipient flowers.  Mean bumblebee residences in the fields studied varied between 490 and 720 flowers.  In the absence of a direct measurement of element (3), we calculated the maximum level of bumblebee-mediated gene flow by assuming that all bees arrived at the sink saturated with pollen from extrinsic sources.  In this case, the model predicts that bumblebee-mediated gene flow accounted for between 0.1% and 0.5% of the progeny in the agricultural fields studied.  A likelihood analysis of our observations is unable to reveal convincingly the proportion of bees arriving at the sink via a source population, but the literature suggests that bumblebees have high site fidelity, which implies that bee-mediated gene flow may be substantially less than our estimated maximum.  We consider the role of various factors, including wind pollination, in accounting for the differences between the model''s predictions and the generally higher levels of gene flow observed in previous studies of oilseed rape.', 'en_US'),
(2341, 'First impact of biotechnology in the EU: Bt maize adoption in Spain', 'In the present paper a bio-economic model was constructed to estimate the impact of a biotechnology innovation in EU agriculture. Transgenic Bt maize offers the potential to efficiently control corn borers that cause economically important losses in maize growing in Spain. Since 1998, Syngenta has commercialised the variety Compa CB, equivalent to an annual maize area of about 25 000 ha. During the 6-year period 1998-2003, a total welfare gain of 15.5 million euros was estimated from the adoption of Bt maize, of which Spanish farmers captured two thirds, the rest accruing to the seed industry.', 'en_US'),
(2342, 'Gene Flow: What does it mean for biodiversity and centers of origin', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2343, 'The 1st European Conference on the Co-existence of Genetically Modified Crops with Conventional and Organic Crops', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2344, 'Genetic application of an inverse polymerase chain reaction', 'A method is presented for the rapid in vitro amplification of DNA sequences that flank a region of known sequence.  The method uses the polymerase chain reation (PCR), but it has the primers oriented in the reverse direction of the usual orientation.  The template for the reverse primers is a restriction fragment that has been ligated upon itself to form a circle.  This procedure of inverse PCR (IPCR) has many applications in molecular genetics, for example, the amplification and identification of sequences flanking transposable elements.  In this paper we show the feasibility of IPCR by amplifying the sequences that flank an ISI element in the genome of a natural isolate of Escherichia coli.', 'en_US'),
(2345, 'Population ecology of wild sunflowers: effects of seed density and post-dispersal vertebrate seed predators', 'Assessing the effects of seed density on the population dynamics of wild plant species with crop relatives will be vital in determining the potential effects of introducing traits into wild populations as a result of crop-to-wild gene flow. We examined experimental sunflower (Helianthus annuus) patches in eastern Kansas to determine the effects of seed density and predation on seedling recruitment and seed production in the next generation. High seed density treatment plots had significantly more seedlings and adult plants than did low seed density treatment plots. Overwinter vertebrate seed predator exclusion treatments resulted in increases in plant density compared to plots in which vertebrates were not excluded. Control patches (no seeds added) contained virtually no plants. Head production and estimated total seed production for a patch were not statistically different among treatments (excluding control plots). Although initial seed density and vertebrate post-dispersal seed predation do appear to have effects on seedling recruitment, neither appear to be limiting seed production of competing adult plants. Therefore, variation in seed densities (over the range examined) may have limited effects on local population dynamics. It is important to note that the choice of seed densities may affect the results obtained: the seed densities used in this study may, in retrospect, be higher than in the small roadside populations typical in eastern Kansas, yet other natural sites have much larger densities. Further, the effects of increased seed density at a local site may have other important effects such as altering metapopulation dynamics through increased long-distance dispersal or increased local seed bank size.', 'en_US'),
(2346, 'Fecundity selection in a sunflower crop-wild study: Can ecological data predict crop allele changes?', 'Genes that spread from transgenic crops to populations of weedy relatives can be a cause of concern if fitness-related, transgenic traits persist and enhance weed invasiveness. Studies of the prevalence of crop-specific genetic markers in wild populations can provide data on such introgression. We conducted a field experiment in eastern Kansas to measure changes in frequencies of crop-specific genetic markers in wild sunflower (Helianthus annuus). Three allozyme markers were monitored in three artificial populations that each initially consisted of 100 wild and 100 F1 hybrid plants. Survival, flowering time, and average seed production per plant were quantified during the first year of the study (1997). Hybrid plants produced only 1-2% as many seeds per plant as wild plants but did not differ in survivorship. Simple selection models incorporating fecundity differences between wild and F1 hybrids accurately predicted crop allele frequencies in the 1998 seedlings. We predicted that frequencies of crop alleles in 1998 would average 0.03 for the three populations. Crop-specific allele frequencies dropped from the initial level of 0.25 to a mean of 0.03 in the 1998 seedlings and averaged 0.05 in the next generation of seeds. Accounting for differences in flowering phenology and predispersal seed predation did not improve the accuracy of our predictions for 1998 seedlings. Our results suggest that ecological data can be useful for estimating the frequencies of crop genes following episodes of crop-wild hybridization in sunflowers. This approach can be applied to other study systems in which data on survivorship and fecundity are used to estimate a genotype''s evolutionary fitness.', 'en_US'),
(2347, 'Diversity in free-living populations of Cucurbita pepo (Cucurbitaceae) as assessed by random amplified polymorphic DNA', 'One area of risk assessment for transgenic crops concerns cross-compatible wild and weedy relatives. In squash (Cucurbita pepo), free-living populations are diverse in their distributions, ecologies, histories, and genetic and phenotypic compositions. As part of the effort to understand this diversity, random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) data were collected from 37 wild or weedy populations and 16 cultivars, which together represented all infraspecific taxa of C. pepo. Twenty-six primers yielded 70 scorable and variable markers. The presence/absence of bands for these markers produced a data matrix which was analyzed using cluster analysis. The analysis confirmed the relationships among infraspecific taxa that had been revealed, in part, in previous genetic analyses (e.g., isozymes, chloroplast DNA restriction-site mutations, inter simple sequence repeats). Also supported were findings of varying degrees of gene flow from cultivars into free-living populations. Some of the RAPD variation in subsp.ovifera var.ozarkana populations was found to be correlated with the distribution of the drainage systems along which these populations are dispersed. Finally, the RAPD results support the idea that transgenic gene flow experiments with free-living populations should consider using representatives from each of the three free-living taxa, as well as from genetically or ecologically distinct populations within these taxa.', 'en_US'),
(2348, 'Fitness of backcross six of hybrids between transgenic oilseed rape (Brassica napus) and wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum)', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2349, 'Assessment of functional transgene flow in tomato fields', 'As the flow of pollen-carrying transgenes is considered to be one of the main problems associated with the release of genetically modified plants, the impact on the environment of transgenic tomato plants highly resistant to cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) was evaluated. The frequency of spontaneous crossing between homozygous transgenic tomato, cv. UC82B, and untransformed controls was assessed in two Italian growing areas. Transformed plants expressed the CMV coat protein (CP), inducing resistance to the virus, and neomycin phosphotransferase II (NPTII), used as an in vitro selectable marker. For each field, a sample of at least 2000 progeny plants of the `wild-type'' UC82B control was screened to search for `hybrids'' expressing the transgenic proteins. Kanamycin sprayed on seedling leaves and DAS-ELISA were used to detect NPTII and CMV-CP, respectively. Plants expressing the transgenic proteins were then analysed by PCR using CMV-CP gene-specific primers. Two plants from each field were found to express the transgenes. These plants, however, proved to be homozygous for transgenes, indicating that they did not originate by cross-pollination between transgenic and `wild-type'' parents, but probably derived from transgenic seeds that accidentally contaminated untransformed seed stocks during harvesting. These results show that under our conditions, no transgene flow was detected in cv. UC82B tomatoes in the two fields.', 'en_US'),
(2350, 'Barriers to gene flow from oilseed rape (Brassica napus) into populations of Sinapis arvensis', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2351, 'Development of simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers for the assessment of gene flow and genetic diversity in pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan)', 'Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan) is an important subsistence crop in India where traditional landraces and improved hybrids are grown alongside each other. Gene flow may result in genetic erosion of these landraces and their wild relatives, whilst transgene escape from future genetically engineered varieties is another potential hazard. To assess the impact of these factors gene flow needs to be measured. A set of 10 simple sequence repeat markers have been developed, which exhibit polymorphism across a range of pigeonpea varieties. Use of these markers also offers an efficient system for the assessment of genetic diversity within populations of pigeonpea.', 'en_US'),
(2352, 'RAPD-PCR analysis of the genetic origin of sea beet (Beta vulgaris ssp maritima) at Germany''s Baltic sea coast.', 'The spread of plant populations into new habitats and their establishment there is an important object of ecological research, particularly for those plant species consisting of cultivated, weedy and wild forms. One of these species is Beta vulgaris L., which is taxonomically divided into the subspecies vulgaris (sugar beet, Swiss chard, red beet, some weedy beet forms) and maritima (sea beet). In northeastern Europe, the distribution range of the different Beta subspecies is not well known. The aim of this study was to investigate the origin of sea beet populations at the Baltic Sea coast of Germany by collecting seed samples and performing RAPD-PCR analysis. Theoretically, the spread and the establishment of beet populations in the wild could be the result of various different processes: (1) introduction of seeds from wild populations, (2) naturalization of cultivated or weedy types after introduction into wild habitats, and (3) a combination of (1) and (2) with subsequent hybridisation and evolution into an intermediate genotype. Genetic analysis suggests that the Baltic Sea coast populations are pure wild beets (1) and not weedy or escaped sugar beets (2 or 3). In a UPGMA phenogram, the wild and the cultivated beets could be clearly distinguished from one another. In addition to the strong evidence that German sea beet originated from Danish sea beet, the possibility of seed dispersal between these groups via seawater was demonstrated. Beta vulgaris seeds survived a long period in seawater and up to 2% of the seeds still germinated after 28 weeks. The fact that sea beet populations can now be found sympatrically to flowering sugar beets and weed beets in coastal agricultural areas offers new possibilities of gene flow. This is important fundamental knowledge for the risk assessment of gene flow from transgenic sugar beet.', 'en_US'),
(2353, 'Search for evidence of introgression of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) traits into sea barley (Hordeum marinum s.str.Huds.) and bearded wheatgrass (Elymus caninus L.) in central and northern Europe using isozymes, RAPS and microsatellite markers', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2354, 'Polymorphism for interspecific hybridisation within a population of wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum) pollinated by oilseed rape (Brassica napus)', 'The within-population polymorphism of wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum) for interspecific hybridisation with two cultivars of oilseed rape (Brassica napus) was investigated by hand crossing experiments and fluorescence microscopy. Wide variability among plants was observed in the ability of oilseed rape pollen to germinate on the wild radish stigma; the frequency of pistils showing pollen tubes ranged from 0 to 1, depending on the female plant. The ratio of fertilised ovules to the total number of ovules in ovaries where pollen tubes arrived ranged from 0.02 to 0.51. Overall, the results provide evidence for the presence of different phenotypes. In 40% of the plants, pistils had no or very few pollen tubes and few fertilised ovules. In 23%, the foreign pollen tubes grew through the style towards the ovary, but had low ovule fertilisation efficiency. The remaining 37% showed a large number of pollen tubes in the style and frequent ovule fertilisation, and two plants showed no difference between foreign and conspecific pollen. With regard to post-zygotic barriers, pollen germination and ovule fertilisation represent minor barriers to interspecific hybridisation between oilseed rape and wild radish. It is suggested that the effectiveness of these barriers could be improved through plant breeding; this could reduce the risk of gene flow from transgenic oilseed rape to populations of wild relatives.', 'en_US'),
(2355, 'Introgression between oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) and its weedy relative B. rapa L in a natural population', 'We investigated introgression in a mixed weedy population of oilseed rape (Brassica napus) and its relative B. rapa using species-specific AFLP-markers. The population was situated in a field relayed from conventional to organic cultivation 11 years ago. One-hundred-and-two B. napus or B. rapa-like plants were collected in a 3 m2 plot. Of these, one was a first generation hybrid (F1) and nearly half (44 plants) were introgressed, having both B. napus and B. rapa specific markers. The remaining plants apparently corresponded to pure species, with 50 having only B. rapa- and seven having only B. napus-specific markers. We compared the number of markers in the plants from the weedy population with the numbers in controlled backcross generations (BC1 and BC2). The marker distribution in the weedy population resembled the distribution in the second backcross generation most closely. Together with the cultivation history of the field, this suggests that the introgression process in the weedy mixed population has been in progress for some time. This study is the first to show introgression between B. napus and B. rapa under natural conditions.', 'en_US'),
(2356, 'Search for spontaneous hybridization between oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) and wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum L.) in agricultural zones and evaluation of the gentic diversity of the wild species', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2357, 'The fertility of wheat X jointed goatgrass hybrid and its backcross progenies', 'The spontaneous flow of genes from wheat to jointed goatgrass is of great concern to breeders intending to release herbicide-resistant wheat. The objectives of this research were to study how genes could flow from wheat to jointed goatgrass through crossing and backcrossing between these two species and, based on this knowledge, to propose possible ways to minimize the chance of gene flow between them. Results showed that the wheat × jointed goatgrass hybrid can only serve as a female parent to produce the BC1 generation. The BC1 generation was found to have 1.8% male fertility and 4.4% female fertility, indicating that it could serve as either the male or female parent to produce a BC2 generation. The fertility of the resultant BC2 generation further increased. The average male, female, and self-fertility was 8.9, 18.0, and 6.9%, respectively. After the BC2 generation, the backcross progeny has three possible ways to reproduce: to pollinate jointed goatgrass, to be pollinated by jointed goatgrass, or to pollinate itself. Restoration of the chromosome number of jointed goatgrass continues as the BC2 generation is selfed, but some plants can contain an alien chromosome over generations. The possible ways to reduce the chance of gene flow between these two species are (1) prevent the production of hybrids, (2) prevent the production of the BC1 generation, and (3) put a herbicide-resistant gene on the A- or B-genome of wheat.', 'en_US'),
(2358, 'Quantifying gene movement from oilseed rape to its wild relatives using remote sensing', 'The potential environmental risks due to gene flow from genetically modified (GM) crops into wild plant populations are currently of great concern. Of particular interest is gene flow from GM oilseed rape (Brassica napus) into its wild parental species B. rapa and B. oleracea, with which it forms spontaneous hybrids. The rate of hybridization is best determined empirically under a wide variety of field conditions. A procedure for quantifying hybrid formation using remote sensing over a large area of southern England is described. Satellite sensor images were used to identify localities where gene flow was most likely by searching for oilseed rape fields adjacent to regions where the parent plants occur, namely rivers and cliff-tops. These sites were visited and screened for hybrids. A single hybrid was observed in an area of over 16 000 km2. We use these data to suggest a strategy to minimise gene flow following commercial scale release of GM B. napus across Europe and propose a procedure that may allow post-release containment.', 'en_US'),
(2359, 'Foraging habitats and foraging distances of bumblebees, Bombus spp. (Hym. apidae), in an agricultural landscape.', 'In selected foraging habitats of an agricultural landscape flower visits of bumblebees and community structure of foraging bumblebees were studied, with special regard to the role of crops as super-abundant resources. Most crops represent temporal foraging habitats with high abundance of bumblebees but mainly with low diversity in the bumblebee forage community, in contrast to permanent foraging habitats such as, for example, a hedgerow. The high numbers of bumblebees in the monoculture of crop plantations consisted mainly of short-tongued bumblebee species. The role of foraging distances for the visitation rate of foraging habitats was studied by performing capturerecapture experiments with natural nests of Bombus terrestris, Bombus lapidarius and Bombus muscorum. Differences were found on the species as well as the individual level. The foraging distances of B. muscorum were more restricted to the neighbourhood of the nesting habitat than the foraging activity of B. terrestris and B. lapidarius. High percentages of B. terrestris workers were recaptured while foraging on super-abundant resources in distances up to 1750m from the nest. Isolated patches of highly rewarding forage crops, in agricultural landscapes, are probably only accessed by bumblebee species with large mean foraging distances, such as the short-tongued B. terrestris. Species like the rare, long-tongued B. muscorum depend on a close connection between nesting and foraging habitat. A restricted foraging radius might be one important factor of bumblebee species loss and potential pollinator limitation in modern agricultural landscapes. Furthermore, long-distance flights of bumblebee pollinators have to be considered in the present discussion on gene flow from transgenic plant species on a landscape scale.', 'en_US'),
(2360, 'A sequential approach to risk assessment of transgenic plants expressing potease inhibitors: effects on nontarget herbivorous insects.', 'Protease inhibitors expressed in transgenic plants can provide enhanced levels of resistance to important pest species. A sequential approach for testing the effects of protease inhibitor-expressing crops on nontarget herbivorous insects has been developed. The approach consists of five tiers. The first two tiers comprise the selection phase. In tier one, field surveys are used to characterise the nontarget invertebrate fauna of a crop. In tier 2, histochemical assays are used to identify the subset of herbivores with a particular class of digestive proteolytic enzymes. In the assessment phase a combination of laboratory ''worst-case scenario'' studies (tier 3) and controlled environment or small-scale field trials (tier 4) are used to evaluate the impact of the protease inhibitor-expressing plants on the selected nontarget species. In the final tier, field trials are used to compare the relative effect of transgenic plants and current management practices, such as pesticide use, on selected species. The first four tiers of the approach are described using potatoes expressing cystatins, a family of cysteine proteinase inhibitors, as an example. Although the plants have enhanced levels of resistance to potato cyst nematodes (PCN), Globodera pallida and Globodera rostochiensis, the results establish that they have negligible impact on the nontarget herbivorous insect, Eupteryx aurata', 'en_US'),
