INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(719, 'Evolution of resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis', 'Insecticides derived from the common soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) are becoming increasingly important for pest management. Insecticidal crystal proteins (also called S-endotoxins) from Bt are extremely toxic to certain pests, yet cause little or no harm to humans, most beneficial insects, and other nontarget organisms (19, 40). After proteolytic activation in the insect midgut, Bt toxins bind to the brush border membrane of the midgut epithelium and create pores that cause cells to swell and lyse (55). Technical innovations, including expression of Bt toxin genes in transgenic crop plants and transgenic bacteria, should increase the usefulness of Bt (6, 12, 35, 46, 91, 94, 109, 116). At the same time, mounting concerns about environmental hazards and widespread resistance in pest populations are reducing the value of conventional synthetic insecticides.', 'en_US'),
(720, 'An in-field screen for early detection and monitoring of insect resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis in transgenic crops', 'We present a field-based approach to detect and monitor insects with resistance to insecticidal toxins produced by transgenic plants. Our objective is to estimate the phenotypic frequency of resistance in a population by relating the densities of insects on genetically transformed plants to densities on nontransformed plants. We focus on European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (Hübner), in sweet corn, Zea mays L., expressing Cry1Ab from Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki Berliner to illustrate principles underlying the method. The probability of detecting one or more rare, resistant larvae depends on sample size, the density of larvae on nontransformed plants, and an assumed frequency of resistant phenotypes in a given population. Probability of detection increases with increases in sample size, background density, or the frequency of resistant individuals. Following binomial probability theory, if a frequency of 10-4 is expected, 103-104 samples must be collected from a B. thuringiensis (Bt) crop to have at least a 95% probability of locating one or more resistant larvae. In-field screens using transgenic crops have several advantages over traditional laboratory-based methods, including exposure to a large number of feral insects, discrimination of resistant individuals based on Bt dosages expressed in the field, incorporation of natural and Bt-induced mortality factors, simultaneous monitoring for more than one insect species, and ease of use. The approach is amenable to field survey crews working in research, extension, and within the seed corn industry. Estimates of the phenotypic frequency of resistance from the in-field screen can be useful for estimating initial frequency of resistant alleles. Bayesian statistical methods are outlined to estimate phenotype frequencies, allele frequencies, and associated confidence intervals from field data. Results of the approach are discussed relative to existing complementary methods currently available for O. nubilalis and corn earworm, Helicoverpa zea (Boddie).', 'en_US'),
(721, 'Managing target pest adaption: the case of Bt transgenic plant deployment', 'Pest resistance is the evolutionary process whereby pests and pathogens adapt to the strategies, tactics, and tools used to suppress target pest populations. ''Resistance management'' is the science of ameliorating or preventing resistance from developing. Since genetically engineered plants will deliver high& egective means for reducing pest populations, most pest management experts agree that pests will develop resistance to transgenicplants unless appropriate resistance management strategies are undertaken. This chapter seeks to relate various approaches that research managers and directors of research institutes can use to insure the durability of pest resistance of transgenic plants, In the end, implementing eitherpoiygenic traits or the high-dose, large-area susceptible pest refugia is the most likely strategy to yield long-tern use-l&e of transgenic plants once they are released into the field. No transgenic plants should be commercially released into the field unless the project is implemented in the context of integrated pest management.', 'en_US'),
(722, 'Stage-specific mortality of Colorado potato beetle (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) feeding on transgenic potatoes', NULL, 'en_US'),
(723, 'Recombination in plants expressing viral transgenes', 'When a segment of a specific viral genome is expressed in a transgenic plant, the plant is often resistant to that virus. This promising method of deriving virus resistance appears also to provide an opportunity for RNA recombination. Several reports confirm that the viral transgenic transcript is available to a challenging virus for recombination. Using cowpea chlorotic mottle virus as a model, modifications of the transgene significantly reduced the recovery of viable recombinants from transgenic plants. Several recommendations are made for reducing the involvement of the transgene in RNA recombination events.', 'en_US'),
(724, 'Field testing for virus resistance and agronomic performance in transgenic plants', 'Resistance to specific virus diseases may be added as heritable characteristics to susceptible crop cultivarsby transformation of the cultivars with specific virus-derived genes. In practice, however, resistance tothe virus varies among transformed plants and transformation often changes cultivar yield and quality characteristicsthat are agronomically important. Therefore, rigorous selection among hundreds of different transformedplant lines is required to identify lines that are both virus resistant and also conform to or exceedstandard characteristics of the original, susceptible cultivar. This paper describes methods we have developedfor rapid selection of virus resistance, yield, and quality characteristics among transformed populationsof plants.', 'en_US'),
(725, 'Engineering resistance to mixed virus infection in a commercial potato cultivar: resistance to potato virus X and potato virus Y in transgenic Russet Burbank.', 'Potato virus X (PVX) and potato virus Y (PVY) infection in potato may result in the loss of certification of seed potatoes and affect quality and yield of potatoes in commercial production.  We transformed a major commercial cultivar of potato, Russet Burbank, with the coat protein genes of PVX and PVY.  Transgenic plants that expressed both CP genes were resistant to infection by PVX and PVY by mechanical inoculation.  One line was also resistant when PVY was inoculated with viruliferous green peach aphids.  These experiments demonstrate that CP protection is effective against mixed infection by two different viruses and against mechanical and aphid transmission of PVY.', 'en_US'),
(726, 'NewLeaf Plus® Russet Burbank potatoes: replicase-mediated resistance to potato leafroll virus', 'Potato leafroll poleovirus and the Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say)) are major pests of potato in the USA. The US Department of Agriculture estimates that over 50% of annual insecticide use on potato is applied to control the Colorado potato beetle and aphids that transmit potato leafroll virus (PLRV). To address this issue, Russet Burbank potatoes have been genetically modified for a high level of resistance to infection and the resulting disease symptoms caused by PLRV and to feeding damage caused by the Colorado potato beetle. This resistance was achieved by the expression of the unmodified full-length replicase gene of PLRV and the cry3A insect control protein gene from Bacillus thuringiensis var. tenebrionis. Plant expression constructs containing various modifications of the PLRV replicase gene were produced during the development of this product. The genes in these constructs were a full-length unmodified replicase (open reading frame 2a/2b), an antisense orientation of the full-length cDNA, an open reading frame 1 translation of the full-length gene, and a gene truncation containing the 3'' sense coding portion of the replicase gene. Growth chamber experiments demonstrated that transformation of plants with the full-length and 3'' sense coding constructs substantially protected these potato plants from infection and disease symptoms caused by PLRV. The Russet Burbank potato expressing the full-length PLV replicase gene and the cry3A gene is a new potato product from NatureMark called NewLeaf Plus®.', 'en_US'),
(727, 'Heterologous encapsidation of viruses in transgenic pants and in mixed infections', NULL, 'en_US'),
(728, 'Agronomic performance of transgenic plants', NULL, 'en_US'),
(729, 'A search for evidence of virus/transgene interactions in potatoes transformed with the potato leafroll virus replicase and coat protein genes', 'A search was conducted to detect evidence for interactions between potato leafroll virus (PLRV)-derived transgenes expressed in Russet Burbank potato and viruses to which the transgenic plants were exposed and by which they were infected. More than 25000 plants in 442 lines transformed with 16 different coat protein gene (CP) constructs and nearly 40000 plants in 512 lines transformed with seven different replicase gene (Rep) constructs of PLRV were exposed to field infection over a 6-year period. These plants were individually inspected for type and severity of virus symptoms. Heterologous viruses found infecting the plants were identified and examined for alterations in transmission characteristics, serological affinity, host range, and symptoms. Selected isolates of PLRV from field-infected plants were examined for unusual symptoms produced in diagnostic hosts and for alteration in sedimentation properties in density gradient tubes. Viruses that were propagated in selected transgenic lines in a greenhouse were examined for similar alterations. Transmission characteristics and serological properties were not altered when they replicated in potatoes containing CP constructs in the field or greenhouse. Potato plants expressing CP or Rep constructs of PLRV were not infected in the field or in the greenhouse with viruses that do not normally infect potato. New viruses or viruses with altered sedimentation characteristics, symptoms, or host range were not detected in field-exposed or greenhouse-inoculated potato plants expressing CP or Rep gene constructs of PLRV.', 'en_US'),
(730, 'Extreme field resistance in potato leafroll virus in Russet Burbank mediated by the viral replicase gene', 'High levels of field resistance to Potato leafroll virus (PLRV; Genus: Polero6irus; Family: Luteo6iridae) were achieved by expression of the unmodified, full length PLRV replicase gene in potato plants cv. Russet Burbank. A high degree of resistance was also achieved, but less frequently, by expression of a truncated construct of the replicase gene. In limited testing, neither missframe nor antisense constructs of the replicase gene conferred resistance. The degree of resistance expressed among different transformant lines ranged from near immunity to full susceptibility. Resistance to the Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata Say) was combined with resistance to PLRV by expression of the cry 3A insect control protein gene from Bacillus thuringiensis var. tenebrionis in combination with the unmodified, full length, viral replicase gene. Resistance was expressed as a reduced incidence of infection detectable by foliage symptoms or serological tests. Reduced incidence of infection was not associated with a decrease in virus antigen concentration in the few plants of resistant lines that became infected. Virus was not detected in the foliage of symptomless plants but was detected in progeny plants produced from the tubers of inoculated but symptomless test plants of some resistant lines. The resistance was effective under natural exposure and against plant-to-plant spread of PLRV by the aphid vector, Myzus persicae Sulzer. Three of the resistant lines selected in these studies were released and are now in commercial production.', 'en_US'),
(731, 'Evaluation of the potential for recombination in transgenic plants expressing fragments of the cucumber mosaic virus genome', NULL, 'en_US'),
(732, 'Strategies for assessing the safety of foods produced by biotechnology', 'A Joint FAO/WHO Consultation on the Assessment of Hiotechnol- ogy in Food Production and Processing as Related to Food Safety was held in Geneva from 5 to 10 November 1990; the participants are listed in Annex 1. The Consultation was opened by Dr J. .Rochon, Director, Division of Health Protection and Promotion, WHO, on behalf of the Directors-General of FAO and WHO. In welcoming the participants, Dr Rochon drew attention to the long history of the application of biotechnology to food production and processing. This went back more than 8000 years, so that the food industry was one of the oldest users of biotechnological products and processes.Since the nineteenth century, the science of biotechnology had developed more rapidly than ever before and particularly so over the past decade. While there were many applications of biotechnology in areas such as drugs, the new technologies were also potentially capable of revolutionizing the world''s food supply. Enormous improvements were possible in both the quantity and quality of food available. Contemporary techniques of genetic modification made it possible both to speed up the classical processes of plant and animal breeding and to effect interspecies gene transfers not possible by classical methods.', 'en_US'),
(733, 'Safety evaluation of foods derived by modern biotechnology: Concepts and principles', NULL, 'en_US'),
(734, 'Health aspects of marker genes in genetically modified plants', NULL, 'en_US'),
(735, 'Application of the principles of substantial equivalence to the safety evaluation of foods or food components from plants derived by modern biotechnology', NULL, 'en_US'),
(736, 'Biotechnology and food safety', 'The proceedings of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Consultation on Biotechnology and Food Safety held in Rome, Italy on September 30 to October 4 1996 are outlined. The concept of substantial equivalence and safety in relation to allergenicity, gene transfer from genetically modified plants, gene transfer from genetically modified microorganisms, pathogenicity of microorganisms, genetically modified animals, and food organisms expressing pharmaceuticals or industrial chemicals are discussed. The application of rDNA technology in developing countries is considered.', 'en_US'),
(737, 'Food safety evaluation', NULL, 'en_US'),
(738, 'Report of the FAO technical consultation of food allergies.', 'On 13 and 14 November 1995, a FAO Technical Consultation on Food Allergies was convened at an Italian Government Ministry of Health facility in Rome, Italy. The consultation comprised thirteen experts on food allergies and was international in scope as the participants came from nine different countries, both developed and developing.The Consultation was asked to provide their scientific opinion and recommendations in three areas of concern to FAO:1. Provide guidance on the development of science-based criteria to determine which foods or food products should be placed on a list of those foods or food products whose presence should always be declared in the list of ingredients on a food label, because of their allergenic properties.2. Propose an approach to the problem of class naming conventions for those products of allergenic foods, which are themselves also allergenic and which may be used as food ingredients. (Current label names of some products of allergenic foods do not clearly indicate their food origin and in some cases only state theirtechnological function - e.g. an emulsifier).', 'en_US'),
(739, 'Guidance for industry: use of antibiotic resistance marker genes in transgenic plants', 'The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is announcing the availability of a draft guidance entitled ''''Use of Antibiotic Resistance Marker Genes in Transgenic Plants: Guidance for Industry'''' (the draft guidance) and report entitled ''''Report on Consultations Regarding Use of Antibiotic Resistance Marker Genes In Transgenic Plants.''''  The report summarizes FDA''s recent consultations with outside experts on the use of antibiotic resistance marker genes in transgenic plants. The draft guidance is intended to provide information to crop developers that will assist them on the use of antibiotic resistance marker genes in the development of transgenic plants. In accordance with FDA''s good guidance practices (GGP''s) for Level 1 guidance, the agency is making the draft guidance available for public comment. The agency is also making the report available for public comment.', 'en_US'),
(740, 'Report of the OECD workshop on the toxicological and nutritional testing of novel foods', NULL, 'en_US'),
(741, 'EPA and USDA position paper on insect resistance management in Bt crops', NULL, 'en_US'),
(742, 'Safety aspects of genetically modified foods of plant origin', '1. IntroductionA Joint FAO/WHO Expert Consultation on Foods Derived from Biotechnology was held at the Headquarters of the World Health Organization (WHO) in Geneva from 29 May to 2 June 2000. A total of 27 experts, including authors of discussion papers, participated in the Consultation. The complete list of participants is given in Annex 1.Ms Poonam Khetrapal Singh, Executive Director, Cluster of Sustainable Development and Healthy Environments, opened the Consultation on behalf of Directors-General of WHO and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). In her statement, Ms Singh indicated that biotechnology would provide powerful tools for the sustainable development of agriculture and food production. When appropriately integrated with other technologies for the food production, biotechnology can be of significant assistance in meeting the needs of an expanding and increasingly urbanized population in the new millennium. Ms Singh drew attention to the concern expressed by the public at large over the safety and nutritional aspects of foods derived from biotechnology. She stressed the need for the constant review of methodologies for risk assessment and expected the Consultation to provide Member States of FAO and WHO with useful guidance in this respect.The Consultation elected Dr Harry Kuiper as Chairperson and Dr Marília Regini Nutti as Vice-Chairperson. Dr James Maryanski was elected as Rapporteur and Dr Jennifer Thomson as Vice-Rapporteur. The Consultation decided to nominate Co-Rapporteurs for each of the sections of the programme to assist in the drafting of the report of the Consultation. Dr Ronald Walker was nominated Co-Rapporteur for Section A (Approaches to the Nutritional and Food Safety Evaluations), Dr Keith Downey for Section B (Nutrition-Related Issues) and Dr Ian Munro for Section C (Specific Food Safety Issues)1 .', 'en_US'),
(743, 'Report of the task force for the safety of novel foods and feeds', NULL, 'en_US'),
(744, 'Regulation of genetically modified plants in animal feed', 'Adapted from a January 26 presentation made at the Association of American Feed Control Officials Midyear Meeting in Phoenix, Arizona.The Office of Surveillance and Compliance in the Center for Veterinary Medicine (CVM) is responsible for reviewing data on genetically modified plants intended for use in animal feed. The Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, which delineates FDA''s regulatory authority for foods, defines food as articles used for food or drink for man and other animals. The Act, however, does not require pre-market clearance of food and thus, many genetically modified plants do not require formal pre-market review by the FDA as they are food. The first modified plant evaluated by the Agency was the Calgene FlavrSavrTM tomato which has improved ripening qualities. Calgene requested FDA regulation of the inserted marker gene product, aminoglycoside 3''-phosphotransferase II, an enzyme, as a food additive due to the novelty of the technology. This enzyme is encoded for by the kanr or APHII gene. FDA actually regulates the gene product or its intended effect, not the inserted DNA itself. Thus, it is the gene product, aminoglycoside 3''-phosphotransferase, that was approved in 1994 as a food additive for food and feed usages in tomato, oilseed rape, and cotton (21 CFR 173.170 and 573.130). In 1992 the FDA published a Statement of Policy in the Federal Register for Foods derived from New Plant Varieties. This policy applies to both genetically modified plants and those derived through other means. The 1992 policy sets out how the developers of new plant varieties should evaluate the safety and nutritional value of these foods. This science-based evaluation process is determined by the characteristics of the food, not its method of development. One primary focus is to determine if there are any unexpected effects in the new variety due to the genetic modification. These effects could include: 1) changes in toxicant or anti-nutrient levels; 2) changes in nutrient concentrations; and 3) alterations in allergenicity, i.e., the unintended movement of an allergenic protein from one food to another. The policy also addresses how the developers assess the safety of introduced proteins and other novel substances, the safety of any modified carbohydrates, fats, or oils, and also the products coded for by marker genes. The use of antibiotic resistance marker genes is also addressed in an Agency draft guidance document, which published in 1998. Plant developers can continue to use antibiotic resistance marker genes, but the guidance urges them to consider current medical practices and whether usage of the marker gene could compromise antibiotic effectiveness.', 'en_US'),
(745, 'Evaluation of allergenicity of genetically modified foods', NULL, 'en_US'),
(746, 'Trade regulated environmental measures in the field of safety in biotechnology', NULL, 'en_US'),
(747, 'The safety assessment of novel foods: guidelines prepared by ILSI Europe novel food task force.', 'This document contains guidelines prepared by International Life Sciences Institute (ILSI) Europe novel food task force that are intended to assist industry in the preparation of adequate documentation and data when seeking approval for a novel food product. Similarly, these guidelines should provide guidance to government authorities on what may reasonably be required in terms of safety assessment of novel foods. It contains the criteria for the background information on the presentation and use of a novel food or food ingredient, which is necessary to establish the food''s safety and help identify the need, if any, for additional studies to facilitate the assessment of toxicological and nutritional safety. It describes the safety assessment of food by equivalence and similarity targeting (SAFEST) and the application of the SAFEST concept to novel foods. Also the nutritional and toxicological information is described that may be required if novel foods or ingredients are not shown to be substantially equivalent to their traditional counterparts.', 'en_US'),
(748, 'Applications of biotechnology to crops: benefits and risks', NULL, 'en_US'),
(749, 'Biosafety management: key to the environmentally responsible use of biotechnology', 'Agricultural crops improved through genetic engineering raise expectations of enhanced agronomic, nutritional, and marketing qualities, as well as numerous other benefits. These samecrops also raise concerns about their potential long-term effects on human health and the environment. Such concerns have prompted developed and developing countries alike toimplement guidelines for the safe use and handling of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in the environment. Appropriate oversight of GMO releases in the environment is achieved through the establishment of a biosafety system in which guidelines are the most visible part. Equally important in a biosafety system, however, are three other elements ñ the people involved, the biosafety review procedure, and mechanisms for feedback. These four elements function together to produce environmentally responsible decisions. Establishing and maintaining a functional, effective biosafety system presents management challenges at every step. It requires education and coordination across government ministries, universities and research institutes, private-sector interests, individual scientists, and the public. Significant investments may be needed in training and human resource development, information and communications systems, facilities, and follow-on activities. In facing this task, it is worth bearing in mind that the elements in a biosafety system, and the challenges they present, are interrelated and interdependent. Therefore efforts to strengthen any one part will ultimately strengthen the entire system and the biosafety decisions coming from it.', 'en_US'),
(750, 'Fine structural changes in the ileum of mice fed on delta-endotoxin-treated potatoes and transgenic potatoes', NULL, 'en_US'),
(751, 'Safety assessment of new foods: results of an OECD survey of serum banks for allergenicity testing, and use of databases', NULL, 'en_US'),
(752, 'Modern biotechnology and agricultural markets: a discussion of selected issues', NULL, 'en_US'),
(753, 'Assessment of potential protein toxicity', NULL, 'en_US'),
(754, 'Digestibility and allergenicity of gamma-thionin from wheat flour', NULL, 'en_US'),
(755, 'Cytokine fingerprinting and hazard assessment of chemical respiratory allergy', 'Allergic sensitization of the respiratory tract resulting in occupational asthma and other symptoms can be caused by a variety of chemicals and represents an important occupational health problem. Although there is a need to identify and characterize those chemicals that are able to cause respiratory allergy, there are currently no well validated or widely accepted predictive test methods. Some progress has been made with guinea pig assays, but our attention in this laboratory has focused instead on the development of novel approaches based on an understanding of the nature of immune responses induced in mice by chemical allergens. We have shown that whereas contact allergens provoke in mice selective type 1 immune responses, characterized by the secretion by draining lymph node cells (LNC) of high levels of the cytokine interferon  Y(IFN-Y), chemical respiratory allergens stimulate instead preferential type 2 responses associated with comparatively high levels of interleukins 4 and 10 (IL-4 and IL-10). The divergent immune responses provoked by different classes of chemical allergens, and the phenotypes of selective cytokine secretion that characterize such responses, form the basis of a novel method - cytokine fingerprinting - that permits chemicals that have the potential to cause respiratory allergy to be identified and distinguished from those that are associated primarily with contact sensitization. In this article the immunobiological basis for cytokine fingerprinting is considered and the development, evaluation and practical application of the assay are reviewed.', 'en_US'),
(756, 'Sequence databases for assessing the potential allergenicity of proteins used in transgenic foods', NULL, 'en_US'),
(757, 'Allergenic foods', 'This review provides a comprehensive listing of common and less common allergenic foods in a tabular form. Where available, information from double-blind, placebo-controlled food challenge trials are presented for the less common allergenic foods, as these studies represent the most objective diagnostic approach to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between ingestion of a food and an allergic reaction. Also, information relating to results of skin tests, immunoassays and histamine release tests are presented for the less common allergenic foods.', 'en_US'),
(758, 'Allergens in major crops', 'A great number of allergens have been found in foodstuffs. Many allergens in plant foods seem to be classified into a restricted number of groups such as storage proteins, structure proteins and defense-related proteins. This paper will review the present status of characterization of allergens in major crops (soybean, wheat, barley, rice and maize), and indicates attempts to develop hypoallergenic foodstuffs for the benefit of sensitive patients.', 'en_US'),
(759, 'Allergenicity and tolerance to proteins from Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa H.B.K.)', NULL, 'en_US'),
(760, 'Determination of protein allergenicity: studies in rats', 'For the safety evaluation of genetically engineered crops the potential allergenicity of the newly introduced protein(s) has become an important issue. There is, however, no universal and reliable test system for the evaluation of the allergenic potency of food products. The best known allergy assessment proposal is the careful stepwise process using the IFBC/ILSI decision tree. Unfortunately, the described tests are not always conclusive, especially if the gene source coding for the protein has no history of dietary use and/or an unknown history in terms of allergenicity. The further testing warranted should in particular be focused on the prediction of the sensitizing potential of the novel protein, for which animal models are considered to be needed. In this paper the results are summarized of a promising food allergy model developed in Brown Norway (BN) rats. The results demonstrate that BN rats can be sensitized orally to the various allergenic food proteins tested, resulting in significant antigen-specific IgE responses, without the use of adjuvants. Upon oral challenge of previously sensitized animals, local and systemic immune-mediated effects, such as increased gastrointestinal permeability and decreased breathing frequency and blood pressure, could also be observed.', 'en_US'),
(761, 'Biotechnologies and food: assuring the safety of foods produced by genetic modification', NULL, 'en_US'),
(762, 'Limitations of whole food feeding studies in food safety assessment', NULL, 'en_US'),
(763, 'Safety assessment of genetically engineered potatoes with designed soybean glycinin: compositional analyses of the potato tubers and digestibility of the newly expressed protein in transgenic potatoes', 'The compositions of transgenic potatoes with intact and modified genes for soybean glycinin were compared with those of control potatoes; non-transgenic or transgenic ones with a vector. The expression levels of glycinin proteins in the transgenic potato tubers were approximately 12-31 mg g-1-total soluble protein. With reference to six major components, moisture, protein, lipid, fiber, ash and carbohydrate, there were no significant differences between transgenic and control potatoes. The levels of glycoalkaloids in transgenic potato tubers, as well as in transgenic controls, increased in comparison with those in non-transgenic ones, though the level was within the permitted limit. The modified glycinin expressed in the transgenic potato tuber was digested under the simulated gastric conditions. From these results, the transgenic potatoes with intact and modified glycinin genes are considered to be as safety utilization for food as non-transgenic potatoes.', 'en_US'),
(764, 'Safety assessment of transgenic potatoes with soybean glycinin by feeding studies in rats', 'Feeding studies of transgenic potatoes with native and designed soybean glycinins in rats were done for four weeks. The designed glycinin has four additional methioninyl residues in the middle of the glycinin molecule. Rats were divided into four groups fed (I) only a commercial diet, (II) the diet plus non-transgenic potatoes, (III) the diet plus transgenic potatoes with native glycinin, and (IV) the diet plus transgenic potatoes with designed glycinin. Rats were fed 2,000 mg/kg-weight potatoes every day by oral administration. During the period tested, rats in each group (groups II, III, and IV) grew well without marked differences in appearance, food intake, body weight, or in cumulative body weight gain. No significant differences were also found in blood count, blood composition, and in internal organ weights among the rats after feeding potatoes (groups II, III, and IV) for four weeks. Necropsy at the end of experiment indicated neither pathologic symptoms in all rats tested nor histopathological abnormalities in liver and kidney. Judging from these results, the transgenic potatoes with glycinins are confirmed to have nearly the same nutritional and biochemical characteristics as non-transgenic one.', 'en_US'),
(765, 'Alterations in clinically important phytoestrogens in genetically modified herbicide-tolerant soybeans', NULL, 'en_US'),
(766, 'Phosphorus bioavailability and digestibility of normal and genetically low phytate corn for pigs', 'We conducted two studies to determine the bioavailability and apparent digestibility of P in a low-phytate corn hybrid (.28% total P, .10% phytate P) genetically modified to be homozygous for the 1pa1-1 allele and a nearly isogenic corn hybrid (normal) (.25% total P, .20% phytate P). Additionally, we conducted an in vitro assay involving a peptic and pancreatin digestion to estimate P availability. The first study used 50 individually penned pigs (initial body weight 9 kg) and 10 treatments in a randomized complete block design. A cornstarch-soybean meal basal diet (.6% Ca, .2% P) was used. Treatments consisted of the basal diet and the basal diet plus .05, .10, or .15% P from monosodium phosphate (MSP), low-phytate corn, or normal corn. After a 35-d feeding period, pigs were killed to collect the fourth metacarpal for measurements of ash and breaking load. Breaking load was regressed on added P intake, and the bioavailability of P was determined by the slope ratio method. The bioavailabilities of P (relative to MSP) for low-phytate and normal corn were 62 and 9%, respectively. These were similar to the determined in vitro values of 57 and 11% for low-phytate and normal corn, respectively. In the second study, 20 pigs (initial BW 20 kg) were used in a randomized complete block design with a 2 x 2 factorial arrangement of treatments. Two corn lines (low-phytate and normal) and two levels of supplemental P (0 and .2%) from dicalcium phosphate were used. Diets with no added P were formulated to contain .9% lysine, .6% Ca, and .34% P. Apparent nutrient digestibilities were calculated from total collection of urine and feces for 5 d. There were no differences among treatments for energy and nitrogen digestibility. Pigs fed low-phytate corn with no added P had increased digestibility and retention of P and reduced total P excretion (P < .05). We conclude that low-phytate corn contains at least five times as much available P as normal corn. The use oflow-phytate corn greatly reduced the amount of P excreted by the pig and increased the N:P ratio in the manure.', 'en_US'),
(767, 'Growing-finishing performance and carcass characteristics of pigs fed normal or genetically modified low-phytate corn', 'A genetically modified corn hybrid homozygous for the lpa1 allele, containing low phytate (LP), and its nearly isogenic equivalent hybrid (normal) were compared in two experiments with growing-finishing swine. In Exp. 1, 210 barrows (27 kg) were allotted to one of six dietary treatments with two corn hybrids (LP and normal) and three P feeding regimens. There were five replicate pens (seven pigs/pen) per treatment. Treatments consisted of diets that were supplemented with P throughout the growing-finishing period (.2% P and .15% supplemental P during growing and finishing phases, respectively) or only during the growing phase (.2% supplemental P) or that were not supplemented with P throughout the growing-finishing period. Performance at the end of the growing phase was based on a 2 x 2 factorial arrangement of treatments with two corn hybrids and two levels of added P (0 and .2%). This resulted in 10 replicates for the treatments supplemented with .2% P. The finishing phase (73 to 112 kg) was a 2 x 3 factorial arrangement of treatments with the two types of corn and three regimens of added P during the finishing period. Breaking load (BL) and ash of the fourth metacarpal were evaluated from one pig/pen at the end of the growing phase and from all pigs after slaughter. Pigs fed the LP corn diet without added P had greater body weight gain, feed efficiency, BL, and ash content of the fourth metacarpal than pigs fed the normal corn diet without added P. Performance was similar between pigs fed the LP diet without added P and pigs fed LP and normal corn with added P. In Exp. 2, 1,092 gilts (34 kg body weight) were allotted by weight in a commercial facility to one of three treatments: 1) normal corn/soybean meal diet containing .29% and .22% available P during the growing and finishing phases, respectively; 2) LP corn/soybean meal diet with the same available P level as Treatment 1; and 3) same as Treatment 2 for 8 wk, then no inorganic P supplementation during the finishing phase. All pigs were slaughtered at approximately 122 kg. There were no significant differences in growing-finishing performance or BL among treatments. However, pigs fed diets containing LP corn possessed carcasses with less backfat and a higher percentage of lean (P < .01). These results confirm that the P in LP corn is available to the pig and suggest that pigs fed diets containing this genetically modified corn will have more desirable carcasses.', 'en_US'),
(768, 'Protein and energy evaluation of soy bean meals processed from genetically modified high-protein soybeans', 'A conventional and two genetically modified soybean samples were processed to dehulled soybean meal (SBM) at a pilot plant and were compared with SBM from a commercial processing plant. Crude protein levels (%) of the experimental SBM samples were M700, 52.5; M702, 53.4; and M703, 62.7. The commercial SBM sample (UI) contained 47.5% protein. Amino acid, gross energy, lipid, and fiber analyses were carried out, and true metabolizable energy and true amino acid digestibility were determined with adult cecectomized cockerels. Digestible Lys, Met, Cys, Thr, and Val, and also TMEn, were higher (P < 0.05) and NDF, fat, and phospholipids were lower in M703 than in the other SBM samples. The results of this study indicate that M703 has considerable advantages over conventional SBM as a feed ingredient for broiler chickens.', 'en_US'),
(769, 'Risk assessment of virus-resistant transgenic plants', NULL, 'en_US'),
(770, 'Allergic reactions to foods', 'This paper reviews adverse reactions to foods, which are defined as toxic (due to food contaminants that cause a reaction in any individual if the dose is high enough) and nontoxic reactions (immune-mediated (food allergies) and non-immune mediated (food intolerance)). The clinical manifestations of food allergy are described and examples of food intolerance, adverse reactions to food additives and other reactions that may be influence by dietary factors are given. Methods used to diagnose food allergy and the management of food allergy are also described.', 'en_US'),
(771, 'Acceptability of the use of antibiotic resistance genes as marker genes in transgenic plants', NULL, 'en_US'),
(772, 'Food allergies in children', NULL, 'en_US'),
(773, 'Insect resistance management of Bt corn in Canada', NULL, 'en_US'),
(774, 'Bt rice: practical steps to sustainable use', 'In 1996, maize, cotton, and potato farmers in the USA became the first farmers in the world to grow transgenic insect-resistant cultivars. These cultivars contain genes from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) that encode insecticidal proteins known as delta-endotoxins. Delta-endotoxins have two properties that are essential for toxins used in transgenic crops: they are highly toxic to certain insect pests, and they are generally safe for human consumption (NRC 2000). Bt crops have been a large commercial success. In 1999, 11.7 million ha of Bt crops were grown by farmers in 10 countries, including Australia, Canada, China, South Africa, Spain, and the USA (James 1999). Many laboratories around the world have transformed rice with Bt genes and have evaluated their effectiveness under greenhouse conditions (e.g., Cheng et al 1998, Datta et al 1998, Maqbool et al 1998). No Bt rice varieties have yet been released to farmers, but field testing began at two sites in China in 1998 (Datta 1999, Ye et al 2000). The target pests for control by Bt rice are caterpillars, most importantly the yellow stem borer (YSB, Scirpophaga incertulas), the striped stem borer (SSB, Chilo suppressalis), and leaffolders such as Cnaphalocrocis medinalis. It has not been possible to produce rice with high resistance to these pests through conventional breeding, although short-duration semidwarf varieties are generally less damaged by stem borers than are traditional varieties (Khan et al 1991).Genetic engineering with Bt genes is a powerful technology for protecting crops against some kinds of insects. Bt cultivars, however, have the same weakness as many other insect control technologies: insects can evolve resistance to them, thereby eliminating their effectiveness.1 Insects have evolved resistance to all classes of widely used insecticides, including Bt products that are applied as sprays (Frutos et al 1999). Insects have also adapted to numerous resistant crop varieties produced through conventional breeding. Notable examples in rice include the brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens (Heinrichs 1986), and the Asian rice gall midge, Orseolia oryzae (Bennett et al 2000).The problem of insect adaptation to insecticides and resistant cultivars results in substantial costs to society, as crop failures, environmental damage, and loss of useful products. This has stimulated extensive research on the genetic and biochemical basis of resistance, and the development of ''resistance management'' strategies that can extend the effectiveness of insecticides and cultivars. In this review, we describe some practical steps that can be taken to delay the evolution of pest resistance to Bt rice.', 'en_US'),
(775, 'Containment of herbicide resistance through genetic engineering of the chloroplast genome', 'Glyphosate is a potent herbicide. It works by competitive inhibition of the enzyme 5-enol-pyruvyl shikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS), which catalyzes an essential step in the aromatic amino acid biosynthetic pathway. We report the genetic engineering of herbicide resistance by stable integration of the petunia EPSPS gene into the tobacco chloroplast genome using the tobacco or universal vector. Southern blot analysis confirms stable integration of the EPSPS gene into all of the chloroplast genomes (500010,000 copies per cell) of transgenic plants. Seeds obtained after the first self-cross of transgenic plants germinated and grew normally in the presence of the selectable marker, whereas the control seedlings were bleached. While control plants were extremely sensitive to glyphosate, transgenic plants survived sprays of high concentrations of glyphosate. Chloroplast transformation provides containment of foreign genes because plastid transgenes are not transmitted by pollen. The escape of foreign genes via pollen is a serious environmental concern in nuclear transgenic plants because of the high rates of gene flow from crops to wild weedy relatives.', 'en_US'),
(776, 'Molecular evidence for gene flow among Zea species.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(777, 'FIFRA scientific advisory panel, subpanel on Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) plant-pesticides and resistance management', NULL, 'en_US'),
(778, 'Will transgenic crops generate new viruses and new diseases', NULL, 'en_US'),
(779, 'Pre-market notice concerning bioengineered foods', NULL, 'en_US'),
(780, 'Insect tolerant transgenic tomato plants.', 'The structure of an insect control protein gene from Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki HD-1 was determined, and truncated forms of the gene that express a functional insecticidal protein were generated.  Two of these truncated genes were incorporated into a plant expression vector for Agrobacterium-mediated transformation.  Transgenic tomato plants containing the chimeric genes express the insect control protein gene.  Such expression confers tolerance to lepidopteran larvae on the transgenic tomato plants and their progeny.  These engineered tomato plants represent a significant step to increased selectivity, specificity and efficiency in insect control.', 'en_US'),
(781, 'Bacillus thuringiensis, an environmental biopesticide', NULL, 'en_US'),
(782, 'Gastrointestinal absorption of intact proteins', NULL, 'en_US'),
(783, 'The magnitude of the resistance problem', NULL, 'en_US'),
(784, 'Resistance management strategies for transgenic potato plants', NULL, 'en_US'),
(785, 'An evaluation of insect resistance management in Bt field corn: a science-based framework for risk assessment and risk management', NULL, 'en_US'),
(786, 'Horizontal gene transfer among genomes: the complexity hypothesis', 'Increasingly, studies of genes and genomes are indicating that considerable horizontal transfer has occurred between prokaryotes. Extensive horizontal transfer has occurred for operational genes (those involved in housekeeping), whereas informational genes (those involved in transcription, translation, and related processes) are seldomly horizontally transferred. Through phylogenetic analysis of six complete prokaryotic genomes and the identification of 312 sets of orthologous genes present in all six genomes, we tested two theories describing the temporal flow of horizontal transfer. We show that operational genes have been horizontally transferred continuously since the divergence of the prokaryotes, rather than having been exchanged in one, or a few, massive events that occurred early in the evolution of prokaryotes. In agreement with earlier studies, we found that differences in rates of evolution between operational and informational genes are minimal, suggesting that factors other than rate of evolution are responsible for the observed differences in horizontal transfer. We propose that a major factor in the more frequent horizontal transfer of operational genes is that informational genes are typically members of large, complex systems, whereas operational genes are not, thereby making horizontal transfer of informational gene products less probable (the complexity hypothesis).', 'en_US'),
(787, 'Test systems to determine the ecological risks posed by toxin release from Bacillus thuringiensis genes in crop plants', NULL, 'en_US'),
(788, 'Insect resistance to crops: a case study of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) and its transfer to developing countries', 'Despite significant increases in per capita agricultural production worldwide over the last decades, the challenge of producing sufficient food supply remains daunting given increasing population growth, reduced availability of water, and limits to agricultural land expansion. Biotechnology applications, if properly integrated into production systems, offer new opportunities to increase production and productivity by using a more sustainable and ecologically friendly agricultural system.', 'en_US'),
(789, 'Introduction of recombinant DNA-engineered organisms into the environment: key issues', NULL, 'en_US'),
(790, 'A comparative review of the mammalian toxicity of Bacillus thuringiensis - based pesticides', NULL, 'en_US'),
(791, 'Antibiotic resistance spread in food', 'Nutritive and therapeutic treatment of farm animals with antibiotics, amounting to half of the world''s antibiotic output, has selected for resistant bacteria that may contaminate the food produced. Antibiotic-resistant enterococci and staphylococci from animals are found in food when they survive the production processes, as in raw cured sausages and raw milk cheeses. The broad host ranges of some plasmids and the action of transposons in many bacteria allow antibiotic-resistance genes to be communicated by conjugation between different species and genera,. A multi-antibiotic resistance plasmid from a lactococcus found in cheese provides a historical record of such events.', 'en_US'),
(792, 'Early events in plant virus infections: relationships with genetically engineered protection and host gene resistance', NULL, 'en_US'),
(793, 'Environmental risk assessment of releases of transgenic plants containing virus-derived inserts', NULL, 'en_US'),
(794, 'Genetically engineered foods: safety issues associated with antibiotic resistance genes', NULL, 'en_US'),
(795, 'Immunologic mechanisms in adverse reactions to foods', NULL, 'en_US'),
(796, 'Mechanisms of food allergy', 'Our understanding of food allergy has made tremendous strides recently. With now-relatively uniform definitions of the clinical presentations of food allergy, the scientific literature is more discernible. In this progress, we have come to understand that the prevalence of food allergy is up to 8% in children and 2% in adults. Additionally, these studies have shown the role of specific allergens and mediators in the immunopathogenesis of food allergy. Much of the information available still relates to immunoglobulin E-mediated food reactions, although other immunologic mechanisms are being studied extensively. The diagnosis and treatment of food allergy is now much more standardized. Long-term studies have shown the natural history of many of these reactions.', 'en_US'),
