INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(3300, 'Diversity and seasonal phenology of aboveground arthropods in conventional and transgenic maize crops in Central Spain.', 'One of the major concerns regarding the release of Bt maize is its potential negative impact on non-target organisms present in this crop.  In this paper, we compare the temporal phenology and community structure of the aboveground arthropods in commercial Bt maize fields in Central Spain with those of conventional maize crops, with or without an insecticide (imidacloprid) seed treatment, over a period of three years.  Spiders, harvestmen, centipedes, ground beetles, rove beetles, carrion beetles, click beetles, earwigs and damsel bugs were captured in pitfall traps every year in sufficient number to provide meaningful phenological data.  One predator spider and three omnivorous species of ground beetles have been consistently present in the maize fields:  Pardosa occidentalis, Poecilus cupreus, Pseudophonus rufipes and Pseudophonus griseus, respectively.  Rove beetles were caught to a lesser extent, with three dominant species:  Acrotona aterrima, Philonthus varians and Platystethus nitens.  The variability in activity?density patterns of the aboveground fauna was mainly influenced by the year, but no detrimental effects could be attributed to Bt maize.  The only exception being the changes detected in rove beetles, although these differences were transitory and varied from year to year.  No changes in species richness and diversity indices for spiders and ground beetles resulted from treatments.  However, imidacloprid-treated maize caused a reduction in species richness of rove beetles, even though the abundance of the main species was not reduced.  Our results suggest that Bt maize could be compatible with natural enemies that are common in maize fields in Spain.', 'en_US'),
(3301, 'Bacterial community structures in honeybee intestines and their response to two insecticidal proteins.', 'In this study, the effects of the Bt-toxin Cry1Ab and a soybean trypsin inhibitor (SBTI) on intestinal bacterial communities of adult honeybees (Apis mellifera) were investigated.  It was hypothesized that changes in intestinal bacterial communities of honeybees may represent a sensitive indicator for altered intestinal physiology.  Honeybees were fed in a laboratory set-up with maize pollen from the Bt-transgenic cultivar MON810 or from the non-transgenic near isoline.  Purified Cry1Ab (0.0014% w/v) and SBTI (0.1% or 1% w/v) represented supplementary treatments.  For comparison, free-flying honeybees from two locations in Switzerland were analysed.  PCR-amplification of bacterial 16S rRNA gene fragments and terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism analyses revealed a total of 17 distinct terminal restriction fragments (T-RFs), which were highly consistent between laboratory-reared and free-flying honeybees.  The T-RFs were affiliated to Alpha-, Beta-, and Gammaproteobacteria, to Firmicutes, and to Bacteriodetes.  Neither Bt-maize pollen nor high concentrations of Cry1Ab significantly affected bacterial communities in honeybee intestines.  Only the high concentration of SBTI significantly reduced the number of T-RFs detected in honeybee midguts, a concentration that also increases bee mortality.  Therefore, total bacterial community structures may not be a sensitive indicator for providing evidence for the impact of insecticidal proteins on honeybees at sublethal levels.', 'en_US'),
(3302, 'Comparison of sugar, acids, and volatile composition in raspberry bushy dwarf virus-resistant transgenic raspberries and the wild type ''Meeker'' (Rubus Idaeus L.).', 'Raspberry bushy dwarf virus (RBDV) causes a significant reduction in yield and quality in raspberry and raspberry-blackberry hybrid.  Genetic modifications were made to ''Meeker'' red raspberries to impart RBDV resistance.  The RBDV-resistant transgenic and wild type ''Meeker'' plants were grown in Oregon and Washington, and the fruits were harvested in the 2004 and 2005 growing seasons.  Year-to-year and site-to-site variations were observed for the °Brix and titratable acidity, with Oregon raspberries having slightly higher °Brix and lower titratable acidity than Washington raspberries.  Twenty-nine volatile compounds were quantified using stir bar sorptive extraction (SBSE) paired with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS).  There were very few differences in volatile concentrations between the transgenic varieties and the wild type ''Meeker''.  Much larger variations were observed between sites and harvest seasons.  Raspberries grown in Oregon appeared to have higher concentrations of ä-octalactone, ä-decalactone, geraniol, and linalool.  Chiral analysis of á-ionone, á-pinene, linalool, terpinen-4-ol, ä-octalactone, and ä-decalactone demonstrated a much higher percentage of one isomer over the other, particularly á-ionone, á-pinene, ä-octalactone, and ä-decalactone, with more than 90% of one isomer, while a racemic mixture was observed for linalool.  The isomeric analysis revealed very little variation between varieties, locations, or years.  The flavor compounds tested in this study did not show any difference between the transgenic lines and the wild type ''Meeker'' raspberry.', 'en_US'),
(3303, 'Comparative analysis of nutritional composition between herbicide-tolerant rice with bar gene and its non-transgenic counterpart.', 'Nutritional assessment of transgenic crops used for human food and animal feed is an important aspect of safety evaluations.  An herbicide-tolerant rice (Bar68-1) was generated by the stable insertion of bar gene, isolated from Streptomyces hygroscopicus strain HP632 into the genome of a conventional variety of Chinese rice (D68).  Nutrients including proximates, amino acids, fatty acids, minerals and vitamins and anti-nutritive components such as phytic acid, lectin, and trypsin inhibitors of the brown and milled rice grain from the resulted Bar68-1 rice were compared with those of the parental line D68.  The data demonstrated that the nutritional quality of both the brown and milled rice grains from the transgenic line was substantial equivalent to those of the non-transgenic counterpart, and most results of nutritional components fell within the range of values reported for other commercial lines.', 'en_US'),