(2361, 'A novel approach to the use of genetically modified herbicde tolerant crops for environmental benefit', 'The proposed introduction of genetically modified herbicide tolerant (GMHT) crops, with claims of improved weed control, has prompted fears about possible environmental impacts of their widespread adoption, particularly on arable weeds, insects and associated farmland birds. In response to this, we have developed a novel weed-management system for GMHT sugar beet, based on band spraying, which exploits the flexibility offered by the broad-spectrum partner herbicides. Here, we show the results from two series of field experiments which, taken together, demonstrate that, by using this system, crops can be managed for enhanced weed and insect biomass without compromising yield, thus potentially offering food and shelter to farmland birds and other wildlife. These results could be applicable widely to other row crops, and indicate that creative use of GMHT technology could be a powerful tool for developing more sustainable farming systems in the future..', 'en_US'),
(2362, 'Simulating a relative environmental effect of glyphosate-resistant soybeans', 'Great controversy surrounds the potential environmental effects of genetically modified crops (GMOs). Of the GM crops currently in commercial use, glyphosate-resistant (GR) soybeans have probably received the most attention from both proponents and opponents of GMOs. GR soybeans are an example of an input-substituting technological innovation. Adoption is a private decision, based on the adopter''s assessment of private costs and benefits, but may also have external effects. Measuring and valuing these effects completely is not possible today. Environmental indicators are attempts to find more easily measured proxies for the external effects. We present an environmental indicator based on a standardized, well-known acute mammalian toxicity measure, the LD50 dose for rats. We use this indicator to compare an environmental effect of the use of GR genetically modified soybeans to the use of non-modified soybeans for over 1400 US Midwest farms. This indicator is superior to previous indicators used to assess environmental effects of GR soybeans that rely on adding up volumes of different herbicides. The indicator allows for consistent aggregation of a specific environmental effect across many different pesticides. Furthermore, the methodology can be used to compare environmental effects for many other types of technology choices since values are mandated for all pesticides. Our simulation results suggest that GR soybean seed technology is more environmentally friendly than non-GR technology for all farms in the dimension of acute mammalian toxicity. The effect is generally more pronounced in the South where a longer growing season makes overall weed pressure more serious and presents soybean growers with a greater variety of weed species.', 'en_US'),
(2363, 'Genetic profiling of noncultivated bacteria from the rhizospheres of sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) reveal field and annual variability but no effect of a transgenic herbicide resistance', 'In this field study, we compared the bacterial communities inhabiting the rhizosphere of a transgenic, herbicide-resistant sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) cultivar with those of its nonengineered counterpart, using a genetic profiling technique based on PCR amplifications of partial 16S rRNA gene sequences and single-strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP). As a control for the plasticity of the bacterial community, we also analyzed the influence of herbicides, the field heterogeneity, and the annual variation. DNA was isolated from bacterial cell consortia that were directly collected from root material. PCR was carried out with primers that hybridized to evolutionarily conserved regions flanking variable regions 4 and 5 of the 16S rRNA gene. SSCP patterns of these PCR products were composed of approximately 50 distinguishable bands, as detected by silver staining of the gels after electrophoresis. Patterns of the replicates and the different treatments were highly similar, but digital image and similarity analyses revealed differences that corresponded to the positions of the replicates in the field. In addition, communities collected from sugar beet in two successive growing seasons could be distinguished. In contrast, no effect of the transgenic herbicide resistance was detectable. Sequencing of 24 dominant products of the SSCP profiles indicated the presence of bacteria from different phylogenetic groups, with Proteobacteria and members of the Cytophaga?Flavobacterium?Bacteroides group being most abundant.', 'en_US'),
(2364, 'Tritrophic choice experiments with Bt plants, the diamondbackmoth (Plutella xylostella) and the parasitoid Cotesia plutellae', 'Parasitoids are important natural enemies of many pest species and are used extensively in biological and integrated control programmes. Crop plants transformed to express toxin genes derived from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) provide high levels of resistance to certain pest species, which is likely to have consequent effects on parasitoids specialising on such pests. A better understanding of the interaction between transgenic plants, pests and parasitoids is important to limit disruption of biological control and to provide background knowledge essential for implementing measures for the conservation of parasitoid populations. It is also essential for investigations into the potential role of parasitoids in delaying the build-up of Bt-resistant pest populations. The diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella), a major pest of brassica crops, is normally highly susceptible to a range of Bt toxins. However, extensive use of microbial Bt sprays has led to the selection of resistance to Bt toxins in P. xylostella. Cotesia plutellae is an important endoparasitoid of P. xylostella larvae. Although unable to survive in Bt-susceptible P. xylostella larvae on highly resistant Bt oilseed rape plants due to premature host mortality, C. plutellae is able to complete its larval development in Bt-resistant P. xylostella larvae. Experiments of parasitoid flight and foraging behaviour presented in this paper showed that adult C. plutellae females do not distinguish between Bt and wildtype oilseed rape plants, and are more attracted to Bt plants damaged by Bt-resistant hosts than by susceptible hosts. This stronger attraction to Bt plants damaged by resistant hosts was due to more extensive feeding damage. Population scale experiments with mixtures of Bt and wildtype plants demonstrated that the parasitoid is as effective in controlling Bt-resistant P. xylostella larvae on Bt plants as on wildtype plants. In these experiments equal or higher numbers of parasitoid adults emerged per transgenic as per wildtype plant. The implications for integrated pest management and the evolution of resistance to Bt in P. xylostella are discussed', 'en_US'),
(2365, 'Influence of Bt transgenes on cell wall lignification and digestibility of maize stover for silage', 'There have been inconsistent reports that maize (Zea mays L.) hybrids with the Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) cry1 Ab transgene contain more lignin than non-Bt hybrids of similar genetic background. Our objective was to evaluate the impact of the cry1 Ab transgene on lignin concentration (using three different assays), yield, and forage quality traits of maize. Replicated trials were conducted at four locations in Minnesota with 12 commercial hybrids (three MON810 and three Bt11 cry1 Ab transgene event hybrids, and respective near-isogenic controls). Whole plants and the fourth elongated, above-ground internodes were harvested at silage maturity. Samples were analyzed for crude protein, starch, neutral detergent fiber (NDF), acid detergent fiber, 24- and 96-h in vitro ruminal NDF digestibility, and lignin (acid detergent, Klason, and acetyl bromide). European corn borers (Ostrinia nubilalis Hübner) were not controlled and damage was limited to the non-Bt hybrids, averaging 1.5 internodes plant-1 with tunnels. Environment and environment x hybrid interactions affected all measures of maize performance and quality, but comparisons of non-Bt/Bt hybrid pairs, for both whole plants and internodes, found no consistent differences in yield, nutrient content, in vitro ruminal NDF digestibility, or lignin concentration. Differences in lignin concentration were infrequent, small in magnitude, and inconsistent between a few non-Bt/Bt hybrid pairs at individual locations. Two non-Bt/Bt hybrid pairs did not differ in lignin concentration at any location. Contrary to some earlier reports, presence of the cry1 Ab transgene did not alter lignin concentration or other forage quality traits of maize stover in commercial maize hybrids.', 'en_US');


INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(2441, 'Biosafety assessment of transgenic plants in the greenhouse and the  field -- a case study of transgenic cucumber.', 'We have developed transgenic cucumber plants Cucumis sativus L. resistant to gray mold (Botrytis cinerea) by the expression of rice chitinase cDNA (Tabei et al. 1998). These transgenic plants were obtained by Agrobacterium-mediated transformation, and the introduced rice chitinase cDNA was driven by the CaMV 35S promoter. The biosafety assessment of the transformed cucumber plants was carefully performed to confirm that their characteristics are equivalent to those of non-transgenic plants except for harboring gray mold resistance. The biosafety assessment was carried out successively in full-containment greenhouse, semi-containment greenhouse, isolated field, and finally in ordinary field trials. The following items were compared between transgenic and non-transgenic cucumber plants: (1) morphological characteristics of plants and fruits; (2) reproductive characteristics, e.g. pollen morphology and fertility, longevity of the pollen, pollen dispersal by wind, and seed fertilities; (3) possibility of harmful influences on the environment due to the production of detrimental substances i.e. volatile compounds, plant parts and root secreta; (4) influence on soil microflora and; (5) presence of remaining Agrobacterium tumefaciens, which was used as a vector in the production of the transgenic cucumber. Throughout the biosafety assessment, we did not find any substantial differences except the expression of rice chitinase gene and resistance to gray mold between transgenic and non-transgenic cucumber plants.', 'en_US'),
(2442, 'New resistance mechanism in Helicoverpa armigera threatens transgenic crops expressing Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Ac toxin.', 'In Australia, the cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera, has a long history of resistance to conventional insecticides. Transgenic cotton (expressing the Bacillus thuringiensis toxin Cry1Ac) has been grown for H. armigera control since 1996. It is demonstrated here that a population of Australian H. armigera has developed resistance to Cry1Ac toxin (275-fold). Some 70% of resistant H. armigera larvae were able to survive on Cry1Ac transgenic cotton (Ingard) The resistance phenotype is inherited as an autosomal semidominant trait. Resistance was associated with elevated esterase levels, which cosegregated with resistance. In vitro studies employing surface plasmon resonance technology and other biochemical techniques demonstrated that resistant strain esterase could bind to Cry1Ac protoxin and activated toxin. In vivo studies showed that Cry1Ac-resistant larvae fed Cy1Ac transgenic cotton or Cry1Ac-treated artificial diet had lower esterase activity than non-Cry1Ac-fed larvae. A resistance mechanism in which esterase sequesters Cry1Ac is proposed.', 'en_US'),
(2443, 'Human safety and genetically modified plants: a review of antibiotic resistance markers and future transformation selection technologies.', 'The first generation of genetically modified plants suitable for agriculture was largely produced using antibiotic resistance markers (ARMs) for the preparation of plant transformation vectors or for the plant transformation process itself.  In some instances, the ARM gene remains in the finished commercial plant product. Theoretical concerns regarding the risks posed by such markers have resulted in a demand for the production of commercial plants free of ARMs. This, in turn, has resulted in the development of technologies which avoid the use of ARMs or which allow for the efficient excision of such markers following the initial transformation process, but in advance of the selection of commercial plant lines. We review the current status of ARM safety information relevant to existing genetically modified crops as well as reviewing in some detail the available alternatives to ARM use, the utility of these technologies for commercial production, and the issues that might pertain to the use of these alternative technologies for the production of commercial genetically modified crops. Many of the alternative techniques have the potential to be commercially viable, and one or more will necessarily be used for the future production of genetically modified plants free of ARMs. Nonetheless, existing ARM-containing products will remain in the market for the foreseeable future, and the safety of these products therefore remains a relevant issue. Further, the ease of use, cost, availability, safety profile, regulatory status, and utility of alternative techniques should be kept in proper perspective relative to the long history of safe use of ARMs in plant biotechnology.', 'en_US'),
(2444, 'Potential failsafe mechanisms against the spread and introgression of transgenic hypervirulent biocontrol fungi.', 'Microbial biocontrol agents are typically inefficient owing to the evolutionary necessity to be in balance with their hosts to survive. If transgenetically rendered hypervirulent, however, they could be competitive alternatives to pesticides. Potential means are delineated to prevent, contain or mitigate uncontrollable spread of hypervirulent biocontrol organisms, mutations that increase their host range, and the sexual or asexual introgression of hypervirulence genes into pathogens of other organisms. The use of asporogenic deletion mutants as a platform for generating transgenic hypervirulent biopesticides would prevent such spread. Hypervirulence genes flanked with available ''transgenetic mitigator'' (TM) genes (genes that are neutral or positive to the biocontrol agent but deleterious to recombinants) would decrease virulence to non-target species.', 'en_US'),
(2445, 'Comparative safety assessment for biotech crops.', 'Since the first discussions on strategies to assess the food safety of genetically modified (GM) crop plants, assessment of GM plants and derived tissues has been based on comparisons with their traditionally bred counterparts. This was termed the Principle of Substantial Equivalence. However, implementation of the principle led to controversy and hampered the precision of the actual safety assessment. Here, we propose the principle be rephrased into the Comparative Safety Assessment strategy. This describes the analytical nature of the first step of the entire (GM) food safety assessment in combination with consecutive toxicological and nutritional evaluations. Further development of advanced analytical methods will help to improve the efficacy of assessment strategies.', 'en_US'),
(2446, 'Quantitative exposure assessment for confinement of maize biogenic systems.', 'The development of transgenic crops as production platforms for biogenic agents will largely depend on the success of efforts to confine the genes and their expressed proteins in field environments. We have used quantitative exposure assessment to evaluate how management practices affect materials escape due to outcrossing by pollen flow or grain loss during harvest operations. Specifically, we study the use of maize to produce biogenic agents within field-confined systems. Decision trees representing simplified schemes of fully conforming (designed to comply with current regulatory standards for field confined trials), partially conforming, and non-conforming management practices were developed. Exemplifying assumptions and published data for conformance and material fate probabilities were used in Monte Carlo simulations to forecast materials escape by pollen outcrossing and harvest operations from a 1 ha source field. Deterministic analyses showed fully conforming confinement management restricted materials loss to low levels (for this example, outcrossing produced <1 in 106 kernels in receptor fields). The corresponding high-end (90th percentile) probabilistic result was 16- and 4333-fold higher (relative to deterministic outcrossing = 1) for outcrossing and harvest loss, respectively. For partially conforming practice, high-end outcrossing ranged from 100- to >15 000-fold over the base result in receptor fields, and harvest loss was >10 000-fold over the base result. For non-conforming practice, high-end outcrossing produced >15 000-fold greater kernels in receptor fields and high-end harvest loss was at least 19 000-fold greater. Deterministic estimates of off-field loss by machine transfer are as much as 30 000-fold higher for non-conforming operations relative to the base case of pollen outcrossing. Better knowledge of failure frequencies for confinement management practices, improved physical models of materials flows, refined analysis of confinement loss probabilities using quantitative tools, and decision analysis to improve and audit management system performance are all needed to extend understanding of confinement integrity beyond the exemplifying case used here.', 'en_US'),
(2447, 'Spider web survey or whole plant visual sampling? Impact assessment of Bt corn on non-target predatory insects with two concurrent methods.', 'Impact assessment studies rely on relevant sampling methods. Correct evaluation of methods can be done by their concurrent use in the same sampling site and period. Collecting webs of Theridion impressum L. Koch (Araneae: Theridiidae) may serve as an arthropod sampling method: empty cuticles of prey items remain attached to the back side of the leaves with adhesive silk. Our study aimed to compare the applicability of the two methods concurrently (spider web survey and whole plant visual sampling) in a risk assessment study. The spider web survey recorded more predatory insect families than the whole plant visual sampling. Both methods were able to detect significant differences in the quantity of predatory insects in Bt vs. isogenic plots, but not in the same taxa (Nabidae: spider-web, 2001, Bt > Iso; Coccinellidae: plant sampling, 2001, Iso > Bt; Welsh-test, P < 0.05); thus, they could not confirm each other. The lack of confirmation can be explained by differences in the sensitivity and selectivity of the two methods. A web survey of T. impressum has the practical advantage that although we concentrate only on the one species during field sampling, we gain additional information on a wide range of foliage-dwelling arthropods. Due to several biological uncertainties, interpretation and explanation of the results remain problematic. Thus, additional research - based on in-situ observation and recording of T. impressum-prey interactions - is necessary before we could propose web survey method as a complementary tool in ecological impact assessment.', 'en_US'),
(2448, 'An alternative strategy for sustainable pest resistance in genetically enhanced crops.', 'Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) crystal protein genes encode insecticidal -endotoxins that are widely used for the development of insect-resistant crops. In this article, we describe an alternative transgenic strategy that has the potential to generate broader and more sustainable levels of resistance against insect pests. Our strategy involves engineering plants with a fusion protein combining the -endotoxin Cry1Ac with the galactose-binding domain of the nontoxic ricin B-chain (RB). This fusion, designated BtRB, provides the toxin with additional, binding domains, thus increasing the potential number of interactions at the molecular level in target insects. Transgenic rice and maize plants engineered to express the fusion protein were significantly more toxic in insect bioassays than those containing the Bt gene alone. They were also resistant to a wider range of insects, including important pests that are not normally susceptible to Bt toxins. The potential impact of fusion genes such as BtRB in terms of crop improvement, resistance sustainability, and biosafety is discussed.', 'en_US'),
(2449, 'Gene flow of oilseed rape (Brassica napus) according to isolation distance and buffer zone.', 'The introduction of genetically modified (GM) crops in the EU has raised questions concerning gene dispersal and co-existence with non-GM-farming. Quantitative estimates of the gene dispersal from fields with GM-crops to fields with conspecific non-GM-crops (conventional or organic) are therefore needed in order to suggest isolation distances and other management strategies to keep GM-pollination below acceptable threshold values. A meta-analysis of available gene-flow data for oilseed rape (Brassica napus) was performed. The probability distribution that seeds of non-GM-oilseed rape are fertilised by foreign pollen grains from a neighbouring field of GM-oilseed rape is modelled as functions of the width of the recipient (i.e. pollen receiving) field and the distance to the pollen donor fields. Furthermore, the significance of using a buffer zone (removal of a 1?5 m border of a recipient field parallel to the pollen donor field) to reduce GM-pollination of the crop, is quantified and discussed. The predicted median and 95% credibility level of the probability of foreign pollination is calculated as a function of the width of the recipient field and the buffer zone, as well as the distance between fields. Analysis of different management strategies shows that an increasing isolation distance is more effective to reduce GM-pollen dispersal than the use of a buffer zone, especially for small recipient fields. The analysis shows that increasing the width of a recipient oilseed rape field, relative to the pollen donor field, will have a large effect on reducing the average level of fertilisation by foreign pollen within the recipient field. The results indicate that a GM-pollination percentage <0.1% will be possible if the isolation distance exceeds 100 m and the width of the non-GM-field is larger than 200 m. If a threshold value of 0.3% is acceptable, an isolation distance of 50 m should be sufficient even for smaller fields. The use of a 5 m discarded buffer zone surrounding the non-GM-field is expected to reduce GM-pollination by about a third. The implications of the results for field management in conventional and organic farming are discussed.', 'en_US'),