(797, 'Some observations on the safety evaluation of nonviral microbial pesticides', NULL, 'en_US'),
(798, 'Safety of microbial insecticides to vertebrates - humans', NULL, 'en_US'),
(799, 'Toxicological considerations for protein components of biological pesticide products', NULL, 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(800, 'Who''s competent and when: regulation of natural genetic competence in bacteria', 'Natural genetic competence, the ability of cells to bind to and to take up exogenous DNA, is widespread among bacteria and might be an important mechanism for the horizontal transfer of genes. Competent cells express specialized proteins that assemble into a DNA-uptake complex. In many organisms, the development of competence and expression of the uptake machinery is regulated in response to cell-cell signaling and/or nutritional conditions. Exciting new progress has been made in characterizing the signals and pathways that regulate the development of competence.', 'en_US'),
(801, 'Chemistry and detection of food allergens', NULL, 'en_US'),
(802, 'Viral genes and transgenic plants: what are the potential environmental risks?', 'What are the potential environmental risks?', 'en_US'),
(803, 'Standard evaluation procedure for ecological risk assessment', NULL, 'en_US'),
(804, 'Hybridization of maize and teosinte in Mexico and Guatemala and the improvement of maize', NULL, 'en_US'),
(805, 'Community response to transgenic plant release: prediction from British experience of invasive plants and feral crop plants', NULL, 'en_US'),
(806, 'Report of the working group on harmonisation of regulatory oversight in biotechnology', NULL, 'en_US'),
(807, 'International comparison of regulatory frameworks for food products of biotechnology', NULL, 'en_US'),
(808, 'Transgenic plants and world agriculture: joint report of science academies from Brazil, China, India, Mexico, United States, the Third World Academy of Sciences and the UK Royal Society', NULL, 'en_US'),
(809, 'Gene flow in the environment - genetic pollution?', NULL, 'en_US'),
(810, 'Elements of precaution: Recommendations for the regulation of food biotechnology in Canada', NULL, 'en_US'),
(811, 'Transgenic crops: a view from the US extension service', 'This communication discusses the current situation in the USA with regard to the growing of transgenic crops, with particular reference to soybeans, corn, cotton and rice. High costs of production and low prices require and greater production efficiency and transgenic crops help to achieve this goal, particularly with soybeans, cotton and rice.', 'en_US'),
(812, 'Economic evaluation of Bollgard cotton in Arkansas', NULL, 'en_US'),
(813, 'Yield, insecticide use, and profit changes from adoption of Bt cotton in the Southeast', NULL, 'en_US'),
(814, 'Value of Bt and herbicide-resistant cottons', NULL, 'en_US'),
(815, 'Rent creation and distribution from biotechnology innovations: the case of Bt cotton and herbicide-tolerant soybeans in 1997', 'We examine the distribution of welfare from the second-year planting of Bt cotton in the United States in 1997. We also provide preliminary estimates of the planting of herbicide-tolerant soybeans in 1997. For Bt cotton, total increase in world surplus was $190.1 million and US farmer share of total surplus was 42%. The gene developer, Monsanto, received 35% and the rest of the world 6% of the total world surplus. Delta and Pine Land received 9%, whereas US consumers received 7%. For herbicide-tolerant soybeans, total world surplus was $1,061.7 million. US farmers'' surplus was 76%, Monsanto''s was 7%, US consumers received 4%, and seed companies captured 3% of total surplus.', 'en_US'),
(816, 'Surplus distribution from the introduction of a biotechnology innovation', 'We examine the distribution of welfare from the introduction of Bt cotton in the United States in 1996. The welfare framework explicitly recognizes that research protected by intellectual property rights generates monopoly profits, and makes it possible to partition these rents among consumers, farmers, and the innovating input firms. We calculate a total increase in world surplus of $240.3 million for 1996. Of this total, the largest share (59%) went to U.S. farmers. The gene developer, Monsanto, received the next largest share (21%), followed by U.S. consumers (9%), the rest of the world (6%), and the germplasm supplier, Delta and Pine Land Company (5%).', 'en_US'),
(817, 'Genetically engineered crops for pest management in U.S. agriculture: farm-level effects', NULL, 'en_US'),
(818, 'Genetically engineered crops: has adoption reduced pesticide use', NULL, 'en_US'),
(819, 'Farm-level production effects related to the adoption of genetically modified cotton for pest management', 'Herbicide-tolerant and Bt cotton varieties may offer farmers many benefits, including decreased pesticide use,increased yields, and greater planting flexibility. Farmer benefits appear to outweigh costs, translating intorapid adoption of these cotton varieties. USDA survey data was used to estimate the effect of GM cotton oncrop yields, profits, and pesticide applications.', 'en_US'),
(820, 'Performance of Bt cotton in Mississippi', NULL, 'en_US'),
(821, 'Performance of transgenic cotton varieties in Arizona', 'In order to evaluate the performance of transgenic cotton (Gossypium) varieties under Arizona conditions, 4 field tests were conducted at 3 Arizona locations in 1999 using a total of 34 varieties in one or more of the tests. Across locations and varieties, Bollgard (BG) [transgenic for Bacillus thuringiensis insecticidal endotoxins] and stacked (BG/RR) varieties produced about 7 to 8% greater lint yields than the conventional varieties. Roundup Ready (RR) [transgenic for glyphosate resistance] varieties produced similar lint yields to conventional varieties. A few transgenic varieties were lower yielding than the conventional parent in these tests. RR varieties tended to be taller and more vigorous than the conventional parent. Transgenic varieties were sometimes different from the conventional parent in other traits, such as lint percentage, boll weight or maturity, but the variation was not associated with a particular transgene.', 'en_US'),
(822, 'Economics of Bollgard versus non-bollgard cotton in 1998', NULL, 'en_US'),
(823, 'Bt and conventional cotton in the hills and delta of Mississippi: 5 years of comparison', NULL, 'en_US'),
(824, 'Economic analysis of insect management strategies for transgenic Bt cotton production in South Carolina', 'An economic evaluation of Bt cotton technology was undertaken using data from two on-farm experiments in South Carolina. Spraying for tobacco budworm (Heliothis virescens) and cotton bollworm (Helicoverpa zea) were not required in Bt cotton as the thresholds were not exceeded, but methyl parathion was applied at least once to control for stinkbugs. In both sites, cost savings from reduced insecticide application were evident. Actual experimental yield for Bt cotton was higher than non-Bt cotton in the Barnwell county site, while Bt yield was lower than non-Bt yield in the Lee county site. These results made Bt cotton very profitable in Barnwell county but unprofitable in Lee County. Further statistical analysis revealed that there was no significant difference between the yields of Bt and non-Bt cotton in both sites. Economic analysis that assumes constant yield levels showed that Bt cotton was profitable in both sites. Using Bt cotton technology was also found to be more efficient than non-Bt cotton. However, Bt cotton was riskier than non-Bt cotton in both sites. Although it seems advisable to adopt Bt cotton over non-Bt cotton based on the exprimental results for one year, the risk factor plus several implicit factors must also be considered before a definitive decision on the Bt cotton technology is made.', 'en_US'),
(825, 'Field comparison of genetically-modified cottons containing one strain (Bollgard) and two strains (Bollgard II) of Bacillus thuringiensis kurstaki', NULL, 'en_US'),
(826, 'Cotton carrying the recombinant insect poison Bt toxin: no case to doubt the benefits of plant biotechnology', 'During 1996, transgenic cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) expressing the Bt toxin of Bacillus thuringiensis was planted in the USA for the first time. Despite the new inbuilt insect resistance, the transgenic cotton in Texas and Georgia was infested by bollworms (Helicoverpa armigera). This commentary argues that if the cotton had been sprayed with an insecticide, it would have been 100% protected. It is suggested that the advantage of the transgenic cotton over conventional varieties lies in the reduction of the numbers of sprayings necessary for total protection.', 'en_US'),
(827, 'Performance and insect control cost of Bollgard vs conventional varieties in Tennessee', 'The performance of Bollgard and non-Bollgard (conventional) varieties, based on lint yields/acre, were examined in 9 and 8 county variety trials in 1998 and 1999 respectively. These were planted and managed as on-farm, large plots for weed and insect control. Bollgard varieties produced an 85 lb and 17 lb lint yield/acre increase averaged across all locations in 1998 and 1999, respectively. Yield differences for Bollgard vs non-Bollgard at individual field sites ranged from -29 lbs to +339 lbs in 1998 and -77 lbs to +132 lbs in 1999. Average insect control cost per acre for Bollgard was $65 and $62 versus non-Bollgard at $62 and $46 for 1998 and 1999, respectively. Bollgard varieties performed equal to or better than non-Bollgard varieties in the presence of higher bollworm, tobacco budworm, and European corn borer infestations. In the absence of these insects or when insecticide treatments were effective, conventional varieties performed equal to or better than Bollgard varieties. There were numerical lint yield/acre differences among varieties within a location and among locations in both 1998 and 1999.', 'en_US'),
(828, 'Economics of transgenic cotton: some indications based on Georgia producers', 'The producer choice between Bt and non-Bt cotton varieties should be based on the expected economic returns generated when using a variety rather than agronomic results alone. Producer concerns about the economic costs and returns associated with Bt cotton varieties led to a state-wide project in Georgia. The objective was to obtain independent, field-level research results from producer fields of Bt and non-Bt cotton varieties grown in close proximity and under similar production systems. Bt cotton varieties were found to produce an average yield of 104 pounds lint per acre more than the same producer''s non-Bt variety grown in a similar production system. The number of spray applications for insect and plant growth control were reduced an average of 2.5 applications per acre on the Bt variety versus the non-Bt. For a cotton market price of $0.70 per pound of lint, the yield advantage would mean $72.80 of added gross returns per acre. Cost savings from the 2.5 fewer insect control applications would total $27.50 per acre, assuming an $11 cost per acre for materials and spraying. Average gross economic advantage in favor of Bt cotton would thus total about $100 per acre. Subtracting the $32 technical charge, Bt cotton varieties were still found, on average, to have a sizeable economic advantage over the non-Bt varieties selected.', 'en_US'),
(829, 'The distribution of benefits from the introduction of transgenic cotton varieties', 'Some concern has been expressed about the potential for abuse of monopoly power in the marketing of genetically modified (GM) seeds in the United States (U.S.). Are the firms marketing GM seeds extracting all of the benefits generated by their products? We attempt to partition the benefits from the introduction of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) cotton in the United States among United States domestic and rest of the world consumers of cotton lint, the gene-supplying firm, the germplasm-supplier, and U.S. cotton farmers. The benefit calculations were based on comparisons of pest control costs and yields for Bt and conventional cotton varieties. We estimate that an average of more than $200 million per year in benefits were generated by the use of Bt cotton. In each year, U.S. farmers received the largest single share of benefits, ranging from 42% to 59% of total surplus generated. The combined share of Monsanto and the seed firms ranged from 26% to 44%.', 'en_US'),
(830, 'Bollgard cotton-update and economic comparisons including new varieties', 'Three years of on-farm comparison of Bollgard cotton have been conducted in several U.S. cotton production regions. These comparisons involved 5-10 acre plots of Bollgard compared to a grower selected standard. Bollgard varieties examined included NuCotn 33B, NuCotn 35B, and limited locations comparing newer Delta Pine and Paymaster Bollgard varieties.In Mississippi, Bollgard out-yielded non-Bollgard cotton varieties examined by 92, 46, and 84 lbs. lint per acre on average in 1995, 1996, and 1997, respectively. After yields values and net returns were evaluated, Bollgard demonstrated a cost advantage of $82.50, $24.71, and $53.73 greater than in the non-Bollgard cotton in 1995, 1996, and 1997, respectively. Bollgard net return 3 year average for MS was $53.76 greater than for non-Bollgard.Summaries of comparisons averaged over the 3 year period from 1995 through 1997 (1996 through 1997 for East Texas) demonstrate Bollgard yield advantages of 114, 45, and 54 lbs. lint per acre on average for the Southeast, Delta, and East Texas regions, respectively. Higher net returns also occurred in Bollgard cotton resulting in Bollgard advantages ranging from approximately $11 to $54 depending on the region evaluated.', 'en_US'),
(831, 'Cotton insect losses 1979-1996', NULL, 'en_US'),
(832, 'Transgenic plants as protein factories', 'Transgenic plants are showing considerable potential for the economic production of proteins, with a few already being marketed. Recent clinical trials of pharmaceuticals produced from transgenic plants are encouraging, with plant glycans showing reassuringly poor immunogenicity. Our increasing understanding of protein targeting and accumulation should further improve the potential of this new technology.', 'en_US'),
(833, 'Genetically engineered crops: has adoption reduced pesticide use?', 'Development of new crop varieties through genetic engineering offers a broad spectrum of potential benefits, including reduced production costs, enhanced yields, and enhanced nutritional or other characteristics that add to value. Among the first developments on the market were changes in the genetic makeup of common field crops that made them tolerant to commonly used glyphosate herbicides, or that incorporated genes of the natural pesticide Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), so that plants produce a protein toxic to specific insect pests.These varieties appealed to producers because they promised to simplify pest management and reduce pesticide use, while helping to control costs, enhance effectiveness of pesticides (both herbicides and insecticides), and increase flexibility in field operations. Evidence of that appeal lies in the rapid adoption of genetically engineered crops, beginning with very little U.S. acreage in 1996 and reaching 41 percent of major crop acreage in 2000, down from 49 percent in 1999.The potential to reduce pesticide use through genetic engineering, or biotechnology, could also appeal to consumers. A Farm Bureau/Phillip Morris poll of farmers and consumers in August 1999, for example, indicates that 73 percent of consumers were willing to accept genetic engineering as a means of reducing chemical pesticides used in food production. The poll also found that 68 percent considered farm chemicals entering ground and surface water to be a major problem.', 'en_US'),
(834, 'Transgenic plants: an emerging approach to pest control', 'Insect pests are a major cause of damage to the world''s commercially important agricultural crops. Current strategies aimed at reducing crop losses rely primarily on chemical pesticides. Alternatively transgenic crops with intrinsic pest resistance offer a promising alternative and continue to be developed. The first generation of insect-resistant transgenic plants are based on insecticidal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (St). A second generation of insect-resistant plants under development include both Bt and non-Bt proteins with novel modes of action and different spectra of activity against insect pests.', 'en_US'),
(835, 'Transgenic potatoes for small-scale farmers: a case study in Mexico', 'To evaluate the possible benefits of biotechnology for small-scale potato farmers, a field study based on interviewing these farmers in the mountainous areas of Mexico was undertaken during 1996-99. The objective was to inquire into several aspects of potato agriculture: origin of seed; inputs, costs and yields; production and seed commercialization; agricultural prices; farmers'' general agronomic and socioeconomic situation (crop diseases, level of organization with other farmers and possible contacts with public or private institutions); and assessing the possible relevance of new biotechnologically produced varieties. The results of this case study are discussed. In addition, the paper provides information on potato production in Mexico, the CINVESTAV (Centro de Investigacion y Estudios Avanzados, Unidad Irapuato)/Monsanto programme on transgenic potatoes and assumptions from an economic model on transgenic virus resistant potatoes in Mexico.', 'en_US'),
(836, 'Weed management in ultra narrow row cotton (Gossypium hirsutum)', 'New weed management tools and growth regulators make production of ultra narrow row (UNR) cotton possible. Weed control, cotton yield, fiber quality, and net returns were compared in UNR bromoxynil-resistant, glyphosate-resistant, and nontransgenic cotton. Weeds included broadleaf signalgrass, carpetweed, common cocklebur, common lambsquarters, common ragweed, goosegrass, jimsonweed, large crabgrass, Palmer amaranth, pitted morningglory, prickly sida, sicklepod, smooth pigweed, and tall morningglory. Pendimethalin preplant incorporated (PPI) in conventional-tillage or preemergence (PRE) in no-till systems plus fluometuron PRE did not adequately control many of these weeds. Pyrithiobac plus MSMA early postemergence (POST) often was more effective than pyrithiobac alone. Pendimethalin plus fluometuron at planting followed by pyrithiobac plus MSMA early POST controlled sicklepod 82%, goosegrass 89%, Palmer amaranth 92%, and the other species at least 95% late season. Pyrithiobac at mid-POST did not improve control. Bromoxynil plus MSMA early POST was more effective than bromoxynil alone only on sicklepod. Pendimethalin plus fluometuron at planting followed by bromoxynil plus MSMA early POST controlled sicklepod 62%, Palmer amaranth 81%, goosegrass 83%, and all other species at least 95%. Glyphosate early POST did not adequately control many species due to sustained weed emergence. Glyphosate early POST followed by glyphosate late POST (after last effective bloom date) controlled all species except pitted morningglory and tall morningglory at least 93%. Pendimethalin plus fluometuron followed by glyphosate early POST was the most effective glyphosate system overall, and it controlled sicklepod 88%, pitted morningglory 90%, and other species at least 93%. Glyphosate late POST did not increase control in systems with pendimethalin plus fluometuron at planting followed by glyphosate early POST. Yields and net returns were similar with all herbicide/cultivar systems at two of five locations. At other locations, yields and net returns were similar with systems of pendimethalin plus fluometuron at planting followed by pyrithiobac plus MSMA early POST, pendimethalin plus fluometuron followed by bromoxynil plus MSMA early POST, and glyphosate early POST. Greatest yields and net returns were obtained with pendimethalin plus fluometuron at planting followed by glyphosate early POST. Herbicide systems did not affect fiber quality.', 'en_US'),
(837, 'Why the American Soybean Association supports transgenic soybeans', 'This paper discusses the situation in the USA with respect to the use by farmers of soybean varieties produced by transgenic techniques. Unlike his European counterpart, the US farmer has generally welcomed the advantages of lower inputs and enhanced pest and disease control associated with these crops. Further developments with transgenic soybeans and some other crops are discussed briefly. (C) 2000 Society of Chemical Industry.', 'en_US'),
(838, 'Why U.S. farmers are adopting genetically modified crops', NULL, 'en_US'),
(839, 'Case studies in benefits and risk of agricultural biotechnology: Roundup Ready soybeans and Bt field corn', NULL, 'en_US'),
(840, 'Farm-level effects of adoption herbicide-tolerant soybeans in the U.S.A.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(841, 'Agricultural biotechnology: benefits of transgenic soybeans', 'Soybeans and other crops have been improved genetically for many decades throughtraditional crop breeding ? a technique that requires that species be sexually compatible.With the development of biotechnology methods, scientists have the ability to transfersingle genes from one living organism into another, regardless of species or sexualcompatibility. Varieties that are developed through the transfer of genes between speciesthat are not sexually compatible are referred to as ''transgenic.''Transgenic soybean plants have been developed with a gene from a soil bacteria thatallows the use of an herbicide that would normally kill soybeans. Transgenic soybeanvarieties have been adopted rapidly by U.S. growers (Table 1). Transgenic soybeanacreage represents approximately 60 % of the total acreage planted to transgenic cropsgrown in the U.S. (Corn and cotton are the other major crops with transgenic varietyplantings in the U.S.)Farmers are planting transgenic soybeans in the U.S. because of the weed control benefitsthat result from the use of an herbicide that damages conventional varieties. Thisherbicide, glyphosate (trade name ''Roundup'') is a cost effective solution to many of theweed problems that U.S. soybean growers must overcome every year. The herbicidetolerant transgenic soybean is referred to as ''Roundup Ready.'' The purpose of thisreport is to describe and quantify the weed control benefits provided on soybean acreageplanted with the transgenic varieties in 1998.', 'en_US'),
(842, 'Roundup Ready® soybeans and welfare effects in the soybean complex', 'A three-region world model for the soybean complex is developed to evaluate the welfare effects of Roundup Ready (RR) soybean adoption. The structural modeling of the innovation accounts for farmers'' adoption incentives and for the observed pricing of RR soybean seeds as a proprietary technology. The calibrated model is solved for various scenarios to evaluate the production, price, and welfare impacts of RR soybean adoption. The United States gains substantially from the innovation, with the innovator capturing the larger share of the welfare gains. US farmers benefit in the base scenario, but would be adversely affected if the RR innovation were to increase yields. Spillover of the new technology to foreign competitors erodes the competitive position of domestic soybean producers, and export of the technology per se may not improve the welfare position of the innovating country. Consumers in every region gain from the adoption of RR soybeans.', 'en_US'),
(843, 'Economic analysis of alternative herbicide regimes on Roundup Ready soybeans', 'Roundup (glyphosate) is a nonresidual herbicide that controls grasses and dicot weeds but is injurious to soybeans. The development of Roundup-resistant soybeans [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] (Roundup Ready soybeans) by Monsanto could allow farmers to substitute Roundup for a!! other herbicides to reduce production costs and weed control risk. Field trials at the University of Tennessee Milan Experiment Station from 1995 through 1997 were used to compare 1997 returns above variable costs for Roundup and 11 other herbicide systems on conventionally tilled, Roundup Ready soybeans. Although yields of only four herbicide systems on Roundup Ready soybeans were significantly lower than the yield of Roundup on Roundup Ready soybeans, net returns of nine systems were significantly lower. The significantly lower net returns resulted mostly from higher herbicide costs. Chemical companies would have to reduce the costs of most non-Roundup herbicide systems to unreasonably low levels (close to or less than zero) before farmers would have an economic incentive to use them instead of Roundup on Roundup Ready soybeans. Budgeted production costs for Roundup on Roundup Ready soybeans (Roundup Ready seed at S26/50 lb bag) were also compared with budgeted production costs for the non-Roundup herbicide systems on conventional soybean varieties (public-domain seed at $10.50/50 lb bag). Seven of the 11 non-Roundup herbicide systems on conventional varieties had costs that were greater than Roundup on Roundup Ready soybeans, suggesting that lower seed costs for the non-Roundup systems were more than offset by higher herbicide costs. Yields required to cover the cost differences between the non-Roundup herbicide systems and Roundup on Roundup Ready soybeans were calculated. These yield differences were added to the experimental yield obtained with Roundup on Roundup Ready soybeans to arrive at a break-even yield. A decision criterion for profit-maximizing farmers was developed from these break-even yields; if a profit-maximizing farmer expects to receive a yield from his/her highest-yielding conventional variety that is less than the break-even yield, the farmer should consider planting Roundup Ready soybeans to obtain a higher expected profit. If the decision criterion suggests staying with the conventional variety, the farmer should consider the nonbudgeted benefits of Roundup Ready soybeans, such as improved timeliness of planting and reduced weed control risk, before making the decision. To obtain more conclusive evidence about the relative profitability of Roundup Ready soybeans, future research should include side-by-side variety trials, more years of data, and no-tillage production methods.', 'en_US'),
(844, 'The producer benefits of herbicide-resistant canola', 'The commercial sale of herbicide resistant (HR) canola has raised questions about the benefits of this new technology for seed and chemical companies, farmers, consumers, and other players in the supply chain. In this paper, we argue that the pricing and adoption of HR canola in Canada can not be understood if producers are seen as being homogeneous. We develop a conceptual model of producer heterogeneity that represents the distribution of benefits among producers. In this context, some farmers benefit from the new technology leading to adoption, while others do not. Empirical evidence supports this argument. In addition, the new technology co-exists with the traditional technology.', 'en_US'),
(845, 'Delayed control of weeds in glyphosate-tolerant sugar beet and the consequences on aphid infestation and yield.', 'An experiment was set up in 1998 to study the effect of glyphosate on the weed and pests in glyphosatc-tolerant sugar beet, in comparison with a conventional herbicide regime. Glyphosate at l.OSkg ha-'' was first applied at the two- to four-leaf, S- to lo-leaf and 12- to 14-leaf stage of the crop, followed by a second application at the same rate two to four weeks later. Weed growth did not affect sugar beet emergence or establishment, but, in untreated controls and the two later glyphosate treatments, weeds almost completely covered the ground, leading to reduction of root weight, sugar concentration and yield at harvest. The number of aphids (mostly~v#er.ticae Sulzer) in the beet in June was significantly higher on plots treated with glyphosate at the two- to four-leaf etage than on untreated plots or plots treated later with glyphosate. Large numbers of the leaf curling plum aphid (Brachyctwdus hdichrysi Kaltenbacb) colonised the weeds within untreated or later-treated plots. These were accompanied by predators and parasites which eventually caused substantial mortalie in the aphid populations. There was evidence that glyphosate-treated weeds, although not in competition with the crop, were still able to provide sustenance for aphids. Very low levels of virus yellows were observed in the eial, and there were no significant differences bctwew treatments. The results suggest that the latest application of the first glyphosate spray in a two-spray programme should be before theeight-leaf stage of the sugar beet to prevent weed competition reducing yield. Further studies on late control of weeds and insect diversity are being carried out.', 'en_US'),
(846, 'Glyphosate applied to genetically modified herbicide-tolerant sugar beet and ''volunteer'' potatoes reduces populations of potato cyst nematodes and the number and size of daughter tubers', 'Glyphosate, applied early or later or twice to genetically modified glyphosate-tolerant sugar beet, gave excellent control of planted ''volunteer'' potatoes growing within the crop compared to conventional herbicide programmes with or without clopyralid. In three out of four trials, this resulted in significant reductions in the numbers of eggs and cysts of potato cyst nematodes (Globodera rostochiensis and G: pallida) where infestations were moderate (23-89 eggs g(-1) soil). In the fourth trial, which had very high initial populations (130 eggs g(-1) soil), none of the herbicide treatments had any significant effect on numbers of nematode eggs or cysts. This was probably due to competition for feeding sites, and the early death of the potatoes in all treatments caused by feeding damage by the nematodes and infection by blight, which prevented the nematodes from completing their life cycle. Glyphosate also significantly reduced the number and size of daughter tubers produced, thus helping to prevent a further volunteer problem in the next crop in the rotation. This was achieved by one or two applications of one chemical compared to 2-5 applications of cocktails of conventional herbicides.', 'en_US'),
(847, 'GM sugar beet: the present situation.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(848, 'Flora and fauna in Roundup tolerant fodder beet fields', 'Weed flora and arthropod fauna were investigated in fodder beet plots located on six sites in Jutland, Denmark in June 2000. On each site three treatments were represented viz. traditional beets (T), glyphosate tolerant beets (RR) treated with full Roundup Ready dosage RR100), RR beets treated with half the dosage applied in RR100 (RR50). Roundup Ready were applied later than the traditional herbicides and for a period of time the weed density were higher in RR plots until some time after the second Roundup Ready was applied, then the RR plots became very clean. The arthropod fauna responded to the change in the amount of weed present in the RR plots. It is believed that the faunal response is mainly governed by three mechanisms: 1) the herbivorous fauna component experience more host plants and more flowers in weedy plots, 2) a number of non-herbivorous arthropods prefer the more gentle microclimate in weedy plots and the more complex vegetation structure (web building spiders), 3) predators are attracted by the high prey density in weedy plots including birds.', 'en_US'),
(849, 'World food and agriculture: outlook for the medium and longer term', 'The relationship between food supply and food security is described. The role of food trade in alleviating food insecurity is discussed. The slow-down in the growth of world agricultural production in the 1990s is noted. The widely-held view that the persistence of food insecurity and undernutrition is not a problem of production but one of distribution (or access or entitlements) is assessed and agreed with. The prospects for progress in food and agricultural product availability over the next 15-30 years are reviewed against trends in demography, incomes and poverty.', 'en_US'),
(850, 'Ending world hunger: the promise of biotechnology and the threat of antiscience zealotry', 'During the 20th century, conventional breeding produced a vast number of varieties and hybrids that contributed immensely to higher grain yield, stability of harvests, and farm income. Despite the successes of the Green Revolution, the battle to ensure food security for hundreds of millions miserably poor people is far from won. Mushrooming populations, changing demographics, and inadequate poverty intervention programs have eroded many of the gains of the Green Revolution. This is not to say that the Green Revolution is over. Increases in crop management productivity can be made all along the line: in tillage, water use, fertilization, weed and pest control, and harvesting. However, for the genetic improvement of food crops to continue at a pace sufficient to meet the needs of the 8.3 billion people projected to be on this planet at the end of the quarter century, both conventional technology and biotechnology are needed.', 'en_US'),
(851, 'The growth of demand will limit output growth for food over the next quarter century', 'The rate of growth of world food demand will be much slower for 1990-2010 than it was for the prior three decades. The major factor determining the increase in food demand is population growth. Income growth has a much smaller effect. From 1960 to 1990, population growth accounted for approximately three fourths of the growth in demand or use of grain. For 1990-2010, it is anticipated that population growth will account for nearly all of the increase in world demand for grain. The rate of population growth from1990 to 2020 is projected to be at an annual rate of 1.3% compared with 1.9% for 1960 to 1990-a decline of more than 30%. World per capita use of grain will increase very little-perhaps by 4%. The increase in grain use is projected to be 40% less than in 1960-1990. It is anticipated that real grain prices will decline during the period, although not nearly as much as the 40% decline in the previous three decades. Concern has been expressed concerning the dete-rioration of the quality and productivity of the world''s farmland. A study for China and Indonesia indicates that there has been no significant change in the productive capacity of the land over the past 50 years. Contrary to numerous claims, the depth of the topsoil has not changed, indicating that erosion has had little or no impact.', 'en_US'),
(852, 'Genetic enhancement of crops: the major way remaining to ensure global food security', 'The author discusses the dynamics challenging the potential of global food production and distribution (the impacts of changes in global demography and the growth in per capita domestic income, leading to an increase in demand for meat rather than grain-based food) and argues that the only means of realising world food security is to embrace crop genetic enhancement, especially through biotechnology. The need for an international public policy debate on this issue is emphasised.', 'en_US'),
(853, 'An interspecies hybrid RNA virus is significantly more virulent than either parental virus.', 'Cucumber mosaic cucumovirus (CMV) infects a very wide range of plant species (>1000 species). We recently demonstrated that a previously undescribed gene (2b) encoded by RNA 2 of the tripartite RNA genome of CMV is required for systemic virus spread and disease induction in its hosts. Herein we report that when this CMV gene is replaced by its homologue from tomato aspermy cucumovirus (TAV), the resultant hybrid virus is significantly more virulent, induces earlier onset of systemic symptoms, and accumulates to a higher level in seven host species from three families than either of the parents. Our results indicate that CMV and the TAV 2b protein interact synergistically despite the fact that no synergism occurs in double infections with the two parental viruses. To our knowledge, this is the first example of an interspecific hybrid made from plant or animal RNA viruses that is more efficient in systemic infection of a number of hosts than the naturally occurring parents. As CMV and the hybrid virus accumulated to a similar level in the infected tobacco protoplasts, the observed synergistic responses most likely resulted from an increased efficacy of the hybrid virus in systemic spread in host plants provided by the TAV 2b protein. The relevance of our finding to the application of pathogen-derived resistance is discussed.', 'en_US'),
(854, 'Why safe and effective food biotechnology is in the public interest', NULL, 'en_US'),
(855, 'Biotechnology and food security in the 21st century', NULL, 'en_US'),
(856, 'IFT expert report on biotechnology and foods: Introduction', 'The use of modern biotechnology to produce foods and food ingredients is a subject of significant public interest today, at the consumer, public policy, and scientific levels. The popular press and media have reported a wide range of views on these foods and food ingredients.To promote a meaningful public discussion of these foods and food ingredients, IFT has commissioned three expert panels to review the available scientific literature on three different, but related aspects, of these foods and food ingredients: human food safety, benefits and concerns, and labeling. The panels'' report will also discuss some of the public policy implications of the underlying science.In keeping with the widespread usage in the popular press and media, the report uses the terms ''rDNA biotechnology'' and ''rDNA bio-technology- derived foods'' to describe the application of recombinant DNA, or rDNA, technology to the genetic alteration of plants and micro-organisms, and foods made therefrom. This technology, commonly known as genetic modification or gene splicing, allows for the effective and efficient transfer of genetic material from one organism to another. Instead of cross-breeding plants for many generations or introducing mutations to introduce a desired trait?processes that are imprecise and that sometimes introduce unwanted changes?scientists can identify and insert one or more genes responsible for a particular trait into a plant or microorganism with greater precision and speed, although the current technology produces gene insertions at random locations. These transferred genes, or transgenes, do not have to come from a related species in order to be functional, and can be moved virtually at will among different living organisms.', 'en_US'),
(857, 'Efficacy of a food plant-based oral cholera toxin B subunit vaccine', 'Transgenic potatoes were engineered to synthesize a cholera toxin B subunit (CTB) pentamer with affinity for G,ganglioside. Both serum and intestinal CTBspecific antibodies were induced in orally immunized mice. Mucosal antibody titers declined gradually after the last immunization but were restored following an oral booster of transgenic potato. The cytopathic effect of cholera holotoxin (CT) on Vero celis was neutralized by serum from mice immunized with transgenic potato tissues. Following intraileal injection with CT, the plantimmunized mice showed up to a 60% reduction in diarrhea1 fluid accumulation in the small intestine. Protection against CT was based on inhibition of enterotoxin binding to the cellsur face receptor G,,,,ganglioside. These results demonstrate the abilii of transgenic food plants to generate protective immunity in mice against a bacterial enterotoxin.', 'en_US'),
(858, 'A plant-based cholera toxin B subunit-insulin fusion protein protects against the development of autoimmune diabetes', 'Oral administration of disease-specific autoantigens can prevent or delay the onset of autoimmune disease symptoms. We have generated transgenic potato plants that synthesize human insulin, a major insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus autoantigen, at levels up to 0.05% of total soluble protein. To direct delivery of plant-synthesized insulin to the gut-associated lymphoid tissues, insulin was linked to the C-terminus of the cholera toxin B subunit (CTB). Transgenic potato tubers produced 0.1% of total soluble protein as the pentameric CTB-insulin fusion, which retained GM1-ganglioside binding affinity and native antigenicity of both CTB and insulin. Nonobese diabetic mice fed transformed potato tuber tissues containing microgram amounts of the CTB-insulin fusion protein showed a substantial reduction in pancreatic islet inflammation (insulitis), and a delay in the progression of clinical diabetes. Feeding transgenic potato tissues producing insulin or CTB protein alone did not provide a significant reduction in insulitis or diabetic symptoms. The experimental results indicate that food plants are feasible production and delivery systems for immunotolerization against this T cell-mediated autoimmune disease.', 'en_US'),
(859, 'Oral immunization with a recombinant bacterial antigen produced in transgenic plants', NULL, 'en_US'),
(860, 'Thioredoxin-linked mitigation of allergic responses to wheat', 'Thioredoxin, a ubiquitous 12-kDa regulatory disulfide protein, was found to reduce disulfide bonds of allergens (convert SOS to 2 SH) and thereby mitigate the allergenicity of commercial wheat preparations. Allergenic strength was determined by skin tests with a canine model for food allergy. Statistically significant mitigation was observed with 15 of 16 wheat-sensitive animals. The allergenicity of the protein fractions extracted from wheat f lour with the indicated solvent was also assessed: the gliadins (ethanol) were the strongest allergens, followed by glutenins (acetic acid), albumins (water), and globulins (salt water). Of the gliadins, the a and b fractions were most potent, followed by the g and v types. Thioredoxin mitigated the allergenicity associated with the major protein fractions-i.e, the gliadins (including the a, b, and g types) and the glutenins-but gave less consistent results with the minor fractions, the albumins and globulins. In all cases, mitigation was specific to thioredoxin that had been reduced either enzymically by NADPH and NADP- thioredoxin reductase or chemically by dithiothreitol; reduced glutathione was without significant effect. As in previous studies, thioredoxin was particularly effective in the reduction of intramolecular (intrachain) disulfide bonds. The present results demonstrate that the reduction of these disulfide bonds is accompanied by a statistically significant decrease in allergenicity of the active proteins. This decrease occurs alongside the changes identified previously-i.e., increased susceptibility to proteolysis and heat, and altered biochemical activity. The findings open the door to the testing of the thioredoxin system in the production of hypoallergenic, more-digestible foods.', 'en_US'),
(861, 'Uses of biotechnology in modifying plant lipids', 'This review discusses fatty acid modification of oilseeds with additionai emphasis on production of oxygenated deriva?ives. In a relatively short periud, iess lhan a decade, our understanding of the enzymes involved in plant fatty acid syn thesis has increased to the point where we understand how they might be used in oilseed modification. Further, through modern molecular biological techniques, the actual genes for many of these important enzymes have been cloned. Use of genetic transformation systems has allowed us to fundamentally alter the normal biosynthetic pathways in highly specific ways, in manners that would be either difficult or impossible using traditional breeding techniques. A!teration of plant lipid biosynthesis is not restricted to using genes from the plants themselves, but interspecitis transfer is possible, either from completely unrelated plant species (often of no commercial va!ue but possessing unusual biochemical properties) or from animals, fungi, and prokaryotic organisms. In this way ''designer'' piants possessing altered metabolism, tailored to the interests or needs of certain industries, nutritionists, and the consumer can be created.', 'en_US'),
(862, 'Increased nutritive value of transgenic potato by expressing a non-allergenic seed albumin gene from Amaranthus hypochondriacus', 'Improvement of nutritive value of crop plants, in particular the amino acid composition, has been a major long-term goal of plant breeding programs. Toward this end, we reported earlier the cloning of the seed albumin gene AmA1 from Amaranthus hypochondriacus. The AmA1 protein is nonallergenic in nature and is rich in all essential amino acids, and the composition corresponds well with the World Health Organization standards for optimal human nutrition. In an attempt to improve the nutritional value of potato, the AmA1 coding sequence was successfully introduced and expressed in tuber-specific and constitutive manner. There was a striking increase in the growth and production of tubers in transgenic populations and also of the total protein content with an increase in most essential amino acids. The expressed protein was localized in the cytoplasm as well as in the vacuole of transgenic tubers. Thus we have been able to use a seed albumin gene with a well-balanced amino acid composition as a donor protein to develop a transgenic crop plant. The results document, in addition to successful nutritional improvement of potato tubers, the feasibility of genetically modifying other crop plants with novel seed protein composition.', 'en_US'),
(863, 'Nutritional genomics: manipulating plant micronutrients to improve human health.', 'The nutritional health and well-being of humans are entirely dependent on plant foods either directly or indirectly when plants are consumed by animals. Plant foods provide almost all essential vitamins and minerals and a number of other health-promoting phytochemicals. Because micronutrient concentrations are often low in staple crops, research is under way to understand and manipulate synthesis of micronutrients in order to improve crop nutritional quality. Genome sequencing projects are providing novel approaches for identifying plant biosynthetic genes of nutritional importance. The term ''nutritional genomics'' is used to describe work at the interface of plant biochemistry, genomics, and human nutrition.', 'en_US'),
(864, 'Improved stearate phenotype in transgenic canola expressing a modified acyl-acyl carrier protein thioesterase', 'The engineering of crops for selected fatty acid production is one of the major goals of plant biotechnology. The Garm FatA1, an acyl-acyl carrier protein (ACP) thioesterase isolated from Garcinia mangostana, generates an elevated stearate (18:0) phenotype in transgenic Brassica plants. By site-directed mutagenesis, we generated seven mutants that showed up to a 13-fold increase in specific enzyme activity toward 18:0-ACP in vitro. The seed-specific expression of mutant S111A/V193A in Brassica plants results in transgenic plants that accumulate 55-68% more stearate than plants expressing the wild-type enzyme. Our results demonstrate that a thioesterase can be engineered to increase specific activity and that its improved function demonstrated in vitro is retained in vivo.', 'en_US'),
(865, 'Improved phytonutrient content through plant genetic improvement', 'During the twentieth century, plant breeding and genetics improved the nutritive value of horticultural and agronomic crops, particularly of macro-nutrients and fiber. Current research focuses more on micronutrients. Successful development of phytonutrient-enriched crop plants will be bolstered by interdisciplinary collaborative research, analytical and biotechnology advances, and public education. Although the melding of plant and nutrition research holds great promise, the genetic enhancement of crop plants for improved phytonutrient content will be challenging. This paper reviews the knowledge base on which genetic enhancement may be based, identifies gaps in scientific knowledge and technical capacities, and suggests a role for the federal government in research.', 'en_US'),
(866, 'Efficient animal nutrition to feed tommorrow''s world', NULL, 'en_US'),