(3304, 'Dynamics of mycotoxin and Aspergillus flavus levels in aging Bt and non-Bt corn residues under Mississippi no-till conditions.', 'Mycotoxin and Aspergillus flavus levels in soil-surface corn debris left by no-till agriculture methods (stover, cobs, and cobs with grain) were determined during the December-March fallow period for near-isogenic Bt and non-Bt hybrid corn.  By December, average mycotoxin levels in non-Bt corn were many times higher in cobs with grain than in grain harvested in September (total aflatoxins, 774 vs 211 ng/g; total fumonisins, 216 vs 3.5 ìg/g; cyclopiazonic acid, 4102 vs 72.2 ìg/g; zearalenone, 0.2 vs < 0.1 ìg/g).  No trichothecenes were detected.  Levels of mycotoxins and A. flavus propagules were ~10- to 50-fold lower in cobs without grain and stover, respectively, for all mycotoxins except zearalenone.  Mycotoxin levels in corn debris fractions decreased during winter but began to rise in March.  Levels of all mycotoxins and A. flavus propagules were lower in harvested grain and debris from Bt than non-Bt corn, but differences were significant (p < 0.05) only for aflatoxins.', 'en_US'),
(3305, 'Ecological research and risk assessment of genetically engineered crops.', 'In a 1995 paper, ''Assessing weediness of transgenic crops: industry plays plant ecologist,'' Purrington and Bergelson1 criticized the quantity and quality of data used to determine the weediness potential of genetically engineered (GE) crops then under regulatory review.  The implication of the title was that risk assessments need some serious plant ecology that was not being provided by regulatory studies.  Purrington and Bergelson''s critique is an example of a widely held view that data obtained by basic ecological research is essential for environmental risk assessment; however, while basic research and risk assessment are similar, there are important differences that, if not recognized, can be detrimental to effective risk assessment.', 'en_US'),
(3306, 'Honey bees, Bt crops, and the role of meta-analysis in risk assessment.', 'As the world''s most abundant and widespread pollinator, honey bees (Apis mellifera) play a critical role in our food security and make an important contribution to the human economy.   Because of their global importance to agriculture, there has been a great deal of consternation surrounding the widespread recent decline of honey bee populations.  Amid the sometimes wild speculation about what might be causing these declines, it has been suggested in several popular media outlets that pollen from genetically engineered Bt crops might be poisoning honey bees.  It should be emphasized, however, that there are not any scientific publications indicating that Bt crops have anything to do with honey bee declines.  All studies performed to date support the contention that Bt toxins, called Cry proteins, are in fact toxic to only a narrow range of insect groups.  For example, the Bt transgenes that have so far been incorporated into crops such as corn and canola are toxic to Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) or Coleoptera (beetles).  Although there is the possibility that these Cry proteins are toxic to certain taxa, such as caddisflies (Trichoptera), that are closely related to the target group4, hymenopterans (bees, wasps, and ants) are not closely related to beetles or butterflies and moths, and in the laboratory no toxicity test has ever shown Cry proteins to cause any harm to hymenopterans.', 'en_US'),
(3307, 'Ethics of GE plants:  towards a better informed and balanced debate.', 'Public debate about the ethical acceptability of genetically engineered (GE) plants in general, and food in particular, is highly polarized.  Proponents of GE products passionately argue that novel gene technologies have the potential to contribute to more efficient agricultural processes, promote environmental sustainability, and curb malnutrition in the developing world.  Opponents of novel plant biotechnologies counter with equal vehemence that GE products are unnatural, potentially harmful to humans, and capable of catastrophic injury.  As more uses for GE products are realized and investment in plant biotechnologies continues to grow, both groups have stepped up advocacy of their respective views in academic and public forums.  Both sides continue to be at loggerheads with one another, in trying to force the public to choose between their two opposing views.', 'en_US'),
(3308, 'Harmonizing the non-target risk assessment for GM crops.', 'Since the commercialization of Bt maize in 1996, the global area planted to maize or cotton varieties expressing Cry proteins derived from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) has steadily increased and reached a total of more than 42 million hectares in 20071. Several crops expressing novel insecticidal proteins derived from Bt or other sources are currently under development and will be commercialized in the near future.Similar to conventional agricultural pest control technologies, one risk associated with growing insect-resistant, genetically modified (IRGM) crops is their potential to adversely affect non-target organisms, which include a range of arthropod species that fulfill important ecological functions such as biological control. The potential for adverse effects of IRGM crops on non-target arthropods (NTAs) thus has to be evaluated as part of the environmental risk assessment (ERA) process that takes place prior to the decision to cultivate these crops commercially. The relative novelty of GM crops and the complexity of ERA procedures present regulatory authorities with a challenge in developing appropriate risk assessment methodologies. This is a particularly difficult task in the developing world, where regulatory infrastructure is still being established.', 'en_US'),
(3309, 'Avoiding insect resistance to Cry toxins from Bacillus thuringiensis.', 'Transgenic plants as an alternative to insect control As the world faces a skyrocketing food shortage crisis, the agricultural community is challenged with the task of increasing food production to meet this demand.  Because 35% of crops are lost from pest damage due to insects, fungus, bacteria, and viruses, an efficient pest control program is an important component of any effort to increase crop yields.Some of the chemical insecticides currently used to control insect pests are extremely toxic to non-target organisms and often deleterious to human and animal health.  They pollute soils and water, since most are recalcitrant to breakdown.  In addition, due to the high use of these compounds, many insects have developed resistance to different pesticides.One alternative to chemical insecticides is the use of the Bt plants that express insecticidal proteins.  In 2006, more than 32 million hectares were cultivated with Bt crops worldwide.  The insecticidal proteins in these transgenic crops originate from the cry genes of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) bacteria.  Cry proteins have been classified into 54 groups according to their amino acid sequence.  They are highly specific; all show activity against a limited number of susceptible insects.  Cry proteins are active against some lepidopteran, coleopteran, or dipteran insects, and a few are toxic to nematodes.  Bt corn and Bt cotton produce the Cry1Ab and Cry1Ac proteins, respectively, active against the main lepidopteran insect pests in these crops.', 'en_US'),