(2450, 'Corporate control over seeds: limiting access and farmers'' rights.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2451, 'Concurrent use of transgenic plants expressing a single and two Bacillus thuringiensis genes speeds insect adaptation to pyramided plants.', 'Transgenic plants expressing insecticidal proteins from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) were grown on over 13 million ha in the United States and 22.4 million ha worldwide in 2004. Preventing or slowing the evolution of resistance by insects (''resistance management'') is critical for the sustainable use of Bt crops. Plants containing two dissimilar Bt toxin genes in the same plant (''pyramided'') have the potential to delay insect resistance. However, the advantage of pyramided Bt plants for resistance management may be compromised if they share similar toxins with single-gene plants that are deployed simultaneously. We tested this hypothesis using a unique model system composed of broccoli plants transformed to express different Cry toxins (Cry1Ac, Cry1C, or both) and a synthetic population of the diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella) carrying genes for resistance to Cry1Ac and Cry1C at frequencies of 0.10 and 0.34, respectively. After 24?26 generations of selection in the greenhouse, the concurrent use of one- and two-gene plants resulted in control failure of both types of Bt plants. When only two-gene plants were used in the selection, no or few insects survived on one- or two-gene Bt plants, indicating that concurrent use of transgenic plants expressing a single and two Bt genes will select for resistance to two-gene plants more rapidly than the use of two-gene plants alone. The results of this experiment agree with the predictions of a Mendelian deterministic simulation model and have important implications for the regulation and deployment of pyramided Bt plants.', 'en_US'),
(2452, 'Competitive ability and mortality of growth-enhanced transgenic coho  salmon fry and parr when foraging for food.', 'Coho salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch were genetically altered to produce growth hormone without regulation, causing them grow 11 times larger (on average) than control fish after 14 months. This technology has potential benefits for the aquaculture industry, but the environmental risk associated with the escape of transgenic fish into the wild is not known. To partially address this issue, we experimentally investigated how well transgenic salmon survive when given a choice to consume food in a predator''s presence. If transgenic salmon are to retain their growth advantage, we predict that they must also be more effective at competing for food than wild salmon and be willing to suffer higher mortality rates when foraging. The relative competitive abilities of transgenic and control salmon at two different ages were tested with an unequal competitors ideal free distribution. A larger proportion of transgenic salmon fed within the system, although they were not overrepresented at a higher-quantity food source. When feeding in the presence of a predator, there was no measurable difference in mortality rates between transgenic and control salmon at both the fry and parr stages. These data indicate that, under the limited environmental conditions we tested transgenic coho salmon are at least competitively equal to control fish and do not suffer higher rates of mortality to acquire food resources and maintain their enhanced growth.', 'en_US'),
(2453, 'Reductions in insecticide use from adoption of Bt cotton in South Africa: impacts on economic performance and toxic load to the environment.', 'The study reported presents the findings relating to commercial growing of genetically-modified Bt cotton in South Africa by a large sample of smallholder farmers over three seasons (1998/99, 1999/2000, 2000/01) following adoption. The analysis presents constructs and compares groupwise differences for key variables in Bt v. non-Bt technology and uses regressions to further analyse the production and profit impacts of Bt adoption. Analysis of the distribution of benefits between farmers due to the technology is also presented. In parallel with these socio-economic measures, the toxic loads being presented to the environment following the introduction of Bt cotton are monitored in terms of insecticide active ingredient (ai) and the Biocide Index. The latter adjusts ai to allow for differing persistence and toxicity of insecticides.Results show substantial and significant financial benefits to smallholder cotton growers of adopting Bt cotton over three seasons in terms of increased yields, lower insecticide spray costs and higher gross margins. This includes one particularly wet, poor growing season. In addition, those with the smaller holdings appeared to benefit proportionately more from the technology (in terms of higher gross margins) than those with larger holdings. Analysis using the Gini-coefficient suggests that the Bt technology has helped to reduce inequality amongst smallholder cotton growers in Makhathini compared to what may have been the position if they had grown conventional cotton. However, while Bt growers applied lower amounts of insecticide and had lower Biocide Indices (per ha) than growers of non-Bt cotton, some of this advantage was due to a reduction in non-bollworm insecticide. Indeed, the Biocide Index for all farmers in the population actually increased with the introduction of Bt cotton.The results indicate the complexity of such studies on the socio-economic and environmental impacts of GM varieties in the developing world.', 'en_US'),
(2454, 'Pollination biology of oilseed poppy, Papaver somniferum L.', 'Although poppies (Papaver somniferum L.) are one of the oldest cultivated plants relatively little is known of their pollination biology. We have investigated the relative importance of wind and insects in the pollination of poppies and identified potential insect pollinators. Wind pollination was found to be negligible, insect pollination was responsible for the majority of out-crossing, and self-pollination was the dominant mode of poppy fertilisation. Honeybees and flies were identified as the main potential cross-pollinators of Tasmanian poppies. Using a transgenic poppy field trial in which approximately 50% of the pollen grains produced were transgenic, we have determined the level of pollen-mediated gene flow by scoring over 50 000 seeds for the presence of a selectable marker gene. Gene flow was measured using a 10-m buffer area that surrounded the field trial. It was highest at 0.1 m with 3.26% of seeds found to be transgenic and declined over distance with 1.73% transgenic seeds at 0.5 m, 1.80% at 1 m, 0.86% at 2 m, 0.34% at 5 m, 0.12% at 9 m, and 0.18% at 10 m. These results demonstrate that under Tasmanian conditions, pollen-mediated gene flow occurs at modest levels in poppies that are in close proximity to each other and is most probably mediated by honeybees and flies.', 'en_US'),
(2455, 'Science, law, and politics in FDA''s genetically engineered foods policy: scientific concerns and uncertainties', 'The Food and Drug Administration''s (FDA''s) 1992 policy statement granted genetically engineered foods presumptive GRAS (generally recognized as safe) status. Since then, divergent views have been expressed concerning the scientific support for this policy. This paper examines four sources to better understand the basis for these claims: 1) internal FDA correspondence; 2) reports from the National Academy of Sciences; 3) research funded by US Department of Agriculture from 1981 to 2002; and 4) FDA''s proposed rules issued in 2001. These sources reveal that little research has been conducted on unintended compositional changes from genetic engineering. Profiling techniques now make this feasible, but the new debate centers on the functional meaning of compositional changes.', 'en_US'),
(2456, 'Need for an ''integrated safety assessment'' of GMOs, linking food safety and environmental considerations.', 'Evidence for substantial environmental influences on health and food safety comes from work with environmental health indicators which show that agroenvironmental practices have direct and indirect effects on human health, concluding that ''the quality of the environment influences the quality and safety of foods'' [Fennema, O. Environ. Health Perspect. 1990, 86, 229-232). In the field of genetically modified organisms (GMOs), Codex principles have been established for the assessment of GM food safety and the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety outlines international principles for an environmental assessment of living modified organisms. Both concepts also contain starting points for an assessment of health/food safety effects of GMOs in cases when the environment is involved in the chain of events that could lead to hazards. The environment can act as a route of unintentional entry of GMOs into the food supply, such as in the case of gene flow via pollen or seeds from GM cropss, but the environment can also be involved in changes of GMO-induced agricultural practices with relevance for health/food safety. Examples for this include potential regional changes of pesticide uses and reduction in pesticide poisonings resulting from the use of Bt crops or influences on immune responses via cross-reactivity. Clearly, modern methods of biotechnology in breeding are involved in the reasons behind the rapid reduction of local varieties in agrodiversity, which constitute an identified hazard for food safety and food security. The health/food safety assessment of GM foods in cases when the environment is involved needs to be informed by data from environmental assessment. Such data might be especially important for hazard identification and exposure assessment. International organizations working in these areas will very likely be needed to initiate and enable cooperation between those institutions responsible for the different assessments, as well as for exchange and analysis of information. An integrated assessment might help to focus and save capacities in highly technical areas such as molecular characterization or profiling, which are often necessary for both assessments. In the area of establishing international standards for traded foods, such as for the newly created Standards in Trade and Development Facility (STDF), an integrated assessment might help in the consideration of important environmental aspects involved in health and food safety. Furthermore, an established integrated view on GMOs may create greater consumer confidence in the technology.', 'en_US'),
(2457, 'Farm-scale evaluation of the impacts of transgenic cotton on biodiversity, pesticide use, and yield.', 'Higher yields and reduced pesticide impacts are needed to mitigate the effects of agricultural intensification. A 2-year farm-scale evaluation of 81 commercial fields in Arizona show that use of transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) cotton reduced insecticide use, whereas transgenic cotton with Bt protein and herbicide resistance (BtHr) did not affect herbicide use. Transgenic cotton had higher yield than nontransgenic cotton for any given number of insecticide applications. However, nontransgenic, Bt and BtHr cotton had similar yields overall, largely because higher insecticide use with nontransgenic cotton improved control of key pests. Unlike Bt and BtHr cotton, insecticides reduced the diversity of nontarget insects. Several other agronomic and ecological factors also affected biodiversity. Nevertheless, pairwise comparisons of diversity of nontarget insects in cotton fields with diversity in adjacent noncultivated sites revealed similar effects of cultivation of transgenic and nontransgenic cotton on biodiversity. The results indicate that impacts of agricultural intensification can be reduced when replacement of broad-spectrum insecticides by narrow-spectrum Bt crops does not reduce control of pests not affected by Bt crops.', 'en_US'),
(2458, 'Managing reproductive isolation in hybrid seed corn production.', 'Production of hybrid corn (Zea mays L) depends on cross-pollination between male and female inbred parents. As such, reproductive isolation of seed fields is required to ensure genetic purity of the hybrid progeny. Customer demand for improved genetic purity prompted the seed industry to examine the level of genetic purity resulting from current isolation practices. A 3-yr study was conducted to monitor purity of hybrid seed produced in 315 fields from 24 seed companies in North America. Each field was near a commercial corn field shedding pollen synchronously with the seed parent: a worse case scenario. Seed samples were collected at five locations along a 200-m transect established perpendicular to the nearest potential adventitious pollen source, and 100 seed from each location were subjected to isozyme analysis to determine percent out-crossing. Isolation distance, seed field size, field block size, number of border rows, adventitious field size, male:female row ratio, male population, and male pollen class were analyzed as continuous predictors and as variable class predictors of out-crossing at the field margins and field midpoints. Year had a significant (p less than or equal to 0.05) impact on observed out-crossing. Isolation distance, border rows, and male pollen class were significant predictors of out-crossing at the field margin but not at the field midpoint. A significant interaction between isolation distance and border rows was observed at both the field margin and midpoint. There also was an interaction between male:female ratio and male pollen class on out-crossing at the field margin. These results indicate that current practices used to isolate hybrid seed fields often achieve the goal of producing greater than or equal to 99% genetically pure seed, but much higher levels of out-crossing can and do occur. Because out-crossing generally was greater and more variable at the field margins than at the field midpoint, adjustments to field management that focus on minimizing out-crossing at the field margins should lead to consistently high levels of genetic purity from hybrid seed fields.', 'en_US'),
(2459, 'Perceptions of the risks and benefits of genetically-modified foods and their influence on willingness to consume.', 'There has been debate in the literature as to whether: (1) the risks and benefits of genetically-modified (GM) food and agriculture are considered and determined by individuals separately or whether they are jointly determined by attitudes; (2) consumer acceptance is determined by individuals weighing up their risk and benefit perceptions in a rational, even-handed manner, or if benefit perceptions are more important than risk perceptions, and (3) certain types of risk and benefit are more important than others. Against this background, this paper assesses the categories of risks and benefits and their relative importance in determining willingness to consume. A survey was carried out to collect data on the categories of risks and benefits in the US, UK and France, and the relative importance of selected perceived risk and benefit dimensions was estimated. The findings show: risk and benefit perceptions are negatively correlated, but not perfectly and, given that regressions we performed support the proposition that benefits are more important than risks in determining willingness to consume, a strong case can be made for measuring risks and benefits separately. Almost 2/3 of consumers perceive medium to high potential benefits from GM, though the proportion is slightly lower in the UK and down to 40% in France. Nevertheless, this suggests a much higher level of support for the technology than is normally assumed. From the study, benefits are more important for consumers'' willingness to consume than perceived risks, and slightly more interviewees scored above than below the mean on willingness to consume GM food.', 'en_US'),
(2460, 'Environmental Risk Assessment of Genetically Modified Organisms, Volume 2: A Case Study of Bt Cotton in Brazil', 'Many international forums have identified the need for comprehensive, scientific methods for the pre-release testing and post-release monitoring of transgenic plants to ensure their environmental safety and sustainable use. In response to this requirement, a GMO Guidelines Project was established under the aegis of the International Organization for Biological Control, to develop biosafety testing guidelines for transgenic plants. This second volume focuses on transgenic cotton in Brazil and addresses both environmental and agricultural impacts. It draws out some general risk assessment guidelines and demonstrates the need for case-by-case analysis.', 'en_US'),
(2461, 'Seed and pollen flow in expanding a species'' range.', 'The distinct processes of gene flow via seeds and pollen in hermaphrodite plants provide a biological basis for interpreting their different roles in expanding a species'' range. A species'' range is primarily expanded through the colonization process by seed dispersal and followed by the joint effects of both seed and pollen flow. Here we examined the effects of seed and pollen flow on shaping a species'' distribution in one-dimensional space. Our results demonstrate that pollen flow can enhance range expansion when immigrating genes are adaptive to recipient populations, but can shrink a species'' range when immigrating genes are maladaptive. The incompletely purging of maladaptive genes from immigrating pollen grains at the gametophyte stage can reinforce the biological barrier to range expansion. The linkage disequilibria attained by immigrating seeds and pollen grains indirectly amplify the effects of the reaction component and further limit a species'' range. The cumulative effect from multiple loci each with a small effect can be substantial on altering a species'' range when these genes are maladaptive. These theoretical predictions can help understand the role of pollen flow that is incapable of colonizing new habitats in range expansion.', 'en_US'),
(2462, 'Who does the public trust? The case of genetically modified food in the United States.', 'Trust is important for the perception of many types of risk, including those relating to genetically modified (GM) food. Who the public trusts in any given circumstance, however, is not well understood. In this study of public trust regarding GM food, an exploratory factor analysis with Promax rotation reveals public classification of three common institutional types?evaluators, watchdogs, and merchants. The structure of relationships among these stakeholders can act to enable or constrain public support for this new technology. Evaluators?scientists, universities, and medical professionals?are the most trusted. Watchdogs?consumer advocacy organizations, environmental organizations, and media sources?are moderately trusted. Merchants?grocers and grocery stores, industry, and farmers?are least trusted. While the federal government is seen as closest to being an evaluator, it is not highly correlated with any of the factors. The lack of trust in the organizations with the greatest resources and responsibilities for ensuring the safety of GM food should be seen as an important obstacle to the adoption of the technology.', 'en_US'),
(2463, 'Pollen dispersal of oilseed rape: estimation of the dispersal function and effects of field dimension.', '1.  Debate continues regarding the ecological impacts of genetically modified (GM) crops and their coexistence with non-GM crops in Europe. In this debate, quantitative predictions of gene dispersal by pollen are necessary, and as a result numerous plot-to-plot gene flow experiments have been performed with various crops. However, plot-to-plot cross-pollination rates (CPR) depend on spatial configuration of plots, implying that (i) they are difficult to compare among experiments and (ii) functions directly fitted on CPR data are inappropriate for predictions in other spatial contexts. 2.  Modelling pollen dispersal via an individual dispersal function (IDF) circumvents these problems by accounting for spatial designs. We detail for oilseed rape how this approach can be used to both estimate an IDF from field data and predict CPR between two neighbouring fields of various sizes and shapes. Predictions were used to investigate the sensitivity of CPR to the family of IDF, the uncertainty in parameter estimates and the effects of field dimensions and isolation distances. 3.  We fitted a range of families of IDF, including several types of tails, on previously published data. The best IDF was a fat-tailed power-law function, meaning frequent long-distance dispersal. 4.  The choice of IDF appeared crucial when predicting CPR between fields, occasionally being even more important than the distance between fields. Width of the source field and depth of the recipient field were next in importance. When approximated CPR were calculated without considering field dimensions, using distance between field centres gave better performance than field margins. 5.  Synthesis and applications. This study demonstrates the value of IDF for quantitative predictions of pollen flow in variable spatial configurations. A spatially explicit model of agro-ecosystems used to define management rules for the commercial release of GM crops in Europe already employs IDF but underestimates long-distance dispersal for oilseed rape. These new parameter estimates will refine the performance of these models. Moreover, the detailed guidelines for estimating an IDF should encourage such statistical analysis of other dispersal data, enabling comparisons of dispersal data obtained for different environments and species and providing new IDF for management models.', 'en_US'),