(867, 'Potential for increasing the content and bioavailability of Fe, Zn and Ca in plants for human nutrition', 'This paper reviews the possibility and limits for increasing the content and bioavailability of iron (Fe), zinc (Zn) and calcium (Ca) in edible parts of staple crops, such as cereals, pulses, roots and tubers as a way to combat mineral deficiencies in human populations. Theoretically, this could be achieved by increasing the total level of Fe, Zn and Ca in the plant foods, while at the same time increasing the concentration of compounds which promote their uptake (ascorbic acid), and/or by decreasing the concentration of compounds which inhibit their absorption (phytic acid or phenolic compounds). The content of Zn and Ca in grains and fruits can in some cases be increased through soil and/or foliar applications of Zn and Ca fertilisers. Plant breeding and genetic engineering techniques, however, have the greatest potential to increase Fe and Zn content in grains, roots and tubers. The possibility of enhancing Ca and ascorbic acid content in plant foods by plant breeding and genetic engineering remained to be explored. The critical factor is to ensure that the extra minerals have an adequate bioavailability for man. Given the important role of phytic acid and polyphenols in plant physiology, reducing the levels of these compounds in the edible parts of plants does not appear to be wise although introduction of phytases which are active during digestion is an exciting possibility. (C) 2000 Society of Chemical Industry.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(868, 'Transgenic plants as factories for biopharmaceuticals', 'Plants have considerable potential for the production of biopharmaceutical proteins and peptides because they are easily transformed and provide a cheap source of protein. Several biotechnology companies are now actively developing, field testing, and patenting plant expression systems, while clinical trials are proceeding on the first biopharmaceuticals derived from them. One transgenic plant-derived biopharmaceutical, hirudin, is now being commercially produced in Canada for the first time. Product purification is potentially an expensive process, and various methods are currently being developed to overcome this problem, including oleosin-fusion technology, which allows extraction with oil bodies. In some cases, delivery of a biopharmaceutical product by direct ingestion of the modified plant potentially removes the need for purification. Such biopharmaceuticals and edible vaccines can be stored and distributed as seeds, tubers, or fruits, making immunization programs in developing countries cheaper and potentially easier to administer. Some of the most expensive biopharmaceuticals of restricted availability, such as glucocerebrosidase, could become much cheaper and more plentiful through production in transgenic plants.', 'en_US'),
(869, 'Iron fortification of rice seed by the soybean ferritin gene', 'To improve the iron content of rice, we have transferred the entire coding sequence of the soybean ferritin gene into Oryza sativa (L. cv. Kita-ake) by Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. The rice seed-storage protein glutelin promoter, GluB-1, was used to drive expression of the soybean gene specifically in developing, self-pollinated seeds (T1 seeds) of transgenic plants, as confirmed by reverse transcription PCR analysis. Stable accumulation of the ferritin subunit in the rice seed was demonstrated by western blot analysis, and its specific accumulation in the endosperm by immunologic tissue printing. The iron content of T1 seeds was as much as threefold greater than that of their untransformed counterparts.', 'en_US'),
(870, 'Fortified foods and phytoremediation. two sides of the same coin', 'The global population is expected to reach 7 billion by the year 2013. How are we going to feed the world, prevent further degradation of our environment, and begin to reverse the damage that our increasingly industrialized society has already caused to the biosphere? We argue that plants with enhanced mineral acquisition and storage strategies can help us to achieve these goals. For example, we can use crop plants with an augmented capacity to accumulate minerals to aid sustainable agriculture and to improve human health through balanced mineral nutrition. We can also use plants to accumulate toxic metals from polluted soils and waters for cleanup purposes. Each of these goals requires understanding how plants accumulate and store minerals. This includes understanding mineral element bioavailability in the rhizosphere and root uptake, as well as translocation to and processing in the above ground parts of the plant.', 'en_US'),
(871, 'Comparison of the effects of plant sterol ester and plant stanol ester-enriched margarines in lowering serum cholesterol concentrations in hypercholesterolaemic subjects on a low-fat diet', 'Objective: To investigate cholesterollowering effects of stauol ester (STAEST) and sterol ester (STEEST) enriched margarines as part of a lowfat diet.Design: According to a Latin square model randomized doubleblind repeated measures design with three test margarines and three periods.Setting: Outpatient clinical trial with freeliving subjects.Subjects: Thirty-four hypercholesterolaemic subjects completed the study.Interventions: Subjects consumed three rapeseed oil-based test margarines (STAEST, STEEST and control (no added stauols or sterols)) as part of a low-fat diet each for 4 weeks.Results: Mean daily intake of total plant sterols plus stauols was 2.012.04g during the two test margarine periods. In reference to control, serum total cholesterol was reduced by 9.2 and 7.3% with the STAEST and STEEST margarine, respectively (Pt0.001 for both). The respective reductions for low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol were 12.7 and 10.4% (Pt0.001). The cholesterollowering effects of the test margarines did not differ significantly. The presence of apolipoprotein E4 allele had a significant effect on LDL cholesterol response during the STAEST margarine only. Serum sitosterol and campesterol increased by 0.83 and 2.77mg/l with the STEEST (P<O.OOl), respectively and decreased by 1.18 and 2.60mg/l with the STAEST margarine (Pt0.001). Increases of serum sitostanol and campestauol were 0.11 and O.l9mg/l with the STAEST margarine (P<O.OOl), respectively. No significant changes were found in serum fatsoluble vitamin and carotenoid concentrations when related to serum total cholesterol.Conclusions: STAEST and STEEST margarines reduced significantly and equally serum total and LDL cholesterol concentrations as part of a lowfat diet.Sponsorship: Grant to the University of Kuopio by Raisio Benecol Ltd, Raisio, Finland.Descriptors: cholesterollowering diet; hypercholesterolaemic; plant sterols; plant stanols; carotenoids; vitamins; apolipoprotein E European Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2000) 54, 7157', 'en_US'),
(872, 'Delivery of immunoprophylactics in transgenic plants - current status', 'The search for economic alternatives for the production of recombinant immunoprophylactics has resulted in the concept of generating them in plants at relatively low cost. Two basic strategies are employed: the expression of recombinant antigens or antibodies in transgenic plants, or the presentation of small antigen epitopes on the surface of genetically modified plant viruses. Both approaches have resulted in the production of biologically active immunoprophylactics that have been shown in animal studies to protect from the development of disease symptoms. An especially interesting feature of producing vaccines in edible plant parts is the potential to use the transgenic plant as a vehicle for oral delivery. Substantial progress has been made over the past few years, and the first clinical trials have demonstrated the potential of this new technology. Future challenges are to express the immunoprophylactics at controlled, high concentrations in plants that could be grown locally where they are needed, and to develop easy and standardised administration procedures.', 'en_US'),
(873, 'Biotechnology - a means for improving our food supply: use of genetic manipulation techniques can benefit plant and animal agriculture, food processing, and waste management', NULL, 'en_US'),
(874, 'Production of high-value compounds: carotenoids and vitamin E.', 'The unraveling in recent years of the pathways and genes that are responsible for biosynthesis of vitamins and carotenoids in plants has provided new molecular tools that can be utilized to genetically modify the content and composition of these compounds in vivo. There have been recent examples of successful manipulation of carotenoid composition and vitamin E activity in plants using gene-transfer technology.', 'en_US'),
(875, 'A plant-derived edible vaccine against hepatitis B virus [Erratum: 13: 2339-2340]', 'The infectious hepatitis B virus represents 42 nm spherical double-shelled particles. However, analysis of blood from hepatitis B virus carriers revealed the presence of smaller 22 nm particles consisting of a viral envelope surface protein. These particles are highly immunogenic and have been used in the design of hepatitis B virus vaccine produced in yeast. Upon expression in yeast, these proteins form virus-like particles that are used for parenteral immunization. Therefore, the DNA fragment encoding hepatitis B virus surface antigen was introduced into Agrobacterium tumerifacience LBA4404 and used to obtain transgenic lupin (Lupinus luteus L.) and lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) cv. Burpee Bibb expressing envelope surface protein. Mice that were fed the transgenic lupin tissue developed significant levels of hepatitis B virus-specific antibodies. Human volunteers, fed with transgenic lettuce plants expressing hepatitis B virus surface antigen, developed specific serum-IgG response to plant produced protein.', 'en_US'),
(876, 'Agricultural approaches to improving phytonnutrient content in plants: an overview', 'Recent advances in plant molecular biology, functional genomics, and biochemistry have opened up a number of new avenues of research that will enable plant biologists to characterize, increase and modify plant content of a wide range of essential minerals and vitamins, as well as a number of secondary plant compounds that appear to play a role in improving human health and nutrition. In this review, several examples of exciting new research applying plant genomic and molecular genetic approaches to the improvement of phytonutrient content and composition in plants are presented. Research focusing on the elucidation of many of these complex biosynthetic and transport pathways in plants will require considerable resources in terms of funding, time, and personnel. As plant biologists move into interdisciplinary collaborations with nutritionists and food scientists, attention must be paid to a more complete identification and characterization of specific bioactive phytonutrients. Also, a more detailed assessment of the health-promoting properties of these compounds is needed, particularly for many of the secondary plant compounds for which clear epidemiologic and clinical data are still lacking. Finally, in order for significant progress to be made in modifying the nutrient composition of crops, a major investment must be made by funding agencies.', 'en_US'),
(877, 'Edible vaccines', 'Vaccines have accomplished near miracles in the fight against infectious disease. They have consigned smallpox to history and should soon do the same for polio. By the late 1990s an international campaign to immunize all the world''s children against six devastating diseases was reportedly reaching 80 percent of infants (up from about 5 percent in the mid-1970s) and was reducing the animal death toll from those infections by roughly three million.Yet these victories mask tragic gaps in delivery. The 20 percent of infants still missed by the six vaccines - against diphtheria, pertussis (whooping cough), polio, measles, tetanus and tuberculosis - account for about two million unnecessary deaths each year, especially in the most remote and impoverished parts of the globe. Upheavals in many developing nations now threaten to erode the advances of the recent past, and millions still die from infectious diseases for which immunizations are nonexistent, unreliable or too costly.This situation is worrisome not only for the places that lack health care but for the entire world. Regions harboring infections that have faded from other areas are like bombs ready to explode. When environmental or social disasters undermine sanitation systems or displace communities - bringing people with little immunity into contact with carriers - infections that have been long gone from a population can come roaring back. Further, as international travel and trade make the earth a smaller place, diseases that arise in one locale are increasingly popping up continents away. Until everyone has routine access to vaccines, no one will be entirely safe.', 'en_US'),
(878, 'Enhancing vegetable oil quality through plant breeding and genetic engineering', 'Vegetable oils continue to be one of the world''s most important plant commodities, with current annual production in the region of 65 million metric tons. About two-thirds of this production is used in food products, and the rest is used in a variety of industrial applications (Ohlrogge, 1994). Vegetable oils constituted more than 99% of total U.S. consumption of edible fats and oils in 1993 (USDA, 19941.Like protein, carbohydrate and water, fats and oils are a major nutrient. Yet, over the years, they have become the number one concern for consumers. As a result, food technologists and plant breeders are forced to do something about them. A common goal has been to modify their fatty acid composition. However, there is a fundamental difference in approaches used between food technologists and plant breeders. While food technologists are busy searching new processing methods to enhance quality of the existing fats and oils, plant breeders are working hard to produce new vegetable oils with altered fatty acid composition.Hydrogenation, interesterification, and fractionation are among the tools used by food technologists to give fats and oils desired functionality for specific products (Haumann, 1994. The tools used by plant breeders have been selections, crossing, and mutation. However, the current trend is to combine these conventional methods with the newly emerging biotechnological approach. In this article, we will 6rst discuss the need for fatty acid modification, then review conventional breeding, including mutagenesis; focus on how biotechnological approaches can be used to facilitate plant breeding; and point out trends in oilseed breeding.', 'en_US'),
(879, 'Biotechnology and our food supply', NULL, 'en_US'),
(880, 'Edible vaccine protects mice against Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin (LT): potatoes expressing a synthetic LT-B gene', 'The authors have designed and constructed a plantoptimized synthetic gene encoding the Escherichia coli heatlabile enterotoxin B subunit (LTB), for use in transgenic plants as a edible vaccine against enterotaxigenic E. coli. Expression of the synthetic LTB gene in potato plants under the control of a constitutive promoter yielded increased accumulation of LTB in leaves and tubers, as compared to the bacterial LTB gene. The plantderived LTB assembled into native pentameric structures as evidenced by its ability to bind gangliaside. The authors demonstrated immunogenicity by feeding mice the raw tubers and comparing the antiLTB serum IgG and faecal IgA to that produced in mice gavaged with bacterial LTB. Mice were fed three weekly doses of 5 g tuber tissue containing either 20 or 50 ug LTB, or gavaged weekly with 5 ug of LTB from recombinant E. coli. One week after the third dose, mice immunized with potato LTB had higher levels of serum and mucosal antiLTB than those gavaged with bacterial LTB had higher levels of serum and mucosal antiLTB than those gavaged with bacterial LTB. Mice were challenged by oral administration of 25 ug LT, and protection assessed by comparing the gutlacreass mass ratios. Although none of the mice were completely protected, the higher does potato vaccine compared favourably with the bacterial vaccine. These findings show that an edible vaccine against E. coli LTB is feasible © 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.', 'en_US'),
(881, 'Overexpression of petunia chalcone isomerase in tomato results in fruit containing increased levels of flavonols', 'Tomatoes are an excellent source of the carotenoid lycopene, a compound that is thought to be protective against prostate cancer. They also contain small amounts of flavonoids in their peel (5-10 mg/kg fresh weight), mainly naringenin chalcone and the flavonol rutin, a quercetin glycoside. Flavonols are very potent antioxidants, and an increasing body of epidemiological data suggests that high flavonoid intake is correlated with a decreased risk for cardiovascular disease. We have upregulated flavonol biosynthesis in the tomato in order to generate fruit with increased antioxidant capacity and a wider range of potential health benefit properties. This involved transformation of tomato with the Petunia chi-a gene encoding chalcone isomerase. Resulting transgenic tomato lines produced an increase of up to 78 fold in fruit peel flavonols, mainly due to an accumulation of rutin. No gross phenotypical differences were observed between high-flavonol transgenic and control lines. The phenotype segregated with the transgene and demonstrated a stable inheritance pattern over four subsequent generations tested thus far. Whole-fruit flavonol levels in the best of these lines are similar to those found in onions, a crop with naturally high levels of flavonol compounds. Processing of high-flavonol tomatoes demonstrated that 65% of flavonols present in the fresh fruit were retained in the processed paste, supporting their potential as raw materials for tomato-based functional food products.', 'en_US'),
(882, 'Production of novel oils in plants', 'We have now isolated the great majority of genes encoding enzymes of storage oil biosynthesis in plants. In the past two years, particular progress has been made with acyltransferases, ketoacylacyl carrier protein synthetases and with desaturases and their relatives. In some cases, these enzymes have been re engineered to create novel products. Nevertheless, the single or multiple insertion of such transgenes into oil crops has not always led to the desired phenotype. We are only now beginning to appreciate some of the complexities of storage and membrane lipid formation, such as acyl group remodelling and the turnover of unusual fatty acids. This understanding will be vital for future attempts at the rational engineering of transgenic oil crops. In parallel with this, the domestication of plants already synthesising useful fatty acids should be considered as a real alternative to the transgenic approach to producing novel oil crops.', 'en_US'),
(883, 'Engineering oil production in rapeseed and other oil crops', 'The first transgenic crop with a modified seed composition a lauricoil rapeseed was cultivated for commercial use in 1995, and many additional transgenic rapeseed varieties, expressing a variety of novel seed&s or grateins, are under development. Research advances in Arabidopsis molecular genetics, and the emerging Brass&Arabidopsis genome relatedness, will enable the radical manipulation of many key agronomic traits in rapeseed, ranging from greatly improved seedoil yield and quality, to improwed disease resistance, pod shattering and canopy architecture. Many of these advances will be directly applicable to other oil crops, including highyielding tropical perennials such as oil palm.', 'en_US'),
(884, 'Rice allergenic protein and molecular-genetic approach for hypoallergenic rice', 'Allergenic proteins with a molecular mass of about 14 to 16 kDa were isolated from a rice salt-soluble fraction based on the reactivity with IgE antibodies from patients allergic to rice. cDNA clones encoding these allergenic proteins were isolated from a cDNA library of maturing ricre seeds, and the deduced amino acid sequences showed considerable similarity to wheat and barley x-amylase/trypsin inhibitors, which have recently been identified as major allergens associated with baker''s asthma. An antisense RNA strategy was applied to repress the allergen gene expression in maturing rice seeds. Immunoblotting and ELISA analyses of the seeds using a monoclonal antibody to a 16-kDa allergen showed that allergen content of seeds from several transgenic rice plants was markedly lower than that of the seeds from parental wild type rice.', 'en_US'),
(885, 'Biotechnological production of phyto-pharmaceuticals', 'This review deals with prodn. of pharmaceutically important compds. through plant cell cultures, organ cultures, genetically transformed root cultures and transgenic plants. A scale-up of in vitro systems and biotransformation of low value substrates to high value products has also been dealt with. Recent developments in transgenic research has opened up the possibility of the metabolic engineering of biosynthetic pathways to produce phyto-pharmaceuticals. Prodn. of novel mols. such as antibodies, vaccines, ribosome inactivating proteins, anti-tumor agents and other biol. active compds. from transgenic plants will be the area of major thrust in the years to come.', 'en_US'),
(886, 'Production of hepatitis B surface antigen in transgenic plants for oral immunization', 'Here we present data showing oral immunogenicity of recombinant hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) in preclinical animal trials. Mice fed transgenic HBsAg potato tubers showed a primary immune response (increases in HBsAg-specific serum antibody) that could be greatly boosted by intraperitoneal delivery of a single subimmunogenic dose of commercial HBsAg vaccine, indicating that plants expressing HBsAg in edible tissues may be a new means for oral hepatitis B immunization. However, attainment of such a goal will require higher HBsAg expression than was observed for the potatoes used in this study. We conducted a systematic analysis of factors influencing the accumulation of HBsAg in transgenic potato, including 5'' and 3'' flanking elements and protein targeting within plant cells. The most striking improvements resulted from (1) alternative polyadenylation signals, and (2) fusion proteins containing targeting signals designed to enhance integration or retention of HBsAg in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of plant cells.', 'en_US'),
(887, 'Elevation of the provitamin A content of transgenic tomato plants', 'Tomato products are the principal dietary sources of lycopene and major source of -carotene, both of which have been shown to benefit human health. To enhance the carotenoid content and profile of tomato fruit, we have produced transgenic lines containing a bacterial carotenoid gene (crtI) encoding the enzyme phytoene desaturase, which converts phytoene into lycopene. Expression of this gene in transgenic tomatoes did not elevate total carotenoid levels. However, the -carotene content increased about threefold, up to 45% of the total carotenoid content. Endogenous carotenoid genes were concurrently upregulated, except for phytoene synthase, which was repressed. The alteration in carotenoid content of these plants did not affect growth and development. Levels of noncarotenoid isoprenoids were unchanged in the transformants. The phenotype has been found to be stable and reproducible over at least four generations.', 'en_US'),
(888, 'Seed-specific overexpression of phytoene synthase: increase in carotenoids and other metabolic effects', 'A bacterial phytoene synthase (crtB) gene was overexpressed in a seed-specific manner and the protein product targeted to the plastid in Brassica napus. The resultant embryos from these transgenic plants were visibly orange and the mature seed contained up to a 50-fold increase in carotenoids. The predominant carotenoids accumulating in the seeds of the transgenic plants were alpha and beta -carotene. Other precursors such as phytoene were also detected. Lutein, the predominant carotenoid in control seeds, was not substantially increased in the transgenics. The total amount of carotenoids in these seeds is now equivalent to or greater than that seen in the mesocarp of oil palm. Other metabolites in the isoprenoid pathway were examined in these seeds. Sterol levels remained essentially the same, while tocopherol levels decreased significantly as compared to non-transgenic controls. Chlorophyll levels were also reduced in developing transgenic seed. Additionally, the fatty acyl composition was altered, with the transgenic seeds having a relatively higher percentage of the 18:1 (oleic acid) component and a decreased percentage of the 18:2 (linoleic acid) and 18:3 (linolenic acid) components. This dramatic increase in flux through the carotenoid pathway and other metabolic effects are discussed.', 'en_US'),
(889, 'Elevating the vitamin E content of plants through metabolic engineering', 'Alpha-Tocopherol (vitamin E) is a lipid-soluble antioxidant synthesized only by photosynthetic organisms. alpha-Tocopherol is an essential component of mammalian diets, and intakes in excess of the U.S. recommended daily allowance are correlated with decreased incidence of a number of degenerative human diseases. Plant oils, the main dietary source of tocopherols, typically contain alpha-tocopherol as a minor component and high levels of its biosynthetic precursor, gamma-tocopherol. A genomics-based approach was used to clone the final enzyme in alpha-tocopherol synthesis, gamma-tocopherol methyltransferase. Overexpression of gamma-tocopherol methyltransferase in Arabidopsis seeds shifted oil compositions in favor of alpha-tocopherol. Similar increases in agricultural oil crops would increase vitamin E levels in the average U.S. diet.', 'en_US'),
(890, 'The production of antibodies in plants: an idea whose time has come?', 'Use of transgenic plants for the production of monoclonal antibodies is discussed. Possible applications include immunomodulation of plant metabolism, bioreactors and human immunotherapy. Issues concerning the cost of these ''plantibodies'' are also considered.', 'en_US'),
(891, 'High-yield production of a human therapeutic protein in tobacco chloroplasts', 'Transgenic plants have become attractive systems for production of human therapeutic proteins because of the reduced risk of mammalian viral contaminants, the ability to do large scale-up at low cost, and the low maintenance requirements. Here we report a feasibility study for production of a human therapeutic protein through transplastomic transformation technology, which has the additional advantage of increased biological containment by apparent elimination of the transmission of transgenes through pollen. We show that chloroplasts can express a secretory protein, human somatotropin, in a soluble, biologically active, disulfide-bonded form. High concentrations of recombinant protein accumulation are observed (>7% total soluble protein), more than 300-fold higher than a similar gene expressed using a nuclear transgenic approach. The plastid-expressed somatotropin is nearly devoid of complex post-translational modifications, effectively increasing the amount of usable recombinant protein. We also describe approaches to obtain a somatotropin with a non-methionine N terminus, similar to the native human protein. The results indicate that chloroplasts are a highly efficient vehicle for the potential production of pharmaceutical proteins in plants.', 'en_US'),
(892, 'Cereal crops as viable production and storage systems for pharmaceutical scFv antibodies', 'This report describes the stable expression of a medically important antibody in the staple cereal crops rice and wheat. We successfully expressed a single-chain Fv antibody (ScFvT84.66) against carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA), a well characterized tumor-associated marker antigen. scFv constructs were engineered for recombinant antibody targeting to the plant cell apoplast and ER. Up to 30 mu g/g of functional recombinant antibody was detected in the leaves and seeds of wheat and rice. We confirmed that transgenic dry seeds could be stored for at least five months at room temperature, without significant loss of the amount or activity of scFvT84.66. Our results represent the first transition from model plant expression systems, such as tobacco and Arabidopsis, to widely cultivated cereal crops, such as rice and wheat, for expression of an antibody molecule that has already shown efficacy in clinical applications. Thus, we have established that molecular pharming in cereals can be a viable production system for such high-value pharmaceutical macromolecules. Our findings provide a strong foundation for exploiting alternative uses of cereal crops both in industrialized and developing countries.', 'en_US'),
(893, 'Immunogenicity in humans of a recombinant bacterial antigen delivered in a transgenic potato', 'Compared with vaccine delivery by injection, oral vaccines offer the hope of more convenient immunization strategies and a more practical means of implementing universal vaccination programs throughout the world. Oral vaccines act by stimulating the immune system at effector sites (lymphoid tissue) located in the gut. Genetic engineering has been used with variable success to design living and non-living systems as a means to deliver antigens to these sites and to stimulate a desired immune response14. More recently, plant biotechnology techniques have been used to create plants which contain a gene derived from a human pathogen; the resultant plant tissues will accumulate an antigenic protein encoded by the foreign DNA510. In pre-clinical trials, we found that antigenic proteins produced in transgenic plants retained immunogenic properties when purified; if injected into mice the antigen caused production of protein-specific antibodies6. Moreover, in some experiments, if the plant tissues were simply fed to mice, a mucosal immune response occurred710. The present study was conducted as a proof of principle to determine if humans would also develop a serum and/or mucosal immune response to an antigen delivered in an uncooked foodstuff.', 'en_US'),
(894, 'Human immune responses to a novel norwalk virus vaccine delivered in transgenic potatoes', 'A new approach for delivering vaccine antigens is the use of inexpensive, plentiful, plant-based oral vaccines. Norwalk virus capsid protein (NVCP), assembled into virus-like particles, was used as a test antigen, to determine whether immune responses could be generated in volunteers who ingested transgenic potatoes. Twenty-four healthy adult volunteers received 2 or 3 doses of transgenic potato (n = 20) or 3 doses of wild-type potato (n = 4). Each dose consisted of 150 g of raw, peeled, diced potato that contained 215751 g of NVCP. Nineteen (95%) of 20 volunteers who ingested transgenic potatoes developed significant increases in the numbers of specific IgA antibodysecreting cells. Four (20%) of 20 volunteers developed specific serum IgG, and 6 (30%) of 20 volunteers developed specific stool IgA. Overall, 19 of 20 volunteers developed an immune response of some kind, although the level of serum antibody increases was modest.', 'en_US'),
(895, 'Reduction of 14-15kDa allergenic proteins in transgenic rice plants by antisense gene', 'An antisense gene strategy was applied to suppress the 14-16 kDa allergen gene expression in maturing rice seeds. Gene constructs producing antisense RNAs of the 16 kDa allergen under the control of some rice seed-specific promoters were introduced into rice by electroporation. Immunoblot and RNA blot analyses of the seeds from the transgenic rice plants using the allergen-specific monoclonal antibody and a sequence-specific antisense RNA probe demonstrated that the 14-16 kDa allergen proteins and their transcripts of the seeds from several transgenic lines were present in much lower in amounts than those of the seeds from parental wild-type rice. The high levels of reduction observed were stably inherited in at least three generations.', 'en_US'),
(896, 'Plants for delivery of edible vaccines', 'Over the past decade, scientific advances in molecular biology and immunology have improved understanding of many diseases and led to the development of novel strategies for vaccination. The development of plants expressing vaccine antigens is a particularly promising approach. Plant-derived antigenic proteins have delayed or prevented the onset of disease in animals and have proven to be safe and functional in human clinical trials. Future areas of research should further characterize the induction of the mucosal immune system and appropriate crop species for delivery of animal and human vaccines.', 'en_US'),
(897, 'Predictions of biodiversity response to genetically modified herbicide-tolerant crops', 'We simulated the effects of the introduction of genetically modified herbicide-tolerant (GMHT) crops on weed populations and the consequences for seed-eating birds. We predict that weed populations might be reduced to low levels or practically eradicated, depending on the exact form of management. Consequent effects on the local use of fields by birds might be severe, because such reductions represent a major loss of food resources. The regional impacts of GMHT crops are shown to depend on whether the adoption of GMHT crops by farmers covaries with current weed levels.', 'en_US'),
(898, 'Transgenics for a better tomato.', 'Centuries ago when farmers planted and harvested their crops, they knew little about the science involved. Nor did they have a large seed stock. But today, science is helping farmers improve their seed selection. As a result, consumers have access to a wide variety of safe, plentiful, and nutritious foods. In the future, new biotechnology tools like genetic engineering can help plant breeders continue this trend.   Scientists like ARS plant physiologist Autar K. Mattoo know the powerful contributions that science and technology can make to the world''s food supply. ''Our goal is to develop plants for improved nutrition, longer shelf life, and resistance to harmful pathogens,'' says Mattoo, who heads the ARS Vegetable Laboratory in Beltsville, Maryland.', 'en_US'),
(899, 'Plant biotechnology: output traits - the second generation of plant biotechnology products in gaining momentum', 'Plant biotechnology and its commercialisation is in its blooming phase. In 1998, more than 28 million hectares of transgenic crop plants were grown worldwide. ''This 28 mil lion hectares was spread over several countries, the largest area of transgenic crops b''eing grown in the USA (22 mil lion hectares) followed by Canada (1.8 million hectares), Argentina (1.8 million hectares) and the Peoples Republic of China (estimated at 1.1 million hectares ). Equally impressive as the total area of transgenic crops planted is the market share individual crops have gained. Thus, it is estimated that in 1998 in the ITS 40% of the cotton, 24% of corn and 40% of soybean planted was transgenic. This is an absolutely dramatic figure considering the fact that the commercialisation phase of transgenic crops in the US started no earlier than 1996, at that time the total acreage being about 1.5 million hectares. Thus, in only two years the transgenic crops of three of the most important US crops (i.e. corn, soybean :and cotton) conquered a market share of more than 30% starting from virtually zero. This is by all means a truly breathtaking development.This dramatic change in the corresponding markets becomes even more impressive upon realising that the dri ving forces behind this revolution are essentially only two classes of genes. One class confers resistance to herbicides, such as glyphosate or liberty, the second class confers resis tance to the larvae of certain detrimental insects.Such a dramatic change of existing markets has had a bearing on the structure of the industry. Firstly, due to the fact that transgenic herbicideresistant plants allow the farmer to evaluate the weed pressure before he decides to use the herbicide, the total amount of herbi cide applied in cases where transgenic crops are planted is reduced by on average 3040%. Secondly, market shares in the herbicide market are changing from species specific (selective) herbicides towards broadspectrum herbicides with the subsequent consequences for the sales and profits of the corresponding industries. In the case of transgenic insectresistant plants, in an analogous way the amount of chemical insecticides used was reduced by up to 80% with the corresponding implica tions for the insecticideselling industries.', 'en_US'),
(900, 'The use of the Monsanto draft rice genome sequence in research', 'Monsanto recently produced a draft of a rice (Oryza sativa) genome in support of its ongoing internal research programs in genomics and crop improvement. The sequence data were produced primarily in the laboratories of Dr. Leroy Hood (University of Washington, Seattle) under contract for Monsanto. In addition to being one of the most important world food crops, rice serves as a useful research model. The syntenic relation between the rice genome and those of other cereal grasses has been widely recognized and the availability of detailed information about the rice genome will likely advance global efforts to improve other major food crops in the grass family, including corn (maize), wheat, barley, sorghum, millet, and others. The increased research in rice may be expected to have many direct and indirect benefits for this critical crop and its relatives, and ultimately may contribute to an improvement in food production in many world areas. The International Rice Research Institute (Los Banos, The Philippines) estimates that 1 billion new rice consumers will be added in Asia by 2020. By that date, 4 billion peoplemore than onehalf the world''s populationwill depend on rice as a staple of their diet. The Monsanto draft rice genome sequence was produced from rice cv Nipponbare, a japonica variety that has been used widely in genetic studies in ricethe same cultivar used by the International Rice Genome Sequencing Project (IRGSP; http://rgp.dna.affrc.go.jp/Seqcollab.html). Formally launched in February 1998 to complete and publish the entire genome sequence of rice, IRGSP members have agreed to use a single germplasm, to share materials and information, to immediately make public completed portions of the genome, to achieve certain accuracy standards, and to coordinate their work. In early 2000, Monsanto decided to share the draft sequence data with the IRGSP to benefit this 11member consortium in reaching its primary objective soonerthe production of a complete and finished sequence of the genome of rice cv Nipponbare. Monsanto''s sequence data and supporting materials have been made available to the IRGSP through the Japanese Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries, the lead agency in the IRGSP, which distributes the company''s data to members according to their assigned chromosome. The work of the IRGSP is expected to continue, incorporating data from Monsanto''s draft sequence, until the entire rice genome sequence has been completed. As each segment (in units of P1 artificial chromosomes or bacterial artificial chromosomes [BACs]) of the sequence is completed, it will be placed in public databases, in accordance with existing IRGSP policy. The availability of the draft sequence and the related materials is expected to reduce both time and cost for the IRGSP.', 'en_US'),
(901, 'Biotechnology and the poor', 'Eight hundred million people on earth are poor and malnourished. They live on less than a dollar a day and cannot be sure that their fields will yield enough food or that they will earn enough money to buy food. Forty thousand people die each day of malnutrition, one-half of them children. The doubling of food production enabled by the Green Revolution unfortunately did not solve the problems of malnutrition and hunger. There were about a billion hungry people some 40 years ago, and population projections show that there may still be 600 million poor people by 2025, when the earth''s population will have grown to 8 billion. The Green Revolution did many things, but it did not wipe out poverty. Not enough jobs were created in either the rural areas or the cities to generate the purchasing power that provides farmers with the incentive to grow more food. It is ironic that hunger persists while the prices for agricultural commodities are at an all-time low. Can this problem be solved?', 'en_US'),
(902, 'Feeding the world in the twenty-first century', 'This paper discusses how advances in plant biotechnology can be deployed to prevent a growing population going hungry in the 21st century, now that gains in food production provided by the Green Revolution in the last half of the 20th century appear to have reached their ceiling. Consideration is given to: the cost of biotechnology; the potential of genetic engineering; biotechnology research useful in Developing Countries; problems associated with the use of gene-protection technologies; intellectual property rights; and solutions to speed the development of biotechnology capacity.', 'en_US'),
(903, 'Transgenic plants for tropical regions: some considerations about their development and their transfer to the small farmer', 'Biotechnological applications, especially transgenic plants, probably hold the most promise in augmenting agricultural production in the first decades of the next millennium. However, the application of these technologies to the agriculture of tropical regions where the largest areas of low productivity are located, and where they are most needed, remains a major challenge. In this paper, some of the important issues that need to be considered to ensure that plant biotechnology is effectively transferred to the developing world are discussed. The subject is considered under the following headings: (1) the case for genetically engineered plants; (2) soil acidity: a problem for agriculture in the tropics; (3) tropical acid soils that could be used for agriculture; (4) aluminium toxicity; (5) an example of how transgenic plants could improve productivity in acid soils; and (6) transfer of technology to Developing Countries.', 'en_US'),
(904, 'Plant genetic resources: what can they contribute toward increased crop productivity', 'An overview of some key issues relating to the role of plant genetic resources in improving food security is presented. To feed a world population growing by up to 160 people per minute, with >90% of them in developing countries, will require an astonishing increase in food production. Forecasts call for wheat to become the most important cereal in the world, with maize close behind; together, these crops will account for approx equal to 80% of developing countries'' cereal import requirements. Access to a range of genetic diversity is critical to the success of breeding programmes. The global effort to assemble, document, and utilize these resources is enormous, and the genetic diversity in the collections is critical to the world''s fight against hunger. The introgression of genes that reduced plant height and increased disease and viral resistance in wheat provided the foundation for the ''Green Revolution'' and demonstrated the tremendous impact that genetic resources can have on production. Wheat hybrids and synthetics may provide the yield increases needed in the future. A wild relative of maize, Tripsacum, represents an untapped genetic resource for abiotic and biotic stress resistance and for apomixis, a trait that could provide developing world farmers access to hybrid technology. Ownership of genetic resources and genes must be resolved to ensure global access to these critical resources. The application of molecular and genetic engineering technologies enhances the use of genetic resources. The effective and complementary use of all of our technological tools and resources will be required for meeting the challenge posed by the world''s expanding demand for food.', 'en_US'),
(905, 'Biotechnology and world food supply', NULL, 'en_US'),
(906, 'Bioengineering of crops: report of the World Bank Panel on Transgenic Crops', NULL, 'en_US'),
(907, 'Green revolution: preparing for the 21st century', 'In the 1960s there were large-scale concerns about the world''s ability to feed itself. However, widespread adoption of ''green revolution'' technology led to major increases in food-grain production. Between 1966 and 1990, the population of the densely populated low-income countries grew by 80%, but food production more than doubled. The technological advance that led to the dramatic achievements in world food production over the last 30 years was the development of high-yielding varieties of wheat and rice. These varieties are responsive to fertilizer inputs, are lodging resistant, and their yield potential is 2-3 times that of varieties available prior to the green revolution. In addition, these varieties have multiple resistance to diseases and insects and thus have yield stability. The development of irrigation facilities, the availability of inorganic fertilizers, and benign government policies have all facilitated the adoption of green-revolution technology. In the 1990s, the rate of growth in food-grain production has been lower than the rate of growth in population. If this trend is not reversed, serious food shortages will occur in the next century. To meet the challenge of feeding 8 billion people by 2020, we have to prepare now and develop the technology for raising farm productivity. We have to develop cereal cultivars with higher yield potential and greater yield stability. We must also develop strategies for integrated nutrient management, integrated pest management, and efficient utilization of water and soil resources.', 'en_US'),
(908, 'Biotechnology: enhancing human nutrition in developing and developed worlds', 'While the last 50 years of agriculture have focused on meeting the food, feed, and fiber needs of humans, the challenges for the next 50 years go far beyond simply addressing the needs of an ever-growing global population. In addition to producing more food, agriculture will have to deal with declining resources like water and arable land, need to enhance nutrient density of crops, and achieve these and other goals in a way that does not degrade the environment. Biotechnology and other emerging life sciences technologies offer valuable tools to help meet these multidimensional challenges. This paper explores the possibilities afforded through biotechnology in providing improved agronomic ''input'' traits, differentiated crops that impart more desirable ''output'' traits, and using plants as green factories to fortify foods with valuable nutrients naturally rather than externally during food processing. The concept of leveraging agriculture as green factories is expected to have tremendous positive implications for harnessing solar energy to meet fiber and fuel needs as well. Widespread adaptation of biotech-derived products of agriculture should lay the foundation for transformation of our society from a production-driven system to a quality and utility-enhanced system.', 'en_US'),
(909, 'The importance of ag-biotech to global prosperity', '''In my beginning is my end, '' wrote T. S. Eliot, and as we begin this conference, we should be very clear about it''s ending. What will be the result? After the papers, panels, and posters, what will we walk away with? I hope we will walk away with greater courage to face the challenges posed by biotechnology and with a renewed investment in ideas that breach the borders between science, technology, and applications.The world of biotechnology has always moved fast, but now it''s moving even faster. More traits are emerging; more acres than ever before are being planted with genetically improved varieties of an ever-expanding number of crops. Biotechnology companies are investing billions of dollars in consolidations to ensure access to these rapidly growing markets, all the while investing billions more in further research and development. And the public debate about the future of agricultural biotechnology is more mature as the public becomes better informed and sees more clearly the benefits of biotech. The field is energized.', 'en_US'),
(910, 'Agricultural biotechnology in developing countries : towards optimizing the benefits for the poor', NULL, 'en_US'),
(911, 'Assessing the impact of banana biotechnology in Kenya', 'Nairobi - Farmers in Kenya are doubling and even tripling their banana yields through the use of tissue-cultured banana plants. Matin Qaim, an agricultural economist at the Center for Development Research (ZEF) in Bonn, Germany, predicts significant gains in income for poverty- stricken banana farmers in his new study, ''Assessing the Impact of Banana Biotechnology in Kenya.'' This is particularly important news for Kenya''s women, who produce most of the comtry''s food, including bananas.Despite favorable conditions for growing banana, Kenya''s average yields have been a meager 14 tons per hectare -less than one-third of the crop''s potential. An international collaborative biotechnology project launched in 1996, however, is proving that Kenya, including small scale and resource poor farmers, can achieve the crop''s potential yields.Kenya''s current low production levels are caused by the repeated, regular infestation of its banana stock by damaging pests and diseases: weevils, nematodes, Panama disease, and the especially virulent black sigatoka. All of these diseases are easily spread from infected plants through normal propagation techniques, which use suckers from adult banana plants to grow new ones.By switching from suckers to tissue-cultured plantlets produced from the ''cells of healthy banana plants that are grown in vitro (i.e., in a culture dish or test tube), farmers can grow clean, pathogen-free banana plants. Coupled with the adoption of good plantation management practices to reduce the incidence of nematodes and weevils, average yields climb much higher.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(912, 'The economic effects of genetically modified orphan commodities: projections for sweet potato in Kenya', 'Biotechnology has the potential to boost global agricultural productivity in a sustainable way. The prospects are particularly bright for the developing world, where the need for new farm technologies is most pronounced. Biotechnology advances, however, are predominantly taking place in the industrialized world. The research capacity in many developing countries is limited, and so these countries will have to import biotechnology in order to be able to use it. But technological requirements differ across countries, and some fear that the needs of the South will be bypassed by biotechnological research programs that are dominated by the private sector in the North. For the so-called ''orphan commodities,'' those food crops that have minor international appeal but that are of great importance to semisubsistent farmers in developing countries, this could especially prove true. In this study, however, we examine innovative undertakings that have been jointly launched by the public and private sector to develop recombinant sweetpotato technologies for use in Africa. The economic impacts of the resulting transgenic sweetpotato varieties for Kenya are scrutinized using an ex ante analytical framework. The study seeks to improve the empirical evidence about the repercussions of biotechnology in the small-farm sector of developing countries. It also seeks to enrich the knowledge base needed for formulating policies that include the poor in the biotechnology revolution.', 'en_US'),