(3310, 'Gene flow in sugar beet production fields.', 'Concern has grown in Europe over the agricultural and environmental impacts of genetically engineered (GE) crops, especially about gene flow to conventional varieties and wild relatives.  Contrary to most crops that are grown for their seed or fruit, sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.) is grown for its root.  Therefore, pollen-mediated gene flow in root production areas is not a concern in the debate on GE and non-GE crop co-existence, including table beet and chard in private gardens.  However, pollen flow could be responsible for the admixture of GE and non-GE materials in the seed lots provided to farmers; but it can be easily prevented by breeding and multiplicating GE and non-GE seeds in different regions.  In contrast, pollen flow to wild relatives could certainly generate agronomic trouble much more easily and quickly than with any other crop.', 'en_US'),
(3311, 'Gene flow among transgenic plants and their wild relatives:  implications forrisk assessment.', 'Symposium Review:  Research on gene flow from transgenic plants marches on! For example, the North Central Weed Science Society hosted the second biannual symposium on gene flow on December 12 ? 13, 2007, in St. Louis, Missouri. Abstracts of the 38 oral presentations and posters are available at http://www.ncwss.org/. The meeting brought together academic, industry, government, and other interested scientists to discuss recent research on 1) within-species gene flow, 2) crop-wild hybridization and gene introgression, 3) consequences of gene flow, 4) approaches to managing gene flow, and 5) modeling gene flow. The organizing committee included Michael Horak (Monsanto Company; Committee Chair), David Gealy (USDA), Hector Quemada (Crop Technology Inc.), Neal Stewart (University of Tennessee), Mark Westgate (Iowa State University), and Allison Snow (Ohio State University). More than fifty people from at least six countries participated.', 'en_US'),
(3312, 'Parameters affecting gene flow in oilseed rape.', 'The transfer of herbicide resistance genes via pollen-mediated gene flow from genetically engineered (GE) crops to non-GE crops is of relevance for ensuring coexistence of different agricultural cultivation forms as well as for weed management.  Co-existence in oilseed rape (Brassica napus) depends on the development of management strategies to keep the adventitious presence of GE plant material below the EU labeling threshold of 0.9% in non-GE harvest products.  Crop-to-crop crossfertilization is one source of adventitious GE presence.  Several field experiments have been conducted to evaluate pollen-mediated intraspecific gene flow from herbicide resistant to nonresistant oilseed rape.  We have performed a literature search for worldwide studies on cross-fertilization in oilseed rape1 to identify the major factors affecting pollen-mediated gene flow.', 'en_US'),
(3313, 'Field evidence:  Bt corn and mycotoxin reduction.', 'Though many of the earliest transgenic crops introduced traits with primary benefits going to growers, some of those crops also provide secondary benefits to consumer health.  Bt corn is such an example.  It is one of the most commonly grown transgenic crops in the world today.  It contains a gene from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis, which encodes for a protein that is toxic to certain members of the order Lepidoptera.  These include the common corn pests European corn borer (ECB, Ostrinia nubilalis), Southwestern corn borer (SWCB, Diatraea grandiosella), corn earworm (CEW, Helicoverpa zea), and corn rootworm (CRW, Diabrotica spp).  Bt corn is harmless to vertebrates and non-lepidopteran insects.', 'en_US'),
(3314, 'Field-evolved insect resistance to transgenic Bt crops.', 'Genetically engineered crops that produce Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxins kill some key insect pests and can help to reduce reliance on insecticide sprays.  Bt crops have grown on more than 200 million ha worldwide since their commerical introduction in 1996.  This widespread use has raised two pressing questions: ''How quickly will insects evolve resistance to Bt toxins?'' and ''Will resistance be delayed by planting refuges of non-Bt crops near Bt crops?''  Here we summarize our recent paper that addresses these questions by analyzing global resistance monitoring data in conjunction with results from computer simulations of the refuge strategy.', 'en_US'),
(3315, 'Trends in pesticide use on transgenic versus conventional crops.', 'Since 1996 the large-scale cultivation of commercial transgenic (genetically engineered) crops has grown continuously, with a total of 114 million hectares cultivated in 23 countries in 2007.  Most crops are modified with one or both of two main agronomic input traits?herbicide tolerance and insect resistance.Crop tolerance to otherwise phytotoxic herbicides generally improves weed management, reduces the number and strength of herbicide applications, and allows topical application of herbicide to crop and weeds.  Topical herbicide application can replace directed spraying between crop rows and mechanical weed removal, without damaging crops.  Replacing mechanical treatment not only reduces fuel consumption but also helps conserve soil types vulnerable to erosion and compaction.  Transgenic herbicide-tolerant crops also permit more flexibility in the timing of herbicide application.  The new ''post-emergence'' herbicide treatments for herbicide-tolerant crops may actually replace both ''pre-emergence'' and ''post-emergence'' sprays with conventional herbicides.', 'en_US'),
(3316, 'Evolution of a regulatory framework for pharmaceuticals derived from genetically modified plants.', 'The use of genetically modified (GM) plants to synthesize proteins that are subsequently processed, regulated and sold as pharmaceuticals challenges two very different established regulatory frameworks, one concerning GM plants and the other covering the development of biotechnology-derived drugs.  Within these regulatory systems, specific regulations and guidelines for plant-made pharmaceuticals (PMPs) ? also referred to as plant-derived pharmaceuticals (PDPs) ? are still evolving.  The products nearing commercial viability will ultimately help to road test and fine-tune these regulations, and might help to reduce regulatory uncertainties.  In this review, we summarize the current state of regulations in different countries, discuss recent changes and highlight the need for further regulatory development in this burgeoning, new industry.  We also make the case for the harmonization of international regulations.', 'en_US'),