(2464, 'The Bioengineered Forest: Challenges for Science and Society.', 'Bioengineering offers many opportunities for forestry. Bioengineered trees can produce more valuable wood, help reclaim contaminated land, improve the health of urban trees, and facilitate pest management. But the ecological risks are complex, and public views about the ethical acceptability of genetic engineering vary widely.Unique in its breadth and diversity, The Bioengineered Forest begins with a survey of the range of forestry practices for which the use of biotechnologies might be appropriate. Scholars representing diverse academic perspectives and viewpoints examine in depth the economic and environmental rationale for forest biotechnologies and the current state of technology with respect to gene performance and safety. They consider the contemporary political and economic environment in which bioengineering is being introduced and where the ?genomic revolution? might take forestry and genetic engineering in the future. The Bioengineered Forest presents compelling arguments in favor of genetic engineering. Just as powerfully, it examines the significant technical and legal hurdles involved in genetic engineering, the undesirable environmental and social consequences that might result from its misapplication, and the risks for businesses that are looking too exclusively for near-term benefits.', 'en_US'),
(2465, 'Methodological scheme for designing the monitoring of genetically modified crops at the regional scale.', 'According to EC regulations the deliberate release of genetically modified (GM) crops into the agro-environment needs to be accompanied by environmental monitoring to detect potential adverse effects, e.g. unacceptable levels of gene flow from GM to non-GM crops, or adverse effects on single species or species groups thus reducing biodiversity. There is, however, considerable scientific and public debate on how GM crops should be monitored with sufficient accuracy, discussing questions of potential adverse effects, agro-environmental variables or indicators to be monitored and respective detection methods; another basic component, the appropriate number and location of monitoring sites, is hardly considered. Currently, no consistent GM crop monitoring approach combines these components systematically. This study focuses on and integrates spatial agro-environmental aspects at a landscape level in order to design monitoring networks. Based on examples of environmental variables associated with the cropping of Bt-Maize (Zea maize L.), herbicide-tolerant (HT) winter oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.), HT sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.), and starch-modified potato (Solanum tuberosum L.), we develop a transferable framework and assessment scheme that comprises anticipated adverse environmental effects, variables to be measured and monitoring methods.  These we integrate with a rule-based GIS (geographic information system) analysis, applying widely available spatial area and point information from existing environmental networks. This is used to develop scenarios with optimised regional GM crop monitoring networks.', 'en_US'),
(2466, 'Australia''s regulation of genetically modified crops: are we risking sustainability?', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2467, 'Stakeholder attitudes toward GMOs in the Philippines, Mexico, and South Africa: the issue of public trust.', 'This paper investigates stakeholder perceptions and interests in the public debates on the risks and benefits of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in developing countries. The surveys conducted in Mexico, the Philippines, and South Africa showed that most local stakeholders in these countries tend to have pragmatic views toward the use of GMOs. Yet, they also revealed a trend toward political polarization that is linked to the transatlantic dispute on GMOs. We argue that it is not just power politics but also the increasing competition for public trust that explains why European stakeholders turned out to be so successful in influencing attitudes and regulation on GMOs in developing countries. National academia, which proved to be the most trusted stakeholder in all three countries and less involved in foreign-funded advocacy work, may be crucial in abating political polarization and facilitate pragmatic political action.', 'en_US'),
(2468, 'The use of life cycle assessment to compare the environmental impact of production and feeding of conventional and genetically modified maize for broiler production in Argentina', 'The paper presents the methods and results of a life-cycle assessment (LCA) applied to the production of maize grain from a conventional variety compared with maize grain from a variety genetically modified to be herbicide tolerant and insect protected and to contain an enhanced oil and lysine content, and its impact when fed to broiler chickens. The findings show that there are both environmental and human health benefits of growing GM maize including lower impacts on global warming, ozone depletion, freshwater ecotoxicity and human toxicity. However, when considered in terms of the use of maize as a feed input to broiler chicken production, the benefits of the GM alternative become negligible compared to the use of conventional maize.', 'en_US'),
(2469, 'Environmental impact of transgenic crops. II. Impact of recombinant traits. [Original Title: Impact environnemental des cultures transgeniques. II. L''impact des caracteres recombinants.]', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2470, 'Environmental impact of transgenic crops. I. Transgene migration. [Original Title: Impact environnemental des cultures transgeniques. I. La migration des transgenes.]', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2471, 'Risk Assessment for Transgenic Sorghum in Africa: Crop-to-Crop Gene Flow in Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench', 'A crop-to-crop gene flow risk assessment study was conducted with Sorghum bicolor subsp. bicolor to estimate the impact of transgenic sorghum in (South) Africa. The trial was conducted with a central sorghum field (30 x 30 m) with male fertile donor plants that was surrounded by eight arms planted with male sterile recipient plants at a distance of 13 to 158 m from the central field. Gene flow was relatively high within the first 40 m and relatively low beyond that distance, but gene flow was detected even at the greatest distance investigated (158 m). The average hybridization or outcrossing rate for male sterile plants was 2.54% at 13 m, below 1% at a distance of 26 m or greater, and eventually dropping to 0.06% at 158 m. Outcrossing rates are expected to be even lower for male fertile plants, which were not investigated in this study. Mathematical models were used to estimate the maximum gene flow distance that is expected to be between approximately 200 and 700 m. These values are in line with observational data from sorghum plant breeders, who use an isolation distance of 100 m to achieve less than 1% genetic pollution. On the basis of the presence of fully fertile crop wild relatives and the weedy relative johnsongrass [S. halepense (L.) Pers.], which may form hybrids with crop sorghum, and on the fact that gene flow takes place, there is strong evidence that introgression of genetically modified- (GM)-sorghum into crops and crop wild relatives will take place once GM-sorghum is deployed.', 'en_US'),
(2472, 'Detection of transgenic and endogenous plant DNA in digesta and tissues of sheep and pigs fed Roundup Ready canola meal.', 'The persistence of plant-derived recombinant DNA in sheep and pigs fed genetically modified (Roundup Ready) canola was assessed by PCR and Southern hybridization analysis of DNA extracted from digesta, gastrointestinal (GI) tract tissues, and visceral organs. Sheep (n = 11) and pigs (n = 36) were fed to slaughter on diets containing 6.5 or 15% Roundup Ready canola. Native plant DNA (high- and low-copy-number gene fragments) and the cp4 epsps transgene that encodes 5-enolpyruvyl shikimate-3-phosphate synthase were tracked in ruminal, abomasal, and large intestinal digesta and in tissue from the esophagus, rumen, abomasum, small and large intestine, liver, and kidney of sheep and in cecal content and tissue from the duodenum, cecum, liver, spleen, and kidney of pigs. High-copy chloroplast-specific DNA (a 520-bp fragment) was detected in all digesta samples, the majority (89-100%) of intestinal tissues, and at least one of each visceral organ sample (frequencies of 3-27%) from sheep and swine. Low-copy rubisco fragments (186- and 540-bp sequences from the small subunit) were present at slightly lower, variable frequencies in digesta (18-82%) and intestinal tissues (9-27% of ovine and 17-25% of porcine samples) and infrequently in visceral organs (1 of 88 ovine samples; 3 of 216 porcine samples). Each of the five cp4 epsps transgene fragments (179-527 bp) surveyed was present in at least 27% of ovine large intestinal content samples (maximum = 64%) and at least 33% of porcine cecal content samples (maximum = 75%). In sheep, transgene fragments were more common in intestinal digesta than in ruminal or abomasal content. Transgene fragments were detected in 0 (esophagus) to 3 (large intestine) GI tract tissues from the 11 sheep and in 0-10 of the duodenal and cecal tissues collected from 36 pigs. The feed-ingested recombinant DNA was not detected in visceral tissues (liver, kidney) of lambs or in the spleen from pigs. Of note, however, one liver and one kidney sample from the pigs (different animals) were positive for a 278-bp fragment of the transgenic cp4 epsps (denoted F3). Examination of genomic libraries from these tissues yielded no conclusive information regarding integration of the fragment into porcine DNA. This study confirms that feed-ingested DNA fragments (endogenous and transgenic) do survive to the terminal GI tract and that uptake into gut epithelial tissues does occur. A very low frequency of transmittance to visceral tissue was confirmed in pigs, but not in sheep. It is recognized that the low copy number of transgenes in GM feeds is a challenge to their detection in tissues, but there was no evidence to suggest that recombinant DNA would be processed in the gut in any manner different from endogenous feed-ingested genetic material.', 'en_US'),
(2473, 'A preliminary comparison of the retail level effects of genetically modified food labelling policies in Canada and France', 'Most developed countries have adopted labelling policies for genetically modified (GM) food. In April 2004, Canada implemented a voluntary labelling policy for GM and non-GM food, while France adopted the European Union''s new extended mandatory labelling of GM food. I present the result of a qualitative survey of GM and non-GM food labels in supermarkets in Canada and France, five months after the introduction of the new policies. I find that there are almost no GM labelled products in France and non-GM labelled products in Canada. Each policy tends to crowd out the targeted label attribute. However, Canadian consumers can choose between GM and non-GM organic products, whereas there are only non-GM products in French supermarkets. Recent political developments in Quebec suggest that the labelling landscape may change in Canada, either with an increase in the number of non-GM products at the retail level or a transition towards a mandatory labelling policy like in France.', 'en_US'),
(2474, 'Outcrossing frequencies and distribution of transgenic oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) in the nearest neighbourhood.', 'The outcrossing of transgenic oilseed rape in the neighbourhood is of major concern with regard to the actual EU labelling threshold of 0.9% for transgenic contamination in food and feed and the regulations for the co-existence of cultivation of genetically modified crops, conventional and organic farming. In a two-year field trial, the outcrossing frequencies and distribution from plots with different ratios of transgenic plants (100%, 1.0% and 0.1%) containing the pat-gene for resistance towards the broad-range herbicide glufosinate-ammonium were determined in surrounding acceptor plots within a distance of 3?11 m. Randomly distributed outcrossing with isolated pollination events became apparent, and an average gene flow of 0.28%, 0.01% and 0.0065% was detected for 100%, 1.0% and 0.1% transgenic donor plots, respectively. Significant effects on the distribution of outcrossing were found for distance, but not for the prevailing wind direction. The random distribution in combination with the behaviour of honey-bees and bumble-bees gives strong evidence that insects play an important role for short distance gene dispersal. A curve fit assuming an exponential decline was performed with the experimental outcrossing data as a function of distance and was applied to the actual EU labelling threshold. The contamination limit of 0.9% in food and feed could be kept without cultivation distances to the transgenic source. The impact of effective detection limits of analytical methods on the establishment of specific rules for the co-existence is discussed.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(2475, 'An application of life-cycle assessment for environmental planning and management: the potential environmental and human health impacts of growing genetically-modified herbicide-tolerant sugar beet.', 'Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA) was used to assess the potential environmental and human health impacts of growing genetically-modified (GM), herbicide-tolerant sugar beet in the UK and Germany compared with conventional sugar beet varieties. The GM variety results in lower potential environmental impacts on global warming, airborne nutrification, ecotoxicity (of soil and water) and watercourse enrichment, and lower potential human health impacts in terms of production of toxic particulates, summer smog, carcinogens and ozone depletion. Although the overall contribution of GM sugar beet to reducing harmful emissions to the environment would be relatively small, the potential for GM crops to reduce pollution from agriculture, including diffuse water pollution, is highlighted.', 'en_US'),
(2476, 'Growth performance and organ development in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L. parr fed genetically modified (GM) soybean and maize', 'Although the inclusion of genetically modified (GM) plants in diets fed to fish is a contentious issue, there are few empirical data. The present study addressed nutritional value and potential risks of four maize types (two traditional and two GM maize varieties) and two soy types (one traditional and one Roundup Ready® soy) included at moderate levels in diets fed to Atlantic salmon parr (initial mean weight ± SD; 0.21 ± 0.02 g) during the first 8 months of feeding (March to October), which included the parr-smolt transformation. The GM-maize varieties [Dekalb 1 (D1) and Pioneer 1 (P1)] were hybrids of traditional maize variants [Dekalb 2 (D2) and Pioneer 2 (P2)] and the GM maize MON810®. Four maize diets, two soy diets and one Standard fishmeal-based diet were formulated and fed to fish in triplicate. The maize diets were formulated with 121 g kg-1 GM maize (P1 and D1) or 121 g kg-1 of the traditional untransformed line (nGM-maize, P2 and D2) and the soy diets were formulated with 125 g kg-1 GM soy or 125 g kg-1 of the traditional untransformed line (nGM-soy), all of equivalent nutrient composition. All diets supported good growth and showed no evidence of diet-related mortality. Based on samplings every 6th week, growth was within the normal range and at conclusion of the study body weight did not differ among any of the treatments (range 101?116 g). Besides minor differences on heptatosomatic index (HSI), plasma triacylglycerol (TAG) values and thermal growth coefficient (TGC), body composition, relative organ weights, plasma nutrient concentrations and enzyme activities did not vary among treatments at any sampling. The present findings indicate that the inclusion of GM plants at the given level in salmonid diets poses little, or no, adverse risk to the health of first feeding Atlantic salmon parr and promote normal growth. The paper presents the production related data of this feeding study. Results regarding structure and function of intestinal segments and intestinal organs are presented in Sanden et al.', 'en_US'),
(2477, 'Bt maize pollen exposure and impact on the garden spider, Araneus diadematus', 'Concerns have been raised that Bt maize pollen may have adverse effects on non-target organisms; consequently, there is a general call for Bt maize risk assessment evaluating lethal and sublethal side effects. Spiders play an important economic and ecological role as pest predators in various crops, including maize. Web-building spiders, especially, may be exposed to the Cry1Ab toxin of Bt maize by the ingestion of pollen via ''recycling'' of pollen-dusted webs and intentional pollen feeding. In this study, the potential Bt maize pollen exposure of orb-web spiders was quantified in maize fields and adjacent field margins, and laboratory experiments were conducted to evaluate the possible effects of Bt maize pollen consumption on juvenile garden spiders, Araneus diadematus (Clerck) (Araneae: Araneidae). In maize fields and neighbouring field margins, web-building spiders were exposed to high amounts of Bt maize pollen. However, a laboratory bioassay showed no effects of Bt maize pollen on weight increase, survival, moult frequency, reaction time, and various web variables of A. diadematus. A pyrethroid insecticide (Baythroid) application affected weight increase, survival, and reaction time of spiders negatively. In conclusion, the insecticide tested showed adverse effects on the garden spider, whereas the consumption of Bt maize pollen did not. This study is the first one on Bt maize effects on orb-web spiders, and additional research is recommended in order to account for further spider species, relative fitness parameters, prey-mediated effects, and possible long-term chronic consequences of Bt exposure.', 'en_US'),
(2478, 'Assessing environmental risks of transgenic plants', 'By the end of the 1980s, a broad consensus had developed that there were potential environmental risks of transgenic plants requiring assessment and that this assessment must be done on a case-by-case basis, taking into account the transgene, recipient organism, intended environment of release, and the frequency and scale of the intended introduction. Since 1990, there have been gradual but substantial changes in the environmental risk assessment process. In this review, we focus on changes in the assessment of risks associated with non-target species and biodiversity, gene flow, and the evolution of resistance. Non-target risk assessment now focuses on risks of transgenic plants to the intended local environment of release. Measurements of gene flow indicate that it occurs at higher rates than believed in the early 1990s, mathematical theory is beginning to clarify expectations of risks associated with gene flow, and management methods are being developed to reduce gene flow and possibly mitigate its effects. Insect pest resistance risks are now managed using a high-dose/refuge or a refuge-only strategy, and the present research focuses on monitoring for resistance and encouraging compliance to requirements. We synthesize previous models for tiering risk assessment and propose a general model for tiering. Future transgenic crops are likely to pose greater challenges for risk assessment, and meeting these challenges will be crucial in developing a scientifically coherent risk assessment framework. Scientific understanding of the factors affecting environmental risk is still nascent, and environmental scientists need to help improve environmental risk assessment.', 'en_US'),
(2479, 'Effects of insect-resistance transgenes on fecundity in rice (Oryza sativa, Poaceae): a test for underlying costs', 'Understanding the balance between yield benefits and possible underlying yield costs that are associated with transgenic cultivars is useful for evaluating crop performance and the fitness of crop-wild hybrid progeny, but few researchers have tested for such costs under rigorous experimental conditions. We examined shifts in net costs and benefits of insect-resistance transgenes in cultivated rice (Oryza sativa) using two levels of insect pressure (low vs. moderate) and two types of competition (pure vs. mixed lines). We compared the growth and fecundity of potted rice plants from three transgenic lines, Bt, CpTI, and Bt/CpTI, relative to isogenic control plants at outdoor locations in Fuzhou, China. Net yield costs were detected, but only in Bt/CpTI plants in mixed-line competition with low insect pressure. These plants produced 16% fewer tillers, 6% smaller seeds, and 30% fewer seeds than competing control plants. Under moderate insect pressure, Bt and Bt/CpTI plants produced 36?65% more seeds than controls, but the net benefit for Bt/CpTI plants disappeared in mixed-line competition pots. To our knowledge, this is the first report of yield costs in cultivars with transgenic insect resistance. Our results suggest that these costs may be negligible in monotypic rice fields, especially when target insects are abundant.', 'en_US'),