(913, 'Genetic resources: biotechnology and world food supply - foreword', 'In 1798, Thomas Malthus warned humankind about the dire consequences of unchecked population growth. The French mathematician Marquis de Condorcet, a contemporary of Malthus, pointed out that population will stabilise itself, if children are born for happiness and not just for mere existence. Thanks to dramatic advances in preventive and curative medicine, particularly from the end of World War II, human numbers have been increasing at a rapid rate. A billion persons are now being added to the human population every 12-13 years, a number that will require an increase in annual food grain production of 250 million tons once in every 10 years. When Malthus published his essay in 1798, the global population was 980 million. The population of India alone is now 990 million. In spite of such a rapid rise in population, food production has, on the whole,kept pace with the needs of the expanding population during recent decades. How did this happen?Four important factors have helped to keep Malthusian fears at bay: (i) rapid advances in science and technology, particularly in the area of breeding new varieties and hybrids of food crops that can respond well to irrigation water and good soil fertility; (ii) services, such as the production and distribution of good seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides, as well as the organization of efficient credit and extension services; (iii) public policies in the areas of land reform, rural infrastructure development, input and output pricing, and marketing; and (iv) the hard work of farm women and men, who have demonstrated that, whether they live in industrialized or developing countries, they will respond to technological progress and opportunities for assured and remunerative marketing.', 'en_US'),
(914, 'Contributions of in vitro biology to cassava improvement', 'Cassava (Manihot esculenta) is a tough and productive survival crop of smallholder farmers in the tropics. It is often grown where other crops fail. Research can make important contributions to food security and economic development in cassava-growing areas. This can be enhanced through in-vitro propagation methods for this crop, due to its slow vegetative propagation. For useful biotechnology innovations to reach smallholder cassava farmers, a combined effort is essential, with participation of farmers and other partners in research and development. The Cassava Biotechnology Network combines forces to mobilise biotechnology as a tool for enhancing cassava''s value for food security and as a means of access to economic development. In-vitro biology methods are essential to safe and efficient conservation and exchange of cassava diversity. Transgenic methods, now nearing the stage of first field trials, may offer a means of adding disease resistance or enhanced crop quality characteristics to existing preferred varieties.', 'en_US'),
(915, 'Why Africa needs agricultural biotech', 'There is urgent need for the development and use of agricultural biotechnology in Africa to help to counter famine, environmental degradation and poverty. Africa must enthusiastically join the biotechnology revolution.', 'en_US'),
(916, 'Recombinants of cucumber mosaic virus (CMV): determinants of host range and symptomatology', 'Mononuclear cells can be infected in vitro by hepatitis C virus and the viral RNA can be detected in mononuclear cells of chronically infected patients. It was suggested that the virus could persist in the mononuclear cells of some patients treated by interferon. The aim of this study was to follow the presence of viral RNA in the plasma and peripheral blood mononuclear cells of 16 chronically infected patients treated by alpha2b interferon for 1 year. The RNA was detected by reverse transcription followed by nested PCR and quantified using the branched DNA method at regular intervals for at least one year. Before PCR, the mononuclear cells were treated by RNase and trypsin in order to eliminate the viral particles that could be stuck at the cell surface. Six patients were non responders and had persistent plasmatic viral RNA during the treatment. Two patients were good responders and had persistantly negative PCR in both plasma and mononuclear cells. Eight patients had initial negativation of plasmatic hepatitis C virus RNA but showed a relapse characterized by positive plasmatic PCR. Positive PCR in mononuclear cells despite negativity of plasmatic PCR was noted 18 times in 8 patients. Persistently positive PCR in mononuclear cells in absence of detectable viraemia was followed by a virological relapse in 5 of these patients. This study confirms that hepatitis C virus RNA can be detected in mononuclear cells despite negative plasmatic PCR in patients treated by interferon. Moreover, the persistence of viral RNA in peripheral mononuclear cells could be a predictive factor of treatment failure. Our data also suggest that detection of viral RNA in mononuclear cells is probably not only due to passive virus adsorption from plasma.', 'en_US'),
(917, 'Biological properties of pseudorecombinant and recombinant strains created with cucumber mosaic virus and tomato aspermy virus', 'Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) and tomato aspermy virus (TAV) are closely related cucumoviruses. We have made pseudorecombinant viruses in which the RNAs 3 of these two viruses have been exchanged and recombinant viruses containing chimeric RNA 3 molecules, in which the coat proteins and the 3''-end regions of CMV and TAV have been exchanged, giving rise to recombinants designated RT3 and TR3. The replication properties and the cell-to-cell and long-distance movement patterns of these pseudorecombinant and recombinant viruses were examined in different hosts. All the viruses were able to replicate and accumulate RNA 4 in protoplasts. The pseudorecombinants and the R1R2RT3 recombinant infected tobacco systemically, but the R1R2TR3 recombinant was not detectable, even in the inoculated leaves. Comparison of the abilities of the viruses to replicate in protoplasts and intact cucumber plants suggests that cell-to-cell movement factors are also encoded by RNAs 1 and/or 2. Major determinants of symptom severity in Nicotiana glutinosa are localized on the 3'' part of RNA 3, and in Nicotiana benthamiana, more severe symptoms were observed with the T1T2R3 strain than with the others tested.', 'en_US'),
(918, 'Impact of Bt corn pollen on Monarch butterfly populations: a risk assessment', 'A collaborative research effort by scientists in several states and in Canada has produced information to develop a formal risk assessment of the impact of Bt corn on monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) populations. Information was sought on the acute toxic effects of Bt corn pollen and the degree to which monarch larvae would be exposed to toxic amounts of Bt pollen on its host plant, the common milkweed, Asclepias syriaca, found in and around cornfields. Expression of Cry proteins, the active toxicant found in Bt corn tissues, differed among hybrids, and especially so in the concentrations found in pollen of different events. In most commercial hybrids, Bt expression in pollen is low, and laboratory and field studies show no acute toxic effects at any pollen density that would be encountered in the field. Other factors mitigating exposure of larvae include the variable and limited overlap between pollen shed and larval activity periods, the fact that only a portion of the monarch population utilizes milkweed stands in and near cornfields, and the current adoption rate of Bt corn at 19% of North American corn-growing areas. This 2-year study suggests that the impact of Bt corn pollen from current commercial hybrids on monarch butterfly populations is negligible.', 'en_US'),
(919, 'Effects of exposure to event 176 Bacillus thuringiensis corn pollen on Monarch and black swallowtail caterpillars under field conditions', 'The widespread planting of corn genetically modified to produce Bacillus thuringiensis endotoxin has led to speculation that pollen from these fields might adversely affect nearby nontarget lepidopterans. A previous study of Bt corn engineered with Monsanto event 810 failed to detect an effect of pollen exposure on the black swallowtail, Papilio polyxenes, in either the field or the laboratory. Here, we report results of a field study investigating the impact of exposure to pollen from a Bt corn hybrid containing Novartis event 176 on two species of Lepidoptera, black swallowtails and monarch butterflies, Danaus plexippus. Nearly half of the 600 monarch larvae died within the first 24 h; this and subsequent mortality was not associated with proximity to Bt corn and may have been due in part to predation. Survivorship of black swallowtails was much higher than that of the monarchs and was also independent of proximity to the transgenic corn. However, despite five rainfall events that removed much of the pollen from the leaves of their host plants during the experiment, we observed a significant reduction in growth rates of black swallowtail larvae that was likely caused by pollen exposure. These results suggest that Bt corn incorporating event 176 can have adverse sublethal effects on black swallowtails in the field and underscore the importance of event selection in reducing environmental impacts of transgenic plants.', 'en_US'),
(920, 'Temporal and spatial overlap between Monarch larvae and corn pollen', 'To assess the likelihood that monarch larvae will be exposed to Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) pollen, we studied milkweed and monarch densities in habitats which comprise much of the land available to breeding monarchs, e.g., cornfields, cornfield edges, other agricultural fields, and nonagricultural areas, in four regions of the monarch breeding range. We found that monarchs use milkweed in cornfields throughout their breeding season, and that per plant densities are as high or higher in agricultural habitats as in nonagricultural habitats. As a result of the prevalence of agricultural land, most of the monarchs produced in the upper Midwest are likely to originate in cornfields or other agricultural habitats. There was a greater temporal overlap between susceptible monarchs and corn anthesis in the northern than the southern part of the summer breeding range, because of earlier pollen shed in the south. The importance of agricultural habitats to monarch production suggests that, regardless of the impact of genetically modified crops, agricultural practices such as weed control and foliar insecticide use could have large impacts on monarch populations.', 'en_US'),
(921, 'Assessing the impact of Cry1Ab - expressing corn pollen on Monarch butterfly larva in field studies', 'Survival and growth of monarch larvae, Danaus plexippus (L.), after exposure to either Cry1Ab-expressing pollen from three Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) corn (Zea mays L.) events differing in toxin expression or to the insecticide, -cyhalothrin, were examined in field studies. First instars exposed to low doses (22 grains per cm2) of event-176 pollen gained 18% less weight than those exposed to Bt11 or Mon810 pollen after a 5-day exposure period. Larvae exposed to 67 pollen grains per cm2 on milkweed leaves from within an event-176 field exhibited 60% lower survivorship and 42% less weight gain compared with those exposed to leaves from outside the field. In contrast, Bt11 pollen had no effect on growth to adulthood or survival of first or third instars exposed for 5 days to 55 and 97 pollen grains per cm2, respectively. Similarly, no differences in larval survivorship were observed after a 4-day exposure period to leaves with 504-586 (within fields) or 18-22 (outside the field) pollen grains per cm2 collected from Bt11 and non-Bt sweet-corn fields. However, survivorship and weight gain were drastically reduced in non-Bt fields treated with -cyhalothrin. The effects of Bt11 and Mon810 pollen on the survivorship of larvae feeding 14 to 22 days on milkweeds in fields were negligible. Further studies should examine the lifetime and reproductive impact of Bt11 and Mon810 pollen on monarchs after long-term exposure to naturally deposited pollen.', 'en_US'),
(922, 'Monarch larvae sensitivity to Bacillus thuringiensis - purified proteins and pollen', 'Laboratory tests were conducted to establish the relative toxicity of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxins and pollen from Bt corn to monarch larvae. Toxins tested included Cry1Ab, Cry1Ac, Cry9C, and Cry1F. Three methods were used: (i) purified toxins incorporated into artificial diet, (ii) pollen collected from Bt corn hybrids applied directly to milkweed leaf discs, and (iii) Bt pollen contaminated with corn tassel material applied directly to milkweed leaf discs. Bioassays of purified Bt toxins indicate that Cry9C and Cry1F proteins are relatively nontoxic to monarch first instars, whereas first instars are sensitive to Cry1Ab and Cry1Ac proteins. Older instars were 12 to 23 times less susceptible to Cry1Ab toxin compared with first instars. Pollen bioassays suggest that pollen contaminants, an artifact of pollen processing, can dramatically influence larval survival and weight gains and produce spurious results. The only transgenic corn pollen that consistently affected monarch larvae was from Cry1Ab event 176 hybrids, currently <2% corn planted and for which re-registration has not been applied. Results from the other types of Bt corn suggest that pollen from the Cry1Ab (events Bt11 and Mon810) and Cry1F, and experimental Cry9C hybrids, will have no acute effects on monarch butterfly larvae in field settings.', 'en_US'),
(923, 'Corn pollen deposition on milkweeds in and near cornfields', 'The density of corn pollen on leaves of milkweed plants inside and outside of cornfields was measured in several studies from different localities. The purpose was to obtain a representative picture of naturally occurring pollen densities to provide a perspective for laboratory and field studies of monarch larvae feeding on milkweed leaves with Bt corn pollen. Pollen density was highest (average 170.6 grains per cm2) inside the cornfield and was progressively lower from the field edge outward, falling to 14.2 grains per cm2 at 2 m. Inside the cornfield, and for each distance from the field edge, a frequency distribution is presented showing the proportion of leaf samples with different pollen densities. Inside cornfields, 95% of leaf samples had pollen densities below 600 grains per cm2 and the highest pollen density observed was 1400 grains per cm2, which occurred in a study with a rainless anthesis period. All other studies had rainfall events during the anthesis period. A single rain event can remove 54-86% of the pollen on leaves. Leaves on the upper portion of milkweed plants, where young monarch larvae tend to feed, had only 30-50% of the pollen density levels of middle leaves.', 'en_US'),
(924, 'Revised risks and benefits sections Bacillus thuringiensis plant-pesticides', 'A. Executive Summary EPA is currently engaged in a comprehensive reassessment of the time-limited registrations for all existing Bt corn and cotton plant-pesticides. This reassessment has been designed to assure that the decisions on the renewal of these registrations are based on the most current health and ecological data. Current registrations are set to expire September 30,200 1. As part of EPA''s reassessment, the Agency will decide whether to extend the registrations and whether to include any additional terms and conditions of such registrations for issues including insect resistance management, the protection of non-target organisms, strengthened compliance programs, and other measures necessary to ensure full public and environmental safety. Although Bt potato does not have an expiring registration, EPA has also included information on this plant-pesticide in this document.During this reassessment, EPA is conducting an open and transparent public process that incorporates sound and current science, public involvement, and balanced decision making. The major components of the process and time frames for action are as follows: Comprehensive risk and benefit assessments. This review incorporated all available scientific information on Bt products, including results of recent scientific studies and recommendations from various individuals and organizations. (Summer/Fall 2000) Completed.Scientific Peer Review and public comment. After completing our scientific risk and benefit assessment, the Agency provided the registrants of the products an opportunity to review the assessment and suggest technical corrections to the Agency. After technical corrections were made, EPA released the risk and benefit assessments and invited public comment and scientific peer review. That release included EPA''s regulatory assessment and the underlying data, along with registrants'' technical error correction comments and the corrective actions taken by the Agency. All of these materials were placed in the Bt crop reassessment docket. (Fall 2000) Completed.Recommendations from the Scientific Advisory Panel, National Academy of Sciences. public comments, and the Administration-wide review. Since there are many organizations providing regulatory and scientific recommendations, EPA used the time since the SAP report in March to consider and incorporate as appropriate recommendations into our revised risk and benefits assessments. This included recommendations from the public and the Scientific Advisory Panel on insect resistance management, ecological and public health aspects of our regulatory program, along with consideration of issues identified in the report released by the National Academy of Sciences titled: ''Genetically Modified Pest-Protected Plants, Science and Regulation'' and the Administration-wide review on the regulation of biotechnology products. (Fall 2000, Winter 2000/l, Spring/Summer 2001) Completed. SAP Meeting Held October l&19, and 20, 2000. SAP Report Released March 12, 2001.Revised risk assessments and proposed regulatory options. EPA has considered all of the public comments and the recommendations from the SAP in revising the risk and benefits assessments, and in developing elements to be included in risk mitigation and the potential options for regulatory decisions. EPA will hold a technical briefing to describe the revised scientific reassessment and take comments on potential regulatory options. (Summer 2001) Ongoing.Final decisions on Bt registrations. This will complete the scientific and public process. EPA will continue to take public comments for 45 days from the publication of the technical briefing Federal Register Notice before announcing any registration decisions for future growing seasons on or before September 30,200 1. Summer/Fall 2001 The complete reassessment document is fashioned after the Agency''s traditional Reregistration Eligibility Document (RED). This format was selected to present the data and findings in a format that is familiar to the registrants, the users and the general public. The Bt Plant-Pesticides Biopesticides Registration Action Document (BRAD) Revised Risk and Benefits Sections document has five major sections: 1. Product Characterization 2. Human Health Assessment 3. Ecological Assessment 4. Insect Resistance Management 5. Benefits.The Executive Summary includes one additional section, Other Considerations. A Risk Mitigation and Regulatory Decision section is currently being developed. A risk mitigation and regulatory decisions section will be added when the final decisions are made.', 'en_US'),
(925, 'A prospective evaluation of biotechnology in semi-subsistence agriculture', 'The paper analyses ex ante the economic implications of transgenic virus- and weevil-resistant sweet potatoes in Kenya. These technologies are being developed within international projects, involving public and private organisations. It is expected that the resistant varieties will significantly reduce the crop losses in farmers'' fields. Model calculations show that both innovations are likely to bring about substantial growth in economic surplus. The projected annual gross benefit is 5.4 mUS$ (million US$) for virus resistance and 9.9 mUS$ for weevil resistance. Due to the semi-subsistence nature of sweet potato, the producing households will be the main beneficiaries. However, market consumers will also capture about one-fourth of the aggregate welfare gains. The high profitability of the projects is confirmed by significantly positive returns on research investments. The examples demonstrate the viability of successful research partnerships between the public and private sectors. As most of the basic biotechnology tools available to date are patented by private companies in the North, which often do not have sufficient market incentives to develop end-technologies for the South, more interactions of this kind are required from a development policy perspective. Working with typical semi-subsistence crops is particularly appealing because it immediately targets the poor and avoids conflicts with the private sector''s commercial interests.', 'en_US'),
(926, 'Gene technology and future foods', 'Molecular biology is revolutionizing biology. agriculture and medicine. It is now possible to isolate and sequence the basic genetic material (DNA) from any organism and techniques have been developed to copy and ''cut and paste'' DNA molecules to produce new combinations. This has led to the development of genetically modified (GM) plants by the targeted introduction of a small number of well-defined genes directly into the cells of an existing plant variety to improve its quality or performance. Early efforts concentrated on major field crops. such as corn, soybeans and canola. Products from these plants, such as oil and flour, are components of many processed foods, so the rapid adoption of GM commodity crops in the United States has led to widespread appearance of GM plant material in foods. The initial traits targeted, such as herbicide tolerance and pest resistance. provide improved production efficiency with benefits for agrochemical and seed producers, farmers and the environment. but little obvious benefit to consumers. The second generation of GM plants will provide consumer benefits and will extend beyond bulk commodity crops. Genetically modified plants with improved flavour, nutritional composition and shelf life are currently being developed in a range of grains, fruits and vegetables. Genetically modified plants pose no risks for human health beyond those that we readily accept in other foods. In most developed countries. GM plants undergo thorough testing and evaluation, well beyond that required for a conventionally bred new variety, and this should ensure that the current high safety and quality of foods is maintained.', 'en_US'),
(927, 'Regulation and exploitation of genetically modified crops.', 'Plants may serve as new hosts for the production of recombinant nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals. Nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals can be distinguished at best on the basis of their aim. Nutraceuticals on the one hand aim to maintain the health situation of principally healthy humans or animals. They are single compounds that are naturally present in, or (purified) added to foods for daily consumption. Such foods are called ''functional foods'' (and in the case of animal application: ''functional feed''). They can be supplied with a health claim. Pharmaceuticals on the other hand aim to cure (human, animal) patients, to mitigate, or to serve in diagnostics. They are purified, well defined medicinal and/or therapeutic preparations that have passed the clinical tests and that are supplied with a medicinal claim. Plants, transgenically producing nutraceuticals or pharmaceuticals, should meet the general requirements for genetically modified organisms, and, additionally, the specific requirements related to the production of the specific medicinal or health compounds. To guarantee safety, to proper regulate the production processes, and for the sake of consumers trust, in the EU and USA, an extensive variety of (often regionspecific) guidelines and regulations encircle both categories of activities, the GM technology, and the production of health foods and medicinal articles: For the cultivation, import, marketing and animal feeding of a genetically modified crop approval must be sought from the EU. A distinction is made by Dutch legislation between the in-doors- and out-doors- cultivation of genetically modified plants. The in-doors cultivation, will require a less elaborate risk assessment than the out-doors cultivation. Production of pharmaceuticals and nutraceuticals in GMOs in greenhouses is bound by special rules related to the transgenic status of the plants and should occur according to the guidelines for ''good agricultural practice'' (GAP). GAP guidelines apply to the production of all plant materials used in the food, feed , medicinal , flavoring and perfume industries. GAP conditions must also be met concerning processing of the harvested transgenic plant material. The type of greenhouse (PK-I, PK-II or PK-III) that needs to be used depends on the the specific case and is related to the characteristics of the inserted gene, the biological and agronomic characteristics, and the treatments of the crop plant involved. Food applications include whole foods and food ingredients on one side and food additives on the other side. Both categories are differently regulated. In the EU, genetically modified organisms are regulated as a specific category for use as novel foods or novel- food ingredients but not for use as food additives, colourants, or flavourings.', 'en_US'),
(928, 'Biotechnology and development: a balance between IPR protection and benefit-sharing', NULL, 'en_US'),
(929, 'Efficacy of seed mixes of transgenic Bt and nontransgenic cotton against bollworm, Helicoverpa zea Boddie', 'The 1996 advent of Monsanto''s transgenic Bt cotton, commercially available as ''NuCOTN'' with the Bollgard Bt gene, provided growers with a new tool for controlling caterpillar pests in cotton. A delta-endotoxin protein (Cry1Ac) from Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner var. kurstaki (Bt) expressed in these transgenic cotton plants is toxic to many lepidopteran larval pests of cotton. Monsanto initially claimed that Bollgard cotton would meet the needs of a high-dose resistance-management strategy by providing an adequately high toxin concentration. Studies confirmed the high-dose toxin level for tobacco budworm, Heliothis virescens F.; however, bollworm, Helicoverpa zea Boddie, was observed to be much less susceptible than tobacco budworm to the Cry1Ac endotoxin. Because a proportion of bollworm larvae were found to survive on Bollgard cotton, the prospect for rapid development of bollworm resistance to Cry1Ac was a general concern. Therefore, development of deployment strategies was necessary to delay resistance.', 'en_US'),
(930, 'Effects of ingestion of a Bacillus thuringiensis toxin and a trypsin inhibitor on honey bee flight activity and longevity', 'To assess potential impacts of transgenic pest-resistant plants, newly-emerged adult honey bees from ten colonies were tagged, placed in cages at 33 oC, and fed with 625 ìg/g Cry1Ba Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxin or 2.5 mg/g aprotinin proteinase inhibitor in pollen-food (equivalent to 0.25% or 1% of total soluble protein). Control bees were given similar food without additive. All foods were consumed at similar rates. After seven days, all bees were returned to their hives. Subsequent observations showed that Cry1Ba-fed bees did not differ significantly from control bees in the timing of their first flight, the period during which flights took place or in estimated longevity. However, aprotinin-fed bees began to fly and also died about three days sooner than Cry1Ba-fed or control bees. Their flight periods were similar to those of the other bees. The effects of transgenic aprotinin-plants on honey bees will thus depend on gene expression levels in pollen.', 'en_US'),
(931, 'Validation of biopharmaceutical purification processes for virus clearance evaluation', 'Any biopharmaceutical product that has involved the use of animal-derived material during the manufacturing process has the potential to be contaminated with animal viruses. To ensure safety of these products, extensive testing is performed on the starting materials, such as the cell banks, and on the raw materials used in manufacture. Additional testing is also performed at various stages of production and, in some cases, on the final product as well. Because of inherent limitations in direct testing methods, the capacity of the downstream purification process to remove/inactivate potential viral contaminants is also studied to give an extra degree of assurance that the final product will be free of infectious viruses.', 'en_US'),
(932, 'Experience with environmental issues in GM crop production and the likely future scenarios', 'In the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, standards for risk assessment of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) have been set. The criteria and information basis for the risk assessment of GMOs have been modified by the EU Directive 2001/18/EC. Various approaches to further improve the criteria for environmental risk assessment of GMOs are described in this study. Reports on the ecological impacts of the cultivation of certain non-transgenic crop plants with novel or improved traits as analogy models to transgenic plants showed that the effects of agricultural practice can be at least equally important as the effects of gene transfer and invasiveness, although the latter currently play a major role in risk assessment of transgenic crops. Based on these results the applicability of the methodology of ''Life Cycle Analysis (LCA)'' for genetically modified plants in comparison with conventionally bred and organically grown crop plants was evaluated. The methodology was regarded as applicable with some necessary future improvements. In current projects, the assessment of toxicology and allergenicity of GM crops are analysed, and suggestions for standardization are developed. Based on results and recommendations from these efforts there are still the challenges of how to operationalize the precautionary principle and how to take into account ecologically sensitive ecosystems, including centres of origin and centres of genetic diversity', 'en_US'),
(933, 'Biosafety in the international context--the Cartagena protocol', NULL, 'en_US'),
(934, 'Effects of T4 lysozyme release from transgenic potato roots on bacterial rhizosphere communities are negligible relative to natural factors', 'Rhizosphere bacterial communities of two transgenic potato lines which produce T4 lysozyme for protection against bacterial infections were analyzed in comparison to communities of wild-type plants and transgenic controls not harboring the lysozyme gene. Rhizosphere samples were taken from young, flowering, and senescent plants at two field sites in three consecutive years. The communities were characterized in a polyphasic approach. Cultivation-dependent methods included heterotrophic plate counts, determination of species composition and diversity based on fatty acid analysis of isolates, and community level catabolic profiling. Cultivation-independent analyses were based on denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) of 16S rRNA gene fragments amplified from rhizosphere DNA using primers specific for Bacteria, Actinomycetales, or - or ß-Proteobacteria. Several bands of the DGGE patterns were further characterized by sequence analysis. All methods revealed that environmental factors related to season, field site, or year but not to the T4 lysozyme expression of the transgenic plants influenced the rhizosphere communities. For one of the T4 lysozyme-producing cultivars, no deviation in the rhizosphere communities compared to the control lines was observed. For the other, differences were detected at some of the samplings between the rhizosphere community structure and those of one or all other cultivars which were not attributable to T4 lysozyme production but most likely to differences observed in the growth characteristics of this cultivar.', 'en_US'),
(935, 'Heterologous movement protein strongly modifies the infection phenotype of cucumber mosaic virus', 'A hybrid virus (CMVcymMP) constructed by replacing the movement protein (MP) of cucumber mosaic cucumovirus (CMV) with that of cymbidium ringspot tombusvirus (CymRSV) was viable and could efficiently spread both cell to cell and long distance in host plants. The hybrid virus was able to move cell to cell in the absence of functional CP, whereas CP-deficient CMV was restricted to single inoculated cells. In several Chenopodium and Nicotiana species, the symptom phenotype of the hybrid virus infection was clearly determined by the foreign MP gene. In Nicotiana debneyi and Nicotiana tabacum cv. Xanthi, the hybrid virus could move systemically, contrary to CymRSV.', 'en_US'),
(936, 'Applications of quantitative PCR in the biosafety and genetic stability assessment of biotechnology products', 'High throughput screening, increased accuracy and the coupling of real-time quantitative PCR (Q-PCR) to robotic set-up systems are beginning to revolutionise biotechnology. Applications of Q-PCR within biotechnology are discussed with particular emphasis on the following areas of biosafety and genetic stability testing: (a) determination of the biodistribution of gene therapy vectors in animals; (b) quantification of the residual DNA in final product therapeutics; (c) detection of viral and bacterial nucleic acid in contaminated cell banks and final products; (d) quantification of the level of virus removal in process validation viral clearance studies; (e) specific detection of retroviral RT activity in vaccines with high sensitivity; and (f) transgene copy number determination for monitoring genetic stability during production. Methods employed for Q-PCR assay validation as required in ICH Topic Q2A Validation of Analytical Methods: Definitions and Terminology (1st June 1995) are also reviewed.', 'en_US'),
(937, 'Genetic differentiation between sympatric populations of Bacillus cereus and Bacillus thuringiensis', 'Little is known about genetic exchanges in natural populations of bacteria of the spore-forming Bacillus cereus group, because no population genetics studies have been performed with local sympatric populations. We isolated strains of Bacillus thuringiensis and B. cereus from small samples of soil collected at the same time from two separate geographical sites, one within the forest and the other at the edge of the forest. A total of 100 B. cereus and 98 B. thuringiensis strains were isolated and characterized by electrophoresis to determine allelic composition at nine enzymatic loci. We observed genetic differentiation between populations of B. cereus and B. thuringiensis. Populations of a given Bacillus species-B. thuringiensis or B. cereus-were genetically more similar to each other than to populations of the other Bacillus species. Hemolytic activity provided further evidence of this genetic divergence, which remained evident even if putative clones were removed from the data set. Our results suggest that the rate of gene flow was higher between strains of the same species, but that exchanges between B. cereus and B. thuringiensis were nonetheless possible. Linkage disequilibrium analysis revealed sufficient recombination for B. cereus populations to be considered panmictic units. In B. thuringiensis, the balance between clonal proliferation and recombination seemed to depend on location. Overall, our data indicate that it is not important for risk assessment purposes to determine whether B. cereus and B. thuringiensis belong to a single or two species. Assessment of the biosafety of pest control based on B. thuringiensis requires evaluation of the extent of genetic exchange between strains in realistic natural conditions.', 'en_US'),
(938, 'Influence of the production of antibacterial and antifungal proteins by transgenic plants on the saprophytic soil microflora', 'To obtain durable and broad-spectrum resistance against plant pathogens, plants are transformed with genes coding for antimicrobial proteins from plant, animal or microbial origin. An obvious concern is that increased levels of these antimicrobial compounds affect not only the target pathogen, but also beneficial micro-organisms such as mycorrhizae. rhizobia and other micro-organisms involved in plant health, litter decomposition and nutrient cycling. This literature study focuses on effects of these transgenic plants on the non-target saprophytic soil microflora. Transgenic plants that constitutively express proteins with potential antifungal and/or antibacterial activity, can reduce activities of specific soil-borne plant pathogens in the rhizosphere. Reports on non-target effects on the saprophytic soil microflora are scarce and incomplete. and mainly focused on mycorrhizal symbiosis. Constitutive expression of antifungal pathogenesis-related proteins in tobacco in most cases did not affect root colonization by the mycorrhizal fungus Glomus mosseae. However, increased levels of a class II tobacco p-1,3-glucanase reduced the colonization potential, indicating that non-target effects can occur. Concerning other members of the plant-beneficial rhizosphere microflora, it can be assumed that they will come into contact with the transgenic product. By natural wounding, senescence and sloughing-off of root cells, at least some of the antimicrobial protein(s) will be released in the rhizosphere. Despite proteolytic activity of the rbizosphere microflora, part of the protein can remain active due to protective adsorption to clay minerals or humic components.', 'en_US'),
(939, 'Assessment of the food safety issues related to genetically modified foods.', 'International consensus has been reached on the principles regarding evaluation of the food safety of genetically modified plants. The concept of substantial equivalence has been developed as part of a safety evaluation framework, based on the idea that existing foods can serve as a basis for comparing the properties of genetically modified foods with the appropriate counterpart. Application of the concept is not a safety assessment per se, but helps to identify similarities and differences between the existing food and the new product, which are then subject to further toxicological investigation. Substantial equivalence is a starting point in the safety evaluation, rather than an endpoint of the assessment. Consensus on practical application of the principle should be further elaborated. Experiences with the safety testing of newly inserted proteins and of whole genetically modified foods are reviewed, and limitations of current test methodologies are discussed. The development and validation of new profiling methods such as DNA microarray technology, proteomics, and metabolomics for the identification and characterization of unintended effects, which may occur as a result of the genetic modification, is recommended. The assessment of the allergenicity of newly inserted proteins and of marker genes is discussed. An issue that will gain importance in the near future is that of post-marketing surveillance of the foods derived from genetically modified crops. It is concluded, among others that, that application of the principle of substantial equivalence has proven adequate, and that no alternative adequate safety assessment strategies are available', 'en_US'),
(940, 'Health and safety issues pertaining to genetically modified foods', 'Genetic modification involves the insertion of genes from other organisms (within or between species) into host cells to select for desirable qualities. Potential benefits of GM foods include increased nutritional value; reduced allergenicity; pest and disease-resistance; and enhanced processing value. Possible detrimental outcomes include producing foods with novel toxins, allergens or reduced nutritional value, and development of antibiotic resistance or herbicide-resistant weeds. Benefits to individuals or populations need to be weighed against adverse health and environmental risks, and may differ between developing and Westernised countries. Whether testing and monitoring should exceed requirements for conventional foods is under debate. While not necessarily scientifically justifiable, consumer concerns have resulted in Australian and New Zealand requirements to label foods containing GM-produced proteins. Dissatisfied consumer advocacy groups are calling for all foods involving GM technology to be labelled, irrelevant of whether the final product contains novel protein. Goals to improve the quantity, quality and safety of foods are laudable; however, the primary aim of the bio-food industry is financial gain. GM foods may be as safe as conventional foods but public distrust runs high. It is important that discussion is informed by science and that claims of both benefits and risks are evidence-based, to ensure that the process is driven neither by the vested interest of the bio-technical multinational companies on the one hand, nor ill-informed public fears on the other', 'en_US'),
(941, 'Will genetically modified foods be allergenic?', 'Foods produced through agricultural biotechnology, including such staples as corn, soybeans, canola, and potatoes, are already reaching the consumer marketplace. Agricultural biotechnology offers the promise to produce crops with improved agronomic characteristics (eg, insect resistance, herbicide tolerance, disease resistance, and climatic tolerance) and enhanced consumer benefits (eg, better taste and texture, longer shelf life, and more nutritious). Certainly, the products of agricultural biotechnology should be subjected to a careful and complete safety assessment before commercialization. Because the genetic modification ultimately results in the introduction of new proteins into the food plant, the safety, including the potential allergenicity, of the newly introduced proteins must be assessed. Although most allergens are proteins, only a few of the many proteins found in foods are allergenic under the typical circumstances of exposure. The potential allergenicity of the introduced proteins can be evaluated by focusing on the source of the gene, the sequence homology of the newly introduced protein to known allergens, the expression level of the novel protein in the modified crop, the functional classification of the novel protein, the reactivity of the novel protein with IgE from the serum of individuals with known allergies to the source of the transferred genetic material, and various physicochemical properties of the newly introduced protein, such as heat stability and digestive stability. Few products of agricultural biotechnology (and none of the current products) will involve the transfer of genes from known allergenic sources. Applying such criteria provides reasonable assurance that the newly introduced protein has limited capability to become an allergen', 'en_US'),
(942, 'Safety evaluation of genetically modified foods', 'The concept of substantial equivalence has been accepted as the cornerstone of the health hazard assessment of genetically modified (GM) foods (OECD 1993). Substantial equivalence is the most practical approach to address the safety of foods or food components derived from GM crops and is based on comparison of the phenotypic and compositional characteristics of the parent crop and the GM crop. Basically, three categories of GM crops can be considered (FAO/WHO 1996; EU 1997): (a) GM crops which have the same composition as the parent crop, (b) GM crops which have the same composition as the parent crop with the exception of a well-defined trait, and (c) GM crops which are different from the parent crop. For the safety assessment of the first category of GM foods only a molecular characterisation of the genetic insert is sufficient, whereas for the second category a safety assessment of the expressed protein(s) is also required. For the last category an extensive evaluation including bioavailability and wholesomeness studies are required, beside the molecular characterisation and safety assessment of the expressed protein(s) and their products. By molecular characterisation is meant the position, nature, stability and number of copies of the inserted DNA. Substantial equivalence is established by the determination of the phenotypic characteristics (e.g. resistance against diseases, agronomic properties) and the complete chemical composition of the plant including nutrients, toxicants, antinutrients, and allergens. The toxicity of the expressed protein(s) is assessed by their homology with known protein toxins, degradation in the gastro-intestinal tract, stability to food processing and acute toxicity in rodents. The possible allergenicity of the expressed proteins is evaluated by comparison of their amino acid sequence with that of known allergens and determination of their stability to digestion and food processing. If the source of the genetic insert is allergenic then the use of solid-state immunoassays, skin prick tests and even food challenge tests can be considered', 'en_US'),
(943, 'Assessment of allergic potential of (novel) foods', 'In safety assessment of novel foods such as functional foods, allergy is a special issue on which particular emphasis has been placed. The reason for such concern is that incidence of food allergies is constantly and rapidly increasing. The severity of the reported incidents and the number of foods incriminated are also on the rise. The outstanding challenge is to understand what makes a common innocuous protein or peptide behave as an allergen for some groups of people, or why it may suddenly or progressively become a much more potent allergen than usual. It is therefore necessary to consider the risks of creating or unmasking new immunoreactive structures, or of overexposure to already reactive substances, as a result of new food-production and processing technologies. No test such as the use of animal models, the analysis of structure, function and physico-chemical properties is as yet available to evaluate or predict the allergenicity of a ''novel'' protein in a wholly reliable and objective manner. No indication has yet suggested that novel foods, and particularly recombinant proteins or genetically modified foods, would be more (or less) allergenic than the corresponding conventional foods. No particular structure can be described as being solely and intrinsically allergenic. The predictive approaches to determining the allergenic potential of NFs should therefore be subject to case-by-case critical appraisal allied to mandatory implementation of monitoring of the potential postmarketing impact of these new foodstuffs on public health', 'en_US'),
(944, 'The use of amino acid sequence alignments to assess potential allergenicity of proteins used in genetically modified foods', NULL, 'en_US');


INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(1026, 'Removal of antibiotic resistance genes from transgenic tobacco plastids', 'Removal of antibiotic resistance genes from genetically modified (GM) crops removes the risk of their transfer to the enviornment or gut microbes.  Integration of foreign genes into plastid DNA enhances containment in crops that inherit their plastids maternally.  Efficient plastid transformation requires the aadA marker gene, which confers resistance to the antibiotics spectinomycin and streptomycin.  We have exploited plastid DNA recombination and cytoplasmic sorting to remove aadA from transplastomic tobacco plants.  A 4.9kbp insert, composed of aadA flanked by bar and uidA genes, was integrated into plastid DNA and selected to remove wild-type plastid genomes.  The bar gene confers tolerance to the herbicide glufosinate despite being GC-rich.  Excision of aadA and uidA mediated by two 174bp direct repeats generated aadA-free To transplastomic plants containing the bar gene.  Removal of aadA and bar by three 418 bp direct repeats allowed the isolation of marker-free T2 plants containing a plastid-locating uidA reporter gene.', 'en_US'),