(3317, 'The cult of the amateur in agriculture threatens food security.', 'The incorporation of science and technology into agriculture has led to enormous growth in crop yields, providing food security in many countries.  From the 1950s onwards there has been increasing interference in agricultural policy by a few scientists who are marginal to agriculture and from a variety of unqualified groups.  These groups and individuals have used fear and anxiety and have greatly exaggerated minor problems to persuade an unqualified public of supposed dangers in food and to try and change agricultural policy.  Fear and emotion do not lead to good policy, and the cult of the amateur that has developed could have serious repercussions on vital food security and future agriculture in developing countries; it must be soundly rejected.', 'en_US'),
(3318, 'Kinetic and thermodynamic parameters for heat denaturation of Cry1A(b) protein from transgenic maize (Zea mays).', 'The effect of heat treatment on the denaturation of Cry1A(b) protein expressed in transgenic maize was studied over a temperature range of 69 to 77 °C.  Denaturation of Cry1A(b) protein was measured by the loss of reactivity with its specific antibodies using a sandwich ELISA.  The process of denaturation was studied by analyzing the values of inmunoreactive protein after each heat treatment by kinetic analysis.  Denaturation of Cry1A(b) protein was best described assuming a reaction order of 1.5.  D-values calculated were 4338, 2350, 1272, 734, and 601 s at 69, 71, 73, 75, and 77 °C, respectively.  Z-value was estimated to be 9.0 °C and the activation energy value was 266.15 kJ/mol.  Thermodynamic parameters for the process of denaturation of Cry1A(b) protein were also calculated.  The high values of the enthalpy of activation and the positive values of the entropy of activation obtained for Cry1A(b) protein are typical of a reaction in which the denaturation of the protein is the rate-determining process that predominates over an aggregation process during heating.', 'en_US'),
(3319, 'Food and agricultural biotechnology:  a summary and analysis of ethical concerns', 'The range of social and ethical concerns that have been raised in connection with food and agricultural biotechnology is exceedingly broad.  Many of these deal with risks and possible outcomes that are not unique to crops or animals developed using recombinant DNA.  Food safety, animal welfare, socio-economic and environmental impacts, as well as shifts in power relations or access to technology raise concerns that might be generalized to many technologies.  These aspects of the controversy over biotechnology are analyzed below as elements of general technological ethics, and key norms or values pertinent to each of these categories are specified in some detail.  However, a number of special concerns unique to the use of rDNA in manipulating plant and animal genomes have been raised, and these are reviewed as well.  The chapter concludes by reviewing two broad policy strategies for responding to the issues, one involving labels and consumer consent, the other applying the precautionary principle.', 'en_US'),
(3320, 'Ecological risk assessment and regulation for genetically-modified ornamental plants.', 'Classic plant breeding has increased the beauty and utility of ornamental plants, but biotechnology can offer completely new traits for plants used in homes and gardens.  The creation of blue petal color in carnations and roses are examples where biotechnology has created novelty that conventional hybridization cannot match.  However, all innovations have benefits and risks, and future commercialization of transgenic ornamental plants raises complex questions about potential negative impacts to managed landscapes and natural ecosystems.  Predictive ecological risk assessment is a process that uses current knowledge to estimate future environmental harms or benefits arising from direct or indirect exposure to a genetically-modified (GM) plant, its genes, or gene products.  This article considers GM ornamental plants in the context of current ecological risk assessment principles, research results, and current regulatory frameworks.  The use of ecological risk assessment by government agencies to support decision-making is reviewed in the context of ornamental plants.  Government risk assessments have usually emphasized the potential for pollen-mediated gene flow, weediness in managed areas, invasion of natural areas, and direct harm to nontarget organisms.  Some of the major challenges for predictive risk assessment include characterizing gene flow over time and space, plant fitness in changing environments, and impacts to nontarget organisms, communities and ecosystems.  The lack of baseline information about the ecology and biodiversity of urban areas, gardens, and natural ecosystems limits the ability to predict potential hazards, identify exposure pathways, and design hypothesis-driven research.  The legacy of introduced ornamental plants as invasive species generates special concern about future invasions, especially for GM plants that exhibit increased stress tolerance or adaptability.  While ecological risk assessments are a valuable tool and have helped harmonize regulation of GM plants, they do not define the acceptable level of risk or uncertainty.  That responsibility belongs to regulators, stakeholders and citizens.', 'en_US'),