(2480, 'Influence of Planting Papaya Ringspot Virus Resistant Transgenic Papaya on Soil Microbial Biodiversity', 'To investigate the influence of papaya ringspot virus resistant transgenic papaya on soil microorganisms, upper (0-15 cm) and lower layers (15-30 cm) of soil samples were collected around transgenic papaya planting area and nontransgenic papaya planting area and from soils in which plants had not been grown. The moisture content, pH value, total organic carbon content, and total nitrogen content were not significantly different among groups. The populations of total count, fungi, and actinomycete were highest in upper layer soils around transgenic papaya planting area and lowest in lower layer soils in which plants had not been grown. The microbial populations were all higher in upper layer of soils. Amplified fragment length polymorphism, amplified ribosomal DNA restriction analysis, terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism, and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis analyses indicated that the similarity of soil microorganisms of upper layer soils around transgenic papaya planting area and around nontransgenic papaya planting area was >80%. A similar result was observed in lower layer soils. Thus, planting transgenic papayas does have a limited impact on soil microorganisms.', 'en_US'),
(2481, 'Results of a 90-day safety assurance study with rats fed grain from corn rootworm-protected corn', 'The results of a 90-day rat feeding study with YieldGard® (YieldGard Rootworm Corn is a registered trademark of Monsanto Technology, LLC.) Rootworm corn (MON 863) grain that is protected against feeding damage caused by corn rootworm larvae are presented. Corn rootworm-protection was accomplished through the introduction of a cry3Bb1 coding sequence into the corn genome for in planta production of a modified Cry3Bb1 protein from Bacillus thuringiensis. Grain from MON 863 and its near isogenic control were separately formulated into rodent diets at levels of 11% and 33% (w/w) by Purina Mills, Inc. Additionally, six groups of rats were fed diets containing grain from different conventional (non-biotechnology-derived) reference varieties. The responses of rats fed diets containing MON 863 were compared to those of rats fed grain from conventional corn varieties. All diets were nutritionally balanced and conformed to Purina Mills, Inc. specifications for Certified LabDiet 5002. There were a total of 400 rats in the study divided into 10 groups of 20 rats/sex/group. Overall health, body weight gain, food consumption, clinical pathology parameters (hematology, blood chemistry, urinalysis), organ weights, gross and microscopic appearance of tissues were comparable between groups fed diets containing MON 863 and conventional corn varieties. This study complements extensive agronomic, compositional and farm animal feeding studies with MON 863 grain, confirming that it is as safe and nutritious as existing conventional corn varieties.', 'en_US'),
(2482, 'The Value of Short Amino Acid Sequence Matches for Prediction of Protein Allergenicity', 'Typically, genetically engineered crops contain traits encoded by one or a few newly expressed proteins. The allergenicity assessment of newly expressed proteins is an important component in the safety evaluation of genetically engineered plants. One aspect of this assessment involves sequence searches that compare the amino acid sequence of the protein to all known allergens. Analyses are performed to determine the potential for immunologically based cross-reactivity where IgE directed against a known allergen could bind to the protein and elicit a clinical reaction in sensitized individuals. Bioinformatic searches are designed to detect global sequence similarity and short contiguous amino acid sequence identity. It has been suggested that potential allergen cross-reactivity may be predicted by identifying matches as short as six to eight contiguous amino acids between the protein of interest and a known allergen. A series of analyses were performed, and match probabilities were calculated for different size peptides to determine if there was a scientifically justified search window size that identified allergen sequence characteristics. Four probability modeling methods were tested: (1) a mock protein and a mock allergen database, (2) a mock protein and genuine allergen database, (3) a genuine allergen and genuine protein database, and (4) a genuine allergen and genuine protein database combined with a correction for repeating peptides. These analyses indicated that searches for short amino acid sequence matches of eight amino acids or fewer to identify proteins as potential cross-reactive allergens is a product of chance and adds little value to allergy assessments for newly expressed proteins.', 'en_US'),
(2483, 'Decomposition processes under Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) maize: Results of a multi-site experiment', 'The effects of maize expressing the Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Ab protein (Bt maize) on decomposition processes under three different European climatic conditions were assessed in the field. Farming practices using Bt maize were compared with conventional farming practices using near-isogenic non-Bt maize lines under realistic agricultural practices. The litter-bag method was used to study litter decomposition and nitrogen mineralization dynamics of wheat straw. After 4 months incubation in the field, decomposition and mineralization were mainly influenced by climatic conditions with no negative effect of the Bt toxin on decomposition processes.', 'en_US'),
(2484, 'Safety and Public Acceptance of Transgenic Products', 'In this article, the terms transgenic, genetically engineered, and genetically modified are used synonymously to mean organisms in which genetic material has been introduced through recombinant DNA technology.Public acceptance of transgenic (genetically engineered, GE) products is influenced by the perception of direct or indirect risks and benefits and the credibility of regulatory agencies that evaluate food and environmental safety. In North America acceptance of GE foods is holding steady, while knowledge about them remains low. Development of transgenic foods with improved nutritional properties or other quality factors will likely be better received than products that primarily benefit the grower or developer of the product. There is continuing unease about biopharming and the association, by some members of the public, of GE crops with corporate agriculture. Several recent reports have reviewed the U.S. regulatory system for transgenic crops and called for a more coordinated and transparent process that allows for greater public participation. For society to benefit from GE crops, we must move away from the polarized positions that have defined the transgenic debate in the past, to positions of mutual respect that allow a rational discussion of the technology''s merits and risks.', 'en_US'),
(2485, 'The detection and decay of Cry1Ab Bt-endotoxins within non-target slugs, Deroceras reticulatum (Mollusca: Pulmonata), following consumption of transgenic corn', 'With greater acreages being planted to transgenic crops, the exposure of non-target species to bioengineered material is increasing. Although the slug, Deroceras reticulatum (Müller), is a major agricultural pest throughout the world, Bacillus thuringiensis crops were not intended to target these species. Molluscs are readily consumed by many generalist predators; if these Cry1Ab-endotoxins are taken up by slugs during feeding on transgenic plants, predators would therefore be exposed to elevated endotoxin concentrations. Using a biochemical assay, we tested the hypothesis that slugs fed transgenic corn would accumulate detectable quantities of Cry1Ab-endotoxins for prolonged periods of time. Characterization indicated that at low dilution rates, Cry1Ab-endotoxins were detectable in slugs fed Bt-corn but no reactivity was elicited by specimens fed non-transgenic food. It was possible to detect Cry1Ab-endotoxins in slugs for 95.9 h after consumption of Bt-corn. Although quantities were small, these long detection periods indicated potential exposure of generalist predators to low concentrations of transgenic insecticidal toxins in the field.', 'en_US'),
(2486, 'Assessing the risk of releasing transgenic Cucurbita spp. in Mexico', 'A methodology to assess potential risks of releasing genetically modified organisms (GMO) to the environment was developed for the genus Cucurbita. Analysis of species biology (GMO, wild, and domesticated relatives) and their spatial distribution were considered. Biological information including reproductive systems, flowering and fructification patterns, pollination and dispersal mechanisms, genetic variability, hybridization and traits of the introduced gene, as well as environmental variables for the species were obtained. Spatial distributional patterns for these species were generated using distributed databases of herbaria specimens, environmental digital maps, and genetic algorithms. The risk of introducing a GMO of Cucurbita pepo in various localities of Mexico was analyzed for 15 taxa of this genus. A map of the potential spatial distribution of ''hot-spots'' for the genus was obtained. Likewise, maps of the potential distribution of fertile progeny (F1) resulting from a theoretical random crossing over of the native species of Cucurbita were also obtained. Results showed there are regions where up to seven wild and domesticated species can converge, mainly in Tamaulipas, Veracruz, and the eastern and central parts of San Luis Potosí. The intended sites for release of virus resistant squash were located where several wild and domesticated species of cucurbits coexist. Results showed that the localities with greater risk are in Nuevo León, Sinaloa, and Guanajuato. These localities harbor wild relatives (free-living C. pepo, C. moschata, C. argyrosperma ssp. sororia, C. fraterna, and C. ficifolia) that are sexually compatible with the virus resistant squash. Therefore, any escape of the genetically modified squash would greatly affect the wild and domesticated species. Finally, the usefulness of this type of analysis for limiting releases of GMO within geographic areas of potential regions of crop domestication was discussed.', 'en_US'),
(2487, 'Sub-chronic (13-week) oral toxicity study in rats with recombinant human lactoferrin produced in the milk of transgenic cows', 'The oral toxicity of recombinant human lactoferrin (rhLF) produced in the milk of transgenic cows was investigated in Wistar rats by daily administration via oral gavage for 13 consecutive weeks, 7 days per week. The study used four groups of 20 rats/sex/dose. The control group received physiological saline and the three test groups received daily doses of 200, 600 and 2000 mg of rhLF per kg body weight. Clinical observations, growth, food consumption, food conversion efficiency, water consumption, neurobehavioural testing, ophthalmoscopy, haematology, clinical chemistry, renal concentration test, urinalysis, organ weights and gross examination at necropsy and microscopic examination of various organs and tissues were used as criteria for detecting the effects of treatment. Overall, no treatment-related, toxicologically significant changes were observed. The few findings that may be related to the treatment (lower cholesterol in high-dose females, lower urinary pH in high-dose males and females and very slightly higher kidney weight in high-dose females) were considered of no toxicological significance.Based on the absence of treatment-related, toxicologically relevant changes, the no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) was considered to be at least 2000 mg/kg body weight/day.', 'en_US'),
(2488, 'Scientific and regulatory considerations on the immunogenicity of biologics', 'Immune responses against non-vaccine biologics can affect their efficacy and safety, resulting in adverse events that could include administration reactions, hypersensitivity, deficiency syndromes and lack of a clinical response in treated patients. With the relatively recent development of numerous biologics, immunogenicity testing has become a key component in the demonstration of clinical safety and efficacy; in fact, it is highly unlikely that regulatory approval would be granted for a biologic without an assessment of its immunogenicity. However, recommendations from regulatory agencies regarding the requirements for when and how to carry out immunogenicity testing are dispersed among numerous guidance documents. To enable the evaluation of the effects of immunogenicity on safety and efficacy, the authors have consolidated recommendations from the regulatory guidelines, and present current approaches and future directions for the assessment of immunogenicity.', 'en_US'),
(2489, 'Attitudes towards genetically modified and organic foods', 'Finnish students (N=3261) filled out a questionnaire on attitudes towards genetically modified and organic food, plus the rational-experiential inventory, the magical thinking about food and health scale, Schwartz''s value survey and the behavioural inhibition scale. In addition, they reported their eating of meat. Structural equation modelling of these measures had greater explanatory power for attitudes towards genetically modified (GM) foods than for attitudes towards organic foods (OF). GM attitudes were best predicted by natural science education and magical food and health beliefs, which mediated the influence of thinking styles. Positive attitudes towards organic food, on the other hand, were more directly related to such individual differences as thinking styles and set of values. The results of the study indicate that OF attitudes are rooted in more fundamental personal attributes than GM attitudes, which are embedded in a more complex but also in a more modifiable network of characteristics.', 'en_US'),
(2490, 'Recent developments and future prospects in insect pest control in transgenic crops', 'The adoption of insect-resistant transgenic crops has been increasing annually at double-digit rates since the commercial release of first-generation maize and cotton expressing a single modified Bacillus thuringiensis toxin (Bt) nine years ago. Studies have shown that these Bt crops can be successfully deployed in agriculture, which has led to a decrease in pesticide usage, and that they are environmentally benign. However, the sustainability and durability of pest resistance continues to be discussed. In this review, we focus on the science that underpins second- and third-generation insect-resistant transgenic plants and examine the appropriateness and relevance of models that are currently being used to determine deployment strategies to maximize sustainability and durability. We also review strategies that are being developed for novel approaches to transgenic insect pest control.', 'en_US'),
(2491, 'Valuing Crop Biodiversity: On-Farm Genetic Resources and Economic Change', 'This book examines the challenges faced by farmers trying to maintain crop biodiversity in developing and transitional economies. Using a collection of empirical case studies of farmers and crop scientists across a range of agricultural economies and income levels, it presents economic tools and methods for valuing and managing crop biodiversity. It discusses the economic benefits of crop biodiversity for farmers and suggests ways in which crop biodiversity can be supported by national policies. The book provides an indispensable ''tool kit'' for all those concerned with the development of strategies to facilitate sustainable management and conservation of crop genetic diversity for future generations.', 'en_US'),
(2492, 'Safety and Public Acceptance of Transgenic Products', 'Public acceptance of transgenic (genetically engineered, GE) products is influenced by the perception of direct or indirect risks and benefits and the credibility of regulatory agencies that evaluate food and environmental safety. In North America acceptance of GE foods is holding steady, while knowledge about them remains low. Development of transgenic foods with improved nutritional properties or other quality factors will likely be better received than products that primarily benefit the grower or developer of the product. There is continuing unease about biopharming and the association, by some members of the public, of GE crops with corporate agriculture. Several recent reports have reviewed the U.S. regulatory system for transgenic crops and called for a more coordinated and transparent process that allows for greater public participation. For society to benefit from GE crops, we must move away from the polarized positions that have defined the transgenic debate in the past, to positions of mutual respect that allow a rational discussion of the technology''s merits and risks.', 'en_US'),
(2493, 'SEED PHYSIOLOGY, PRODUCTION & TECHNOLOGY - Managing Reproductive Isolation in Hybrid Seed Corn Production', 'Production of hybrid corn (Zea mays L) depends on cross-pollination between male and female inbred parents. As such, reproductive isolation of seed fields is required to ensure genetic purity of the hybrid progeny. Customer demand for improved genetic purity prompted the seed industry to examine the level of genetic purity resulting from current isolation practices. A 3-yr study was conducted to monitor purity of hybrid seed produced in 315 fields from 24 seed companies in North America. Each field was near a commercial corn field shedding pollen synchronously with the seed parent: a worse case scenario. Seed samples were collected at five locations along a 200-m transect established perpendicular to the nearest potential adventitious pollen source, and 100 seed from each location were subjected to isozyme analysis to determine percent out-crossing. Isolation distance, seed field size, field block size, number of border rows, adventitious field size, male:female row ratio, male population, and male pollen class were analyzed as continuous predictors and as variable class predictors of out-crossing at the field margins and field midpoints. Year had a significant (p [less-than or equal to] 0.05) impact on observed out-crossing. Isolation distance, border rows, and male pollen class were significant predictors of out-crossing at the field margin but not at the field midpoint. A significant interaction between isolation distance and border rows was observed at both the field margin and midpoint. There also was an interaction between male:female ratio and male pollen class on out-crossing at the field margin. These results indicate that current practices used to isolate hybrid seed fields often achieve the goal of producing [greater-than or equal to] 99% genetically pure seed, but much higher levels of out-crossing can and do occur. Because out-crossing generally was greater and more variable at the field margins than at the field midpoint, adjustments to field management that focus on minimizing out-crossing at the field margins should lead to consistently high levels of genetic purity from hybrid seed fields.', 'en_US'),
(2494, 'Aphid alarm pheromone produced by transgenic plants affects aphid and parasitoid behavior', 'The alarm pheromone for many species of aphids, which causes dispersion in response to attack by predators or parasitoids, consists of the sesquiterpene (E)-â -farnesene (Eâ f). We used high levels of expression in Arabidopsis thaliana plants of an Eâf synthase gene cloned from Mentha x piperita to cause emission of pure Eâf. These plants elicited potent effects on behavior of the aphid Myzus persicae (alarm and repellent responses) and its parasitoid Diaeretiella rapae (an arrestant response). Here, we report the transformation of a plant to produce an insect pheromone and demonstrate that the resulting emission affects behavioral responses at two trophic levels.', 'en_US'),
(2495, 'Food Allergy: A Practice Parameter.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2496, 'Long term feeding of Bt-corn - a ten-generation study with quails', 'A ten-generation experiment with growing and laying quails were carried out to test diets with 40 (starter) or 50% (grower, layer) isogenic or transgenic (Bt 176) corn. Feeding of diets containing genetically-modified corn did not significantly influence health and performance of quails nor did it affect DNA-transfer and quality of meat and eggs of quails compared with the isogenic counterpart.', 'en_US'),
(2497, 'Translational Fusion Hybrid Bt Genes Confer Resistance against Yellow Stem Borer in Transgenic Elite Vietnamese Rice (Oryza sativa L.) Cultivars', 'We have shown the efficacies of translationally fused gene (cry1Ab-1B) under the control of maize ubiquitin promoter and hybrid Bt gene (cry1A/cry1Ac) driven by rice Actin-1 promoter against the yellow stem borer (Scirpophaga incertulas Walker, YSB) insect in rice (Oryza sativa L.). The integration, expression, and functionality of the transgenes were confirmed by Southern, western, and insect bioassay. The bioassay results correlated with the molecular data. The amount of Bt protein (within the range of 0.8?1.3% of the total soluble protein) in the transgenics was sufficient to cause 100% mortality of the neonate larvae of YSB within 1 wk of infestation. The transgenic plants expressing the foreign Bt protein were normal in phenotype with as good seed setting as the nontransgenic control plants.', 'en_US'),
(2498, 'Regulatory region of the vitellogenin receptor gene sufficient for high-level, germ line cell-specific ovarian expression in transgenic Aedes aegypti mosquitoes', 'Vitellogenin receptor (VgR) is responsible for the receptor-mediated endocytosis of vitellogenin (Vg) in the egg formation of an oviparous animal, including insects. Little is known about regulation of VgR gene expression. We analyzed the upstream region of the VgR gene from Aedes aegypti (AaVgR) to identify regulatory elements responsible for its expression in germ cell-specific ovarian expression. Experiments with genetic transformation using the transgene containing the 1.5-Kb upstream portion of the AaVgR gene fused with DsRed and the piggyBac vector showed that this regulatory region is sufficient for correct female and ovary-specific expression of the transgene. This 1.5-Kb upstream region contained binding sites for the ecdysone regulatory hierarchy early gene products E74 and BR-C, as well as transcription factors determining correct tissue- and stage-specific expression of GATA and HNF3/fkh. In situ hybridization demonstrated that in the ovaries of transgenic females DsRed mRNA was present in ovarian germ cells and nurse cells of mature ovarian follicles, together with VgR mRNA. In contrast, DsRed mRNA was absent in the oocyte that had a high level of endogenous VgR mRNA. Although the 1.5-Kb upstream region was sufficient to drive a high-level germ line cell-specific expression of the reporter, additional signals were required for translocation of exogenous mRNA from nurse cells into the oocyte.', 'en_US'),