(1027, 'Plant biotechnology and food security in Latin America and the Caribbean', 'Agriculture is expected to feed an increasing population, forecasted to reach 8 billion by 2020, out of whom 6.7 billion will be in developing countries where the carrying capacity of agricultural lands will soon be reached.  In Latin American and the Caribbean (LAC) countries, in spite of the abundance of natural resources and continued investments in development, poverty and food insecurity affect more than 55% of the rural population.  Fifteen years ago, plant biotechnology comprised only a few applications of tissue culture, recombinant DNA technology and monoclonal antibodies.  Today, genetic transformation, and marker-aided selection and breeding are just a few of the examples of the applications in crop improvement with profound implications for the LAC region.  Plant biotechnology applications must respond to increasing demands in terms of food security, socio-economic development and promote the conservation, diversification and sustainable use of plant genetic resources as basic inputs for the future agriculture of the region.  Food security is defined by the FAO as the access by all people at all times to the food needed for a healthy and active life.  The concept means the achievement of the food self-sufficiency, and guarantees that this condition will be sustained in the future.  Food security implies reaching productive growth and the preservation of the environment.  Malnutrition affects 15% of the population in South America, while the Region represents nearly 23% of the arable lands and 12% of the world cultivated areas.  Plant biotechnology offers several possibilities for increasing productivity, diversification and production, plant tissue culture techniques, and the use of advanced molecular biology techniques for plant transformation, genomic analysis coupled with breeding and plant-disease diagnoses.  Agricultural biotechnology in the LAC Region is characterized by a repetitive and academic model, where many of the project objectives do not respond to the real needs of crop production and food security in the Region.  Many small research teams in universities or agricultural institutions, poorly connected and/or integrated, have a high dispersion of facilities and qualified labour force.  The database of REDBIO/FAO in 1999, register 539 laboratories affiliated in 23 countries of the Region.  83% of the member laboratories have less than 10 researchers and technical personnel and only 72% of them have three post-graduates or more.  The majority of these small research groups lack adequate technology and properly trained personnel to start relevant projects, attractive for public and private investment.  Public and private institutions should play a key role to create of strengthen National Programmes to guide efforts towards the real production needs and food security.  National Programs should identify objectives and priorities in each country, in order to promote regional collaboration, find financial support and facilitate the transfer of appropriate biotechnology and biosafety norms to the producers by promoting the application of valid results.', 'en_US'),
(1028, 'Under-utilized Andean food crops: status and prospects of plant biotechnology for the conservation and sustainable agricultural use of genetic resources', 'In line with the strategic recommendations of the Global Plan of Action for the Conservation and Sustainable Utilization of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture approved at the Fourth International Technical Conference on Plant Genetic Resources (ITCPGR), Leipzig, Germany, June 1996 and of the Global Plan of Action on Food Security approved at the World Food Summit on Food Security (WFS), Rome, November 1996, the Andean countries of Latin America (LAC) face the need to strengthen the use of modern plant biotechnology for the conservation and sustainable agricultural use of genetic resources of under-utilized crops.  Advanced biotechnologies such as cell and tissue culture, molecular genome analysis, plant genetic transformation, molecular plant disease diagnosis and germplasm cryo-conservation can be successfully used to cope genetic erosion, to reinforce ex-situ collections and in-situ conservation, to upgrade the supply of improved and healthy seed and planting materials to farmers and to integrate a new approach into the development programmes for food production and food security in mountain lands.  Over the centuries more than 70 crops have been domesticated by the Andes inhabitants.  Presently, on 28 crop species, selected under the basis of adaptation to high altitude, agronomic use and yield, nutritional value and market potential, there are relative developments in terms of agronomic cultural management and scarce genetic conservation activities. ... The paper summarizes the main parameters and characteristics of 13 selected crops including the state of the art of plant biotechnology in the Andean countries and main applications and discusses perspectives and future impact of plant biotechnology for the conservation and development of food crops.', 'en_US'),
(1029, 'Biotechnology can help crop production to feed an increasing world population: positive and negative aspects need to be balanced - A perspective from FAO', 'Agriculture mainly food crops, is expected to feed an increasing human population, forecast to reach 7500 million by 2020, of whom 6300 million will be in developing countries.  Although the rate of population growth is steadily decreasing, the increase in absolute numbers of people to be fed may be such that the carrying capacity of agricultural lands could soon be reached given current technology.  New technologies, such as DNA recombinant biotechnologies, if properly focused, offer a responsible way to enhance agricultural productivity for now and the future.  Sustainable food production is uncertain in many developing areas of the world because of their particular climatic, land and water limitations; thus developing low-cost applications will be an important complementary element in increasing food production and stability for the rural poor.  Biotechnology not alone but, coupled with other technologies such as plant breeding and crop physiology, is a powerful tool in agricultural development with great potential - both positive and negative- and offers a potential solution for many problems affecting crops and livestock production in developing countries.  National programmes should ensure that biotechnology benefits all sectors, including resource-poor rural populations, particularly in marginal areas where productivity increases would be more difficult to achieve.  Biotechnology-derived solutions for low productivity and biotic and abiotic stresses as well as improved nutritional or medicinal content built into the genotype of plants could reduce the use of agrochemicals and water, thus promoting sustainable yields, food security and added value integration.  Biotechnology also offers unique opportunities to solve environmental problems, some of which derive from unsustainable agricultural and industrial practices.  FAO recognizes the need to take a balanced and comprehensive approach to biotechnological development by considering its integration into various areas of the Organization''s work programme.  Since the scope for potential action is huge, while FAO resources are limited, it is important that close partnerships with other bodies be forged, including the CGIAR.  Networking operation, as in the case of the Technical Cooperation Network on Plan Biotechnology for Latin America and the Caribbean (REDBIO/FAO), has to be reinforced through new institutional capacity on information, communication and training.  A number of issues are of special concern to countries aiming at increasing their involvement in biotechnology and thus developing their agricultural sector, which is an integral element of rural development and overall national food security.  This paper focuses on a perspective from FAO and REDBIO on specific issues  and concerns of biotechnology application.  Tactics are discussed for priority setting and applying the technologies in support of sustainable agricultural production and food security, with an underlying emphasis on safety in use of biotechnology and its products.', 'en_US'),
(1030, 'Global review of commercialized transgenic crops: 2000', 'This publication provides the latest provisional information on the global status of commercialized transgenic crops. In presenting the provisional data for 2000, the changes that have occurred between 1999 and 2000 are highlighted and the global adoption trends during the last five years from 1996 to 2000 are illustrated.', 'en_US'),
(1031, 'Changing attitudes to biotechnology in Japan', 'A new survey of the Japanese population reveals waning support for biotechnology and genetic engineering in particular.  Although a majority of people remain optimistic about biotechnology and its uses, a growing number of people feel that the risks associated with agricultural applications, and even environmental and health applications, are increasingly unacceptable.', 'en_US'),
(1032, 'Biotechnology, ethics and government: A synthesis', 'The general aim of this report is to provide (a) a synthesis of six papers prepared for the government of Canada dealing with ethics and biotechnology and (b) an indication of gaps in information provided in those papers. CBAC''s role as an advisor to the government of Canada on all aspects of biotechnology including socio-ethical and legal aspects is taken as a starting point for this paper.', 'en_US'),
(1033, 'Biotechnology and Food', 'Modern biotechnology greatly benefits the quality and quantity of food, human and animal health, and the environment. Unfortunately, misinformation and misunderstandings about biotechnology in the popular media make it difficult for consumers to make informed assessments. This booklet explains the facts behind genetic modification and explores some of the issues surrounding the increasingly contentious debate over its use in food production.', 'en_US'),
(1034, 'Substantial equivalence of antinutrients and inherent plant toxins in genetically modified novel foods', 'For a safety evaluation of foodstuff derived from genetically modified crops, the concept of the substantial equivalence of modified organisms with their parental lines is used following an environmental safety evaluation. To assess the potential pleiotropic effect of genetic modifications on constituents of modified crops data from US and EC documents were investigated with regard to inherent plant toxins and antinutrients. Analysed were documents of rape (glucosinolates, phytate), maize (phytate), tomato (tomatine, solanine, chaconine, lectins, oxalate), potato (solanine, chaconine, protease-inhibitors, phenols) and soybean (protease-inhibitors, lectins, isoflavones, phytate). In several documents used for notifications no declarations even on essential inherent plant toxins and antinutrients could be found, for instance data on phytate in modified maize were provided only in one of four documents. Significant variations in the contents of these compounds in parental and modified plants especially due to environmental influences were observed: drought stress, for example, was made responsible for significantly increased glucosinolate levels of up to 72.6µmol/g meal in modified and parental rape plants in field trials compared to recommended standard concentrations of less than 30µmol/g. Taking into account these wide natural variations generally the concentrations of inherent plant toxins and antinutrients in modified products were in the range of the concentrations in parental organisms. The results presented indicate that the concept of the substantial equivalence is useful for the risk assessment of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) used for novel foods but possible environmental influences on constituents of modified crops need more attention. Consistent guidelines, specifying data of relevant compounds which have to be provided for notification documents of specific organisms have to be established. Because of the importance of inherent plant toxins and antinutrients on nutritional safety, also coherent databases', 'en_US'),
(1035, 'Lateral gene transfer and the nature of bacterial innovation', 'Unlike eukaryotes, which evolve principally through the modification of existing genetic information, bacteria have obtained a significant proportion of their genetic diversity through the aquisition of sequences from distantly related organisms.  Horizontal gene transfer produces extremely dynamic genomes in which substantial amounts of DNA are introduced into and deleted from the chromosome.  These lateral transfers have effectively changed the ecological and pathogenic character of bacterial species.', 'en_US'),
(1036, 'Governing the GM crop revolution: policy choices for developing countries', 'In this report, Paarlberg devises a system for clarifying policy choices toward GM crops in the areas of intellectual property rights, food safety, biosafety, trade, and public research investment. He then presents an up-to-date snapshot and analysis of policies toward GM crops for four countries: Brazil, China, India, and Kenya. Of these four countries, only China has officially approved the commercial planting of GM crops. Although scientists and some policymakers in Brazil, India and Kenya are pushing for adoption of GM crops, precautionary biosafety policies in these countries are keeping these crops out of the hands of farmers. Paarlberg seeks to explain the differences among the four countries in these policy areas, and he determines that international pressures -from, for example, international environmental and nongovernmental organizations, international agreements, and donors - are working to discourage GM crop adoption in Brazil, India and Kenya. China has taken a different path in part because it is relatively insulated from such pressures.', 'en_US'),
(1037, 'US public opinion divided over biotechnology?', 'Conventional wisdom judges that the people of the United States to have few concerns about biotechnology in comparison to people in other parts of the developed world.  According to data from a new survey, this picture is at once both accurate and misleading.  At least one other major comparative study using data from 1996-1997 published this year appeared to indicate generally more favourable attitudes in the US than in Europe.  But recent data reflect mixed opinions in the US consistent with other evidence suggesting moderate declines in US support.  While the proportions may be slightly different, the US increasingly resembles Europe in having significant amounts of opposition.', 'en_US'),
(1038, 'Regulators and promoters of genetically modified foods in the government of Canada: an organizational and policy analysis', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1039, 'Frequency of resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis in field populations of pink bollworm', 'Strategies for delaying pest resistance to genetically modified crops that produce Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxins are based primarily on theoretical models.  One key assumption of such models is that genes conferring resistance are rare.  Previous estimates for lepidopteran pests targeted by Bt crops seem to meet this assumption.  We report here that the estimated frequency of a recessive allele conferring resistance to Bt toxin Cry1Ac was 0.16 in strains of pink bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella) derived from 10 Arizona cotton fields during 1997.  Unexpectedly, the estimated resistance allele did not increase from 1997 to 1999 and Bt cotton remained extremely effective against pink bollworm.  These results demonstrate that the assumptions and predictions of resistance management models must be reexamined.', 'en_US'),
(1040, 'Crop-to-weed gene flow in the genus Sorghum (Poaceae): spontaneous interspecific hybridization between Johnsongrass, Sorghum halepense, and crop sorghum, S. bicolor', 'The role of crop-to-weed gene flow is often controverrsial and overlooked. As a consequence, the likelihood of spontaneous crop-to-weed hybridization in most crop-weed systems is generally unknown. The lack of data relating to the formation of crop-weed hybrids has particular contemporary significance when considering the wide scale commercial release of transgenic crop plants and thr potential for escape of engineered genes via crop-to-weed hybridization. We created an experimental system whereby we could examine the incidence and rate of spontaneous crop-to-weed hybridization between Sorghum bicolor and S. halepense, jonsongrass. An isozyme marker was used to identify hybrid plants ghrough progeny testing. Incidence and rate of hybridization were highly variable with respect to weed distance from the crop, location of the study size, and year the study was performed. Crop-weed hybrids were drtected at distances of 0.5-100 m from the crop. Interspecific hybridization can and does occur in this system at a substantial and measurable rate. Transgenes introduced into crop sorghum can be expected to have the opportunity to escape cultivation through interspecific hybrdization with johnsongrass. Trais that prove to be beneficial to weeds possessing them can be expected to persist and spread. This is an issue that needs to be addressed when developing biosafety guidelines for the commercial release of transgenic sorghums.', 'en_US'),
(1041, 'Comparative environmental impacts of biotechnology-derived and traditional soybean, corn, and cotton crops', 'A comprehensive review of the scientific literature supports the conclusion that overall the currently commercialized biotechnology-derived1 soybean, corn, and cotton crops yield environmental benefits.  Furthermore, a critical analysis of the literature supports the idea that biotechnology-derived soybean, corn, and cotton pose no environmental concerns unique to or different from those historically associated with conventionally developed crop varieties.', 'en_US'),
(1042, 'The potential for biotechnology to improve crop pest management in the US, 30 crop study', 'With the use of modern genetic transformation techniques, such as microprojectile bombardment of plant tissue, scientists have been inserting genetic material into plant species from other biological species, such as bacteria. The resulting transgenic plant cultivars express proteins that normally are not part of the plant''s genetic makeup. Several transgenic cultivars have been commercialized in the U.S. and have been widely planted after regulatory review of numerous health and safety studies.', 'en_US'),
(1043, 'Adoption of Bt cotton by small-scale famers in South Africa', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1044, 'Plant biotechnology in China', 'A survey of China''s plant biotechnologists shows that China is developing the largest plant biotechnology capacity outside of North America. The list of genetically modified plant technologies in trials, including rice, wheat, potatoes, and peanuts, is impressive and differs from those being worked on in other countries. Poor farmers in China are cultivating more area of genetically modified plants than are small farmers in any other developing country. A survey of agricultural producers in China demonstrates that Bacillus thuringiensis cotton adoption increases production efficiency and improves farmer health.', 'en_US'),
(1045, 'Can farmers in the developing countries benefit from modern technology - experience from the Makhathini Flats, Republic of South Africa', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1046, 'Farm level impact of Bt cotton in South Africa', 'This paper describes the method and findings of the first independent survey of smallholder farmers in the Republic of South Africa designed to explore the economic benefits of their adoption of Bt cotton. The study found that the Bt variety generally resulted in a per hectare increase in yields, value of output and reduction of pesticide costs which outweighed the increase in seed costs to give a substantial increase in gross margins. There are several surveys being carried out at the moment on different aspects of the Makhathini experience. The Monitor will be reporting on their results as these become available.', 'en_US'),
(1047, 'The payoffs of agricultural biotechnology - an assessment of the evidence', 'Transgenic crops are relatively new technologies being adopted rapidly in the United States and in a few other countries. The economic impacts of these technologies have, thus far, been estimated in a piecemeal fashion. The purpose of this study was to collect and characterize the economic evidence available to date, organize it, and determine if any general implications can be drawn from it. The general classes of economic impacts at the farm level are discussed. The types of studies that generate estimates of these benefits are also characterized and categorized in terms of the implications for measuring economic impacts when the set of things held constant in the type of study does not correspond to those that economic theory suggests. The evidence is presented, along with some general implications drawn from the analysis. These implications are: (1) growing transgenic cotton is likely to result in reduced pesticide use in most years and is likely to be profitable in most years in most U.S. states in the Cotton Belt, (2) Bt corn will provide a small but significant yield increase in most years across the U.S. Corn Belt, and in some years and some places the increase will be substantial, and (3) although there is some evidence of a small yield loss in the Roundup Ready â soybean varieties, in most years and locations savings in pesticide costs and, possibly, tillage costs will more than offset the lost revenue from the yield discrepancy. There is not yet enough evidence to generalize even these few conclusions to other countries. More farm- level studies in more years and across more locations are required before any additional implications can be drawn. Studies that measure the non-pecuniary benefits and costs of these technologies should be undertaken, as well. ', 'en_US'),
(1048, 'Fungal growth and Fusarium mycotoxin content in isogenic traditional maize and genetically modified maize grown in France and Spain', 'Fungi of the genus Fusariumare common fungal contaminants of maize and are also known to produce mycotoxins. Maize that has been genetically modified to express a Bt endotoxin has been used to study the effect of insect resistance on fungal infection of maize grains by Fusarium species and their related mycotoxins. Maize grain from Bt hybrids and near-isogenic traditional hybrids was collected in France and Spain from the 1999 crop, which was grown under natural conditions. According to the ergosterol level, the fungal biomass formed on Bt maize grain was 4-18 times lower than that on isogenic maize. Fumonisin B1 grain concentrations ranged from 0.05 to 0.3 ppm for Bt maize and from 0.4 to 9 ppm for isogenic maize. Moderate to low concentrations of trichothecenes and zearalenone were measured on transgenic as well as on non-transgenic maize. Nevertheless, significant differences were obtained in certain regions. The protection of maize plants against insect damage (European corn borer and pink stem borer) through the use of Bt technology seems to be a way to reduce the contamination of maize by Fusarium species and the resultant fumonisins in maize grain grown in France and Spain.', 'en_US'),
(1049, 'Enhancing mineral content in plant food products', 'Plant foods can serve as dietary sources of all essential minerals required by humans. Unfortunately, mineral concentrations are low in some plants, especially many staple food crops; thus, efforts are underway to increase the mineral content of these foods as a means to ensure adequate attainment of dietary minerals in all individuals. While these efforts have included classical breeding approaches in the past, it is clear that future progress can be made by utilizing the tools of biotechnology to effect directed changes in plant mineral status. Reviewed are the short- and long-distance mineral transport mechanisms responsible for the root acquisition and whole-plant partitioning of mineral ions in crop plants. This background is used to discuss different transgenic strategies with the potential to enhance mineral content in vegetative and/or reproductive tissues. Due to various constraints imposed by plant transport systems on whole-plant mineral movement, it is argued that modifications designed to increase the supply of minerals to edible organs should have the highest chance for success. Examples of previous efforts to manipulate plant mineral nutrition through the introduction of novel transgenes are presented to demonstrate the utility of these approaches.', 'en_US'),
(1050, 'The evolution of modern agriculture and its future with biotechnology', 'Since the dawn of agriculture, humans have been manipulating crops to enhance their quality and yield. Via conventional breeding, seed producers have developed the modern corn hybrids and wheat commonly grown today. Newer techniques, such as radiation breeding, enhanced the seed producers'' ability to develop new traits in crops. Then in the 1980''s?1990''s, scientists began applying genetic engineering techniques to improve crop quality and yield. In contrast to earlier breeding methods, these techniques raised questions about their safety to consumers and the environment. This paper provides an overview of the kinds of genetically modified crops developed and marketed to date and the value they provide farmers and consumers. The safety assessment process required for these crops is contrasted with the lack of a formal process required for traditionally bred crops. While European consumers have expressed concern about foods and animal feeds containing ingredients from genetically modified crops, Americans have largely been unconcerned or unaware of the presence of genetically modified foods on the market. This difference in attitude is reflected in Europe''s decision to label foods containing genetically modified ingredients while no such labeling is required in the U.S. In the future, genetic modification will produce a variety of new products with enhanced nutritional or quality attributes.', 'en_US'),
(1051, 'Transgenic approaches in commonly consumed cereals to improve iron and zinc content and bioavailability', 'Modern genetic and molecular technologies provide a number of tools that can be utilized for the development of staple foods with a higher iron and zinc content and improved bioavailability of these minerals. This article summarizes current strategies aimed at increasing the iron-sequestering capacity of the endosperm and improving mineral bioavailability via in planta synthesis of microbial phytases. A case study is presented for wheat, and future strategies are discussed addressing the importance of phytase thermostability.', 'en_US'),
(1052, 'Foods as production and delivery vehicles for human vaccines', 'Vaccination is a great asset for eradication of infectious diseases in humans and animals. With the prevalence of antibiotic resistant bacterial strains and an alarming increase in new and re-emerging pathogens, the need for vaccination continues to be a high priority for mammalian diseases. In the last several years, a novel approach for developing improved mucosal subunit vaccines has emerged by exploiting the use of genetically modified plants. It has been demonstrated that plant-derived antigens are functionally similar to conventional vaccines and can induce neutralizing antibodies in mammalian hosts. Using genetically engineered plants for the production of immunogenic peptides also provides a new approach for the delivery of a plant-based subunit vaccine, i.e., oral delivery, provided these immunogenic peptides are expressed in an edible part of the plant, such as grain or fruit. Thus, food crops can play a significant new role in promoting human health by serving as vehicles for both production and delivery of vaccine.', 'en_US'),
(1053, 'High-oleic and high-stearic cottonseed oils - nutritionally improved cooking oils developed using gene silencing', 'Gene technology and plant breeding are combining to provide powerful means for modifying the composition of oilseeds to improve their nutritional value and provide the functional properties required for various food oil applications. Major alterations in the proportions of individual fatty acids have been achieved in a range of oilseeds using conventional selection, induced mutation and, more recently, post-transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS). In particular, a number of high-oleic oils have been developed in order to provide high-stability cooking oils. These oils provide the opportunity to replace the current widespread use of saturated fats and hydrogenated oils that contribute significantly to increased risk of cardiovascular disease due to the effect of saturated and trans-fatty acids on elevating LDL cholesterol in the bloodstream. Similarly, oils with increased stearic acid content are being developed to enable the production of solid fats without the need for hydrogenation.We have recently applied hpRNA-mediated PTGS in cotton to down-regulate key fatty acid desaturase genes and develop nutritionally-improved high-oleic (HO) and high-stearic (HS) cottonseed oils (CSOs). Silencing of the ghFAD2-1 Ä12-desaturase gene raised oleic acid content from 13% to 78% and silencing of the ghSAD-1 Ä 9-desaturase gene substantially increased stearic acid from the normal level of 2% to as high as 40%. Additionally, palmitic acid was significantly lowered from 26% to 15% in both HO and HS lines. Intercrossing the HS and HO lines resulted in a wide range of unique intermediate combinations of palmitic, stearic, oleic and linoleic contents. The oxidative stability, flavor characteristics and physical properties of these novel CSOs are currently being evaluated by food technologists.', 'en_US'),
(1054, 'Expression of human milk proteins in plants', 'Human milk proteins are believed to have a multitude of biological activities benefiting the newborn infant. Such functions include antibacterial and antiviral activities, enhancement of the immune system and increased nutrient absorption. To date, only breast-fed infants have been exposed to these proteins. However, by using genetic engineering it is now possible to express these proteins in plants, such as rice, at very high levels. Recombinant human milk proteins can subsequently be added to infant formula and baby foods. Prior to such addition, safety tests and efficacy trials need to be conducted. The safety tests will initially be done in rats and then in humans. The efficacy trials should also evaluate stability against heat treatment (processing), pH (stomach conditions) and proteolytic enzymes (digestion). To date, we have expressed recombinant human lactoferrin, lysozyme and á1-antitrypsin in rice at very high expression levels. These recombinant proteins showed a stability and activities similar to those of the native milk proteins, suggesting that they may be able to exert biological activities in infants when added to formula or baby foods.', 'en_US'),
(1055, 'Fighting iron deficiency anemia with iron-rich rice', 'Objective: Iron deficiency is estimated to affect about 30% of the world population. Iron supplementation in the form of tablets and food fortification has not been successful in developing countries, and iron deficiency is still the most important deficiency related to malnutrition. Here we present experiments that aim to increase the iron content in rice endosperm and to improve its absorption in the human intestine by means of genetic engineering.Methods: We first introduced a ferritin gene from Phaseolus vulgaris into rice grains, increasing their iron content up to twofold. To increase iron bioavailability, we introduced a thermo-tolerant phytase from Aspergillus fumigatus into the rice endosperm. In addition, as cysteine peptides are considered major enhancers of iron absorption, we over-expressed the endogenous cysteine-rich metallothionein-like protein.Results: The content of cysteine residues increased about sevenfold and the phytase level in the grains about one hundred and thirtyfold, giving a phytase activity sufficient to completely degrade phytic acid in a simulated digestion experiment.Conclusions: This rice, with higher iron content, rich in phytase and cysteine-peptide has a great potential to substantially improve iron nutrition in those populations where iron deficiency is so widely spread.', 'en_US'),
(1056, 'The application of biotechnology to nutrition - an overview', 'Crop biotechnology is being used in two major ways to enhance human nutrition: to improve global food security by making more food available, especially locally grown and familiar foods in the developing world, and by enhancing the nutritional composition of foods that would interest both the developed and developing worlds. Since the first commercialized products of biotechnology are major commodity crops grown primarily in the US, Canada and Argentina (soybeans, corn, canola and cotton), there is concern about whether and when crop biotechnology will help the developing world. There are, however, several on-going projects in Africa, SE Asia and Latin America where crop biotechnology is being used to enhance locally grown crops. The expectation is that genetically improved crops, e.g., those able to resist local pests, will allow even small-scale farmers to grow more crops using fewer inputs and in an environmentally sustainable manner. Furthermore, there are numerous on-going projects to enhance the nutritional or health value of foods via transgene technology. A few of these projects are described in this article.', 'en_US'),
(1057, 'Enhancement of vitamin E levels in corn fighting iron deficiency anemia with iron-rich rice', 'Vitamin E is the common name that describes eight naturally occurring compounds possessing _-tocopherol activity. These eight vitamin E compounds are collectively termed tocols, and all have antioxidant activity. There is natural variation among different corn breeding lines for levels of tocols. The two predominant isomers present in corn grain are y-tocopherol and a-tocopherol. a-tocopherol is considered more desirable for human and animal consumption because it has higher biological activity than y-tocopherol. Most corn breeding lines naturally have much more y-tocopherol than a-tocopherol. Therefore a breeding goal is to increase levels of a-tocopherol relative to y-tocopherol. However, recent research suggests that y-tocopherol and compounds metabolized from it have properties important to human health that are unique from properties of a-tocopherol. Therefore it may be desirable to not only increase levels of _-tocopherol in corn grain, but also levels of y-tocopherol. Determination of levels of tocopherols in corn grain is very laborious, requires HPLC analysis and is too time consuming for use in routine commercial corn breeding programs. Therefore we are performing biotechnology enabled molecular marker mapping of chromosomal regions with genes that control levels and ratios of a- and y-tocopherol. Breeders can use molecular markers we have identified to expediently select for desirable alleles of genes that will improve levels of a- and y-tocopherol in corn grain, without having to perform laborious HPLC assays. Another biotechnology strategy we have initiated is genetic transformation of corn with the y-tocopherol methyl transferase gene to enhance conversion of y-tocopherol to a-tocopherol and thus increase levels of a-tocopherol. This transgenic strategy has been demonstrated in the model plant Arabidopsis, and we are now applying this approach to corn.', 'en_US'),
(1058, 'The impact of consumer food biotechnology training on knowledge and attitude', 'Objective: Consumer education is an important aspect in the adoption of any new technology. The objective of this work was to determine whether consumer''s knowledge and attitudes would be influenced by a face-to-face presentation involving food biotechnology.Materials and Methods: Participants (576) were requested to complete a pre-test prior to receiving a 45?80 minute presentation, which was then followed by a post-test. Participants included members from a community organization, undergraduate and graduate college students and cooperative extension educators (county agents).Results: Following training, 98% to 99% correctly indicated that fruits and vegetables contain chromosomes and that foods from biotech crops were currently sold in grocery stores. Prior to training, only 31% felt that these crops were properly regulated by federal agencies, and only 25% were confident that bioengineering was unlikely to make an existing food allergenic. Following training, 83% felt that these crops were properly regulated, and 63% believed that biotechnology was unlikely to add new allergens to our food supply. In addition, 90% of those trained would eat or serve genetically-modified foods to their family, and 90% believed that they or their family would benefit from genetically-modified foods within the next five years.Conclusions: It is apparent from these results that when provided sound, science-based information, participants are more accepting of this technology and the regulatory process.', 'en_US'),
(1059, 'Increased production of nutrients by genetically engineered crops', 'Plants are the basis of human nutrition and have been selected and improved to assure this purpose. Nowadays, new technologies such as genetic engineering and genomics approaches allow further improvement of plants. We describe here three examples for which these techniques have been employed. We introduced the first enzyme involved in fructan synthesis, the sucrose sucrose fructosyltransferase (isolated from Jerusalem artichoke), into sugar beet. The transgenic sugar beet showed a dramatic change in the nature of the accumulated sugar, 90% of the sucrose being converted into fructan. The use of transgenic sugar beet for the production and isolation of fructans will result in a more efficient plant production system of fructans and should promote their use in human food. The second example shows how the over-expression of the key enzyme of flavonoid biosynthesis could increase anti-oxidant levels in tomato. Introduction of a highly expressed chalcone isomerase led to a seventyfold increase of the amount of quercetin glucoside, which is a strong anti-oxidant in tomato. We were also able to modify the essential amino acid content of potato in order to increase its nutritional value. The introduction of a feedback insensitive bacterial gene involved in biosynthesis of aspartate family amino acids led to a sixfold increase of the lysine content. Because the use of a bacterial gene could appear to be controversial, we also introduced a mutated form of the plant key enzyme of lysine biosynthesis (dihydrodipicolinate synthase) in potato. This modifi-cation led to a 15 times increase of the lysine content of potato. This increase of the essential amino acid lysine influences the nutritional value of potato, which normally has low levels of several essential amino acids. These three examples show how the metabolism of primary constituents of the plant cell such as sugar or amino acids, but also of secondary metabolites such as flavonoids, can be modified by genetic engineering. Producing fructan, a soluble fiber, increasing the level of flavonoids, an antioxidant, in tomato or increasing the level of essential amino acids in potato are all clear examples of plant genetic modifications with possible positive effects on human nutrition.', 'en_US'),
(1060, 'Golden rice: introducing the B-carotene biosynthesis pathway into rice endosperm by genetic engineering to defeat vitamin A deficiency', 'To obtain a functioning provitamnin A (13-carotene) biosynthetic pathway in rice endosperm, we introduced in a single, combined transformation effort the cDNA coding for phytoene synthase (psy) and lycopene 13-cyclase (13-Icy) both from Narcissus pseudonarcissus and both under the control of the endosperm-specific glutelin promoter together with a bacterial phytoene desaturase (crtl, from Erwinia uredovora under constitutive 35S promoter control). This combination covers the requirements for (3-carotene synthesis and, as hoped, yellow 13-carotene-bearing rice endosperm was obtained in the To-generation. Additional experiments revealed that the presence of 13-Icy was not necessary, because psy and crtl alone were able to drive 13-carotene synthesis as well as the formation of further downstream xanthophylls. Plausible explanations for this finding are that these downstream enzymes are constitutively expressed in rice endlosperm or are induced by the transformation, e.g., by enzymatically formed products. Results using N. pseudonarcissus as a model system led to the development of a hypothesis, our present working model, that trans-lycopene or a trans-lycopene derivative acts as an inductor in a kind of feedback mechanism stimulating endogenous carotenogenic genes. Various institutional arrangements for disseminating Golden Rice to research institutes in developing countries also are discussed.', 'en_US'),
(1061, 'Value of engineered virus resistance in crop plants and technology cooperation with developing countries', 'Plant viruses often cause considerable crop damage and significantly reduce yields in the absence of effective protection treatments. In cultivated crop plants the decrease in yield and crop value caused by virus infection is estimated at 60 billion US dollars per year. Virus infected crops are always of inferior quality,. which reduces their market value. Modem biotechnology has significant potential to increase agricultural productivity to meet the demand for food from an increasing world population. Transformation of plants with viral genes has been proven in many cases to produce resistance to the virus from which the genes were derived. The development of transformation techniques broadens the possibility of using engineered virus resistance in plant breeding. There are many destructive virus diseases of crop plants worldwide, and biotechnology may be the fastest and most efficient way to produce resistant cultivars. From the original discovery of coat protein-mediated resistance in 1986 to the introduction in 1995 of squash and papaya resistant to different viruses, this technology has finally reached the market-place. Transgenic virus resistance, like genetic resistance, is of great value for modem agriculture and can create even greater savings for subsistence farmers, who cannot afford other measures of crop protection. Other than transgenic solutions, only breeding for virus resistance and vector resistance offer long term solutions to a virus disease problem; however, this process is lengthy and the resistance genes are not always available in the desired species. Genetic engineering offers an alternative in crops where no effective resistance gene(s) has been identified, or as way of creating durable multiple resistance mechanisms by combining natural and transgenic resistance.', 'en_US'),
(1062, 'Plant biotechnology - current and potential impact for improving pest managment in US agriculture', 'Advances in genetics and molecular biology have made it possible to identify genes coding for specific traits in one organism, isolate and clone them, and incorporate them into the genome of another organism, regardless of relatedness of the source and donor species. Myriad crop species are being experimentally transformed for protection against insects, pathogens, and herbicides, for improved management of pests that plague modern agriculture.Several transgenic cultivars have full regulatory approval and are commercially available for planting by U.S. growers. Adoption of these transgenic cultivars has been rapid in some cases. In other cases, adoption has been minimal. The limited adoption of some transgenic varieties stems from growers'' uncertainty of finding a market for their harvested product rather than from poor agronomic or pest management performance. Despite inconsistent adoption, however, research continues to improve and expand the application of biotechnology in agriculture.An understanding of the contributions, both realized and potentially forthcoming, of agricultural biotechnology for crop pest management is critical to the unfolding public discussion that surrounds it and, ultimately, will determine its future. This report provides descriptions of traits transferred to crop plants for resistance to insects, pathogens and herbicides, and discusses current adoption levels and farm level impacts of available transgenic cultivars. Also reviewed are several transgenic crops under development, the agronomic pests they target, and projected farm level impacts of their commercialization and adoption.', 'en_US'),
(1063, 'Commercialization of transgenic cotton expressing insecticidal crystal protein', 'In 1996, the first commercial fields of transgenic upland cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.), expressing the CryIAc insecticidal protein, were grown in the USA (Hardee and Herzog, 1997). The cryIAc transgene was modified after a gene from the bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis. This genetically engineered cotton, commonly known as ''Bt cotton,'' was developed by Monsanto, and Delta & Pine Land Companies as a novel new approach to controlling insect pest injury in production agriculture (Benedict, 1996a; Jenkins, 1999). The commercial production and regulation of Bt cotton technology has been closely followed by the general public, universities, governments, and special interest groups around the world. Genetically transforming cotton and other crops by the addition of foreign genes is viewed by certain public, private and governmental sectors as the most promising new paradigm to reduce pest injury, increase yields and genetically improve crops. However, transforming plants using foreign DNA from non-interbreeding organisms or synthetic DNA artificially produced in the laboratory, has raised questions regarding the impact of these transformed organisms on the environment, health of man, genetic diversity of plant and animal species, and the various religious and philosophical views of mankind. In this chapter we shall review the development and first three years of commercialization of Bt cotton as a novel new insect pest management strategy and tool. We will also discuss the challenges and opportunities in breeding and managing crops genetically engineered to suppress insect injury; and the contributions of these crops to current philosophies of integrated pest management and sustainable agriculture (see Carozzi and Koziel, 1997a; Hall and Menn, 1999 for further discussion on use of transgenic plants and biopesticides in agriculture).', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(1064, 'Agricultural biotechnology: updated benefit estimates.', 'Executive SummaryU.S. farmers have adopted genetically modified crop varieties rapidly since their introduction. By 2000, roughly one fifth of U.S. corn acreage, over half of the soybean acreage, and almost three-quarters of the cotton acreage was planted to crops genetically modified to be resistant to insects and/or herbicides.This report updates our previous estimates of the benefits associated with the adoption of genetically modified crop varieties. Updated impact estimates have been calculated for corn, cotton and soybeans. A discussion of potential impacts for potatoes is included. Each of these crops delivers a unique set of benefits to growers who adopt them. These benefits largely depend on pest control issues particular to each crop and whether other effective and affordable pest control options are available. Understanding the reasons why growers are adopting these varieties is critical in evaluating the their impact.Insect resistant Bt corn varieties have allowed farmers to control the European Corn Borer, an insect pest that is difficult to control using conventional insecticides because it tunnels into the corn stalk soon after hatching, and is protected from the insecticides. Prior to the introduction of Bt corn, few growers were spraying for the corn borer. Instead, yield losses sometimes reached 300 million bushels of corn per year. With Bt corn, losses to the corn borer are eliminated. The primary benefit of Bt corn varieties has been increased yields. In 1999, it is estimated that 66 million bushels of corn were saved from the corn borer, or the equivalent of production on nearly 500,000 acres. Modest reductions in corn insecticide use have also been observed since the introduction of Bt corn. Cotton growers have adopted genetically modified varieties faster than growers of any other crop. Both insect and herbicide resistant varieties have been adopted widely. Insect protected varieties of Bt cotton provide control of three of the most destructive insect pests in cotton: tobacco budworm, cotton bollworm and pink bollworm. Growers were managing these pests with several insecticide treatments per year. In some areas, the efficacy of these insecticides was diminished by the development of insecticide resistant insect populations. Bt cotton has allowed growers to reduce insecticide use and attain better control of these pests, which has resulted in increased yields. It is estimated that cotton growers reduced insecticide use by 2.7 million lbs and made 15 million fewer insecticide applications per year due to the introduction of Bt cotton. Cotton production has also increased, by 260 million lbs per year. Net revenues are estimated to have increased by $99 million in 1999.', 'en_US'),