(3321, 'Evaluation of subchronic toxicity of dietary administered Cry1Ab protein from Bacillus thuringiensis var. Kurustaki HD-1 in F344 male rats with chemically induced gastrointestinal impairment.', 'Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) proteins are developed for genetically modified crops and the Bt proteins demonstrate no evidence of toxicity by the oral route in traditional animal models.  However, the possible toxicity of Bt proteins under conditions of reduced gastric acid secretion and/or small intestinal damage has not been investigated.  In the present study, we therefore evaluated following four F344 rat groups with a purified Bt protein Cry1Ab from B. thuringiensis var. Kurustaki HD-1.  Gastrointestinal impairment (GI) alone and GI + Bt protein fed (GI + Bt) groups were given i.p. injections of famotidine to reduce gastric acid secretion twice a day at 30 mg/kg body weight in weeks 2 and 4.  GI and GI + Bt groups were additionally fed diets containing 80 ppm indomethacin for induction of intestinal damage during weeks 1 and 3.  Bt alone and GI + Bt groups were also fed diet containing Bt protein Cry1Ab at a concentration of 10 ppm in weeks 2 and 4.  A no treatment control group was also included.  At the end of week 4, all animals were euthanized under ether anesthesia, blood samples were collected for hematology and serum biochemistry and a complete necropsy was performed.  No significant changes indicative of toxicity of the Bt protein Cry1Ab used here were noted with any of the parameters investigated.  In conclusion, no significant toxicological effects were detected in this subchronic gastrointestinal impairment rat model.', 'en_US'),
(3322, 'Comparison of grain from corn rootworm resistant transgenic DAS-59122-7 maize with non-transgenic maize grain in a 90-day feeding study in Sprague-Dawley rats.', 'DAS-59122-7 (59122) is a transgenic maize (Zea mays L.) that contains genes encoding Cry34Ab1 and Cry35Ab1 proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner strain 149B1 and phosphinothricin acetyltransferase (PAT) protein from Streptomyces viridochromogenes.  Expression of these proteins in planta confers resistance to corn rootworms and other Coleopteran parasites and tolerance to herbicides containing glufosinate ammonium, respectively.  In the current study, processed flours from 59122 maize grain or its near isogenic control line (091) were used at two concentrations (50% and 70% wt/wt) to produce diets that were fed to rats for 90 days in accordance with Chinese toxicology guidelines (GB15193.13-2003).  A commercial AIN93G diet was used as an additional negative control.  No significant differences in body weight and feed utilization were observed between rats consuming diets formulated with 59122 and 091 Control corn.  Statistical differences (p < 0.05) were observed in certain hematology and serum chemistry response variables between rats consuming diets formulated with 59122 or 091 Control flour compared to AIN93G diet.  However, the mean value of these response variables in the 59122 groups were not statistically different from those observed in diets formulated with corresponding high and low concentrations of the flour from the 091 Control maize grain.  Therefore, the statistical differences were considered to be related to consumption of diets containing high concentrations of maize flour (compared to AIN93G diets) regardless of source rather than to consumption of flour from 59122 maize grain.  The results from this study demonstrated that 59122 maize grain is as safe as non-transgenic maize grain.', 'en_US'),
(3323, 'Development of quality assurance protocols to prevent GM-contamination of organic crops', 'This chapter includes the following topics: - Introduction - Terminology - Examples of transgene escape - Implications of transgene escape - Mechanisms of transgene escape - Managing coexistence - Coexistence legislation - GM free regions - Future research needs - Conclusion - Sources of further information - References', 'en_US'),
(3324, 'Preempting to nothing: neoliberalism and the fight to de/re-regulate agricultural biotechnology.', 'On August 31th, 2006 the California Senate shelved SB1056, a bill which would have granted the State jurisdiction over the regulation of seed and nursery stock.  Ostensibly proposed to ensure ''a level playing field'' for agricultural and food producers, SB1056 is one of a host of legislation drafted across the United States to preempt county and municipal bans on genetically engineered crops.  In California, the heated struggle around ''preemption'' exemplifies the interweaving of neoliberal ideology with industry attempts to prevent an unfavorable regulatory environment, but more importantly the contingencies and vulnerabilities of this strategy.  After reviewing SB1056''s history, this paper examines how a diverse opposition movement capitalized on the friction between the neoliberal arguments mobilized by supporters and dominant Californian political philosophies.  The paper then highlights the ultimate effect of SB1056 through a critical exploration of current state and federal regulation and the entrenched interests of the California government.  I argue that more than simply opening new spaces for accumulation, SB1056 would have muted opposition voices and transferred power to institutions financially committed to the technology''s commercialization.', 'en_US'),
(3325, 'Persistence and degradation of maize-expressed vaccine protein, Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin subunit B, in soil and water.', 'Transgenic plants represent an innovative platform for the cost-effective large-scale production of various pharmaceutical proteins.  The eventual open-field production of plant-made pharmaceuticals (PMPs) requires risk assessment to determine the potential for harm to the surrounding ecosystem.  In the present study, the environmental persistence of a transgenic maize-expressed antigen, Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin subunit B (LTB), was studied under laboratory conditions.  To semiquantitatively monitor the persistence of LTB in soil, extraction with a high-salt, high-pH extraction buffer was optimized using the closely homologous Vibrio cholerae enterotoxin subunit B (CTB) as a test substance.  The time to dissipation of 50% (DT50) of the extractable fraction of maize-expressed LTB was 4 to 15 d in pond water and 35 to 90 d in soils.  Both extraction efficacy and persistence were strongly affected by the matrix type and incubation conditions.  In contrast with maize-expressed LTB, the DT50 for bacterially produced LTB and CTB was less than 4 d both in pond water and soil.  Although maize-expressed LTB was more stable than bacterially produced analogue, its dissipation was governed by an initial lag, which could be attributed to release from the plant material, followed by rapid decline.', 'en_US'),