(2499, 'Coherence between Legal Requirements and Approaches for Detection of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) and Their Derived Products', 'Analytical methods for the qualitative and quantitative detection of genetically modified (GM) products may serve multiple purposes. Legal requirements differ among jurisdictions, ranging from no requirements to mandatory use of event-specific quantitation and implementation of production chain traceability. Although efforts have been taken to harmonize the analytical methodology at national, regional, and international levels, no normative international standards have yet been established. Lack of coherence between analytical methodologies and their applicabilities, on the one hand, and legislation, on the other hand, is a major problem. Here, key points where coherence is lacking are discussed. These include the definition of units of measurements, expression of GM material quantities, terminology, and inconsistent legal status of products derived from related but slightly different transformation routes. Finally, recommendations to improve the coherence are brought forward, including guidance to stakeholders for prediction of product-specific GM material quantities from gene ratios in the originating seed.', 'en_US'),
(2500, 'Consequences for Protaphorura armata (Collembola: Onychiuridae) following exposure to genetically modified Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) maize and non-Bt maize', 'Studies on the effect of genetically modified Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) crops on true soil dwelling non-target arthropods are scarce. The objective of this study was to assess the influence of a 4-week exposure to two Bt maize varieties (Cry1Ab) Cascade and MEB307 on the collembolan Protaphorura armata. For comparison three non-Bt maize varieties, Rivaldo (isogenic to Cascade), Monumental (isogenic to MEB307) and DK242, and two control diets based on baker''s yeast (uncontaminated and contaminated with Bt toxin Cry1Ab) were also tested. Due to a lower C:N ratio, individuals reared on yeast performed significantly better in all of the measured endpoints than those reared on maize. P. armata performed equally well when reared on two Bt and three non-Bt maize varieties. Although there were no negative effects of Bt maize in this experiment, we recommend future studies on Bt crops to focus on species interactions in long-term, multi-species experiments.', 'en_US'),
(2501, 'Biodiversity in environmental assessment-current practice and tools for prediction', 'Habitat loss and fragmentation are major threats to biodiversity. Environmental impact assessment and strategic environmental assessment are essential instruments used in physical planning to address such problems. Yet there are no well-developed methods for quantifying and predicting impacts of fragmentation on biodiversity. In this study, a literature review was conducted on GIS-based ecological models that have potential as prediction tools for biodiversity assessment. Further, a review of environmental impact statements for road and railway projects from four European countries was performed, to study how impact prediction concerning biodiversity issues was addressed. The results of the study showed the existing gap between research in GIS-based ecological modelling and current practice in biodiversity assessment within environmental assessment.', 'en_US'),
(2502, 'Biosafety assessment protocols for new organisms in New Zealand: Can they apply internationally to emerging technologies?', 'An analysis of established biosafety protocols for release into the environment of exotic plants and biological control agents for weeds and arthropod pests has been carried out to determine whether such protocols can be applied to relatively new and emerging technologies intended for the primary production industries, such as transgenic plants. Example case studies are described to indicate the scope of issues considered by regulators who make decisions on new organism releases. No transgenic plants have been released to date in New Zealand, but two field test approvals are described as examples. An analysis of the biosafety protocols has shown that, while many of the risk criteria considered for decision-making by regulators are similar for all new organisms, a case-by-case examination of risks and potential impacts is required in order to fully assess risk. The value of post-release monitoring and validation of decisions made by regulators is emphasised.', 'en_US'),
(2503, 'Number of consumers necessary for sensory acceptability tests.', 'Basic concepts necessary to estimate the number of consumers necessary for sensory acceptability studies (N), variability data on previous consumer studies and estimations of N for different values of Type I and Type II errors are presented. The standard error of the experiment, reported as the root mean square error from the analysis of variance, was similar over 108 reported studies conducted in five countries over a wide range of food products. This allowed estimating the number of consumers necessary for future studies. These estimations are presented in a table. Considering the average standard error, an alpha value (Type I error) of 5%, a beta value (Type II error) of 10% and a difference between sample means of 10% of the sensory scale, gave an N value of 112 consumers for this particular set of parameters.', 'en_US'),
(2504, 'Expression of cholera toxin B subunit and the B chain of human insulin as a fusion protein in transgenic tobacco plants', 'A DNA construct containing the cholera toxin B subunit (CTB) gene genetically fused to a nucleotide sequence encoding three copies of tandemly repeated diabetes-associated autoantigen, the B chain of human insulin, was produced and transferred into low-nicotine tobaccos by Agrobacterium. Integration of the fusion gene into the plant genome was confirmed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The results of immunoblot analysis verified the synthesis and assembly of the fusion protein into pentamers in transgenic tobacco. GM1?ELISA showed that the plant-derived fusion protein retained GM1?ganglioside receptor binding specificity. The fusion protein accounted for 0.11% of the total leaf protein. The production of transgenic plants expressing CTB?InsB3 offers a new opportunity to test plant-based oral antigen therapy against autoimmune diabetes by inducing oral tolerance.', 'en_US'),
(2505, 'Novel foods and food allergies: A review of the issues.', 'This review identifies and explores the current issues around different types of novel foods and allergy concerns. An important issue relates to the observation that risk estimates associated with novel foods may differ depending on whether more emphasis is placed by the individual on the results of technical risk assessment or on an individual''s perceptions of risk associated with different hazards. Consumer perceptions of benefits associated with novel foods also vary. Perceptions of what constitutes both risk and benefit appear to be important determinants of consumer acceptability of particular products. One conclusion that can be made is that novel foods have the potential to contribute to food allergy management, but that consumer acceptance is likely to differ according to the preferences of individual consumers. It is concluded that some novel foods may result in improvements on the quality of life of food allergic patients, whereas others may result in the development of further socio-economic problems.', 'en_US'),
(2506, 'Can Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) corn residues and Bt-corn plants affect life-history traits in the earthworm Aporrectodea caliginosa?', 'Bt-corn is genetically engineered to express proteins from the common soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis which presents specific toxicity to targeted insect pests. One type of Bt-corn expresses the Cry1Ab protein that provides protection against certain lepidopteran pests, mainly the European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis) and the Mediterranean stalk borer (Sesamia nonagroides). Vast areas of agricultural soils worldwide are grown with transgenic Bt-corn. With such widespread use of Bt-corn, it is important to evaluate the potential risks of Bt-protein to non-target organisms in agro-ecosystems such as earthworms. In this study, we investigated the effects of Bt-corn on important life-history traits (survival, reproduction and growth) of the earthworm Aporrectodea caliginosa under various experimental conditions. Finely ground Bt-corn leaves added to soil had no deleterious effects on survival, growth, development or reproduction in A. caliginosa, even in high concentrations that could be considered as a worst-case scenario. Also, growth of juvenile A. caliginosa was unaffected when worms were kept in pots with a growing Bt-corn plant. Only when considering cocoon hatchability did we see a slight, but statistically significant, negative effect of Bt-corn residues. The implications of these results for risk assessment of Bt-corn are discussed.', 'en_US'),
(2507, 'Considerations for the Safety Assessment of Animal Feedstuffs Derived from Genetically Modified Plants.', 'This document addresses considerations in the safety assessment of GM feedstuffs, including the fate of DNA and protein in animal feeding, animal feeding studies, and future GM feedstuffs. As well, there is background material on the various organisms and traits constituting GM plants used as animal feeds.', 'en_US'),
(2508, 'Transgenic crop trial''s gene flow turns weeds into wimps.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2509, 'Production of plant secondary metabolites: a historical perspective.', 'Studies on plant secondary metabolites have been increasing over the last 50 years. These molecules are known to play a major role in the adaptation of plants to their environment, but also represent an important source of active pharmaceuticals. Plant cell culture technologies were introduced at the end of the 1960s as a possible tool for both studying and producing plant secondary metabolites. Different strategies, using in vitro systems, have been extensively studied with the objective of improving the production of secondary plant compounds. Undifferentiated cell cultures have been mainly studied, but a large interest has also been shown in hairy roots and other organ cultures. Specific processes have been designed to meet the requirements of plant cell and organ cultures in bioreactors. Despite all of these efforts of the last 30 years, plant biotechnologies have led to very few commercial successes for the production of valuable secondary compounds. Compared to other biotechnological fields such as microorganisms or mammalian cell cultures, this can be explained by a lack of basic knowledge about biosynthetic pathways, or insufficiently adapted reactor facilities. More recently, the emergence of recombinant DNA technology has opened a new field with the possibility of directly modifying the expression of genes related to biosyntheses. It is now possible to manipulate the pathways that lead to secondary plant compounds. Many research projects are now currently being carried out and should give a promising future for plant metabolic engineering.', 'en_US'),
(2510, 'Relative fitness of glyphosate resistant creeping bentgrass lines in Kentucky Bluegrass.', 'Genetically transformed cultivars of creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera L. syn. Agrostis palustris Huds.) that are resistant to glyphosate have been developed by a collaboration of the Scotts and Monsanto companies. Prior to commercial release, we desired to determine if the transformed plants behave similarly to traditional creeping bentgrass except for the effects expected from the inserted gene, i.e., resistance to glyphosate. Therefore, studies were initiated on 23 June 2000 in Marysville, Ohio; 14 July 2000 in Middleton, N.J.; and 20 June 2000 in Gervais, Ore., to examine the relative lateral spread and competitive ability of several transformed lines of creeping bentgrass, non-transformed controls, and reference cultivars. Vegetative plugs of creeping bentgrass were transplanted into a mature stand of Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.) or a uniform mixture of Kentucky bluegrass with perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.). The plots were watered as needed to prevent moisture stress. Competitive ability of the transformed plants and reference cultivars were determined monthly by measuring the average diameter of the creeping bentgrass patch. On all observation dates, the transgenic lines, as a group, were smaller in average diameter (5.1?7.6 cm) compared to the reference cultivars (5.4?14.2 cm) and non-transformed control lines (5.9?10.2 cm). At the end of the observation period (Aug. 2001), no differences (P = 0.05) in lateral spread were observed between individual lines of transgenic bentgrass. Three lines of interest, ASR365, ASR368, and ASR333, had lateral spread rates that are similar to, or less than, that of their non-transformed parent and the conventional creeping bentgrass cultivars tested. Chemical names used: N-(phosphonomethyl) glycine (glyphosate).', 'en_US'),
(2511, 'Have Transgenes Will Travel - Issues Raised by Gene Flow from Genetically Engineered Crops.', 'Brief summarizes economic and ecological concerns about gene flow from transgenic crops.', 'en_US'),
(2512, 'Biodiversity and Agricultural Biotechnology - A Review of the Impact of Agricultural Biotechnology on Biodiversity.', 'This paper gives an overview of biodiversity and how it is impacted by agricultural biotechnology, building upon chapters on the impact of biotechnology on biodiversity for the European Federation of Biotechnology (Braun & Bennett, 2001) and UNESCO (Braun & Ammann, 2002). Biodiversity encompasses the fundamental bases of life on earth, including genetic, species and ecosystem diversity. There is a need to better understand biodiversity in terms of its fundamental components (genes and taxa), the interrelatedness of these components (ecology), their importance for human life and life in general, and the factors that threaten biodiversity. Within the tropics, Biodiversity is still concentrated in unmanaged habitats. In temperate zones, particularly in the European Union, almost 50% of the landscape is agricultural, and agricultural lands contain a significant portion of the biodiversity in these zones. The greatest threats to biodiversity are destruction and deterioration of habitats, particularly in tropical developing countries, and introductions of exotic species. Maintaining biodiversity requires addressing these threats.', 'en_US'),
(2513, 'Evidence for Gene Flow Via Seed Dispersal From Crop to Wild Relatives in Beta vulgaris (Chenopodiaceae): Consequences for the Release of Genetically Modified Crop Species with Weedy Lineages', 'Gene flow and introgression from cultivated to wild plant populations have important evolutionary and ecological consequences and require detailed investigations for risk assessments of transgene escape into natural ecosystems. Sugar beets (Beta vulgaris ssp. vulgaris) are of particular concern because: (i) they are cross-compatible with their wild relatives (the sea beet, B. vulgaris ssp. maritima); (ii) crop-to-wild gene flow is likely to occur via weedy lineages resulting from hybridization events and locally infesting fields. Using a chloroplastic marker and a set of nuclear microsatellite loci, the occurrence of crop-to-wild gene flow was investigated in the French sugar beet production area within a ''contact-zone'' in between coastal wild populations and sugar beet fields. The results did not reveal large pollen dispersal from weed to wild beets. However, several pieces of evidence clearly show an escape of weedy lineages from fields via seed flow. Since most studies involving the assessment of transgene escape from crops to wild outcrossing relatives generally focused only on pollen dispersal, this last result was unexpected: it points out the key role of a long-lived seed bank and highlights support for transgene escape via man-mediated long-distance dispersal events.', 'en_US'),
(2514, 'No credible scientific evidence is presented to support claims that transgenic DNA was introgressed into traditional maize landraces in Oaxaca, Mexico.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2515, 'Environmental impact of biotech crops.', 'Agriculture will inevitably always have a significant impact on the environment. For biotech crops to be accepted by the regulatory process, it is a statutory requirement in most countries to complete an environmental impact assessment. The assessment includes determining the frequency and potential impact of gene flow by pollination, the effects on friendly nontarget organisms within the environment, the consequences of introducing particular genes, and, in some countries, a consideration of the effect of biotech crops on wildlife biodiversity. Assessing environmental impact raises many important challenges, because frequently we are required to make assessments of a kind that have rarely been carried out for conventionally bred crops. Debates about how we measure environmental impact most effectively have highlighted the illogicality of detailed environmental assessments of biotech crops and little or no comparable assessment of conventionally bred crops. It is important that all kinds of agricultural crops are evaluated against an evolving vision for the future of agriculture and the environment over the coming decades. Biotech crops have the potential to aggravate or to alleviate the environment of the future. This can be through direct effects of the crop on the environment or through changes in management required to grow them. Our challenge is to develop biotechnology actively for the benefit of humankind and the environment.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(2516, 'Containment and mitigation of transgene flow from crops.', 'The proceedings from this inaugural congress held in Glasgow, UK include all four keynote presentations plus all the platform and poster paper presentations.The programme was designed around three major themes:Crop protection - all aspects of crop protection in both temperate and tropical climates were addressed. This included weed science and pest & disease issues. Advances in spray application technology and precision crop management were also covered;Crop production and the food chain - this theme addressed topics such as minimising the risk of pesticide residues in food, crop performance with reduced input systems and biotechnology approaches to optimise crop development and quality. Farmland biodiversity and the impact of an enlarged EU community also featured;Environment & regulation - the environmental impact of GM crops remains a contentious issue, so the costs , benefits , safety aspects and regulation a decade after their commercialisation provided much debate.', 'en_US'),
(2517, 'Rapid degradation of a binary, PS149B1, ä-endotoxin of Bacillus thuringiensis in soil, and a novel mathematical model for fitting curve-linear decay.', 'A novel, binary ä-endotoxin from Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner (Bt) strain PS149B1 has been identified, and the two genes that code for the peptides that make up the binary insecticidal crystal protein (bICP) have been inserted into maize plants, Zea mays L. Transformed maize plants that express the proteins are resistant to western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte, a major pest of maize. A laboratory study was conducted to better understand the degradation of the bICP in soil. Insect bioassays using southern corn rootworm, Diabrotica undecimpunctata howardi Barber, were used to track degradation. A first-order kinetic model using a truncated data set predicts a half-life of <4 d, indicating a rapid rate of decay in soil. The degradation pattern for the complete data set exhibits systematic departures from a first-order kinetic model. A novel 3-parameter degradation model was developed and validated with 23 additional degradation data sets representing both Bt proteins and synthetic organic molecules. This new model often fits degradation patterns better than a first-order model and a 3-parameter, biexponential (biphasic) model. The new model also retains an additional degree of freedom in the analyses compared with the biexponential model, making it especially useful when modeling small data sets. The time until 50% dissipation of the bICP was estimated at <2 d based on this new model.', 'en_US'),
(2518, 'Rapid degradation of Cry1F delta-endotoxin in soil.', 'Dow AgroSciences has modified cotton plants (Gossypium hirsutum L.) by inserting a gene from Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner subsp. aizawai that produces an insect-active, full-length Cry1F delta-endotoxin, and is planning to commercialize insect-resistant cotton lines expressing this protein. These cotton lines control tobacco budworm, Heliothis virescens (F.), along with other lepidopteran larvae. A laboratory study was conducted to better understand the degradation of Cry1F protein in a representative soil from the midsouth cotton-growing area of the United States. Bioassay results with tobacco budworm were used to measure the relative titer of the protein in the soil after a series of incubation periods. Based on the decrease in toxicity over time, the half-life of the microbial Cry1F delta-endotoxin was estimated to be less than 1 d under laboratory conditions, indicating a rapid decay rate in soil.', 'en_US'),