(1065, 'Economic advantage of transgenic cotton in Argentina', 'Transgenic varieties (Bt) are becoming more widespread in cotton plantations in Argentina, reaching about 10,000 hectares in the 1999/2000 campaign. In this paper, we carried out an economic analysis to find out differences between transgenic (Bt) and conventional varieties in terms of costs and income. We analyzed the information provided by 32 growers who are using this technology. To calculate Bt additional benefit per hectare, we used the partial budget method. Overall results show that Bt income surpassed $159.02 /ha and the additional benefit of using it was $65.05 /ha. Bt total direct costs, yield, and fiber quality were better. When using the Bt variety, the number of insecticide applications decreased 2.41 times (63.74 %) and costs by $27.55 /ha.', 'en_US'),
(1066, 'Adoption of bioengineered crops', 'Use of crop biotechnology products, such as genetically engineered (GE) crops with input traits for pest management, has risen dramatically since commercial approval in the mid-1990s. This report addresses several of the economic dimensions regarding farmer adoption of bioengineered crops, including herbicide-tolerant and insect-resistant varieties. In particular, the report examines: (1) the extent of adoption of bioengineered crops, their diffusion path, and expected adoption rates over the next few years; (2) factors affecting the adoption of bioengineered crops; and (3) farm-level impacts of the adoption of bioengineered crops. Data used in the analysis are mostly from USDA surveys.', 'en_US'),
(1067, 'Predicted impact of transgenic, herbicide-tolerant corn on drinking water quality in vulnerable watersheds of the mid-western USA', 'In the intensely farmed corn-growing regions of the mid-western USA, surface waters have often been contaminated by herbicides, principally as a result of rainfall runoff occurrring shortly after appliation of these to corn and other crops. In some vulnerable watersaheds, water quality criteria for chronic human exposure through drinking water are occasionally exceeded. We selected three settings representative of vulnerable corn-region watersheds, and used the PRZM-EXAMS model with the Indx Reservoir scenario to predict corn herbicide concentrations in the reservoirs as a function of herbicide properties and use pattern, site characteristics and weather in the watersheds. We compared herbicide application scenarios, including broadcast surface pre-plant atrazine and alachlor applications with a glyphosate pre-plant application, scenarios in which losses of herbicides were mitigated by incorporation or banding, and scenarios in which only glyphosate or glufosinate post-emergent herbicides were used with corn genetically modified to be resistant to them. In the absence of drift, in almost all years a single runoff event dominates the input into the reservoir. As a result, annual average pesticide concentrations are highly correlated with annual maximum daily values. The modeled concentrations were generally higher than those derived from monitoring data, even for non-drift model scenarios. Because of their lower post-emergent application rates and greater soil sorpitivity, glyphosate and glufosinate loads in runoff were generally one-fifth to one-tenth those of atrazine and alachlor. These model results indicate that the replacement of pre-emergent corn herbicides with the post-emergent herbicides allowed by genetic modification of crops would dramatically reduce herbicide concentrations in vulnerable watersheds. Given the significantly lower chronic mammalian toxicity of these compounds, and their vulnerability to break down in the drinking water treatment process, risks to human populations through drinking water would also be reduced.', 'en_US'),
(1068, 'Natural enemy abundance in commercial Bollgard and conventional cotton fields', 'Field trials in Alabama, Georgia, and South Carolina determined the effect of transgenic Bollgard cotton and conventional varieties treated with insecticides on natural enemy populations. Initial results indicated that Bollgard had a lesser effect on arthropod natural enemy populations than did conventional, broad spectrum insecticides. The effects on nontarget populations, which depended on pest populations and agronomic practices, varied among regions and years. An accurate evaluation of the effect on natural enemy populations may require a multiyear study.', 'en_US'),
(1069, 'The limits of GMO detection', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1070, 'Validation of a method based on polymerase chain reaction for the detection of genetically modified organisms in various processed foodstuffs', 'A qualitative screening method was validated for the detection of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in various processed food matrices (cooked maize grit, infant formula, biscuits, meal of acidified soybeans). The prepared food matrices contained each 0%, 2%, 100% (10% instead of 100% in the case of biscuits) of Roundup-Ready(R) soybeans and/or of Bt-176 maize. The method was based on the detection of the introduced DNA sequences by using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for amplification of DNA. Two different detection systems were applied: one based on the 35S promoter fragment which is present in GM-soybeans and in GM-maize and one based on the nos terminator sequence which is present only in GM-soybeans. Prior to the validation study, it was demonstrated that the food matrices were homogenous and that there was no cross-contamination between GMO-containing and GMO-free samples. Some laboratories had a high portion of false positive results probably due to laboratory contamination whereas all others reported nearly always correct data for all matrices investigated. Statistical analysis showed that after exclusion of the outliers, an average of 97% correct results was obtained for non-GMO containing samples (3% false positive results) and an average of 98% correct results for GMO-containing samples (2% false negative results). The validated method was shown to be suitable for screening of CMOs in processed food matrices also when extreme physical stress was applied (e.g., heating for 45 min at 100 degreesC or 10 min at 180 degreesC) or when multiple components were present, as in the case of biscuit preparations.', 'en_US'),
(1071, 'The certification of reference materials of dry mixed maize powder with different mass fractions of MON 810 maize', 'This report describes the preparation and certification of dry mixed maize powder CRMs (IRMM-413-0) with different mass fractions of genetically modified MON 810 maize powder (Certified reference materials IRMM-413-0, IRMM-413-1, IRMM-413-2, IRMM-413-3, IRMM-413-4 and IRMM-413-5). The CRMs were produced by the Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements (IRMM) in 2000 in collaboration with the Institute for Health and Consumer Protection (IHCP, Ispra, IT), both Joint Research Centres of the European Commission. The CRMs are intended for the validation and calibration of methods for the detection of genetically modified food. The MON 810 concentration of IRMM-413 was verified with the help of DNA based and protein based detection methods. The CRMs are available in the form of glass bottles containing 1 g of maize powder packed under argon atmosphere. Seeds of non-modified maize (variety DK 512 delivered by R.a.g.t. Semences, Rodez, France) and MON 810 (cultivar DK 513 delivered by R.a.g.t. Semences, Rodez, France) were rinsed with demineralised water, additionally drained and dried at 30°C in order to minimise dust contamination from other crops. An average particle size in the maize powder of 35 µm was reached by cryo-grinding. The materials were prepared by quantitative Turbula and dry-mixing of non-modified maize powder and 100 % MON 810 GMO maize powder. After bottling the pre-filled bottles were submitted to a supplemental primary vacuum drying for around 2 h and closed after filling with pure argon. It is recommended to use samplings not smaller than 100 mg. Bottles should be stored dry and cool (+4 °C) and kept in the dark.', 'en_US'),
(1072, 'Validation of an immunoassay for the detection and qualification of Round-Up Ready soy beans in food and food fractions', 'An immunoassay for detection of a specific genetically modified soybean (Roundup-Ready(R)) was validated on dried soybean powder in an interlaboratory study. Different percentages of genetically modified soybeans in nonmodified soybean matrix were evaluated in a blind study. Thirty-eight laboratories from 13 countries participated, The immunoassay was evaluated for 2 end-points: (1) To give a semiquantitative result, i.e., determination of a given sample above or below a given threshold, or (2) to compute a quantitative result, i.e., percentage of genetically modified soybeans in the sample. Semiquantitative results showed that a given sample which contained &lt;2% genetically modified soybeans was identified as below 2% with a 99% confidence level. Quantitative use of the assay resulted in a repeatability (r) and reproducibility (R) that were computed to be RSDr = 7% and RSDR = 10%, respectively, for a sample containing 2% genetically modified soybeans. Application of this method depends on availability of appropriate reference materials for a specific food matrix. Only matrix-matched reference materials can be used for analysis of food or food fractions.', 'en_US'),
(1073, 'Overview of all small scale notifications (September 1991 - January 2000)', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1074, 'Validation of an analytical method for the detection of GMO-derived DNA in processed foodstuffs', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1075, 'Validation of a double competitive polymerase chain reaction method for the quanification of GMOs in raw material', 'Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) cannot be marketed within the European Union (EU) as food or food ingredients without following the requirements of the Novel Foods Regulation . In addition to safety evaluation, that regulation also sets the conditions for the labelling of GMO-containing food.Two GMO products (Roundup-Ready® soybean and Bt-176 maize) had been placed on the EU market before the Novel Foods Regulation came into force , . A specific Council Regulation has therefore been approved to deal with the particular labelling requirements for these GMOs . More recently, the so-called ''threshold regulation'' specifies that foodstuffs must be subject to labelling where material, derived from these genetically modified organisms is present in food ingredients in a proportion above 1% of the food ingredients individually considered .The availability of validated methods for the detection and quantification of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in food samples is therefore a key component for the implementation of the European Unions'' Novel Foods Regulation.Qualitative methods can be used as an initial screening of food products to investigate whether GMO specific compounds (proteins and/or DNA) are present. Qualitative analysis could thus be performed on products, sampled from the shelves of supermarkets or from the supplies stored in harbour stockpiles. It is important to highlight the consequences of the two different components of the regulatory framework since they have affected the technical layout of this report. Compliance with the labelling requirements must be assessed in a two-step procedure. By screening products such as biscuits, it is feasible to know if the food has been made from a particular GMO. However, screening techniques are known to be extremely sensitive since they might detect 0.01% of GMOs, in other words it is sufficient to have 100 milligram of GMO soybean per kilogram of soybean to score a positive result. Such a low amount is far below the 1% limit that is set as a threshold level for labelling. Furthermore, that limit is set at the level of ingredients and therefore, if a final product scores positive after a screening method, its respective ingredients should be assayed quantitatively to assess if it contains less or more than 1% GMO. In the latter case, the final product should be labelled.   If the qualitative analysis provides an indication for the presence of an authorised GMO, a subsequent quantitative test should give a decisive answer concerning the labelling requirement. Labelling is required if it can be demonstrated, at the food ingredient level, that there is more than 1% of the GMO present. It can therefore be summarised that a qualitative method for GMO detection should be suitable for ingredients as well as for complex food matrices, whereas a quantitative method should perform well on raw materials and on food ingredients.The current study focuses on the detection of Roundup-Ready® soybean and Bt-176 maize because these were the first GMO products authorised in the EU for food use and subjected to specific labelling requirements.Outline of the projectThe aim of this project was to use Roundup-Ready® soybeans and Bt-176 maize in collaborative trial studies to validate:-a qualitative screening method for its suitability to detect GMOs in processed food-a quantitative method to estimate the concentration of GMOs in raw materials.Both methods are based on the amplification of DNA by the so-called polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and on the visualisation of the DNA fragments generated by using gel electrophoresis. Twenty-three European laboratories participated in the validation studies.', 'en_US'),
(1076, 'The validation of methods based on the polymerase chain reaction for the detection of genetically modifed organisms in food', 'Validated analytical methods are necessary in order to show compliance with labelling concerning conventionally produced food or food containing genetically modified organisms (GMOs). Methods to be used in arbitration should be collaboratively tested according to standardisation protocols. According to the Council Regulation of 1998, one of the marker components being the criterion for labelling of products from soy beans and maize is the genetically altered DNA. A qualitative polymerase chain reaction method which has recently been validated in a collaborative trial can be used for initial screening of food products in order to detect GMOs. Furthermore, this screening method has to be validated for processed food. In addition, there is a strong need for quantitative methods with a view to a threshold value for labelling and to distinguish between the source of GMOs in food products (ingredients or additives).', 'en_US'),
(1077, 'IUPAC collaborative trial study of a method to detect the presence of genetically modified soy beans and maize in (dried powder) food raw materials', 'This paper presents results of a collaborative trial study (IUPAC project No. 650/93/97) involving 29 laboratories in 13 countries applying a method for detecting genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in food. The method is based on using the polymerase chain reaction to determine the 35s promoter and the NOS termlnator for detection of GMOs. Reference materials were produced that were derived from genetically modified soy beans and maize. Correct identification of samples containing 2% GMOs is achievable for both soy beans and maize. For samples containing 0.5% genetically modified soy beans, analysis of the 355 promoter resulted also in a 166% correct classification. How- ever, 3 false-negative results (out of 105 samples analyzed) were reported for analysis of the NOS terminator, which is due to the lower sensitivity of this method. Because of the bigger genomic DNA of maize, the probability of encountering false-negative results for samples containing 0.5% GMOs is greater for maize than for soy beans. For blank samples (0% GMO), only 2 false-positive results for soy beans and one for maize were re- ported. These results appeared as very weak signals and were most probably due to contamination of laboratory equipment.', 'en_US'),
(1078, 'Preliminary results of an interlaboratory assessment of a screening method for the detection of genetically modified organisms in soy beans in maize', 'The preliminary results on an interlaboratory trial On the detection of genetically modified organisms (GMO) are presented. The method applied is based on the detection of modified DNA using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for amplification. The amplified fragments analysed are derived from the 35S promotor and the NOS terminator used for modification and are present in 26 from the 28 GMOs currently already approved or under approval by the competent authorities. This method fits as a screening method indicating the presence of GMO in food. However, it does not allow an identification of the kind of GMO present in the samples. Samples of soybean and maize flour containing 0%, 0.1%, 0.5% and 2% GMO had been prepared for this study and are also already commercially available. In this paper the combined results from 27 laboratories are presented, indicating that on average the probability of false positive or false negative results is only about 1% for soybeans and below 5% for maize.', 'en_US'),
(1079, 'Formulating guidelines for field-testing in the Philippines', 'The Philippines was one of the first countries in Asia to develop a biosafety system. This chapter provides an overview of the management challenges and lessons learned in formulating guidelines for field-testing and for implementating biosafety guidelines in general in the Philippines. The most important message is that biosafety guidelines should be based on sound science and management, implementable within the conditions prevailing in the country, and structured in a way that enables rational risk analysis. Biosafety guidelines provide the framework for ensuringthe safe use of and benefits from the products of modern biotechnology.', 'en_US'),
(1080, 'Addressing public acceptance issues for biotechnology: experiences from Japan', 'The Government of Japan has declared 22 genetically modified crops safe as food and feed. However, some Japanese consumer and environmental organizations have doubts about the safety of these crops and have protested their import and consumption as human food and livestock feed. Consumer anxiety about these issues is due partly to a lack of reliable information. The government, which regulates genetically modified organisms, plays a role in providing the public with accurate information about genetically engineered crops and their risk assessment. This paper describes Japan''s experience with public acceptance activities carried out by the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries.', 'en_US'),
(1081, 'Balancing needs for productivity and sustainability:genetic engineering of rice at IRRI', 'To achieve the productivity gains required to feed the growing population of rice consumers, IRRI scientists use genetic engineering to address a range of problems. Prominent among theseproblems is the need to enhance resistance to biotic and abotic stresses. Research focuses on finding solutions that are effective, durable, environmentally friendly, and acceptable toconsumers. Achieving this balance stimulates research on (1) the isolation of genes and promoters to ensure effectiveness of traits, safety as human food, and friendliness to nontarget organisms, (2) cultivar-independent transformation methods to maintain biodiversity in transgenic rices, (3) environmentally friendly selectable marker genes, (4) deployment strategies favoring durability of transgenic traits, and (5) biological confinement to prevent the spread of certain transgenes to related plants. Several areas of uncertainty may delay the implementation of this valuable technology. This paper explores some of these issues with regard to managing biotechnology for rice improvement at IRRI.', 'en_US'),
(1082, 'Genetically modified fish in future aquaculture: technical, environmental and management considerations', 'Statistics on global fish and shellfish production show that fish farming represents about 15% of the global fish yields and is expected to exceed 20% by the year 2000. Capture fisheries have already reached their maximum sustainable yield, and this why any increase in seafood production can only be achieved through aquaculture. Increased productivity in aquaculture will be achieved through genetic improvement of species by selection breeding and, potentially, gene transfer technology.Fish farming in ponds and dams was known in China 5,000 years ago and in Europe around 1,000 years ago. Trout farming started just before World War I, and salmon pen and cage farming began in Norway in the 1970s. About ten years later, a national breeding program was developed, becoming the starting point of this new activity (Gjedrem et al. 1988). After six generations of selection breeding a Norwegian salmon was produced that was 50% bigger than its ancestors from the Norwegian rivers. Later, the Aquaculture Research Institute (AKVAFORSK) successfully transferred the Norwegian salmon breeding program to tilapia farming in the Philippines and carp farming in India. The history of farmed salmon makes it one of the last species to be domesticated together with a few other cultured fish species, although fish culture as such has been known for thousands of years.Efforts are now underway to domesticate new species for aquaculture and to meet the global demand for increased food production. In order to optimize results in new breeding programs, genetic engineering and genetically modified organisms (GMOs) offer new possibilities. The objectives of this paper are to discuss technical, environmental and management considerations regarding the use of GMOs in aquaculture.', 'en_US'),
(1083, 'Biosafety: the safe application of biotechnology in agriculture and the environment', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1084, 'Biosécurité: Maîtrise des risques dans l''application des biotechnologies à l''agriculture et à l''enrivonnement', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1085, 'Analysis of a national biosafety system: regulatory policies and procedures in Egypt', 'During the past decade, national biosafety systems have gained importance as mechanisms for ensuring the safe use of biotechnology products without imposing unacceptable risk to human health or the environment, or unintended constraints to technology transfer. This Country Report presents an analysis of the present status of the biosafety system in Egypt and its impact on the commercialization of genetically modified organisms (GMOs). The specific objectives of the report are:1. to assess the efficacy of biosafety policies and procedures associated with the introduction of biotechnology products in Egypt;2. to develop recommendations for enhancing the operation of Egypt''s biosafety system and minimizing potential constraints to technology transfer;3. to identify areas where ISNAR and other international providers can provide furtherassistance.The report includes a description of the organization and operation of Egypt''s biosafety system, and discusses the larger context for GMO commercialization. Recommendations emerging from this study include (1) specific suggestions for revising Egypt''s biosafety guidelines, (2) ideas for improving the functioning of national and institutional biosafety committees, (3) recommendations for strengthening biosafety review and decision making, and (4) developing means of actively disseminating information to the wider biotechnology community and the public.Findings and recommendations in the report may serve as the basis for discussions to strengthen and adapt the biosafety system to the changing context for biotechnology products in Egypt.', 'en_US'),
(1086, 'Evaluation of novel crop varieties in their center of origin and diversity: the case of maize in Mexico', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1087, 'Developing durable resistance to rice blast: productivity and environmental considerations', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1088, 'Pest resistance management and transgenic plant deployment: perspectives and policy recommendations for the developing world', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1089, 'Policy and planning for biosafety: synthesis of an African workshop', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1090, 'Impact of genetically modified crops in agriculture', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1091, 'The pollination of genetically modified plants', 'Genetically modified plants have now been produced in many species. An examination of pollination in these plant will be necessary before commercial cultivars are produced. In addition, this technology provides a new tool for the study of cross-pollination. An initial field trial, using tobacco, was carried out in 1989. Results demonstrated that pollen transfer from genetically modified plants can be readily followed. Particular species of bumble bees were potential pollen vectors. A second field experiment is being carried out in 1990, to examine cross-pollination in more detail.', 'en_US'),
(1092, 'Field performance of derived generations of transgenic tobacco', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1093, 'A study of gene dispersal via pollen in Nicotiana tabacum using introduced genetic markers', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1094, 'Releasing transgenic plants', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1095, 'Time scales for transgenic product development', 'Recent rapid progress on the production of transgenic plants has led to an increasing number of field trials throughout the world by both commercial and academic groups. A brief, selective, review of progress achieved by conventional plant breeding and the expected life time of cultivars developed through this process is followed by details of recent experience gained from mutagenesis programmes, in particular the generation and marketing of imidazolinone-resistant maize in the USA. The role of RFLP-aided backcrossing to speed the development of such products is emphasised.Three specific types of transgenic product development are examined in some detail. The first two, namely herbicide resistance and tomatoes with improved processing characteristics are already close to market. The third example, that provided by woody species (either fruit or forest trees) is inevitably longer term because of the prolonged duration of the breeding cycle. Nevertheless, it may in the future provide some of the most valuable benefits such as improvements in the efficiency of paper production.', 'en_US'),
(1096, 'How to engineer a crop plant', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1097, 'Transgenic crop plants: the next generation or an example of 2020 vision', 'Genetically modified, i.e. transgenic crops, are now being grown on several million acres throughout the world, mainly in North America. Most of these ''first generation'' products have specific agronomic traits designed to improve the efficiency of production. For example herbicide tolerant soybean and insect resistant corn are the two most widely grown transgenic crops. Increasingly, the new transgenic varieties under test contain product quality or other higher value traits intended to provide specific benefits to the end user whether it be the producer of specialist chemicals or the consumer. This review describes examples of these ''second generation'' traits and attempts to predict the range of household, medical, industrial and environmental products that might become available over the next 20 years.', 'en_US'),
(1098, 'Analytical challenges: bridging the gap from regulation to enforcement', 'An overview is presented of the analytical steps that may be needed to determine the presence of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) or for analysis of GMO-derived produce. The analytical aspects necessary for compliance with labeling regulations are discussed along with bottlenecks that may develop when a plant product or a food sample is analyzed for conformity with current European Union GMO legislation. In addition to sampling and testing, other topics deal with complications that arise from biological and agricultural realities that may influence testing capabilities. The issues presented are intended to serve as elements to examine the different challenges that enforcement laboratories might face.', 'en_US'),
(1099, 'Method development in relation to regulatory requirements for the detection of GMO''s in the food chain', 'This is a summary report of a joint workshop held in Brussels, Belgium, in December 2000. The workshop was organized by the ILSI Europe Novel Food Task Force in collaboration with the European Commission''s Joint Research Centre (JRC) and ILSI International Food Biotechnology Committee. The purpose was to investigate progress in the development of analytical methods since the last workshop was held in June 1998.', 'en_US'),
(1100, 'Analytical methods for detection and determination of genetically modified organisms (GMO''s) in agricultural crops and plant-derived food products - a review', 'Numerous analytical methods, both qualitative and quantitative, have been developed to determine reliably the presence and/or the amount of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in agricultural commodities, in raw agricultural materials and in processed and refined ingredients. In addition to the ''classical'' methods for DNA and protein analysis, e.g. polymerase chain reaction and enzyme linked immunosorbent analysis, certain types of GMO-containing matrices can be profiled by complementary chemical analysis methods such as chromatography and near infrared spectroscopy. This review summarises the status of the most widely used GMO analysis technologies, identifies new areas of analytical investigation and discusses current needs and future challenges.', 'en_US'),
(1101, 'Vallidation studies and proficiency testing', 'Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) entered the European food market in 1996. Current legislation demands the labeling of food products if they contain <1% GMO, as assessed for each ingredient of the product. To create confidence in the testing methods and to complement enforcement requirements, there is an urgent need for internationally validated methods, which could serve as reference methods. To date, several methods have been submitted to validation trials at an international level; approaches now exist that can be used in different circumstances and for different food matrixes. Moreover, the requirement for the formal validation of methods is clearly accepted; several national and international bodies are active in organizing studies. Further validation studies, especially on the quantitative polymerase chain reaction methods, need to be performed to cover the rising demand for new extraction methods and other background matrixes, as well as for novel GMO constructs.', 'en_US'),
(1102, 'Transgenic approaches to crop improvement', 'Transgenic crops are now grown com. on several million ha, principally in North America. To date, the predominant crops are maize (corn), soybean, cotton, and potatoes. In addn., there have been field trials of transgenics from at least 52 species including all the major field crops, vegetables, and several herbaceous and woody species. This review summarizes recent data relating to such trials, particularly in terms of the trends away from simple, single gene traits such as herbicide and insect resistance towards more complex agronomic traits such as growth rate and increased photosynthetic efficiency. Much of the recent information is derived from inspection of patent databases, a useful source of information on com. priorities. The review also discusses the time scale for the introduction of these transgenes into breeding populations and their eventual release as new varieties.', 'en_US'),
(1103, 'Transcriptome analysis and crop improvement', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1104, 'Consumer attitudes towards genetically modified foods.', 'The present study reports attitudes towards genetically modified (GM) foods among Swedish consumers. A random nation-wide sample of 2000 addressees, aged 18?65 years, were mailed a questionnaire and 786 (39%) responded. Most of these consumers were rather negative about GM foods. However, males, younger respondents and those with higher level of education were more positive than were females, older respondents and those with lower level of education. A majority of the consumers had moral and ethical doubts about eating GM foods and did not perceive attributes like better taste or lower price beneficial enough to persuade them to purchase GM foods. However, tangible benefits, like being better for the environment or healthier, seemed to increase willingness to purchase GM foods.', 'en_US'),
(1105, 'Europe gets tough on labelling genetically modified foodstuffs', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1106, 'Food biotechnology: benefits and concerns', 'Recent advances in agricultural biotechnology have highlighted the need for experimental evidence and sound scientific judgment to assess the benefits and risks to society. Nutrition scientists and other animal biologists need a balanced understanding of the issues to participate in this assessment. To date most modifications to crop plants have benefited producers. Crops have been engineered to decrease pesticide and herbicide usage, protect against stressors, enhance yields and extend shelf life. Beyond the environmental benefits of decreased pesticide and herbicide application, consumers stand to benefit by development of food crops with increased nutritional value, medicinal properties, enhanced taste and esthetic appeal. There remains concern that these benefits come with a cost to the environment or increased risk to the consumer. Most U.S. consumers are not aware of-the extent that genetically modified foods have entered the marketplace. Consumer awareness of biotechnology seems to have increased over the last decade, yet most consumers remain confused over the science. Concern over the impact on the safety of the food supply remains low in the United States, but is substantially elevated in Europe. Before a genetically engineered crop is introduced into commerce it must pass regulatory scrutiny by as many as four different federal regulatory bodies to ensure a safe food supply and minimize the risk to the environment. Key areas for more research are evaluation of the nutritional benefits of new crops, further investigation of the environmental impact, and development of better techniques to identify and track genetically engineered products.', 'en_US'),
(1107, 'The dog as a model for food allergy', 'Research during the past decade has shown the dog to be an excellent model for human food allergies. Humans and dogs share many of the same allergies to foods. Furthermore, the dog model shows clinical symptoms typical of humans, that is, both experience vomiting and diarrhea. Present results suggest that the dog may provide a means to test genetically modified foods for unsuspected allergens.', 'en_US'),
(1108, 'Detection of genetically modified coho salmon using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1109, 'Genetically modified foods, science, consumers and the media', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1110, 'Hidden food allergens', 'This review summarizes recent advances and findings in the area of ''hidden'' food allergens, i.e. allergenic foods that can either contaminate other foods, or be ''disguised'' as part of a food, and cause allergic reactions. Newly emerging allergenic foods of increasing importance, recently developed methods for the detection of allergenic residues, the potential allergenicity of genetically engineered foods, and some unexpected sources of food allergens are described.', 'en_US'),
(1111, 'A new kind of fish story. The coming of biotech animals', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1112, 'Biotechnology and food allergy', 'The production of genetically modified foods for an increasingly informed and selective consumer requires the coordinated activities of both the companies developing the transgenic food and regulatory authorities to ensure that these foods are at least as safe as the traditional foods they are supplementing in the diet. Although the size and complexity of the food sector ensures that no single player can control the process from seed production through farming and processing to final products marketed in a retail outlet, checks and balances are in place to ensure that transgenic foods will provide a convenient, wholesome, tasty, safe, affordable food source. Ultimately, it is the responsibility of companies developing the genetically modified food to provide relevant data to regulatory agencies, such as the US Department of Agriculture, Environmental Protection Agency, and Food and Drug Administration, to confirm that the transgenic product is reasonably safe for the consumer, as zero risk from allergen sensitization is nonexistent.', 'en_US'),
(1113, 'Allergies a la carte: is there a problem with genetically modified foods?', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1114, 'Transgenes in native Mexican maize--still no need for concern', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1115, 'No ''killer tomatoes'': easing federal regulation of genetically engineered plants', 'This article discusses the regulation of the use of genetically engineered organisms by the three federal organizations that have significant roles in regulating such use: the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the Food and Drug Administration, and the Environmental Protection Agency. In response to the public''s fear that genetic engineering of plants somehow would harm the environment, these agencies promulgated strict regulations and established policies to provide specific guidelines for such regulation. Based on extensive regulatory review and testing, however, these regulatory organizations determined that there are no risks to the environment and are liberalizing their regulations. Indeed, in contrast with the policies of the European Union, the U.S. government considers genetically engineered crops to be identical to traditional crops so that, unless specific safety issues are raised, special labeling of genetically engineered foods is not required.', 'en_US'),
(1116, 'Safety considerations of DNA in food', 'Recombinant DNA techniques are capable of introducing genetic changes into food organisms that are more predictable than those introduced through conventional breeding techniques. This review discusses whether the consumption of DNA in approved novel foods and novel food ingredients derived from genetically modified organisms (GMOs) can be regarded as being as safe as the consumption of DNA in existing foods. It concludes that DNA from GMOs is equivalent to DNA from existing food organisms that has always been consumed with human diets. Any risks associated with the consumption of DNA will remain, irrespective of its origin, because the body handles all DNA in the same way. The breakdown of DNA during food processing and passage through the gastrointestinal tract reduces the likelihood that intact genes capable of encoding foreign proteins will be transferred to gut microflora. The review does not specifically address food safety issues arising from the consumption of viable genetically modified microorganisms but it shows that the likelihood of transfer and functional integration of DNA from ingested food by gut microflora and/or human cells is minimal. Information reviewed does not indicate any safety concerns associated with the ingestion of DNA per se from GMOs resulting from the use of currently available recombinant DNA techniques in the food chain.', 'en_US'),
(1117, 'Oral immunization of human with transgenic lettuce expressing hepatitis B surface antigen', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1118, 'Sampling grain shipments to detect genetically modified seed', 'Using the binomial distribution, the effect of sample size on the variability among sample test results when sampling a lot with 1.0% genetically modified (GM) or biotech seed was evaluated. The coefficient of variation, cv, among 500-seed sample test results taken from a lot with truly 1.0% was computed to be 44.5%. Increasing sample size to 1000 seeds reduced the cv among sample test results to 31.5%. The effects of sample size and accept/reject limits on the buyer''s risk (bad lots accepted) and the seller''s risk (good lots rejected) was also evaluated assuming a tolerance of 1.0% GM seed. Increasing sample size decreases both the buyer''s and seller''s risks at the same time. Using an accept/reject limit below the regulatory tolerance decreases the buyer''s risk, but increases the seller''s risk. Using an accept/reject limit above the regulatory tolerance decreases the seller''s risk but increases the buyer''s risk.', 'en_US'),
(1119, 'Validation of PCR methods for quantitation of genetically modified plants in food', 'For enforcement of the recently introduced labeling threshold for genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in food ingredients, quantitative detection methods such as quantitative competitive (QC-PCR) and real-time PCR are applied by official food control laboratories. The experiences of 3 European food control laboratories in validating such methods were compared to describe realistic performance characteristics of quantitative PCR detection methods. The limit of quantitation (LOQ) of GMO-specific, real-time PCR was experimentally determined to reach 3050 target molecules, which Is close to theoretical prediction. Starting PCR with Or-200 ng genomic plant DNA, the LOQ depends primarily on the genome size of the target plant and ranges from 0.02% for rice to 0.7% for wheat. The be-precision of quantitative PCR detection methods, expressed as relative standard deviation (RSD), varied from 10 to 30%. Using Bt1 76 corn containing test samples and applying Bt176 specific QCPCR, mean values deviated from true values by -7 to 18%, with an average of 2 ± 10%. Ruggedness of real-time PCR detection methods was assessed in an interlaboratory study analyzing commercial, homogeneous food samples. Roundup Ready soybean DNA contents were determined in the range of 0.3 to 36%, relative to soybean DNA, with RSDs of 0.3 to 36%, relative to soybean DNA, with RSDs of mate-about 25%. Taking the precision of quantitative PCR detection methods into account, suitable sample plans and sample sizes for GMO analysis are suggested. Because quantitative GMO detection methods measure GMO contents of samples in relation to reference material (calibrants), high priority must be given to international agreements and standardization on certified reference materials.', 'en_US'),
(1120, 'Contribution of European research to risk analysis', 'The European Commission''s, Quality of Life Research Programme, Key Action 1-Health, Food & Nutrition is mission-oriented and aims, amongst other things, at providing a healthy, safe and high-quality food supply leading to reinforced consumer confidence in the safety of European food. Its objectives also include the enhancing of the competitiveness of the European food supply. Key Action 1 is currently supporting a number of different types of European collaborative projects in the area of risk analysis. The objectives of these projects range from the development and validation of prevention strategies including the reduction of consumers risks; development and validation of new modelling approaches; harmonization of risk assessment principles, methodologies, and terminology; standardization of methods and systems used for the safety evaluation of transgenic food; providing of tools for the evaluation of human viral contamination of shellfish and quality control; new methodologies for assessing the potential of unintended effects of genetically modified (genetically modified) foods; development of a risk assessment model for Cryptosporidium parvum related to the food and water industries; to the development of a communication platform for genetically modified organism, producers, retailers, regulatory authorities and consumer groups to improve safety assessment procedures, risk management strategies and risk communication; development and validation of new methods for safety testing of transgenic food; evaluation of the safety and efficacy of iron supplementation in pregnant women; evaluation of the potential cancer-preventing activity of pro- and pre-biotic (''synbiotic'') combinations in human volunteers. An overview of these projects is presented here.', 'en_US'),
(1121, 'Risk communication--the perceptions and realities', 'This paper defines risk communication and puts it into the perspective of risk analysis as a whole. Case studies originating for the food industry are described in the areas of food colours, pesticides and genetically modified foods to exemplify both the difficulties of risk communication and the lessons that can be learned. This paper concludes by suggesting ways in which successful risk communication should be managed.', 'en_US'),
(1122, 'Research needs for human nutrition in the post-genome-sequencing era', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1123, 'Perspectives on nutrition needs for the new millennium for South Asian regions', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1124, 'Modern biotechnology-current standards in Japan', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1125, 'Practical approaches to risk assessment', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1126, 'PCR-based detection of genetically modified soybean and maize in raw and highly processed foodstuffs', 'The PCR method has proved to be an invaluable tool for the specific and sensitive detection of genetically modified material (e.g., Roundup Ready Im Soybean and Bt-176 ''Maximizer'' Maize) in foodstuffs. The first step in the procedure, namely the purification of nucleic acids from the sample, is often the deciding factor in the production of meaningful results. In this study, we present two procedures that enable an efficient isolation of trace amounts of genetic material from both raw and highly processed foodstuffs. We show that for optimal, PCR-ready DNA purification from highly processed foodstuffs and PCR inhibitor-rich substances-such as cocoa-containing products-adapted protocols for the QIAGEN((R)) QlAamp((R)) DNA Stool Mini Kit can be utilized. For complete DNA isolation from raw foodstuffs, a protocol using the DNeasy((R)) Plant Mini Kit is presented.', 'en_US'),
(1127, 'How to make foods safer--genetically modified foods', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1128, 'Toward a political economy of opinion formation on genetically modified foods', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1129, 'Scientific perspectives on regulating the safety of genetically modified foods', 'Regulation is often seen as the dull end of science. The recent storm over the introduction of genetically modified foods and the calls to regulate their consumption have had a negative affect on development of the science. Assuring the safety of genetically modified foods might raise questions where existing scientiic data is limited and underline the need for further research.', 'en_US'),
(1130, 'From breeder reactors to butterflies: risk, culture, and biotechnology', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1131, 'Genetically modified foods: a case of information or misinformation?', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1132, 'Genetically modified foods--safety and regulatory issues', NULL, 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(1133, 'Genetically modified foods--safety and regulatory issues', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1134, 'Health risks of genetically modified foods: a literature review', 'In 1999, there has been much concern on the safety of genetically modified (GM) foods, an important and complex area of safety research, which demands rigorous standards. Various groups, including consumers and environmental Non Governmental Organizations (NGO) have suggested that all GM foods should be subjected to long-term animal feeding studies before approval for human consumption. The main goal of this review has been to know which is the state-of-the art regarding to the potential adverse effects of GM foods. Two databases, MEDLINE and TOXLINE, as well as a number of URL from INTERNET were used for references. Although commentaries, general news and letters to the Editor have been frequently published in reputable journals, papers about experimental studies on the safety of GM foods are surprisingly very scant. If data on toxicological assessment of GM foods have been obtained, these have not been reported in scientific journals and subjected to the scientific judgement.', 'en_US'),