(3326, 'Refuges in reverse: the spread of Bacillus thuringiensis resistance to unselected greenhouse populations of cabbage loopers Trichoplusia ni.', '1.  The dispersal of susceptible insects between refuges and Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) treated fields is the key to resistance management of Bt crops. Here we describe the opposite situation; the movement of Bt resistant Trichoplusia ni moths from over-wintered, greenhouse populations in British Columbia (BC) exposed to high Bt use to neighbouring greenhouses where Bt sprays have not been used.2.  The spread of Bt resistance to non-selected populations of T. ni, and the resulting increase in resistance, indicates a surprising level of dispersal of resistant moths among greenhouses even in the face of fitness costs.3.  Field populations of T. ni in BC are seasonal migrants from regions of California where Bt cotton is grown. In 2006, field populations surveyed along the migration path from California through Oregon were highly susceptible to Bt insecticides and, thus, showed no indication of selection for resistance among these source populations.4.  The arrival of the immigrant moths provides a potential source of susceptible individuals to dilute the levels of resistance in greenhouse populations in BC later in the summer, but this has not occurred. Thus, field populations in BC do not appear to serve as refuges to combat Bt resistance in greenhouse populations.', 'en_US'),
(3327, 'Interactions between Bt transgenic crops and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi: a new urgent issue of soil ecology in agroecosystems.', 'Species, varieties and area of Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) transgenic crops have increased rapidly worldwide in the past 11 years (1996-2006) for economic, environmental and health benefits.  However, the ecological risks of Bt transgenic crops were critically highlighted for potential adverse effects on agroecosystems, in particular, non-target effects on soil microorganisms.  Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are important soil microorganisms providing a range of benefits to the majority of crop plants in the agroecosystem, worthy of monitoring for non-target effects of Bt transgenic crops.  Bt transgenic crops may affect AMF in many ways during their life with regard to the temporal-spatial relevance between the occurrence of Bt proteins and fungal symbiotic development of AMF.  This may lead to an unwelcome surprise with regard to specific abundance and diversity of AMF when Bt transgenic crops are planted continuously.  It is concluded that interactions between AMF and Bt transgenic crops at individual and community level are a new urgent soil ecological issue.  Some evidence about Bt transgenic crop effects on AMF revealed by recent articles are summarized, and research prospects are highlighted in the paper.', 'en_US'),
(3328, 'GeneSys-Beet:  A model of the effects of cropping systems on gene flow between sugar beet and weed beet.', 'A weedy form of the genus Beta, i.e., Beta vulgaris ssp. vulgaris (hence ''weed beet'') frequently found in sugar beet is impossible to eliminate with herbicides because of its genetic proximity to the crop. It is presumed to be the progeny of accidental hybrids between sugar beet (ssp. vulgaris) and wild beet (ssp. maritima), or of sugar beet varieties sensitive to vernalization and sown early in years with late cold spells. In this context, genetically modified (GM) sugar beet varieties tolerant to non-selective herbicides would be interesting to manage weed beet. However, because of the proximity of the weed to the crop, it is highly probable that the herbicide-tolerance transgene would be transmitted to the weed. To evaluate the likelihood of gene flow from GM varieties to weed beet and to propose cropping systems that reduce this likelihood, a model of the effects of cropping systems on population dynamics and gene flow in weed beet was developed, based on the existing spatio-temporal framework GENESYS and on field experiments for parametrising the life-cycle of weed beet. The resulting GENESYS-Beet model consists in simulating every year the life-cycle of weed and crop beet in each field of a given region. During flowering, the various life-cycles connect, leading to pollen exchanges which depend on field areas, shapes and distances. The life-cycle consists of a succession of life-stages for which both densities and genotype proportions are calculated. The relationships between the various stages depend on the crop grown in the field, the stage and genotype of the modelled crop relative, as well as the cultivation techniques (tillage tools and dates, sowing date and density, herbicides, mechanical and manual weeding, harvest date) used to manage the crop. Simulations of GM spread in different farms and regions and of the effects of weed management on the advent of GM beet were carried out to illustrate the possible uses of the model and the consequences of co-existing GM and non-GM crops.', 'en_US'),
(3329, 'Assessing risks of plant-based pharmaceuticals:  II. Non-target organism exposure.', 'Plant-based pharmaceuticals potentially offer a cleaner method of producing a protein for drug manufacturing than traditional methods because plants are free of mammalian infectious agents.  However, in the open environment they have the potential for intra-and inter-species gene flow, protein exposure to the public and non-target organisms, and they also have the potential to contaminate livestock feed.  This study used probabilistic approaches to quantify the non-target organism risks associated with three pharmaceutical proteins produced in field-grown maize.  The risk assessment for plant-based pharmaceuticals was conducted for four receptor species used as surrogates for a wider range of species.  Body weights and maize consumption rates for each species were modeled from currently available information and used to calculate the exposure based on expression levels of three proteins.  The acute dietary exposure for the receptor species was a single-day event in which the total maize consumption came from the recombinant maize.  The non-target organism risk assessment demonstrated that risks will vary between species and between proteins, based primarily on differences in toxic endpoint and consumption rates.  It also shows the utility of probabilistic, quantitative risk assessment methodologies and the importance of assessing risks from plant-based pharmaceuticals on a case-by-case basis.', 'en_US'),