(2519, 'Isolation distances for minimizing out-crossing in spring wheat.', 'Currently recommended isolation distances of 3 or 10 m for pedigreed seed production of spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) may not be sufficient for cultivars with high out-crossing (OC) rates. The detection of higher than expected OC rates in wheat has directed this research to reassess currently recommended minimum isolation distances. The objective of this study was to determine if increased isolation distances are needed for cultivars that exhibit higher than normal levels of out-crossing. In each of 2 yr, OC rates were determined for four Canadian spring wheat cultivars at each of 15 distances (0?33 m) from a blue aleurone pollen source. Cultivars were grown in rows perpendicular to the pollinator block to the north, south, west, and east. Target rows were replicated four times within each direction. Out-crossing in ''Katepwa'' and ''Biggar'' was not detected beyond 3 m. Cultivars ''Roblin'' and ''Oslo'' exhibited higher than normal OC at distances of up to 27 m. For Roblin and Oslo, an isolation distance of 30 m is recommended to mitigate OC-derived off-types in the subsequent generation of pedigreed seed.', 'en_US'),
(2520, 'Assessment of the non-target effects of transgenic Bt corn pollen and anthers on the milkweed tiger moth, Euchatias egle Drury (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae).', 'Many non-target lepidopteran species are potentially at risk from transgenic corn tissues (i.e., pollen and anthers) expressing a Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner derived toxin, however, risk assessment data is currently lacking for most species. A laboratory experiment examining the effect of transgenic Bt corn tissue on Euchatias egle Drury (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae) showed no larval mortality following a 48-hour exposure to Bt corn tissues on its food source, Asclepias syriaca (Asclepiadacea). Two Bt corn events were used; 176, which expressed 1.60 µg Bt/g of pollen and anther tissue; and Bt11, which expressed 0.39 µg Bt/g pollen and anther tissue. One of 15 larvae exposed to non-Bt corn tissue died compared to no mortality of the larvae exposed to either Bt11 or 176 Bt corn tissues. Based on these results it appears that E. egle will not be adversely affected by the wide-scale planting of Bt corn.', 'en_US'),
(2521, 'Bt Corn Not a Threat to Monarchs', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2522, 'Biomonitoring the genotoxicity of environmental factors with transgenic plants.', 'All organisms must react to constantly changing surroundings. Environmental factors are thus powerful forces continuously shaping the genomes of all species. Induced genetic changes can be followed using a biomonitor ? a living organism that reacts to a given compound in the environment. A vital but challenging task is identifying organisms with which to study the influence of changing environmental conditions. Plants are especially valuable biomonitors. Here, we describe the use of transgenic plant systems to evaluate the genotoxicity of chemical and radiological compounds. We evaluate the potential of further transgene-based systems for studying somatic and germ-line mutations.', 'en_US'),
(2523, 'Assessing responses of soil microorganisms to GM plants.', 'Risk assessment concerns and recent advances in microbial ecology have spurred a wave of research on the impact of genetically modified (GM) crops on soil-borne microbial community structure and function. Effects have often been observed, but these usually pale in comparison with ''normal'' sources of variation. In spite of our incomplete knowledge of the microbial communities and processes in plant?soil systems, recent technological and conceptual improvements do offer a way forward. We propose a case-by-case approach within a framework that targets both potentially vulnerable indicators as well as general community parameters for assessing the impact of GM plants on soil microorganisms.', 'en_US'),
(2524, 'Herbicide-resistant genetically-modified crop: its risks with an emphasis on gene flow.', 'Herbicide-resistant genetically-modified (GM) crops are the most widely cultivated worldwide, representing 78% of GM crops in 1999, followed by insect-resistant GM crops with Bt gene. Gene flow is the most touching risk arising from GM crops, and is categorized as three types: within species, between species and between GM crop and other organisms. This review shows that gene flow is a reality in the plant kingdom with evolutionary change. Herbicide resistance evolves naturally and spreads dynamically in weeds. One of the most concerning crop in relation to gene flow is Brassica napus, which has a high outcrossing rate and many relative species. In contrast, frequency of gene flow via outcrossing is relatively low in inbreeding cereal crops such as rice, wheat and barley, but published reports have shown that substantial gene flow is possible. Another possible and immediate risk is herbicide-resistant GM crops becoming volunteer weeds. Dry direct-seeded rice is one of the most likely crops in this respect. Stacking different resistance genes in a crop would accelerate multiple resistance evolution in weeds. Multiple resistance to three major herbicides has already been observed in oilseed rape cultivation. More efforts must be made for long-term risk assessment on GM crops in the natural ecosystem. More studies on weed biology and ecology, particularly reproductive processes in weeds, are essential for better understanding of gene flow and systematic management strategy. We hope that this review motivates researchers to analyze data available now, to collect fundamental information on crops and weeds in agro-ecosystem, and to lead to better risk assessment and management.', 'en_US'),
(2525, 'Using seed purity data to estimate an average pollen mediated gene flow from crops to wild relatives.', 'Gene flow from crops to wild related species has been recently under focus in risk-assessment studies of the ecological consequences of growing transgenic crops. However, experimental studies addressing this question are usually temporally or spatially limited. Indirect population-structure approaches can provide more global estimates of gene flow, but their assumptions appear inappropriate in an agricultural context. In an attempt to help the committees providing advice on the release of transgenic crops, we present a new method to estimate the quantity of genes migrating from crops to populations of related wild plants by way of pollen dispersal. This method provides an average estimate at a landscape level. Its originality is based on the measure of the inverse gene flow, i.e. gene flow from the wild plants to the crop. Such gene flow results in an observed level of impurities from wild plants in crop seeds. This level of impurity is usually known by the seed producers and, in any case, its measure is easier than a direct screen of wild populations because crop seeds are abundant and their genetic profile is known. By assuming that wild and cultivated plants have a similar individual pollen dispersal function, we infer the level of pollen-mediated gene flow from a crop to the surrounding wild populations from this observed level of impurity. We present an example for sugar beet data. Results suggest that under conditions of seed production in France (isolation distance of 1,000 m) wild beets produce high numbers of seeds fathered by cultivated plants.', 'en_US'),
(2526, 'Evaluation of noncorn host plants as a refuge in a resistance management program for european corn borer (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) on Bt-corn.', 'Studies in New York and Pennsylvania compared egg mass recruitment and larval survival on corn and other hosts of the European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (H[umlaut]ubner), to assess the potential of these plants to act as a refuge in a resistance management program. Assessments were made on replicated plantings and natural plant stands in the field and under controlled conditions in the laboratory. Scouting of mixed field plantings revealed more egg masses on corn than any other crop or weed species. At least twice as many larvae per plant were recovered from naturally infested corn compared with the next best host plant across both years. Larval recovery from noncorn host plants varied widely. Fewer adults emerged from overwintering weed stubble than from corn stubble, and the parasitoid Macrocentris grandii (Goidanich) was found associated only with corn stubble. Survival on plants infested with corn borer larvae was consistently higher on corn than on other plants. In a laboratory study, the number of corn borer tunnels in corn was double the next best host, ragweed. Noncorn hosts appear unlikely to provide a substantial number of corn borer individuals susceptible to B. thuringiensis (Berliner) in comparison with the number expected from the 20% planting refuge mandated by EPA registration of Bt-corn. Evidence from these studies do not support a recommendation of reduced refuge planting areas in the northeastern United States.', 'en_US'),
(2527, 'Diversity of arthropod communities in transgenic Bt cotton and nontransgenic cotton agroecosystems.', 'In a 3-yr field experiment, possible effects of Bt transgenic cotton plants expressing cry1A(c) gene from Bacillus thrungiensis Berliner variety kurstaki on diversities of arthropod communities and pest and natural enemy sub-communities were assessed in insecticide treated and untreated cotton fields, as measured by the Shannon-Weaver diversity index. The treatments included: 1) nontransgenic cotton with no insecticide treatment (nontransgenic), 2) nontransgenic cotton with insecticide treatments (nontransgenic+insecticide), 3) transgenic Bt-cotton with no insecticide treatment (Bt-cotton), and 4) transgenic Bt-cotton with insecticide treatments (Bt-cotton+insecticide). The results indicated that Bt-cotton increased the diversity of arthropod communities and pest sub-communities; however, it decreased the diversities of natural enemy sub-communities. Insecticide treatments increased diversities of communities and sub-communities of arthropods in both transgenic Bt-cotton and nontransgenic cotton agroecosystems, but the increase may be an artifact of increased evenness through mortality of insecticide-targeted species.', 'en_US'),
(2528, 'Biocomplexity: the post-genome challenge in ecotoxicology.', 'There are four crucial challenges for environmental toxicologists in the next decade: (1) understanding the mechanisms of molecular and subcellular interactions with pollutant chemicals, including genomic and proteomic aspects; (2) the development of predictive simulation models of toxic effects on complex cellular and physiological processes; (3) linking molecular, cellular and patho-pysiological ''endpoints'' with higher level ecological consequences; and (4) precautionary anticipation of possible harmful impacts of novel developments in industrial processes, including biotechnology and nanotechnology. One of the major difficulties in ecotoxicology is to link harmful effects of chemical pollutants in individual animals and plants with the ecological consequences. Consequently, this obstacle has resulted in a ''knowledge-gap'' for those seeking to develop policies for sustainable use of resources and environmental protection. The overall problem is: how to develop effective procedures for environmental/ecological impact and risk assessment? However, the use of diagnostic ''clinical-type'' tests or ''biomarkers'' has started to provide information on the health-status of populations based on relatively small samples of individuals. Also, biomarkers can now be used to begin to link processes of molecular and cellular damage through to the higher levels (i.e. prognostic capability), where they can result in reduced performance and reproductive success. Research effort to meet this challenge must be inter-disciplinary in character, since the key questions mainly involve complex interfacial problems. These include effects of physico-chemical speciation on uptake and toxicity, the toxicity of complex mixtures; and linking the impact of pollutants through the various hierarchical levels of biological organisation to ecosystem and human health. Finally, the development and use of process-based computational simulation models (i.e. ''virtual'' cells, organs and animals), illustrated using an endosomal/lysosomal uptake and cell injury model, will facilitate the development of a predictive capacity for estimating risk associated with the possibility of future environmental events.', 'en_US'),
(2529, 'Vertical movement in soil of insecticidal Cry1Ab protein from Bacillus thuringiensis.', 'The effects of montmorillonite (M) or kaolinite (K) on the vertical movement of the insecticidal Cry1Ab protein of Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki (Bt) were studied in repacked soil columns. The protein was added to the columns either in a purified form, as root exudates from growing plants of Bt corn, or within the biomass of residues of Bt corn. The soil was amended to 0, 3, 6, 9, or 12% (vol vol-1) with the clays. Vertical movement of the protein generally decreased as the content of either clay was increased, and the amount of protein recovered in leachates increased as the concentration of purified protein added was increased. The largest amount of purified protein (ca. 75%) was leached from soil not amended with clay, whereas the lowest amount (ca. 16%) was recovered from columns containing soil amended to 12% with M or K. The Cry1Ab protein was also present in leachates from soil columns in which various hybrids of Bt corn were grown or to which biomass of Bt corn had been added, whereas it was absent in leachates from columns in which the respective isolines of non-Bt corn were grown or to which biomass of non-Bt corn had been added. The Cry1Ab protein exhibited stronger binding and higher persistence, as well as remaining nearer the soil surface, in soil that contained the higher clay concentrations (i.e. had a higher cation-exchange capacity and specific surface area), indicating that it could be transported to surface waters via runoff and erosion. In contrast, the protein was more readily leached through soil with lower clay concentrations, indicating that it could contaminate groundwater.', 'en_US'),
(2530, 'Prospects of biodiversity in herbicide-resistant crops.', 'Long-term and large-scale field tests with different weed control methods and agricultural vegetation surveys provide an appropriate tool for an evaluation of the effects on biodiversity of different weed control strategies. In this paper, the toxicological effects, amounts and frequencies of applications, and changes in farming practice are described and compared. The test results are discussed in relation to the question of whether environmental benefits can be achieved by the herbicide-resistance technique. Cropping history and the absence of beneficial plant species invading from the vicinity often override the effects of actual farming practice. Thus long-term strategies are necessary in order to increase biodiversity.', 'en_US'),
(2531, 'The mammalian safety of Bacillus thuringiensis- based insecticides.', 'The United States Environmental Protection Agency between the years 1961 and 1995 registered 177 products containing viable Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). Numerous laboratory studies have demonstrated that Bt and Bt products are noninfectious and are toxic to mammals only at a dose ¡Ý108 colony forming units (cfu) per mouse (a human equivalent based on the weight of >1011 cfu). In contrast, as few as three vegetative cells of Bacillus anthracis can kill mice (a human equivalent of >103 cfu). There are only two literature reports of Bt infection in man between the year 1997 and the present, and all infected individuals had experienced either extensive burns or a blast injury, which predisposed them to infection. Two epidemiology studies conducted during large-scale aerial Bt serovar kurstaki spray campaigns reported no increased incidence of illness. Some recent papers have expressed concern about the production of Bacillus cereus enterotoxins by Bt isolates. Laboratory studies found no evidence of illness in rats and sheep fed Bt products, nor have epidemiology studies found increased incidence of diarrhea during Bt aerial spray campaigns. Increases in human antibody levels following exposure to Bt products have been reported but there was no increased incidence in asthma or other illness. Based on laboratory studies and field experience, Bt insecticides have an excellent safety record.', 'en_US'),
(2532, 'Life history traits of Hilecoverpa zea (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) on non-Bt and Bt transgenic corn hybrids in eastern North Carolina.', 'Transgenic varieties of field corn that express the Cry1Ab B. thuringiensis (Bt) toxin in ear tissue present the potential of reducing ear feeding by the corn earworm, Helicoverpa zea (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), and for reducing the size of populations of the insect infesting other host crops. Life history parameters of H. zea feeding on ears of conventional and Bt field corn varieties were measured in field plots in eastern North Carolina in 1997 and 1998. Transformation events investigated were Mon-810 and Bt-11. Bt corn was found to cause a steady mortality of larvae during development, but permitted 15-40% survival to the prepupal stage compared with non-Bt corn. Mortality of prepupae and pupae from Bt corn was also higher than from non-Bt corn, reducing overall adult production by 65-95%. The larvae that did survive grew more slowly on Bt than on non-Bt corn, and produced pupae that weighed 33% less. Pupation and adult eclosion were delayed by 6-10 d by feeding on Bt corn ears. Corn varieties expressing Bt in ear tissue have the potential to reduce H. zea ear feeding by up to 80%, and the potential to reduce populations emerging from ear-stage corn fields to infest cotton, soybean and other crops by around 75%. To have a measurable effect on area-wide populations, Bt corn varieties would need to be planted in large proportions of corn fields. Extensive planting of varieties such as those tested here, having only moderate effects on H. zea, would raise concerns about rapid evolution of resistance.', 'en_US'),
(2533, 'The population/biodiversity paradox. Agricultural efficiency to save wilderness.', '''I know of no time which is lost more thoroughly than that devoted to arguing on matters of fact with a disputant who has no facts but only very strong convictions'' (Simon, 1996). The comment aptly summarizes a common experience (including my own) in dealing with technophobes. In one sense, the genetic manipulation (GM) debate can only be conducted on a level in which the participants are prepared to enlarge their knowledge and refine their views accordingly. I consequently have tried in this article to provide plenty of facts that can be used in discussion with reasonable participants. My recommendation is to forget those who are not prepared to modify in any way a prepared (i.e. ideological) position. My own view of GM is that its primary use to mankind must come initially in helping to solve fundamental problems that currently present themselves. These outstanding problems concern population, global warming, and biodiversity. In a longer version of this article I have tried also to provide some critique of current trends toward placing ecological views into agriculture in the hope of generating reasoned discussion. The full version of this article is on my web site (www.ed.ac.uk/~ebot40/main.html). All the information below can be obtained from the referenced articles, although I have not always indicated where.', 'en_US'),
(2534, 'Preventing food allergy:  Emerging technologies.', 'Food allergy represents a largely avoidable threat. Technologies are presently available or are under development that better define the molecules (allergens) responsible for food allergy, better detect the presence of allergens, and can reduce or even eliminate specific allergens from the food supply. The incidence of food allergy and fatal anaphylaxis triggered by food allergens is expected to decline as a result of the application of a combination of key technologies such as biotechnology, bioinformatics and immunodiagnostics, and of the Internet, as well as following the development of well-defined science-based public health policies.', 'en_US'),
(2535, 'Stability of food allergens to digestion in vitro.', 'An integral part of the safety assessment of genetically modified plants is consideration of possible human health effects, especially food allergy. Prospective testing for allergenicity of proteins obtained from sources with no prior history of causing allergy has been difficult because of the absence of valid methods and models. Food allergens may share physicochemical properties that distinguish them from nonallergens, properties that may be used as a tool to predict the inherent allergenicity of proteins newly introduced into the food supply by genetic engineering. One candidate property is stability to digestion. We have systematically evaluated the stability of food allergens that are active via the gastrointestinal tract in a simple model of gastric digestion, emphasizing the major allergens of plant-derived foods such as legumes (peanuts and soybean). Important food allergens were stable to digestion in the gastric model (simulated gastric fluid). For example, soybean -conglycinin was stable for 60 min. In contrast, nonallergenic food proteins, such as spinach ribulose bis-phosphate carboxylase/oxygenase, were digested in simulated gastric fluid within 15 sec. The data are consistent with the hypothesis that food allergens must exhibit sufficient gastric stability to reach the intestinal mucosa where absorption and sensitization (development of atopy) can occur. Thus, the stability to digestion is a significant and valid parameter that distinguishes food allergens from nonallergens.', 'en_US'),