(1135, 'Genetically modified foods and current epidemiology', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1136, 'The future relationship between the media, the food industry and the consumer', 'The relationship between the media, the food industry and the consumer is probably at its lowest point as we start the new millennium. The frequency of food scares appears to be increasing and news reports sometimes seem both sensational and polarised. High profile issues like the development of bovine spongiform encephalopathy in the UK and the dioxin contamination of poultry products in Belgium have undermined consumer confidence in the food industry. The recent genetically modified foods'' debate has served to demonstrate the gulf that has grown between the food industry, food safety experts and the public. This is a rift that has been exploited by environmental pressure groups and fuelled by the media.', 'en_US'),
(1137, 'Genetically modified foods--safety and regulatory issues', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1138, 'Genetically modified foods: economic aspects and public acceptance in Brazil', 'A pilot survey of the public''s acceptance of biotechnology was carried out in Brazil. The main focus in Brazil is on the production of transgenic soyabeans, which are adapted to the country''s different regions. Public perceptions varied with level of education and family income. The main concern is the insufficient monitoring of environmental and food safety issues of genetically modified products, as wel as risks and benefits of alternatives.', 'en_US'),
(1139, 'Consumers'' cognitions with regard to genetically modified foods. Results of a qualitative study in four countries', 'The objective of this research was to gain insight into consumers'' attitudes towards genetic modification in food production. With means-end chain theory as the theoretical basis, laddering interviews were conducted with 400 consumers in Denmark, Germany, the United Kingdom and Italy. Perceived risks and benefits of genetic modification in foods were investigated using beer and yoghurt as examples. German and Danish responses revealed more complex cognitive structures than did the results from the United Kingdom and Italy. In all four countries, however, applying genetic modification was associated with unnaturalness and low trustworthiness of the resulting products, independently of whether the genetically modified material was traceable in the product. Moral considerations were voiced as well, as were a number of other consequences that were perceived to conflict with both individual and social values.', 'en_US'),
(1140, 'Adequacy of methods for testing the safety of genetically modified foods', 'AAn issue that has been prominent in the current debate on the health risks of genetically modified (GM) foods is whether there are adequate methods of testing for the safety of these foods. One view is that the safety assessments of these foods are not as rigorous as those for new chemicals or drugs. Today ''s Lancet carries two Research Letters reporting work on the potential risks to human health of the lectin Galanthus nivalisagglutinin (GNA ) , a compound that may be useful in protecting food plants from attacks by insects. These letters raise issues about the design of studies on safety.Stanley Ewen and Arpad Pusztai report that , when fed to rats , GM potatoes containing the GNA lectin have proliferative and antiproliferative effects on the gut.  They suggest that several of these effects are due to alterations in the composition of the transgenic potatoes , rather than to the newly expressed gene product.  However, data on the composition of the different diets are not reported in the letter.  Pusztai has released some of these details on the internet (http://www.rri.sari.ac.uk/gmo/ajp.htm).  These details indicate that the content of starch, glucosepolymers, lectin, and trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors in GM potatoes differed from that of the parental line.  Unfortunately, these differences have not been examined further by analysis of an extended range of lines, for evidence on whether these differences are attributable to the genetic modification or to natural variations.  Another shortcoming of the study is that the diets were protein deficient; they contained only 6% protein by weight.  There is convincing evidence that short-term protein stress and starvation impair the growth rate, development, hepatic metabolism, and immune function of rats.(1, 2)Ewen and Pusztai say that the significant differences between diet groups in variables such as mucosal thickness or crypt length are evidence of the biological effects of the GM foods.  Such a claim is easy to make but difficult to prove, because no consistent patterns of changes were observed in the study.  Ingestion of potatoes may be associated with several adaptive changes in the gut because of the low digestibility of raw or partly refined potato starch.  In rats caecal hypertrophy is a common response to short -term feeding of various poorly digestible carbohydrates, such as raw potato starch (3 , 4).  A physiological response of this nature is probably of little toxicological significance.  Dose -response studies would have helped in the assessment of consistency of response.', 'en_US'),
(1141, 'The safety and social acceptance of novel foods', 'The regulatory processes employed in the UK and the European Union to assess the safety of novel foods and novel food ingredients, including those resulting from the application of recombinant DNA technology (genetically modified foods), are described. Examples are given of yeasts that have been genetically modified and can be used in food and drink manufacture and food enzymes derived from genetically modified microorganisms that have been deemed safe for use by the UK regulatory system. Social acceptance of such novel foods or food ingredients is not uniform in countries of the developed world. Consumer concerns can be based on ethical considerations (scientists ''playing God'') or safety worries (''more testing needs to be done''). The general acceptance of such foods and food ingredients in Europe is still unclear.', 'en_US'),
(1142, 'Science, medicine, and the future. Genetically modified foods', 'The use of genetic modification in food production is proving contentious and attracting much media coverage. Despite this, it can be difficult for anyone not directly involved to know how to obtain hard facts.  Genetically modified foods raise many issues?scientific, technological, environmental, social, ethical, economic, and political?too many to cover here.  This article therefore paints a broad picture of genetically modified foods and provides a lead to sources of information by addressing three specific points:  What is genetic modification and how does it relate to food production?  What are the current and future applications?  What concerns do genetically modified foods raise?', 'en_US'),
(1143, 'New regulation for labeling genetically modified foods: a solution or a problem?', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1144, 'The EC novel foods regulation--a UK perspective', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1145, 'Genetic improvement of poplar feedstock quality for ethanol production', 'Opportunities for matching chemical and physical properties of woody feedstocks to ethanol production process requirements via genetic improvement have long been recognized. Exploitation is now feasible owing to advances in trait measurement, breeding, and gene transfer technologies. Poplar genetic parameters are favorable largely for reducing lignin and increasing cellulose contents and specific gravity. Transgenic poplars with decreased lignin and increased cellulose contents, but otherwise normal growth and development, have been produced via genetic transformation. The long-standing debate on feasibility has thus become one of when, not if, designer varieties will become available.', 'en_US'),
(1146, 'Using transgenic poplars to elucidate the relationship between the structure and the thermal properties of lignins', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1147, 'Mycorrhizal colonization of transgenic aspen in a field trial', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1148, 'Can genetic engineering help restore ''heritage'' trees?', 'By the end of World War I, the American chestnut, which once dominated many eastern forests, had nearly been wiped out by the Asian fungus Cryphonectria parasitica. Now, forest-biotech researchers believe genetic engineering might help restore this majestic species--and possibly other ''heritage trees'' menaced by disease, including elms, white pine, butternut, and several species of California oak.', 'en_US'),
(1149, 'Molecular biological studies on diversity of secondary metabolism in medicinal plants and application to the production in transgenic plants', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1150, 'Plotting a course for GM forestry', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1151, 'Enhanced tolerance of transgenic poplar plants overexpressing gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase towards chloroacetanilide herbicides', 'A wild-type poplar hybrid and two transgenic clones overexpressing a bacterial Y-glutamylcysteine synthetase in the cytosol or in the chloroplasts were exposed to the chloroacetanilide herbicides acetochlor and metolachlor dispersed in the soil. The transformed poplars contained higher Y-glutamylcysteine and glutathione (GSH) levels than wild-type plants and therefore it was supposed that they would have an elevated tolerance towards these herbicides, which are detoxified in GSH-dependent reactions. Phenotypically, the transgenic and wild-type plants did not differ. The growth and the biomass of all poplar lines were markedly reduced by the two chloroacetanilide herbicides. However, the decrease of shoot and root fresh weights caused by the herbicides was significantly smaller in the transgenic than in wild-type plants. In addition, the growth rate of poplars transformed in the cytosol was reduced to a significantly lesser extent than that of wild-type plants following herbicide treatments. The effects of the two herbicides were similar. Herbicide exposures markedly increased the levels of Y-glutamylcysteine and GSH in leaves of each poplar line. The increase in the foliar amounts of these thiols was stronger in the transgenic lines than in the wild type, particularly in the upper leaves. Considerable GST activities were detected in leaves of all poplar plants. Exposure of poplars to chloroacetanilide herbicides resulted in a marked induction of GST activity in upper leaf positions but not in middle and lower leaves. The extent of enzyme induction did not differ significantly between transgenic and wild-type poplars. Although the results show that the transgenic poplar lines are good candidates for phytoremediation purposes, the further improvement of their detoxification capacity, preferably by transformation using genes encoding herbicide-specific GST isoenzymes, seems to be the most promising way to obtain plants suitable for practical application.', 'en_US'),
(1152, 'Increased Septoria musiva resistance in transgenic hybrid poplar leaves expressing a wheat oxalate oxidase gene', 'A cDNA clone of a wheat germin-like oxalate oxidase (OxO) gene regulated by the constitutive CaMV 35S promoter was expressed in a hybrid poplar clone, Populus × euramericana (`Ogy''). Previous studies showed that OxO is likely to play an important role in several aspects of plant development, stress response, and defense against pathogens. In order to study this wheat oxalate oxidase gene in woody plants, the expression of this gene and the functions of the encoded enzyme were examined in vitro and in vivo in transgenic `Ogy''. The enzyme activity in the transformed `Ogy'' was visualized by histochemical assays and in SDS-polyacrylamide gels. It was found that the wheat OxO gene is expressed in leaves, stems, and roots of the transgenic `Ogy'' plants and the encoded enzyme is able to break down oxalic acid. Transgenic `Ogy'' leaves were more tolerant to oxalic acid as well as more effective in increasing the pH in an oxalic acid solution when compared to untransformed controls. In addition, when leaf disks from `Ogy'' plants were inoculated with conidia of the poplar pathogenic fungus Septoria musiva, which produces oxalic acid, the OxO-transformed plants were more resistant than the untransformed controls.', 'en_US'),
(1153, 'Advances in phytoremediation', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1154, 'A rapid coming of age in tree biotechnology', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1155, 'The use of transgenic fruit trees as a resistance strategy for virus epidemics: the plum pox (sharka) model', 'Sharka or plum pox, caused by Plum pox Virus (PPV: genus PotyVirus; Family PotyViridae), is the most serious disease of Prunus. Most cultivated Prunus species are highly susceptible and conventional breeding has not produced highly resistant and commercially acceptable varieties. Success in developing virus-resistant herbaceous crops through genetic engineering led us to investigate this approach for resistance to PPV. Our programme aims to develop a biotechnological approach to PPV control that is effective and shown to be environmentally safe. The programme began with the cloning of the PPV coat protein (CP) gene and the development of a transformation system for plum (Prunus domestica). The CP construct was first tested in Nicotiana benthamiana in which it proved effective in producing transgenic plants with varying levels of CP expression. Some of these plants, particularly low PPV CP expressers, were resistant to PPV, or recovered from initial infection. Based on these results plum was transformed using the Agrobacterium tumefaciens system and both low and high PPV CP-expressing transgenic plum lines were obtained. These were inoculated with PPV by bud grafts in the greenhouse. Line C-5 proved to be highly resistant. It contained multiple copies of the insert, produced low levels of PPV CP mRNA, no detectable CP and the insert appeared to be methylated. These characteristics all suggest that the resistance of the C-5 clone is based on post-transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS). Field tests of C-5 and other transgenic lines in Poland, Romania and Spain have demonstrated that such trees when inoculated by bud-grafts allow a low level of PPV multiplication, from which they rapidly recover. C-5 plants exposed to natural infection for 3 years did not become infected, whereas control trees were infected in the first year. Hybrid plums having the C-5 PPV CP insert inherited from C-5 are virus-resistant, demonstrating the usefulness of C-5 as a parent in developing new PPV-resistant plum varieties. Research is in progress on the biorisks of PPV CP transgenic plants. Gene constructs that either produce no CP or CP that cannot be transmitted by aphids have been developed, tested in N. benthamiana and transferred to plum. Studies have begun on the potential for synergistic interactions between the PPV CP gene and the other common viruses of Prunus spp. In the future we will be participating in investigating the toxicity or:and the allergenicity of transgenic fruit products and, more importantly, transgenic lines will be developed that express transgenes only in vegetative parts of the plant and not in the fruit.', 'en_US'),
(1156, 'Selection of marker-free transgenic plants using the isopentenyl transferase gene', 'We have developed a new plant vector system for repeated transformation (called MAT for multi-auto-transformation) in which a chimeric ipt gene, inserted into the transposable element Ac, is used as a selectable marker for transformation. Selectable marker genes conferring antibiotic or herbicide resistance, used to introduce economically valuable genes into crop plants, have three major problems: (i) the selective agents have negative effects on proliferation and differentiation of plant cells; (ii) there is uncertainty regarding the environmental impact of many selectable marker genes; (iii) it is difficult to perform recurrent transformations using the same selectable marker to pyramid desirable genes. The MAT vector system containing the ipt gene and the Ac element is designed to overcome these difficulties. When tobacco leaf segments were transformed and selected, subsequent excision of the modified Ac produced marker-free transgenic tobacco plants without sexual crosses or seed production. In addition, the chimeric ipt gene could be visually used as a selectable marker for transformation of hybrid aspen (Populus sieboldii × Populus grandidentata). The chimeric ipt gene, therefore, is an attractive alternative to the most widely used selectable marker genes. The MAT vector system provides a promising way to shorten breeding time for genetically engineered crops. This method could be particularly valuable for fruit and forest trees, for which long generation times are a more significant barrier to breeding and genetic analysis.', 'en_US'),
(1157, 'Rapid production of the major birch pollen allergen Bet v 1 in Nicotiana benthamiana plants and its immunological in vitro and in vivo characterization', 'Type I allergies are immunological disorders that afflict a quarter of the world''s population. Improved diagnosis of allergic diseases and the formulation of new therapeutic approaches are based on the use of recombinant allergens. We describe here for the first time the application of a rapid plant-based expression system for a plant-derived allergen and its immunological characterization. We expressed our model allergen Bet v 1, the major birch pollen allergen, in the tobacco-related species Nicotiana benthamiana using a tobacco mosaic virus vector. Two weeks postinoculation, plants infected with recombinant viral RNA containing the Bet v 1 coding sequence accumulated the allergen to levels of 200 µg/g leaf material. Total nonpurified protein extracts from plants were used for immunological characterizations. IgE immunoblots and ELISA (enzyme-linked immunoassay) inhibition assays showed comparable IgE binding properties for tobacco recombinant (r) Bet v 1 and natural (n) Bet v 1, suggesting that the B cell epitopes were preserved when the allergen was expressed in N. benthamiana plants. Using a murine model of type I allergy, mice immunized with crude leaf extracts containing Bet v 1 with purified rBet v 1 produced in E. coli or with birch pollen extract generated comparable allergen-specific IgE and IgG1 antibody responses and positive type I skin test reactions. These results demonstrate that nonpurified Bet v 1 overexpressed in N. benthamina has the same immunogenicity as purified Bet v 1 produced in E. coli or nBet v 1. We therefore conclude that this plant expression system offers a viable alternative to fermentation-based production of allergens in bacteria or yeasts. In addition, there may be a broad utility of this system for the development of new and low-cost vaccination strategies against allergy.', 'en_US'),
(1158, 'Forest tree biotechnology', 'The past year has seen the fruits of biotechnological manipulation of forest trees approach commercial application. Advances in somatic embryogenesis have brought mass clonal propagation of the top commercial trees closer to reality, and efficient gene transfer systems have been developed for a number of conifers and hardwoods. Radical alterations in the quantity and quality of lignin in wood have been shown to be possible in softwoods and hardwoods through identification of naturally occurring mutants, as well as by engineering the lignin biosynthetic pathway with transgenes. The potential environmental and social impacts of the release of transgenic trees have become an increasingly contentious issue that will require more attention if we are to use these technologies to their full advantage.', 'en_US'),
(1159, 'Repression of lignin biosynthesis promotes cellulose accumulation and growth in transgenic trees', 'Because lignin limits the use of wood for fiber, chemical, and energy production, strategies for its downregulation are of considerable interest. We have produced transgenic aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) trees in which expression of a lignin biosynthetic pathway gene Pt4CL1 encoding 4-coumarate:coenzyme A ligase (4CL) has been downregulated by antisense inhibition. Trees with suppressed Pt4CL1 expression exhibited up to a 45% reduction of lignin, but this was compensated for by a 15% increase in cellulose. As a result, the total lignin-cellulose mass remained essentially unchanged. Leaf, root, and stem growth were substantially enhanced, and structural integrity was maintained both at the cellular and whole-plant levels in the transgenic lines. Our results indicate that lignin and cellulose deposition could be regulated in a compensatory fashion, which may contribute to metabolic flexibility and a growth advantage to sustain the long-term structural integrity of woody perennials.', 'en_US'),
(1160, 'Building better trees with antisense', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1161, 'Phytoremediation of methylmercury pollution: merB expression in Arabidopsis thaliana confers resistance to organomercurials', 'Methylmercury is an environmental toxicant that biomagnifies and causes severe neurological degeneration in animals. It is produced by bacteria in soils and sediments that have been contaminated with mercury. To explore the potential of plants to extract and detoxify this chemical, we engineered a model plant, Arabidopsis thaliana, to express a modified bacterial gene, merBpe, encoding organomercurial lyase (MerB) under control of a plant promoter. MerB catalyzes the protonolysis of the carbon---mercury bond, removing the organic ligand and releasing Hg(II), a less mobile mercury species. Transgenic plants expressing merBpe grew vigorously on a wide range of concentrations of monomethylmercuric chloride and phenylmercuric acetate. Plants lacking the merBpe gene were severely inhibited or died at the same organomercurial concentrations. Six independently isolated transgenic lines produced merBpe mRNA and MerB protein at levels that varied over a 10- to 15-fold range, and even the lowest levels of merBpe expression conferred resistance to organomercurials. Our work suggests that native macrophytes (e.g., trees, shrubs, grasses) engineered to express merBpe may be used to degrade methylmercury at polluted sites and sequester Hg(II) for later removal.', 'en_US'),
(1162, 'Gene stability in transgenic aspen (Populus). I. Flanking DNA sequences and T-DNA structure', 'The stability of transgenes in the genome of transformed plants depends strongly on their correct physical integration into the host genome as well as on flanking target DNA sequences. For long-lived species like trees, however, no information is available so far concerning inactivation or loss of transgenes due to gene silencing or somatic genome rearrangement events. In this study, four independently transformed 35S-rolC transgenic hybrid aspen plants (Populus tremula L. × tremuloides Michx.), each harbouring one copy of the transgene, were investigated during continuous growth in the greenhouse. In one of these transgenic lines (Esch5:35S-rolC-##1) individuals frequently show phenotypic reversions, while in the remaining three lines (Esch5:35S-rolC-#3, -#5, -#16) the gene was essentially stable. Molecular analysis including PCR, Southern and Northern assays clearly showed that the transgene had been lost in the revertant tissue of the unstable line. Sequencing of T-DNA right and left borders, and flanking DNA regions, in all four transgenic aspen lines revealed no differences either in the type of flanking DNA (G-C to A-T ratio) or with respect to the presence of enhancers or MAR (matrix associated repeats)-like structures. Primers located within the left and right flanking regions in the three stable lines could be used to recover the target sites from the untransformed plants. This was not possible, however, with the unstable line, indicating that at least one flanking sequence does not derive from the plant target DNA but is of unknown origin. PCR using other primer pairs, and inverse PCR analysis, revealed an additional truncated T-DNA copy of 1050 nucleotides adjacent to the left border of the complete copy in this line. Sequencing of this truncated T-DNA revealed that it represented an inverted copy of part of the right half of the original construct. This special feature would allow the inverted repeat to pair with right border sequences of the complete copy. This would explain the frequently observed reversion resulting in transgene loss as due to intrachromosomal base-pairing leading to double-stranded loops of single-stranded DNA during mitotic cell divisions.', 'en_US'),
(1163, 'Making forest biotechnology a commercial reality. Do we need a tree genome project, or will Arabidopsis point the way?', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1164, 'Development of transgenic yellow poplar for mercury phytoremediation', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1165, 'Uses of plant gene silencing', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1166, 'Forest tree biotechnology', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1167, 'Engineering gut flora of ruminant livestock to reduce forage toxicity: progress and problems', 'The rumen bacterium Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens has been genetically modified to detoxify fluoroacetate (a poisonous component of trees and shrubs in Australia, Africa and Central America) and has been shown to persist when it is returned to the rumen. Such bacteria may save animals from poisoning and, therefore, reduce economic losses for livestock industries in those countries. The ability to make genetic changes to rumen bacteria raises important questions about their practicality, and about the environmental factors that must be considered before releasing modified strains. The fluoroacetate-detoxifying bacterium provides an important model by which these issues can be examined.', 'en_US'),
(1168, 'Genetic strategies for enhancing phytoremediation', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1169, 'Insect tolerance of transgenic Populus nigra plants transformed with Bacillus thuringiensis toxin gene', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1170, 'Comparative studies on tree pollen allergens. XI. Trials on the regulation of IgE response in mice using modified birch pollen allergens.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1171, 'Food, agricultural and marine biotechnology in Chile', 'Economic segments with highest growth rates in Chile are those based on renewable resources like agriculture (fruits and vegetables), marine and forest products. Opportunities for biotechnology are based on a sound scientific base at universities, adequate funding and incipient industry-academia relationships. However, there is an urgent need to develop the engineering capabilities required to scale-up processes and to design, build and operate industrial biotechnology plants.', 'en_US'),
(1172, 'Where will the wood come from? Plantation forests and the role of biotechnology', 'Wood is almost as important to humanity as food, and the natural forests from which most of it is harvested from are of enormous environmental value. However, these slow-growing forests are unable to meet current demand, resulting in the loss and degradation of forest. Plantation forests have the potential to supply the bulk of humanity''s wood needs on a long-term basis, and so reduce to acceptable limits the harvest pressures on natural forests. However, if they are to be successful, plantation forests must have a far higher yield of timber than their natural counterparts, on much shorter rotation times. To achieve this in reasonable time, biotechnology must be applied to the tree-improvement process, for which large increases in public and private capital investment are needed. However, additional obstacles exist in the form of opposition to plantations, some forest ecocertification schemes, and concerns about aspects of forest biotechnology, especially genetic engineering. It is the intention of this article to explain, in detail, why plantation forests are needed to sustainably meet the world''s demand for wood, why they are not being developed fast enough, and why the application of biotechnology to tree improvement is essential to speeding up this process', 'en_US'),
(1173, 'The biotechnological control of pitch in paper pulp manufacturing', 'At present, microbial and enzymatic preparations for the control of triglyceride-containing pitch deposits during the manufacture of mechanical and sulfite paper is commercially available. However, biotechnological products for pitch control in other pulping processes, such as alkaline pulping, are under development. These products include new fungi for the removal of steroids involved in pitch deposit formation in chlorine-free pulps, to be used as a biological pretreatment of wood before pulping. Simultaneously, tailor-made enzymes are being produced using protein-engineering techniques, enabling the specific removal of pitch contaminant compounds from paper pulp.', 'en_US'),
(1174, 'Forest biotechnology makes its position known', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1175, 'Biotechnology for developing countries. The case of the Central American isthmus', 'Recent developments in the fields of chemistry, molecular biology, computer science, and communications promise to transform the way that many things will be done in the near future in diverse fields of scientific R&D. Fortunately for less developed countries (LDCs) some of the technologies involved are user friendly and safe, avoiding the need for radioactive precursors, large machines, or expensive reagents. For instance, tissue culture, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), dideoxi-sequencing, and recombinant DNA techniques have already invaded clinical laboratories, agricultural field stations, and natural history museums, even in some developing nations. Somatic cell culture for plant biotechnology and immunologic techniques for diagnosis have had wide applications for over a decade in all countries in the Central American Isthmus. More recently, recombinant DNA techniques, including PCR, have been introduced for diagnostic purposes and research at the two largest universities in Costa Rica and at other public institutions and are also used in Guatemala and Panama. Honduras and Nicaragua are only now acquiring these technologies for diagnostic purposes. Biotechnological applications in industry seem to be lagging behind, and presently no good links exist between research laboratories and industry for advanced applications. The application of biotechnologies in environmental problems is slowly underway, with molecular studies of natural wildlife populations and primary forest trees. A major effort is needed to create safe and effective ways of dealing with environmental degradation, wastes, and byproducts of tropical agriculture and industry. The creation of the National Biodiversity Institute (INBio) in Costa Rica to elaborate an inventory of flora and fauna and to prospect for useful substances provides a unique opportunity for biotechnological applications. In addition, government policies to promote biotechnological development are supported by CONICIT (National Research Council), the Ministry of Science and Technology, the newly established Costa Rican Academy of Science, and the national universities. Other countries in the region are beginning to take similar action. At the Cell and Molecular Biology Center (CIBCM) our strategy is to obtain the key components and infrastructure to handle nucleic acids and manage genetic information in databanks. Training has been an important priority during the last decade, with over 20 Central American students receiving graduate degrees in virology, molecular biology, genetics, and immunology, with support from German and Swedish governmental institutions. Diagnosis of viral diseases in cultivated plants and animals was done initially at CIBCM for research and later on a contractual basis for both the public and private agricultural sectors. DNA hybridization and PCR techniques are now replacing or being used concurrently with immunologic techniques.', 'en_US'),
(1176, 'Field and pulping performances of transgenic trees with altered lignification', 'The agronomic and pulping performance of transgenic trees with altered lignin has been evaluated in duplicated, long-term field trials. Poplars expressing cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase (CAD) or caffeate/5-hydroxy-ferulate O-methyltransferase (COMT) antisense transgenes were grown for four years at two sites, in France and England. The trees remained healthy throughout the trial. Growth indicators and interactions with insects were normal. No changes in soil microbial communities were detected beneath the transgenic trees. The expected modifications to lignin were maintained in the transgenics over four years, at both sites. Kraft pulping of tree trunks showed that the reduced-CAD lines had improved characteristics, allowing easier delignification, using smaller amounts of chemicals, while yielding more high-quality pulp. This work highlights the potential of engineering wood quality for more environmentally benign papermaking without interfering with tree growth or fitness.', 'en_US'),
(1177, 'Transgenic manipulation of the metabolism of polyamines in poplar cells', 'The metabolism of polyamines (putrescine, spermidine, and spermine) has become the target of genetic manipulation because of their significance in plant development and possibly stress tolerance. We studied the polyamine metabolism in non-transgenic (NT) and transgenic cells of poplar (Populus nigra × maximowiczii) expressing a mouse Orn decarboxylase (odc) cDNA. The transgenic cells showed elevated levels of mouse ODC enzyme activity, severalfold higher amounts of putrescine, a small increase in spermidine, and a small reduction in spermine as compared with NT cells. The conversion of labeled ornithine (Orn) into putrescine was significantly higher in the transgenic than the NT cells. Whereas exogenously supplied Orn caused an increase in cellular putrescine in both cell lines, arginine at high concentrations was inhibitory to putrescine accumulation. The addition of urea and glutamine had no effect on polyamines in either of the cell lines. Inhibition of glutamine synthetase by methionine sulfoximine led to a substantial reduction in putrescine and spermidine in both cell lines. The results show that: (a) Transgenic expression of a heterologous odc gene can be used to modulate putrescine metabolism in plant cells, (b) accumulation of putrescine in high amounts does not affect the native arginine decarboxylase activity, (c) Orn biosynthesis occurs primarily from glutamine/glutamate and not from catabolic breakdown of arginine, (d) Orn biosynthesis may become a limiting factor for putrescine production in the odc transgenic cells, and (e) assimilation of nitrogen into glutamine keeps pace with an increased demand for its use for putrescine production.', 'en_US'),
(1178, 'Growing up fast: manipulating the generation time of trees', 'Domestication and genetic improvement of trees is far behind that of herbaceous plants owing to their long generation times, which result from the existence of a long juvenile phase of reproductive incompetence. During recent years, significant progress has been made towards understanding the molecular basis of flowering transition in model herbaceous species. Some of the genes identified have been shown to efficiently accelerate reproductive development when ectopically expressed in transgenic plants, including trees. These results provide new clues as to the molecular basis of reproductive competence in trees and suggest ways to accelerate their genetic improvement.', 'en_US'),
(1179, 'Recent advances in the genetic transformation of trees', 'As the commercial production of transgenic annual crops becomes a reality in many parts of the world, many people wonder if the genetic engineering of perennial trees will allow their eventual commercialization. Not long ago, trees were considered to be recalcitrant material for most molecular biology techniques, including genetic transformation. However, transgenes for shortening the juvenile phase or for phytoremediation purposes have now been incorporated, and the alteration of lignin biosynthesis and increased cellulose accumulation in forest trees have also been accomplished. For long-lived tree species, new questions arise regarding the stability of integration and expression of foreign genes. Biosafety considerations, including transgene dispersion through the pollen and advances in strategies to avoid this, are also important.', 'en_US'),
(1180, 'Preliminary report on the apparent breaking of resistance of a transgenic plum by chip bud inoculation of plum pox virus PPV-S', 'Five transgenic clones of Prunus domestica L. containing plum pox virus (PPV) coat protein (CP) gene and one non-transformed control clone were challenged with PPV-S in the field. Symptoms developed on C2, C3, C4, C6 and B70146 but not C5 trees inoculated by chip budding (CBI) (2/2, 2/2, 1/1, 2/2 and 2/2, positive/inoculated) in the first summer after inoculation. However, in the second year, symptoms appeared on CBI C5 trees. The presence of the virus in the plants was confirmed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) amplification of a fragment of viral polymerase gene. During two years, symptoms of infection developed on 3 to 4 of 8 non-inoculated trees of clones C2, C3, C4, C6 and B70146. Eight non-inoculated C5 trees remained symptomless and ELISA-negative as of spring 1998, in spite of the presence of aphid vectors and inoculum sources.', 'en_US'),
(1181, 'New aero-allergens. Interaction between allergens and the environment', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1182, 'Biotechnology and the American agricultural industry: Council on Scientific Affairs, American Medical Association.', 'To meet the needs of a rapidly growing population and minimize the toxic influences of traditional farming practices on the environment, the US agricultural industry has applied molecular technology to the development of food crops and livestock. By placing genes specific for highly desirable phenotypes in the DNA of plants, animals, and bacteria, farmers have increased crop and livestock survival, enhanced the nutritional quality of foods, increased industry productivity, and reduced the need for toxic pesticides and herbicides. However, introduction of genetically modified foods into the marketplace has raised a spectrum of public health issues. Physicians, as the most proximal scientific resource for most individuals, are uniquely positioned to address patient concerns regarding the safety of genetically altered foods. This report provides an overview of the inherent risks and benefits of ''agrogenetics'' and offers a series of recommendations designed to promote the education of the medical community and dispel public misconception regarding genetic manipulation.', 'en_US'),
(1183, 'Liabilities and economics of transgenic crops', 'Two growing patterns threaten current crop production practices in intensive agriculture: the cross-pollination of genetically modified (GM) crop varieties with conventional varieties, and the germination of volunteer GM seeds (seeds dropped, blown, or inadvertently planted). Crosspollination of GM crops with crop varieties destined for non-GM, GM-free, or ''organic'' niche markets is of great concern to the corresponding producers. The growth of volunteer GM seeds can be controlled chemically, but at an added cost for producers. Both of these problems must be rapidly addressed to ensure that the adoption rate of GM crops remains high and that the commercialization of future varieties is not jeopardized.', 'en_US'),
(1184, 'Transgenic crops-why gene flow matters', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1185, 'GM crops and the pesticide paradigm', 'Commercialized transgenic crops maintain the present reliance on pesticides to control crop pests. This pest-management regime relies on suppressing pest populations by exposing them to toxic materials and taking measures to minimize negative health and environmental externalities. An alternative is to develop a new generation of GM crops designed along agro-ecological principles, for instance by improving a plant''s tolerance of pest damage. This approach potentially has substantial benefits, including decreased environmental impact, reduced opportunities for pest resistance, and an enhancement of the reputation of the agricultural biotechnology industry.', 'en_US'),
(1186, 'CGIAR statement on UN treaty', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1187, 'Potential for the environmental impact of transgenic crops', 'In recent years, there has been increasing interest in how changes in agricultural practice associated with the introduction of particular genetically modified (GM) crops might indirectly impact the environment. There is also interest in any effects that might be associated with recombinant and novel combinations of DNA passing into the environment, and the possibility that they may be taken up by microorganisms or other live biological material. From the current state of knowledge, the impact of free DNA of transgenic origin is likely to be negligible compared with the large amount of total free DNA. We can find no compelling scientific arguments to demonstrate that GM crops are innately different from non-GM crops. The kinds of potential impacts of GM crops fall into classes familiar from the cultivation of non-GM crops (e.g., invasiveness, weediness, toxicity, or biodiversity). It is likely, however, that the novelty of some of the products of GM crop improvement will present new challenges and perhaps opportunities to manage particular crops in creative ways.', 'en_US'),
(1188, 'An intellectual property clearinghouse for agricultural biotechnology', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1189, 'Excision of selectable marker genes from transgenic plants', 'Selectable marker genes are required to ensure the efficient genetic modification of crops. Economic incentives and safety concerns have prompted the development of several strategies (site-specific recombination, homologous recombination, transposition, and co-transformation) to eliminate these genes from the genome after they have fulfilled their purpose. Recently, chemically inducible site-specific recombinase systems have emerged as valuable tools for efficiently regulating the excision of transgenes when their expression is no longer required. The implementation of these strategies in crops and their further improvement will help to expedite widespread public acceptance of agricultural biotechnology.', 'en_US'),
(1190, 'Molecular strategies for gene containment in transgenic crops', 'The potential of genetically modified (GM) crops to transfer foreign genes through pollen to related plant species has been cited as an environmental concern. Until more is known concerning the environmental impact of novel genes on indigenous crops and weeds, practical and regulatory considerations will likely require the adoption of gene-containment approaches for future generations of GM crops. Most molecular approaches with potential for controlling gene flow among crops and weeds have thus far focused on maternal inheritance, male sterility, and seed sterility. Several other containment strategies may also prove useful in restricting gene flow, including apomixis (vegetative propagation and asexual seed formation), cleistogamy (self-fertilization without opening of the flower), genome incompatibility, chemical induction/deletion of transgenes, fruit-specific excision of transgenes, and transgenic mitigation (transgenes that compromise fitness in the hybrid). As yet, however, no strategy has proved broadly applicable to all crop species, and a combination of approaches may prove most effective for engineering the next generation of GM crops.', 'en_US'),
(1191, 'Engineered polyamine accumulation in tomato enhances phytonutrient content, juice quality, and vine life', 'Polyamines, ubiquitous organic aliphatic cations, have been implicated in a myriad of physiological and developmental processes in many organisms, but their in vivo functions remain to be determined. We expressed a yeast S-adenosylmethionine decarboxylase gene (ySAMdc; Spe2) fused with a ripening-inducible E8 promoter to specifically increase levels of the polyamines spermidine and spermine in tomato fruit during ripening. Independent transgenic plants and their segregating lines were evaluated after cultivation in the greenhouse and in the field for five successive generations. The enhanced expression of the ySAMdc gene resulted in increased conversion of putrescine into higher polyamines and thus to ripening-specific accumulation of spermidine and spermine. This led to an increase in lycopene, prolonged vine life, and enhanced fruit juice quality. Lycopene levels in cultivated tomatoes are generally low, and increasing them in the fruit enhances its nutrient value. Furthermore, the rates of ethylene production in the transgenic tomato fruit were consistently higher than those in the nontransgenic control fruit. These data show that polyamine and ethylene biosynthesis pathways can act simultaneously in ripening tomato fruit. Taken together, these results provide the first direct evidence for a physiological role of polyamines and demonstrate an approach to improving nutritional quality, juice quality, and vine life of tomato fruit.', 'en_US'),
(1192, 'Nontransgenic crops from transgenic plants', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1193, 'Rethinking substantial equivalence', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1194, 'Transgenic salt-tolerant tomato plants accumulate salt in foliage but not in fruit', 'Transgenic tomato plants overexpressing a vacuolar Na+/H+ antiport were able to grow, flower, and produce fruit in the presence of 200 mM sodium chloride. Although the leaves accumulated high sodium concentrations, the tomato fruit displayed very low sodium content. Contrary to the notion that multiple traits introduced by breeding into crop plants are needed to obtain salt-tolerant plants, the modification of a single trait significantly improved the salinity tolerance of this crop plant. These results demonstrate that with a combination of breeding and transgenic plants it could be possible to produce salt-tolerant crops with far fewer target traits than had been anticipated. The accumulation of sodium in the leaves and not in the fruit demonstrates the utility of such a modification in preserving the quality of the fruit.', 'en_US'),
(1195, 'Insecticidal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis protect corn from corn rootworms', 'Field tests of corn co-expressing two new delta-endotoxins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) have demonstrated protection from root damage by western corn rootworm (Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte). The level of protection exceeds that provided by chemical insecticides. In the bacterium, these proteins form crystals during the sporulation phase of the growth cycle, are encoded by a single operon, and have molecular masses of 14 kDa and 44 kDa. Corn rootworm larvae fed on corn roots expressing the proteins showed histopathological symptoms in the midgut epithelium.', 'en_US'),
(1196, 'Crafting crop resistance to corn rootworms', 'A review with 10 refs. Potentials of using transgenic corn co-expressing two complementary endotoxins from Bacillus thuringiensis against corn rootworms (Diabrotica spp.) and issues of resistance management are discussed.', 'en_US'),
(1197, 'A plant-based multicomponent vaccine protects mice from enteric diseases', 'Cholera toxin (CT) B and A2 subunit complementary DNAs (cDNAs) were fused to a rotavirus enterotoxin and enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli fimbrial antigen genes and transferred into potato. Immunoblot and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) results indicated that the fusion antigens were synthesized in transformed tuber tissues and assembled into cholera holotoxin-like structures that retained enterocyte-binding affinity. Orally immunized mice generated detectable levels of serum and intestinal antibodies against the pathogen antigens. Elevated levels of interleukin 2 (IL2) and interferon (INF) detected in immunogen-challenged spleen cells from the immunized mice indicated the presence of a strong Th1 immune response to the three plant-synthesized antigens. This result was supported by flow cytometry analysis of immunized mouse spleen cells that showed a significant increase in CD4+ lymphocyte numbers. Diarrhea symptoms were reduced in severity and duration in passively immunized mouse neonates following rotavirus challenge. The results suggest that food plants can function as vaccines for simultaneous protection against infectious virus and bacterial diseases.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(1198, 'Production of spider silk proteins in tobacco and potato', 'Spider dragline silk is a proteinaceous fiber with remarkable mechanical properties that make it attractive for technical applications. Unfortunately, the material cannot be obtained in large quantities from spiders. We have therefore generated transgenic tobacco and potato plants that express remarkable amounts of recombinant Nephila clavipes dragline proteins. Using a gene synthesis approach, the recombinant proteins exhibit homologies of >90% compared to their native models. Here, we demonstrate the accumulation of recombinant silk proteins, which are encoded by synthetic genes of 420-3,600 base pairs, up to a level of at least 2% of total soluble protein in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of tobacco and potato leaves and potato tubers, respectively. Using the present expression system, spider silk proteins up to 100 kDa could be detected in plant tissues. When produced in plants, the recombinant spidroins exhibit extreme heat stability-a property that is used to purify the spidroins by a simple and efficient procedure.', 'en_US'),