(3330, 'Pollen-mediated transgene flow in lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.).', 'Transgene escape risks are evaluated by assessing the frequency of transgenic hybrids within populations sexually compatible with those genetically modified. We examined the pollen-mediated transgene flow among lettuce varieties in Italy. Transgenic ''Luxor'' lines harboured the arabidopsis KNAT1 gene, which caused leaf trait alterations, and the bacterial NPTII gene for resistance to kanamycin. Donor homozygous lines (KNAT1:NPTII/KNAT1:NPTII) were used in two trials: in glasshouse, ''Luxor'' transgenic and conventional plants were spaced at 15 cm; in field, a transgenic ''Luxor'' donor island was set up and surrounded by 10 pollen receiver varieties sited at 0.5, 11 and 22 m. Progenies of recipient cultivars were screened by kanamycin assays, leaf alterations, transgene transcription and integrity. The out-crossing rate (OCR) was calculated as the frequency of KNAT1:NPTII/? and äKNAT1:NPTII/- genotypes because KNAT1 impair (indicated with ä) was observed to vary from the 0.03% to 0.36%. Indoor, ''Luxor'' intra-varietal OCR was 0.41 ± 0.11%; outdoor, the average inter-varietal OCR was 0.49%, 0.071% and 0.035% for plants at 0.5, 11 and 22 m, respectively.', 'en_US'),
(3331, 'Effects of resistance to Bt cotton on diapause in the pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella.', 'Fitness costs associated with resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) crops are expected to delay the evolution of resistance.  In a previous study where pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), larvae overwintered in outdoor insectaries, individuals from Bt-resistant strains had lower survival than individuals from Bt-susceptible strains or F1 progeny from crosses between resistant and susceptible adults.  To investigate the physiological basis of such recessive cost, diapause duration was experimentally manipulated in the laboratory.  Compared to a Bt-susceptible strain and F1 progeny, we hypothesized that Bt-resistant strains could exhibit a lower propensity or intensity of diapause, faster weight loss during overwintering, lower initial weight of diapausing larvae, and reduced longevity of moths emerging from diapause.  Results were as expected for initial weight of diapausing larvae and longevity of overwintered male moths or female moths remaining in diapause for a short period.  However, a higher diapause induction and intensity and slower weight loss occurred in F1 progeny and Bt-resistant strains than in a Bt-susceptible strain.  Moreover, F1 progeny had greater overwintering survival than the Bt-resistant and Bt-susceptible strains, and F1 female moths had the greatest longevity after sustaining long diapausing periods.  All of these unexpected results may be explained by pleiotropic effects of resistance to Bt cotton that increased the strength of diapause in the F1 progeny and Bt-resistant strains.  Incomplete resistance was reflected in disadvantages suffered by Bt-resistant individuals feeding on a Bt diet instead of a non-Bt diet, including lower diapause propensity, lower diapause intensity and reduced longevity of overwintered male moths.  While this study suggests that the evolution of resistance to Bt cotton and feeding on a Bt diet in Bt-resistant individuals have pervasive effects on several traits associated with diapause, further field experiments are needed to elucidate the basis of the overwintering cost in the pink bollworm.', 'en_US'),
(3332, 'Definition and feasibility of isolation distances for transgenic maize cultivation.', 'A major concern related to the adoption of genetically modified (GM) crops in agricultural systems is the possibility of unwanted GM inputs into non-GM crop production systems.  Given the increasing commercial cultivation of GM crops in the European Union (EU), there is an urgent need to define measures to prevent mixing of GM with non-GM products during crop production.  Cross-fertilization is one of the various mechanisms that could lead to GM-inputs into non-GM crop systems.  Isolation distances between GM and non-GM fields are widely accepted to be an effective measure to reduce these inputs.  However, the question of adequate isolation distances between GM and non-GM maize is still subject of controversy both amongst scientists and regulators.  As several European countries have proposed largely differing isolation distances for maize ranging from 25 to 800 m, there is a need for scientific criteria when using cross-fertilization data of maize to define isolation distances between GM and non-GM maize.  We have reviewed existing cross-fertilization studies in maize, established relevant criteria for the evaluation of these studies and applied these criteria to define science-based isolation distances.  To keep GM-inputs in the final product well below the 0.9% threshold defined by the EU, isolation distances of 20 m for silage and 50 m for grain maize, respectively, are proposed.  An evaluation using statistical data on maize acreage and an aerial photographs assessment of a typical agricultural landscape by means of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) showed that spatial resources would allow applying the defined isolation distances for the cultivation of GM maize in the majority of the cases under actual Swiss agricultural conditions.  The here developed approach, using defined criteria to consider the agricultural context of maize cultivation, may be of assistance for the analysis of cross-fertilization data in other countries.', 'en_US'),
(3333, 'Assessment of the diversity and dynamics of Plum pox virus and aphid populations in transgenic European plums under Mediterranean conditions.', 'The molecular variability of Plum pox virus (PPV) populations was compared in transgenic European plums (Prunus domestica L.) carrying the coat protein (CP) gene of PPV and non-transgenic plums in an experimental orchard in Valencia, Spain.  A major objective of this study was to detect recombination between PPV CP transgene transcripts and infecting PPV RNA.  Additionally, we assessed the number and species of PPV aphid vectors that visited transgenic and non-transgenic plum trees.  Test trees consisted of five different P. domestica transgenic lines, i.e., the PPV-resistant C5 ''HoneySweet'' line and the PPV-susceptible C4, C6, PT6 and PT23 lines, and non-transgenic P. domestica and P. salicina Lind trees.  No significant difference in the genetic diversity of PPV populations infecting transgenic and conventional plums was detected, in particular no recombinant between transgene transcripts and incoming viral RNA was found at detectable levels.  Also, no significant difference was detected in aphid populations, including viruliferous individuals, that visited transgenic and conventional plums.  Our data indicate that PPV-CP transgenic European plums exposed to natural PPV infection over an 8 year period caused limited, if any, risk beyond the cultivation of conventional plums under Mediterranean conditions in terms of the emergence of recombinant PPV and diversity of PPV and aphid populations.', 'en_US'),