(2536, 'Digestive stability in the context of assessing the potential allergenicity of food proteins.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2537, 'Allergenicity test of genetically modified soybean in Sprague Dawley rats.', 'Allergenicitv of genetically-modified (GM) soybean was evaluated in male Sprague Dawley rats. To confirm the GM in this study, the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed using the chromosomal DNA of soybeans. The PCR result provided the clear discrimination of genetically-modified (GM) soybeans. To evaluate the allergenicity of GM soybean and non-GM control the soybean homogenate was inoculated subcutaneously 3 times in 3 weeks. The doses of soybean were 0, 2 and 20mg/kg of  protein. A week after the last inoculation, antisera were recovered from individual animals. When the sera were injected intradermally on the clipped back of unsensitized rats with at various dilutions, followed by a challenge with 20mg/kg of soybean homogenate containing 1% Evans blue, no sign of passive cutaneous anaphylactic reaction was detected. In addition, when the sera were treated in cultures of peritoneal mast cells, the increase of histamine released by GM soybean anti-sera was not observed when compared to that by non-GM soybean anti-sera. The present results indicate that the GM soybean might not act as a strong allergen in male Sprague Dawley rats.', 'en_US'),
(2538, 'Notice - Statement of Policy: Foods Derived from New Plant Varieties.', 'The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is issuing a policy statement on foods derived from new plant varieties, including plants developed by recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) techniques.  This policy statement is a clarification of FDA''s interpretation of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (the act), with respect to new technologies to produce foods, and reflects FDA''s current judgment based on new plant varieties now under development in agricultural research.  This action is being taken to ensure that relevant scientific, safety, and regulatory issues are resolved prior to the introduction of such products into the marketplace.', 'en_US'),
(2539, 'Bioinformatic methods for identifying known or potential allergens in the safety assessment of genetically modified crops.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2540, 'Guidelines for the Safety Assessment of Novel Foods.  VOLUME I - Preamble and Guidance Scheme for Notification and VOLUME II - Genetically Modified Microorganisms and Plants.', 'Please note that these guidelines are posted for historical reference purposes only, as they are no longer in force. If you are looking for the latest version, please see the current guidelines instead.', 'en_US'),
(2541, 'Guidelines for the Safety Assessment of Novel Foods.', 'This document replaces the Guidelines for the Safety Assessment of Novel Foods (Volumes I and II) originally published in September, 1994.', 'en_US'),
(2542, 'Recombinant food allergens.', 'Allergenic (glyco)proteins are the elicitors of food allergies and can cause acute severe hypersensitivity reactions. Recombinant food allergens are available in standardised quantity and constant quality. Therefore, they offer new perspectives to overcome current difficulties in the diagnosis, treatment and investigation of food allergies. This review summarises the expression strategies and characteristics of more than 40 recombinant food allergens that have been produced until today. Their IgE-binding properties are compared to those of their natural counterparts, in addition their application as diagnostic tools, the generation of hypoallergenic recombinant isoforms and mutants for therapeutic purposes, the determination of epitopes and cross-reactive structures are described.', 'en_US'),
(2543, 'Comparison of the nutritional profile of glyphosate-tolerant corn Event NK603 with that of conventional corn (Zea mays L.).', 'The composition of glyphosate-tolerant (Roundup Ready) corn event NK603 was compared with that of conventional corn grown in the United States in 1998 and in the European Union in 1999 to assess compositional equivalence. Grain and forage samples were collected from both replicated and nonreplicated field trials, and compositional analyses were performed to measure proximates, fiber, amino acids, fatty acids, vitamin E, nine minerals, phytic acid, trypsin inhibitor, and secondary metabolites in grain as well as proximates and fiber in forage. Statistical analysis of the data was conducted to assess statistical significance at the p < 0.05 level. The values for all of the biochemical components assessed for corn event NK603 were similar to those of the nontransgenic control or were within the published range observed for nontransgenic commercial corn hybrids. In addition, the compositional profile of Roundup Ready corn event NK603 was compared with that of traditional corn hybrids grown in Europe by calculating a 99% tolerance interval to describe compositional variability in the population of traditional corn varieties in the marketplace. These comparisons, together with the history of the safe use of corn as a common component of animal feed and human food, support the conclusion that Roundup Ready corn event NK603 is compositionally equivalent to, and as safe and nutritious as, conventional corn hybrids grown commercially today.', 'en_US'),
(2544, 'A comparative study of the allergenic potency of wild-type and glyphosate-tolerant gene-modified soybean cultivars.', 'A large proportion of soybean cultivars grown in the USA are now genetically modified varieties and concern has been raised about the safety of these products for consumers. A study of the impact on allergenic potency in soybeans, comparable except for the newly introduced gene (CP4 EPSPS), was performed using soybean-sensitized patients. The allergenicity of 18 different (10 GM and 8 WT) soybean extracts was examined blindly by the following three methods: A) Sera from patients with specific IgE against soybean were used to determine concentrations inducing 50% RAST inhibition; B) Histamine release induced by the extracts was examined using blood from sensitized patients; C) SPT was performed on sensitized patients with all 18 extracts. All three methods showed variations in the allergenic potency between the individual extracts but allergenic potential was not affected by presence of the transgene. By using standard in vitro methods and SPT for determination of allergenicity we were not able to detect any significant difference in the allergenic potency between GM and WT soybeans.', 'en_US'),
(2545, 'Factors affecting the determination of threshold doses for allergenic foods: How much is too much?', 'Background: Ingestion of small amounts of an offending food can elicit adverse reactions in individuals with IgE-mediated food allergies. The threshold dose for provocation of such reactions is often considered to be zero. However, because of various practical limitations in food production and processing, foods may occasionally contain trace residues of the offending food. Are these very low, residual quantities hazardous to allergic consumers? How much of the offending food is too much? Very little quantitative information exists to allow any risk assessments to be conducted by the food industry. Objective: We sought to determine whether the quality and quantity of existing clinical data on threshold doses for commonly allergenic foods were sufficient to allow consensus to be reached on establishment of threshold doses for specific foods. Methods: In September 1999, 12 clinical allergists and other interested parties were invited to participate in a roundtable conference to share existing data on threshold doses and to discuss clinical approaches that would allow the acquisition of that information. Results: Considerable data were identified in clinical files relating to the threshold doses for peanut, cows'' milk, and egg; limited data were available for other foods, such as fish and mustard. Conclusions: Because these data were often obtained by means of different protocols, the estimation of a threshold dose was very difficult. Development of a standardized protocol for clinical experiments to allow determination of the threshold dose is needed.', 'en_US'),
(2546, 'Antibiotic Resistance Markers in Genetically Modified (GM) Crops.', 'The use of marker genes for resistance to certain antibiotics in the development of genetically modified (GM) crops has given rise to considerable public concern. This briefing paper reviews what they are and why they are used, how the safety of GM crops is regulated and the possible alternatives to their use. The overall aim is to provide balanced information and advance public debate. This paper results from the combined contributions of scientists, industrialists, and governmental and public interest organisations across Europe.', 'en_US'),
(2547, 'ACNFP factsheet on the use of antibiotic resistance marker genes (ARMs) in GM plants.', '2005: This factsheet explains how and why antibiotic resistance marker genes (ARMs) are used in GM crop production and what is being done to ensure that foods derived from them are as safe to eat as conventional foods.', 'en_US'),
(2548, 'Using inactivated microbial biomass as fertilizer: the fate of antibiotic resistance genes in the environment.', 'The waste product produced by Novo Nordisk A/S from microbial fermentations is used as agricultural fertilizer in Denmark (NovoGro?) after being treated by heat and chemicals to destroy the microorganisms. The fertilizer contains DNA fragments from the genetically modified microorganisms used in industrial production. This DNA contains genes coding for the desired industrial products as well as genes used as genetic selection markers during production strain development. The antibiotic resistance markers used as genetic selection markers are chloramphenicol (Cm), kanamycin (Km) and ampicillin (Ap). The aim of the present study was to examine whether DNA and intact genes were present in NovoGro and whether horizontal transfer of DNA isolated from inactivated production strains occurred either in the laboratory or in the fields treated with NovoGro. DNA isolated from NovoGro was analysed by PCR and intact genes coding for a protease and chloramphenicol resistance were amplified. This isolated DNA was used for in vitro experiments including electroporation and transformation but no transfer of DNA to Escherichia coli or Bacillus subtilis was observed. The antibiotic resistance profile of the indigenous bacterial population in the fields treated with NovoGro compared with fields treated with inorganic fertilizers showed no differences. In addition, DNA isolated directly from the fields treated with NovoGro for up to 7 years was analysed by PCR and no specific production gene constructs could be detected.', 'en_US'),
(2549, 'An assessment of the risks associated with the use of antibiotic resistance genes in genetically modified plants: report of the Working Party of the British Society for Antimicrobial Chemotherapy.', 'Development of genetically modified (GM) plants is contentious, in part because bacterial antibiotic resistance (AR) genes are used in their construction and often become part of the plant genome. This arouses concern that cultivation of GM plants might provide a reservoir of AR genes that could power the evolution of new drug-resistant bacteria. We have considered bacterial DNA transfer systems (conjugation, transduction and transformation) and mechanisms of recombination (homologous recombination, transposition, site-specific recombination and DNA repair) that together might productively transfer AR genes from GM plants to bacterial cells, but are unable to identify a credible scenario whereby new drug-resistant bacteria would be created. However, we cannot entirely rule out the possibility of rare transfer events that involve novel mechanisms. Hence, we also considered if occasional transfers of AR genes (blaTEM, aph(3''), aadA) from GM plants into bacteria would pose a threat to public health. These AR genes are common in many bacteria and each is found on mobile genetic elements that have moved extensively between DNA molecules and bacterial cells. This gene mobility has already severely compromised clinical use of antibiotics to which resistance is conferred. Accordingly, the argument that occasional transfer of these particular resistance genes from GM plants to bacteria would pose an unacceptable risk to human or animal health has little substance. We conclude that the risk of transfer of AR genes from GM plants to bacteria is remote, and that the hazard arising from any such gene transfer is, at worst, slight.', 'en_US'),
(2550, 'The fate of antibiotic resistance marker genes in transgenic plant feed material fed to chickens.', 'We have examined the fate of an antibiotic resistance marker, incorporated into transgenic maize when fed to chicks. Plant-derived markers were found in the crops of five birds fed transgenic maize and in the stomach contents of two birds. The plant-derived marker gene was not found in the intestines. The survival of the antibiotic resistance marker gene mirrored that of plant DNA targets, demonstrating that it survives no better than other DNA and indicating that it is very unlikely that bacteria in the gut of chickens will be transformed to ampicillin resistance when the birds are fed transgenic maize.', 'en_US'),
(2551, 'Assessment of the risks of transferring antibiotic resistance determinants from transgenic plants to micro-organisms.', 'In the production of genetically modified (GM) plants, genes conferring ''desirable'' traits are identified and are then assembled in bacteria before delivery into the target plants. The assembly of genes in bacteria is made simple by including antibiotic resistance marker genes. The presence of a gene that codes for resistance to an antibiotic in a single bacterial cell means that, by adding the appropriate antibiotic to a culture, the single cell can be isolated from millions or even billions of bacteria lacking the resistance gene present in the same culture. By linking a gene that confers antibiotic resistance on its host bacterium to the genes that are to be inserted into plants, sufficient quantities of DNA can be harvested from a bacterial culture to allow the novel DNA to be delivered easily to the plant. One marker gene commonly used in the early days of GM crop development, called blaTEM, confers resistance to antibiotics such as ampicillin and amoxycillin. This gene causes the production of an enzyme, known as a â-lactamase, which breaks down the structure of these antibiotics, rendering them ineffective against bacteria. Although the bacteria that live in animal and human guts frequently carry blaTEM, which occurs naturally at a high frequency, this project is designed to examine the risk that blaTEM from GM maize can pass from the modified plant tissues into microbes in animals that are fed GM maize.', 'en_US'),
(2552, 'GENETICALLY MODIFIED FOODS - Widening the Debate on Health and Safety.  The OECD Edinburgh Conference on the Scientific and Health Aspects of Genetically Modified Foods (2000).  OECD Consultation with Non-governmental Organisations on Biotechnology and Ot', 'This publication contains the contributions of the OECD Directorate for Science, Technology and Industry (DSTI), prepared in response to the request of the G8 Heads of State and Government that the OECD ''undertake a study of the implications of biotechnology and other aspects of food safety...'' (G8 Summit in Cologne, June 1999).These DSTI reports are part of the complete OECD response to the G8 request, whose precise terms of reference were defined by the OECD Council in late Autumn 1999. This response consists of five sets of reports, mostly written by committees of officials from Member countries, which were co-ordinated by the Environment Directorate and the Directorate for Food, Agriculture and Fisheries. Mr. Michael Oborne, Head of the Internal Co-ordination Group on Biotechnology, was in charge of overall co-ordination of the OECD response. The complete list of OECD documents submitted to the G8 summit in Okinawa (July 2000) is attached in Annex. The reports are also available on the Web site: http://www.oecd.org/subject/biotech/g8_docs.htm.', 'en_US'),
(2553, 'Consensus Document on Compositional Considerations for New Varieties of Sugar Beet - Key Food and Feed Nutrients and Anti-Nutrients. OECD. Joint Meeting of the Chemicals Committee and the Working Party on Chemicals, Pesticides and Biotechnology.', 'The OECD''s Task Force for the Safety of Novel Foods and Feeds decided at its first session, in 1999, to focus its work on the development of science-based consensus documents, which are mutually acceptable among member countries. These consensus documents contain information for use during the regulatory assessment of a particular food/feed product. In the area of food and feed safety, consensus documents are being published on the nutrients, anti-nutrients or toxicants, information of its use as a food/feed and other relevant information.This consensus document addresses compositional considerations for new varieties of sugar beet by identifying the key food and feed nutrients and anti-nutrients. A general description of these components is provided. As well, there is background material on the growing, processing and uses of sugar beet and considerations to be taken when assessing new sugar beet varieties.Germany served as the lead country in the preparation of this document.The Joint Meeting of the Chemicals Committee and the Working Party on Chemicals, Pesticides and Biotechnology has recommended that this document be made available to the public. It is published on the authority of the Secretary-General of the OECD.', 'en_US'),
(2554, 'Safety assessment for genetically modified sweet pepper and tomato.', 'The coat protein (CP) gene of cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) was cloned from a Chinese CMV isolate, the CaMV promoter and NOS terminator added and the gene construct was transformed into both sweet pepper and tomato plants to confer resistance to CMV. Safety assessments of these genetically modified (GM) plants were conducted. It was found that these two GM products showed no genotoxicity either in vitro or in vivo by the micronucleus test, sperm aberration test and Ames test. Animal feeding studies showed no significant differences in growth, body weight gain, food consumption, hematology, blood biochemical indices, organ weights and histopathology between rats or mice of either sex fed with either GM sweet pepper or tomato diets compared with those with non-GM diets. These results demonstrate that the CMV-resistant sweet pepper and tomato are comparable to the non-GM counterparts in terms of food safety.', 'en_US'),
(2555, 'Biotechnology-derived, perennial turf and forage grasses - criteria for evaluation.', 'Following a 2-day workshop sponsored jointly by CAST and the U.S. Department of Agriculture-Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, an 11-member task force undertook the writing of this publication to present in summarized form the contributions made by the diverse group of workshop participants, as well as those who submitted comments before and after the formal meetings. Major sections include: principles supporting ecological risk assessment and regulatory decision making; background information on perennial grasses; gene migration and weed management of biotechnology-derived (BD) perennial grasses; criteria for evaluating BD grasses; and a summary of workshop responses and public comments.', 'en_US'),
(2556, 'Consensus Document on Key Nutrients and Key Toxicants in Low Erucic Acid Rapeseed (Canola).OECD. Joint Meeting of the Chemicals Committee and the Working Party on Chemicals, Pesticides and Biotechnology.', 'The OECD''s Task Force for the Safety of Novel Foods and Feeds decided at its first session, in 1999, to focus its work on the development of science-based consensus documents, which are mutually acceptable among member countries. These consensus documents contain information for use during the regulatory assessment of a particular food/feed product. In the area of food and feed safety, consensus documents are being published on the nutrients, anti-nutrients or toxicants, information of the product''s use as a food/feed and other relevant information.This consensus document identifies the key nutrients, toxicants, and other constituents that may contribute to the nutritional or anti-nutritional properties of low erucic acid rapeseed (canola). It contains a general description of the use of low erucic acid rapeseed as both a food and a feed product. The main nutrients, toxicants, and other constituents in both low erucic acid rapeseed oil and low erucic acid rapeseed meal are presented for consideration in any proposed changes to the composition of these products.In preparation of this document, Canada served as the lead country.The Joint Meeting of the Chemicals Committee and the Working Party on Chemicals, Pesticides and Biotechnology has recommended that this document be made available to the public. It is published on the authority of the Secretary-General of the OECD.', 'en_US'),
(2557, 'Multiple herbicide-resistant canola can be controlled by alternative herbicides.', 'Unintentional herbicide resistance gene stacking in canola may alter the sensitivity of volunteers to herbicides of alternative modes of action commonly used for their control. Greenhouse experiments were conducted to investigate the response of three single-herbicide?resistant (HR) cultivars (glyphosate, glufosinate, imidazolinone), one non-HR cultivar, and seven multiple (double or triple)?HR experimental lines to 2,4-D (amine and ester), MCPA ester, and metribuzin applied at the two- to three-leaf stage and of one non-HR and four HR cultivars (glyphosate, glufosinate, imidazolinone, bromoxynil) to 2,4-D amine applied at two growth stages (two- to three-leaf stage and five- to six-leaf stage). All canola cultivars or lines treated at the two- to three-leaf stage responded similarly to increasing doses of each of the three herbicides. At the five- to six-leaf stage, however, the bromoxynil HR cultivar was less sensitive to 2,4-D than the other cultivars. The results of this study suggest that canola with multiple-herbicide?resistance traits does not differ from cultivars that are non-HR or single HR in its sensitivity to herbicides commonly used to control volunteers. All volunteers, whether non-HR, single HR, or multiple HR, should be treated when plants are most sensitive to herbicides (two- to four-leaf stage) to reduce their interference against crops and their perpetuation of gene flow.', 'en_US');