(1199, 'Growing pains for biopharmaceuticals', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1200, 'Biotechnology patents in the food sector', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1201, 'Bt toxin uptake from soil by plants', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1202, 'Food safety evaluation of crops produced through biotechnology', 'Agricultural biotechnology has been widely adopted in agriculture but is also the focus of controversy. Questions have arisen regarding food and environmental safety. In the US, responsibility for ensuring agricultural and environmental safety is delegated to the USDA and EPA, respectively. The FDA has primary responsibility for food safety, with the exception that the EPA has responsibility for the safety of proteins in plants associated with insect defense mechanisms. The food safety assessment, whether performed by the FDA or the EPA, requires evaluation of the safety of 1) the newly added DNA, 2) the safety of the newly introduced gene product and 3) the overall safety of the balance of the food. A paradigm called ''Substantial Equivalence'' guides the assessment. The principal food safety issues for new varieties crops are 1) potential toxicity of the newly introduced protein(s), 2) potential changes in allergenicity, 3) changes in nutrient composition, 4) unintended effects giving rise to allergenicity or toxicity and 5) the safety of antibiotic resistance marker-encoded proteins included with the transgene. All of these must be taken in the context of the predicted range of dietary exposures. The evaluation seeks to establish that there is a ''reasonable likelihood of safety'' and that new varieties are as safe as or safer than crops produced by traditional methods. Indeed, after extensive safety testing and some five years of experience with such crops in the marketplace, there is not a single report that would lead an expert food scientist to question the safety of such transgenic crops now in use.', 'en_US'),
(1203, 'Chemical-regulated, site-specific DNA excision in transgenic plants', 'We have developed a chemical-inducible, site-specific DNA excision system in transgenic Arabidopsis plants mediated by the Cre/loxP DNA recombination system. Expression of the Cre recombinase was tightly controlled by an estrogen receptor-based fusion transactivator XVE. Upon induction by -estradiol, sequences encoding the selectable marker, Cre, and XVE sandwiched by two loxP sites were excised from the Arabidopsis genome, leading to activation of the downstream GFP (green fluorescent protein) reporter gene. Genetic and molecular analyses indicated that the system is tightly controlled, showing high-efficiency inducible DNA excision in all 19 transgenic events tested with either single or multiple T-DNA insertions. The system provides a highly reliable method to generate marker-free transgenic plants after transformation through either organogenesis or somatic embryogenesis.', 'en_US'),
(1204, 'GM crop data-agronomy and ecology in tandem', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1205, 'Overexpression of the Bt cry2Aa2 operon in chloroplasts leads to formation of insecticidal crystals', 'In nuclear transgenic plants, expression of multiple genes requires introduction of individual genes and time-consuming subsequent backcrosses to reconstitute multi-subunit proteins or pathways, a problem that is compounded by variable expression levels. In order to accomplish expression of multiple genes in a single transformation event, we have introduced several genes into the chromoplast genome. We confirmed stable integration of the cry2Aa2 operon by PCR and Southern blot analyses in T0 and T1 transgenic plants. Foreign protein accumulated at 45.3% of the total soluble protein in mature leaves and remained stable even in old bleached leaves (46.1%), thereby increasing the efficacy and safety of transgenic plants throughout the growing season. This represents the highest level of foreign gene expression reported in transgenic plants to date. Insects that are normally difficult to control (10-day old cotton bollworm, beet armyworm) were killed 100% after consuming transgenic leaves. Electron micrographs showed the presence of the insecticidal protein folded into cuboidal crystals. Formation of crystals of foreign proteins (due to hyperexpression and folding by the putative chaperonin, ORF 2) provides a simple method of purification by centrifugation and enhances stability by protection from cellular proteases. Demonstration of expression of an operon in transgenic plants paves the way to engineering new pathways in plants in a single transformation event.', 'en_US'),
(1206, 'Safety assessment of foods derived from genetically modified microorganisms', 'A Joint FAO/WHO Expert Consultation on Foods Derived from Biotechnology - Safety Assessment of Foods Derived from Genetically Modified Microorganisms (GMMs) was held at the Headquarters of the World Health Organization (WHO) in Geneva from 24 - 28 September 2001. A total of 27 experts, including authors of discussion papers, participated in the Consultation.', 'en_US'),
(1207, 'Topic 9: Post-market surveillance of allergenicity', 'The development of biotechnology for the production and processing of foods raises the question of the safety of these foods and the evaluation of any risks, including the allergic risk, that their consumption could pose to Public Health.Indeed allergies engendered by foods containing or derived from genetically modified organisms (GMOs) is a special issue on which particular emphasis has been placed. European Union''s regulation 258/97 on Novel Foods stipulates that it must be addressed in every application for the authorization to put on the market any novel foods and particularly those containing or derived from GMOs. Assessment of the allergic risk is  currently performed using the decision tree approach as described in the ILSI-IFBC recommendations. The aim of this paper is to analyse for the different steps of this approach whether human studies may be necessary to assess the allergic risk of long term or high dosages consumption of such novel foods and how post market surveillance could provide such informations in addition of a priori (e.g. pre-marketing) safety evaluation by testing methodologies currently used as yet.', 'en_US'),
(1208, 'PCR detection of genetically modified soya and maize in foodstuffs', 'The detection of genetically modified foodstuffs is becoming both a food sales and legal necessity. This study reports a rapid DNA extraction/PCR-based method for the detection of genetically modified soya (GMS) and maize (GMM) in mixed samples of transgenic and unmodified soyabeans and maize kernels, and a variety of processed samples including soya flour, soya protein isolates, extruded defatted soya, acid- and alcohol-precipitated soya concentrates, soya lecithin, maize grits, seasoned maize puffs and salted maize chips. The presence of GMS DNA was determined using two pairs of primers directed towards different GMS target sequences and GMM by one primer pair. In addition, a multiplex PCR reaction which utilises an internal positive control was developed for both genetically modified organisms (GMOs). Results indicated that the methods are sensitive and specific enough to detect GMS down to a level of 0.01% dry weight in single-product PCRs and 0.1% in multiplex PCRs and GMM down to 0.001% dry weight in single-product PCRs and 0.01% in multiplex PCR. The methods are considered to represent a viable route for the commercial detection of GMS and GMM in foodstuffs.', 'en_US'),
(1209, 'An economic approach to identifying an ''effective sui generis system'' for plant variety protection under TRIPs', 'Developing countries required under the WTO TRIPs agreement to provide some intellectual property protection for plants are choosing Plant Breeders'' Rights (PBR). TRIPs specifies only an effective sui generis system without further clarification. This article develops an effective system based on the detailed TRIPs patent requirements. In general, the requirements map well with current UPOV Acts. A complete analysis must also consider implementation. The US registration system, which allows limited distinctness, provides weaker protection than European examination systems. Some evidence indicates the US system provides inadequate protection while European systems may release too few varieties. The recent UPOV initial variety system should use high initial variety standards to discourage breeders from delaying introductions. UPOV 1991 makes seed saving a national option; preliminary results indicate seed saving does not unduly reduce breeders'' profits, but may lead to growers unprofitably delaying replacing seed.', 'en_US'),
(1210, 'Genetically modified crops in developing countries. Promise or peril?', 'Although the move toward transgenic or genetically modified crops is being financed by the industrialized world, it is in the developing world where the greatest human and environmental promise--or peril--of this new technology may lie. What the developing countries need is more investment in their own indigenous scientific capacity so they can shape this new technology to suit their own distinctive local needs and circumstances.', 'en_US'),
(1211, 'Monitoring and labeling for genetically modified products', 'In response to growing concerns regarding the use of genetically modified food in Europe, revisions have been proposed to Directive 90/220 of the European Economic Community. The amendments would provide more specific guidance for risk assessment and monitoring as a way of reassuring the public about the safety of products introduced on the market. There is a clear need for the United States to harmonize with this approach if international trade is not to be impeded.', 'en_US'),
(1212, 'Indian rules, regulations and procedures for handling transgenic plants', 'The Indian Government promulgated rules for dealing with genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and their products in 1989. These rules define the authorities. They also elaborate the implementation structures for conducting research and for the commercial application of GMOs. The major Indian developments in GM crops include work on transgenic cotton, Indian mustard, oilseed rape, tomato, brinjal, cauliflower, cabbage, potato, tobacco, chilli, bell pepper and rice. Research on GMOs is monitored by the Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation (RCGM) which stewards the generation of biosafety data, starting from the laboratory to contained greenhouse experiments to small-scale contained field trials. RCGM also authorizes the import/export/transfer of transgenic materials for research use only. The biosafety data required to be generated include: rationale for the development of GMOs, details of their molecular biology, comparison of germination rates and phenotypic characteristics, study of gene flow, invasiveness and weed formation possibilities, susceptibility to diseases and pests, effects on non-target organisms and food safety evaluation. Agronomic evaluation is also undertaken. The Genetic Engineering Approval Committee provides authorization of GMOs for commercial release based on the biosafety evaluation data.', 'en_US'),
(1213, 'Testing genetically engineered potato, producing the lectins GNA and Con A, on non-target soil organisms and processes', '1. Two lectins, concanavalin A (Con A) and Galanthus nivalis agglutinin (GNA), have anti-feedant properties that suggest a potential for the control of invertebrate pests of plants. We tested potato plants genetically engineered to produce each of these lectins constitutively, as well as the purified lectins, for possible non-target effects.', 'en_US'),
(1214, 'Thailand: biotechnology for farm products and agro-industries', 'Before the economic crisis in 1997, Thailand was named one of the Asian Newly Indus-trialized Countries (NICs) with an average economic growth rate of 8-9percent during 1993- 95. The crisis resulted in a negative growth rate of -7.8 percent in 1998. Moreover, the impact of the economic recession in the world market has affected the country''s total exports, which amounted to US$57 billion (US$1=31.5 bahts) and US$53 billion (US$1=41.6 bahts) in 1997 and 1998, respectively. The economic growth forecast for 1999 is expected to be around 3-4 percent. Efforts to revive the economy are currently being implemented in both the government and the private sector. The linkage between the sta-tus of science and technology and the economic status of a country has long been noted. At this stage, it is crucial for Thailand to increase the tech-nological capability of the country, to make effi-cient use of its resources, and to reduce the cost of production, thereby increasing economic growth and competitiveness. Despite the country''s industrialization, agri-culture has remained a significant part of the economy. Thailand has been moving towards in-dustrial- based agriculture and has focused on the development of postharvest and processing tech-nologies that are the major problems for indus-try. Biotechnology has become the country''s priority for research and development (R&D) and for the benefit of the private sector as well as ru-ral development.', 'en_US'),
(1215, 'Philippines: challenges, opportunities, and constraints in agricultural biotechnology', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1216, 'Agricultural biotechnology and the poor: Promethean science', 'Prometheus, according to Greek mythology, was a Titan, responsible for introducing fire to humans, a remarkable innovation at the time, but having benefits and risks, depending on its use. Promethean has since come to mean daringly original and creative.Science is an elegant way of getting at the truth, according to science writer Rick Weiss. It should follow then that molecular biology and other tools of modern biotechnology add elegance and precision to the pursuit of solutions to thwart poverty, malnutrition and food insecurity in too many countries around the world. In agriculture these enemies are manifest as pests, diseases, drought and other biotic and abiotic stresses that limit the productivity of plants and animals.But not all appreciate the elegance of science in the pursuit of truth. The current debate about the potential utility of modern biotechnology for food and agriculture presents a challenge for modern science to contribute to the solution of human problems. This debate is currently focused on the initial applications of modern biotechnology in industrial country agriculture and its potential risks to human health and the environment. It is also intertwined with other of-ten understated societal concerns such as food safety, animal welfare, industrialized agriculture, and the global role of large private-sector corporations.A debate based on the best available empirical evidence on the relevance of modern science for poor people in developing countries is urgently needed. Its purpose would be to identify the most appropriate ways that molecular biology-based research might contribute to the solution of poor people''s problems. These problems and the socioeconomic context in which they occur are so different from the problems and context of the countries where most of the biotechnology debate currently takes place that the positions and conclusions from the current debate are largely irrelevant for poor farmers and poor consumers in developing countries. Despite this, many of the arguments in the current debate are extrapolated to conclusions about the potential utility of biotechnology for poor countries and poor people. There is an urgent need for a more focused debate on the role of modern agricultural biotechnology in developing countries, a debate that should and is being led by people from developing countries themselves (Pinstrup-Andersen and Cohen 2000).', 'en_US'),
(1217, 'Sustainable use of genetically modified crops in developing countries', 'Because poverty can lead to environmental degradation, a potential chain of interactions between genetic modification, increased yield, variation in yield, food security, and environmental degradation is examined. The potential for genetic modification to increase yield and decrease yield variation is explored. Sections cover importance of yield stability, and pest resistance management and yield variation; a case history of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is presented and Bt resistance management is discussed. Implications for developing countries are considered and the case of Bt resistance management in rice is reviewed. Regulatory requirements to ensure biosafety are outlined.', 'en_US'),
(1218, 'Genetically modified crops and other organisms: implications for agricultural sustainability and biodiversity', 'We are at the dawn of a revolution in how we grow food and many other products on this planet, a revolution that is pushing society into rethinking what we want out of agriculture. Biotechnology and other advances in plant and animal breeding and crop technology are already offering an unprecedented range of choices for how we use agricultural land, and how we produce fish and forests. Visions of the future for agricultural land vary between weedless and pestless ''green concrete'' and visions of a new organic agriculture producing high-quality, high-yield crops yet protecting and nurturing biodiversity. Given the rapid pace of new developments in agricultural biotechnology and the culture of the research world, consumers, farmers, policymakers and regulators throughout the world are struggling to come to terms with these choices. Some consumers, especially those in Europe, are perplexed, anxious, and desperate for information about the potential effects of biotechnology on their food and their environment. The media have sensed that this issue is not going to go away from public consciousness in the foreseeable future, and are actively promoting widespread debate on how we should best use the profound discoveries emanating from the new genetics. This is perhaps the most important debate of the new millennium, because its outcomes will have global implications for food and raw material production for the rest of our history.I will explore some of the implications of us-ing the present outputs from the agricultural bio- technology industry, draw attention to the science which seems to be missing from the debate, and to look toward the future, when we may well turn to biotechnology to build a more sustainable agriculture. The views are mostly those of the UK statutory conservation bodies and inevitably Eurocentric, but I will try to pose some fundamental questions about the implications of agricultural biotechnology for developing countries. Statutory conservation advisors in the UK are not opposed to genetic modification as a technique for changing the characteristics of plants and animals. It is simply another, but very powerful, tool for plant and animal breeding. On the contrary, we see real promise in genetic modification for eventually producing more sustainable and environmentally friendly crops and farming.Biotechnology could give us a future where perennial crops have in-built resistance to pests and diseases, fix their own nitrogen, and give higher yields. We may eventually be able to produce entirely new plants, designed specifically to produce food, medicines, industrial chemicals and fuel. But let us not be blinded by such dreams; like all new technology, genetic modification is risky. European society is deeply concerned about the direction that research and development (R&D) in this technology appears to be going, and the statutory conservation agencies are trying hard to stimulate a debate, not on whether genetic modification should be used, but on how and where it might best be used.In Europe, where our landscape and wildlife are inextricably mixed with, and dependent upon, farming, we already have serious environmental problems with ''conventional'' chemical-dependent agriculture. We have surface and ground-water pollution, soil degradation and erosion, and alarming declines in biodiversity. These are the costs of increasing yields, aimed at driving down costs of food to consumers and attempts to compete on world markets. We are still overproducing some commodities and the damage to our environment continues. These agricultural processes were enabled by the introduction of new plant varieties and more effective chemical regimes, including new generations of pesticides. In whatever way we measure the impacts of in-tensive agriculture, we must conclude that in its present form it is probably not sustainable. By this I mean that, although levels of production may be sustainable for perhaps decades, the social, environmental, and economic consequences of these processes may not be sustainable for that period of time.Biotechnology may offer a way out of this dependence on unsustainable agriculture by eventually producing crop plants that enable agriculture to sustain yields but minimize environ-mental impacts. But the perception in Europe is that some of the present generation of genetically modified (GM) crops, especially those developed for the US agricultural situation, which are herbicide- tolerant and insect-resistant, may present yet further risks to biodiversity in our present intensive agricultural system. I will explore some of the reasons why these GM systems are being proposed and I will argue that the advent of genetic modification has thrown into sharp focus the need for reappraisal of agricultural strategy in Europe. We need clear thinking, scientific information, and realistic views to minimize the risks and maximize the benefits, which I see not just in terms of yet more production and profit.Before exploring the potential benefits of genetic modification in agriculture, I would like to look more closely at some of the perceived risks associated with growing the present generation of GM crops in Europe. I believe that some of these have been understated by both the industry and by some regulatory authorities both in Europe and overseas. I believe there has been a laissez faire attitude toward the potential environ-mental effects of GI crops. This attitude toward such a powerful technology is potentially dam- aging not only to the industry but also to politicians, policymakers, and regulators. It is they who are faced with the task of convincing the public that GM crops will bring real benefits to the public and the environment, at minimal risk. It would not be unfair to suggest that up to now the European public are far from impressed by the arguments in favor of GM crops put forward by the biotechnology companies.', 'en_US'),
(1219, 'A- or C-chromosomes, does it matter for the transfer of transgenes from Brassica napus', 'Introgression of genes from allotetraploid Brassica napus into its diploid wild relative B. rapa is generally considered to be inevitable. As a means to minimize a potential ecological risk in environments where B. rapa is growing, the insertion of transgenes into chromosome regions of B. napus with a very low probability of transfer to backcross generations with B. rapa has been proposed. Recently, the progeny of four backcross generations between transgenic herbicide-tolerant B. napus and B. rapa was studied in selection experiments (Metz et al. 1997). The rapid decrease in the frequency of herbicide-tolerant plants was explained by selection against the C-chromosomes of B. napus in favor of the homeologous A-chromosomes. Obviously, such C-chromosomes could be potential candidates as safe integration sites for transgenes. We considered these safety aspects using a simple population genetic model. Theory and experiments, however, do not favor the chromosomes of B. napus as safe candidates with respect to the introgression of transgenes into wild populations of B. rapa.', 'en_US'),
(1220, 'Mexico: ensuring environmental safety while benefiting from biotechnology', 'World population, now 6 billion, is ex-pected to reach 8 billion people by the year 2025 and maybe 9-10 billion by the year 2050 with around 97% of this popula-tion growth occurring in the developing coun-tries (Fedoroff and Cohen 1999 and references therein). To face the challenge posed by the need to feed this huge increase in population, food production will have to double or triple by the middle of the next century. These challenges can-not be faced with the so-called traditional tech-nologies in agriculture, and the new technologies, known collectively as biotechnology, will be es-sential to reach these goals.However, although in principle most people with a certain knowledge of the potential of bio-technology agree with these statements, most of the people living in either the industrial or devel-oping countries have not yet seen any product derived from this new technology benefiting them directly as consumers, either through lower prices for products or improved nutritional quality.This has led many consumer associations and environmental groups to find unjustified any possible risk to the environment posed by the introduction of genetically improved organisms (GIOs), given the apparent lack of benefit to soci-ety. In most societies there are groups that will not trust either industry or the regulatory agen-cies that they perceive as allied to the chemical industry, often now bioscience companies.', 'en_US'),
(1221, 'Frequency and distance of pollen dispersal from transgenic cotton', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1222, 'Attitudes and awareness of GM technology among farmers in Ireland', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1223, 'Evidence of multiple complex patterns of T-DNA integration into the rice genome', 'The transfer of the long T-DNA (T-DNA and non-T-DNA) of a binary plasmid from Agrobacterium into the rice genome was investigated at both molecular and genetic levels. Out of 226 independent transgenic plants, 33% of the transformants contained non-T-DNA sequences. There was no major difference in the frequency of non-T-DNA transfer among three Agrobacterium tumefaciens strains. Four T1 plants containing a single putative long T-DNA insertion were selected for Southern analysis. Three of them were confirmed to have a long T-DNA insertion with a size of greater-than-unit-length of the binary plasmid. This was further confirmed by rescuing the intact binary plasmid from these plants. Our results suggest that long T-DNA transfer by rolling-circle replication from Agrobacterium to rice occurs frequently, and that the high frequency of non-T-DNA transfer should be considered when producing transgenic rice for commercial production.', 'en_US'),
(1224, 'Mating system in Hirschfeldia incana and hybridization to oilseed rape', 'Concerns have been raised about the possibility of sexual transfer of herbicide resistance genes from transgenic crops towards weedy relatives. The average rate of spontaneous hybridization between Hirschfeldia incana (L.) Lagrèze-Fossat and oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) was 0.6 hybrids per plant over 3 years of field experiments using herbicide-resistant oilseed rape as a pollen donor. Self-incompatibility was shown to be the mating system of most individuals within a population of H. incana, although some plants had some ability to self-fertilize, which could mitigate gene flow. Back-crossing interspecific hybrids to H. incana over five generations showed that introgression was not successful in our experiment.', 'en_US'),
(1225, 'Releasing genetically modified organisms: will any harm outweigh any advantage?', '1. The public debate about genetically modified organisms has concentrated largely on concerns about food safety and potential risks to the environment. In both cases there appears to be an assumption that existing crops and animals are safe. I discuss the experience we have to date from traditional methods and conclude that most concerns about environmental harm are more relevant to existing crops.2. The flow of genes among species, and even within different genera, is discussed with due attention being paid to the need for inherited genes to confer a selective advantage on hosts.3. A reason why so many people are critical of intensive agriculture and biotechnology is that virtually all changes in agricultural practice have an adverse impact on wildlife, particularly when such change leads to increased intensification. The problem of deciding how to manage agriculture to ensure that we maintain or enhance species diversity of wild plants and animals is discussed against the background that most of the UK environment is the result of human intervention.4. Nature and dense human populations cannot coexist without the former suffering. Our objective should be to develop and exploit our understanding of ecology to provide the information required to enable us to develop a far more enlightened future for agriculture and wildlife.', 'en_US'),
(1226, 'GM crops: the Greenpeace view', 'The main general concerns about the use of genetically modified (GM) crops are summarized, and consequences for the UK feed industry are discussed. Particular attention is given to the legislation of GM animal feeds.', 'en_US'),
(1227, 'Increased killing of Bacillus subtilis on the hair roots of transgenic T4 lysozyme-producing potatoes', 'Transgenic potato plants expressing the phage T4 lysozyme gene which are resistant to the plant-pathogenic enterobacterium Erwinia carotovora subsp. carotovora have been constructed. The agricultural growth of these potatoes might have harmful effects on soil microbiota as a result of T4 lysozyme release into the rhizosphere. To assess the bactericidal effect of roots, we have developed a novel method to associate the cells of Bacillus subtilis with hair roots of plants and to quantify the survival of cells directly on the root surface by appropriate staining and fluorescence microscopy. With this technique, we found that the roots of potato plants (Désirée and transgenic control lines) without T4 lysozyme gene display measurable killing activity on root-adsorbed B.subtilis cells. Killing was largely independent of the plant age and growth of plants in greenhouse or field plots. Roots from potato lines expressing the T4 lysozyme gene always showed significantly (1.5-to 3.5-fold) higher killing. It is concluded that T4 lysozyme is released from the root epidermis cells and is active in the fluid film on the root surface. We discuss why strong negative effects of T4 lysozyme-producing potatoes on soil bacteria in field trials may not be observed. We propose that the novel method presented here to study interactions of bacteria with roots can be applied not only to bacterial killing but also to interactions leading to growth-sustaining effects of plants on bacteria.', 'en_US'),
(1228, 'Modelling the spread of pollen from Lolium perenne. The implications for the release of wind-pollinated transgenics', 'The dispersal of pollen from a Lolium perenne source has previously been described using various Gaussian plume models which take distance and wind direction into account. One of these models is used here to calculate, using integration, possible pollen deposition onto small conspecific populations a kilometer from the source. The percentage of immigrant pollen is compared for six different sets of parameter values previously estimated from pollen-dispersal experiments. The source size is then scaled up to simulate what might happen if transgenic ryegrass was grown on a large scale. In this case it is seen that small conspecific populations might, in some conditions, be swamped by immigrant pollen, even if they are not directly downwind of the source. The implications of this are discussed in terms of assessing and managing the risks of releasing wind-pollinated transgenic crops.', 'en_US'),
(1229, 'Biotechnology and hunger: challenges for the biotech industry', 'According to the biotechnology industry, choosy consumers'' disapproval of genetically modified (GM) food stifles a further development of biotechnology and deprives the undernourished part of  the world population from essential tools to raise their food production. This conceptual paper raises basic issues that help to analyse whether indeed agricultural biotechnology industries respond to the need of the poor.', 'en_US'),
(1230, 'Transgenic trees, what risks?', 'Les programmes expérimentaux de transgénèse appliquée aux arbres se multiplient dans le monde. Selon Lise Jouanin, les chercheurs font tout pour veiller à l''innocuité des variétés génétiquement modifiées sur l''environnement. Et la transgénèse forestière contribuera à l''amélioration de l''environnement et à la protection des forêts.', 'en_US'),
(1231, 'Governing trade in genetically modified organisms. The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1232, 'Agroecological risks of transgenic plants: what are they and how do we deal with them?', 'Risk is defined as the chance of a specific event x the effect of the event. Large-scale cultivation of transgenic herbicide resistant crops can result in poorer weed control of less susceptible weeds. Another risk is reduced attention (and money) for research on reducing the environmental impact of weed control methods. Large-scale cultivation of transgenic herbicide resistant crops can also result in a delaying of weed control (thus allowing the development of harmful plant pathogens) and a reduction of biodiversity in field borders (hiding place of natural enemies). Knowledge of interactions between different types of modification, genotypes, environmental factors and the susceptibility of the environment is required on a case by case base. The introduction of transgenic herbicide resistant crops in the Netherlands should be accompanied by a strict monitoring programme of laboratory, greenhouse and field studies on experimental farms.', 'en_US'),
(1233, 'Biotechnology: where now?', 'A discussion on biotechnol., its role in food production. and the controversy surrounding biotechnology.', 'en_US'),
(1234, 'Transgenic maize in Mexico: no need for concern', 'According to pre-Hispanic traditions, gods gave native Mexicans the first maize seeds and from then on, and for thousands of years, maize has been a vital element to the Latin American cultures. Biologically, maize is an orphan plant and has only one relative, the annual teosinte (1). Morphologically the two are similar, but they differ strikingly in the pistillate inflorescence (what becomes the cob). For our discussion, the most notable difference is that the maize cob is solid, whereas the teosinte cob is brittle and comes apart at maturity. Molecular analysis has shown that maize was domesticated in the Balsas River drainage (Mexico) 6000 years ago (2). Primitive cobs found in caves and other archaeological sites share the same characteristics: they are of small size and are, invariably, solid. This is of major importance--viable seeds can only be released by mechanical means (basically by humans). Maize does not disperse itself and therefore does not exist as a free species in nature...', 'en_US'),
(1235, 'The new quarrel of GMO?', 'Two papers discuss risks associated with the use of the DNA sequence 35S (originating from the cauliflower mosaic caulimovirus) in transgenic plants. The 1st paper (by J. J. Perrier) presents the viewpoints of opposing scientists. The 2nd paper (by J. B. Morel and M. Tepfer) discusses the possibility of 35S to activate viral genomes and genes in plants (due to the existence of a ''hot point'' for recombination).', 'en_US'),
(1236, 'Removing selectable marker genes: taking the shortcut', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1237, 'Assessment of interspecific hybridization between transgenic oilseed rape and wild radish under normal agronomic conditions', 'In order to assess the hybridization rate between oilseed rape and wild radish under normal agronomic conditions, three 1-ha field experiments were performed. In each case, wild radish plants were transplant ed at different densities in the middle, the border, or the margin of the herbicide-tolerant oilseed rape field. Among the 189084 seedlings obtained from seeds harvested on wild radish plants, only one herbicide-tolerant interspecific hybrid (RrRrAC, 2n = 37) was characterized from seeds harvested on an isolated plant growing in the margin of the field. Thus, for the wild radish total harvest, with a 95% confidence limit, the frequency of interspecific hybrids was assessed to range from 10(-7) to 3.10(-5). Interspecific hybrids were detected in all cases among the smallest seeds with a diameter less than 1.6 mm harvested on oilseed rape, but the highest frequency was obtained from oilseed rape close to wild radish plants growing as clusters in the border or the margin of the field. Most hybrids had the expected triploid genomic structure (ACRr, 2n = 28) except for four amphidiploids (AACCRrRr, 2n = 56) and one hybrid from a wild radish unreduced gamete (ACRrRr, 2n = 37). Among the 73847 seedlings observed on the oilseed rape total harvest, the frequency of interspecific hybrids was assessed to range from 2.10(-5) to 5.10(-4), with a 95% confidence limit. The results are discussed with regard to the type of oilseed rape variety used and the characteristics of the interspecific hybrids.', 'en_US'),
(1238, 'Risk assessment of virus resistant transgenic sugar beet', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1239, 'The impact of genetic modification of human foods in the 21st century: a review', 'Genetic engineering of food is the science which involves deliberate modification of the genetic material of plants or animals. It is an old agricultural practice carried on by farmers since early historical times, but recently it has been improved by technology. Many foods consumed today are either genetically modified (GM) whole foods, or contain ingredients derived from gene modification technology. Billions of dollars in U.S. food exports are realized from sales of GM seeds and crops. Despite the potential benefits of genetic engineering of foods, the technology is surrounded by controversy. Critics of GM technology include consumer and health groups, grain importers from European Union (EU) countries, organic farmers, environmentalists, concerned scientists, ethicists, religious rights groups, food advocacy groups, some politicians and trade protectionists. Some of the specific fears expressed by opponents of GM technology include alteration in nutritional quality of foods, potential toxicity, possible antibiotic resistance from GM crops, potential allergenicity and carcinogenicity from consuming GM foods. In addition, some more general concerns include environmental pollution, unintentional gene transfer to wild plants, possible creation of new viruses and toxins, limited access to seeds due to patenting of GM food plants, threat to crop genetic diversity, religious, cultural and ethical concerns, as well as fear of the unknown. Supporters of GM technology include private industries, research scientists, some consumers, U.S, farmers and regulatory agencies. Benefits presented by proponents of GM technology include improvement in fruit and vegetable shelf-life and organoleptic quality, improved nutritional quality and health benefits in foods, improved protein and carbohydrate content of foods, improved fat quality, improved quality and quantity of meat, milli and livestock. Other potential benefits are: the use of GM livestock to grow organs for transplant into humans, increased crop yield, improvement in agriculture through breeding insect, pest, disease, and weather resistant crops and herbicide tolerant crops, use of GM plants as bio-factories to yield raw materials for industrial uses, use of GM organisms in drug manufacture, in recycling and/or removal of toxic industrial wastes. The potential risks and benefits of the new technology to man and the environment are reviewed. Ways of minimizing potential risks and maximizing the benefits of GM foods are suggested. Because the benefits of GM foods apparently far outweigh the risks, regulatory agencies and industries involved in GM food business should increase public awareness in this technology to enhance worldwide acceptability of GM foods. This can be achieved through openness, education, and research.', 'en_US'),
(1240, 'Plant genetic engineering and the biosafety problem', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1241, 'Farm-scale trials for studying the effects of GM herbicide-tolerant crops on farmland biodiversity in the UK', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1242, 'Testing Bt refuge strategies in the field', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1243, 'Transgenic pest resistant crops in Switzerland?', 'The main target of growing pest-resistant plants is to reduce crop losses due to insect pests and to reduce insecticide applications. A reduction in insecticide use in Switzerland is only possible for Bt-potatoes and oilseed rape expressing proteinase inhibitors; in Switzerland no insecticides are registered nor used against the corn borer. As the three main pests of the crops discussed (corn borer, Colorado potato beetle, pollen beetle) have already developed resistance against several insecticides in the lab, it is possible that transgenic pest-resistant crops will loose their efficiency in the long term. Several laboratory studies on side-effects of transgenic crops on non-target insects indicate negative impacts of the toxin-expressing plants. Such effects are not demonstrated so far in the few existing field studies. Final conclusions on this subject are not possible yet. Vertical gene transfer is possible from all three transgenic crops on non-transgenic varieties within the maximum distance of pollen dispersal. From the many plants (manly widespread weeds) closely related to oilseed rape, vertical gene transfer has only been observed on turnip (Brassica campestris).', 'en_US'),
(1244, 'An evaluation of risk analysis as applied to agricultural biotechnology (with a case study of GMO labeling)', 'Governments have several policy instruments available for influencing the speed of adoption of agricultural biotechnology and the ultimate market share of products produced with its use. Differences between countries in rates of and conditions on regulatory approval of agricultural biotechnologies result from different approaches to the factors included in risk analysis and the inclusion of different factors. Differences in labeling policy result from these same sources, as well as from different views of the consumer''s right to know about how a product was produced. An economic evaluation of the use of risk analysis to regulate agricultural biotechnology and products derived from it focuses on the welfare effects of the policy chosen relative to those of alternative policies that could have been chosen. The full application of benefit/cost analysis in different countries may indicate that different policies best suit their varying situations.', 'en_US'),
(1245, 'Are the precautionary principle and the international trade of genetically modified organisms reconcilable?', 'This paper seeks to find possibilities for reconciliation of the implementation of the precautionary principle and the promotion of international trade of genetically modified organisms, based on the assumption that a sustainable development is a right objective to strive for. It starts with an explanation of the background and the role of the precautionary principle, and describes in what way measures based on the precautionary principle can easily lead to the creation of trade barriers. The article then examines to what extent the WTO (World Trade Organisation) Agreements allow the implementation of the precautionary principle. In addition, structural conflicts between the perception of the precautionary principle and the concept of trade liberalisation will be evoked. The last section of the paper analyses to what extent the WTO rules provide possibilities to avoid or solve these conflicts in order to attempt to answer the main question: are the precautionary principle and the international trade of genetically modified organisms reconcilable?', 'en_US'),
(1246, 'Genetically modified organisms: why all the controversy?', 'The genetically modified organisms controversy is reviewed by addressing ten basic questions concerning GMOs. Topics covered are: the nature of GMOs; how GMOs are produced; why GMOs are so controversial; who produces GMOs; where GMOs are currently being grown; the potential benefits of GMOs; the potential risks associated with GMOs; why consumer attitudes about GMOs differ around the world; whether GMOs are appropriate for developing countries; and the long term prospects for GMOs.', 'en_US'),
(1247, 'Comparison of environmental and health-related standards influencing the relative competitiveness of EU agriculture vis-a-vis main competitors in the world market', 'Synthesis of the principal environmental and human-health related standards applying to agriculture in the EU, Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the USA. The report provides one of the first comprehensive surveys of the main environmental and human health prob-lems related to agriculture in these countries. A broad range of problems is surveyed, including the quality of water, soil and air, bio-diversity and landscape, genetically modified organisms, animal welfare and human health. The policy measures in place to treat the measures are compared. Using this analysis, a preliminary assessment is made of the implications of differences in standards for the relative competitiveness of EU agriculture vis-à-vis the other four countries. ', 'en_US'),
(1248, 'The ecological situation with regard to herbicide tolerant and conventional rape fields plants in the Central German region from 1996 to 1998', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1249, 'Genetically modified organisms -- the farmer''s side of the field', 'Concerns raised in the debate over genetically modified crops, including commercial implications, intellectual property rights, genetic biodiversity, the development of herbicide resistant weeds through gene transfer from crops, segregation of genetically modified and non-modified crops, and market access and consumer reaction, are considered. The perspectives of the Victorian Farmers'' Federation of Australia are stated.', 'en_US'),
(1250, 'Managing herbicide resistance in weeds from use of herbicide tolerant crops', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1251, 'Risk-management issues for genetically engineered forest trees', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1252, 'Survival of Helicoverpa zea on Bt sweet corn', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1253, 'Artificial pink bollworm egg infestations and larval survival in NuCOTN 33B and Deltapine cotton cultivars in Arizona', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1254, 'Longevity of phytophagous heteropteran predators feeding on transgenic Bt-potato plants', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1255, 'Genetically modified organisms: consequences for ruminant health and nutrition', 'Many of the plants eaten by farmed ruminants are capable of being genetically modified, and may in the future be modified for nutritional, agronomic or industrial purposes. Techniques are also becoming available for genetic modification of silage and ruminal bacteria. Those working in agricultural biotechnology have a clear responsibility to detect and avoid any unintended or undesirable consequences of such modifications, whether direct or indirect, upon the animal, the consumer and the environment. One of the most general concerns that has been expressed is the possibility for onward transfer of modified gene sequences to gut microorganisms or host cells. Rare acquisition of diet-derived DNA fragments cannot be ruled out, but if this occurs, it must have also occurred throughout mammalian history. The possible impact of genes not normally present in ruminant diets must, however, be considered. Discussion of the use of antibiotic resistance markers in transgene constructs must take into account the wider debate on the likely impact of antibiotic use in animal agriculture on the spread of antibiotic resistant bacteria. There is increasing evidence that overuse of antibiotics has lead to extensive transfer of antibiotic resistance genes between bacteria from the human and animal gut. In general this is likely to have a far greater impact than any rare transfer events involving resistance genes passing from transgenic plants to microbes. Our rapidly improving ability to use sophisticated molecular approaches to predict and track the consequences of genetic modification will help to ensure safe application of GM technology in agriculture in the future.', 'en_US');