(3334, 'Protecting biotechnology IPRs in developing countries:  Simple analytics of a levy solution.', 'High transaction costs and an absence of institutional infrastructure in developing countries prevent comprehensive enforcement of intellectual property rights and generate obstacles to the adoption of genetically modified (GM) crop technology.  Governments of developing countries that are members of the World Trade Organization are faced with two options when licensing GM crop technology: (1) attempt to regulate GM crops to the standards of the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property (TRIPS) or (2) allow a black market in GM seeds and risk trade retaliation from the GM innovator''s host country through a TRIPS trade complaint.  This paper develops a conceptual model that frames the adopting country''s range of licensing options, including a new levy system, and derives welfare measures for each option.  The model illustrates how a levy on GM technology can be a welfare-increasing policy for developing countries, and the operation of a levy is discussed.  The conceptual model is applied to Brazil''s soybean market and quantitative economic surplus measures are estimated within a calibrated welfare model for a range of licensing scenarios.  The model''s results suggest that a levy may interfere with the long-term prospects for innovators to collect monopoly rents in adopting countries.', 'en_US'),
(3335, 'Bt-cotton and secondary pests.', 'Bt-cotton seed has been effective to control the damage of bollworm in Chinese cotton production since 1999, reducing the need for pesticides and increasing incomes of Chinese farmers.  Field data collected in 2004 indicates that these benefits have been eroded by increasing the use of pesticides aimed to control secondary pests.  The combination of Bt-cotton seed and other forms of biological pest control may help farmers regain the economic and environmental benefits of previous years.  Failure to find a solution, may lead to the discontinuation of the use of Bt-cotton seed in China and elsewhere.', 'en_US'),
(3336, 'Bt-cotton and production risk:  panel data estimates.', 'The farm-level success of Bt-cotton in developing countries is well documented.  However, the literature has only recently begun to recognise the importance of accounting for the effects of the technology on production risk, in addition to the mean effect estimated by previous studies.  The risk effects of the technology are likely very important to smallholder farmers in the developing world due to their risk-aversion.  We advance the emergent literature on Bt-cotton and production risk by using panel data methods to control for possible endogeneity of Bt-adoption.  We estimate two models, the first a fixed-effects version of the Just and Pope model with additive individual and time effects, and the second a variation of the model in which inputs and variety choice are allowed to affect the variance of the time effect and its correlation with the idiosyncratic error.  The models are applied to panel data on smallholder cotton production in India and South Africa.  Our results suggest a risk-reducing effect of Bt-cotton in India, but an inconclusive picture in South Africa.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(3337, 'Is genetically engineered technology a good alternative to pesticide use: the case of GE eggplant in India.', 'Are pesticides used efficiently in eggplant cultivation? Is Genetically Engineered (GE) eggplant a good alternative to pesticide use? Building on the literature on damage control specification for production functions, we estimated the pesticide productivity for eggplant, using data from a farm-level survey conducted in Maharashtra, India.  Even though the intensity of pesticide use by Open Pollinated Variety (OPV) growers is less relative to hybrid growers, the average use of pesticides is substantially greater than the estimated optimum use levels.  We then used Bt trial plot data to estimate the potential benefits that Bt technology might provide in terms of reduction in pesticide application.  If the adoption of GE eggplant reduces the pesticide use by 52%, as is reported from the field trials of GE eggplant, that will result in a saving of Rs. 6844/acre for hybrid growers and Rs. 2784/acre for OPV growers.  Results from our study suggest that GE technology provides a good alternative to pesticide use for farmers in developing countries such as India.', 'en_US'),
(3338, 'The impact of using GM insect resistant maize in Europe since 1998.', 'Genetically Modified (GM) insect resistant (Bt) maize crops have been grown commercially in the European Union (EU) since 1998, and in 2006, there were plantings in seven EU member states.  This paper reviews the specific economic impacts on yield and farm income as well as the environmental impact in respect of insecticide usage (where data exists).  The analysis shows that there have been important yield and net economic benefits at the farm level equal to an improvement in profitability of between 12 and 21%.  Where farmers have previously used insecticides to control pests, the technology has reduced insecticide spraying and as a result decreased the associated environmental impact.  Bt maize has also delivered important improvements in grain quality through significant reductions in the levels of mycotoxins found in the grain.', 'en_US'),
(3339, 'Biotechnology and biodiversity debates and policies in Africa.', 'After a decade of global diffusion, and the realisation of some economic benefits, the environmental impact of Genetically Modified (GM) crop technologies remains inconclusive and a source of considerable threat to biodiversity-rich Africa.  Drawing on evidence from Ethiopia and South Africa, this paper characterises debates, considers policy and discusses the rationale for proactive GM technology policy (as in South Africa) and precautionary ones (such as in Ethiopia).  It shows that GM crop adoption, or rejection, crucially depends on the scientific, technological and institutional capabilities for the development and use of the technology and perceptions about risk and socio-economic impacts.  Overly protective policies (inadvertently) suppress the development of biotechnological capacities that have the potential to add more value to biodiversity-derived products, and reduce loss of biodiversity.  It argues that Africa''s progress in science and biotechnological innovation is central to conservation and sustainable use of its biodiversity for the improvement of the livelihoods of its people.', 'en_US'),
(3340, 'Determinants of consumers'' willingness to accept GM foods.', 'This paper investigates Willingness to Accept (WTA) Genetic Modification (GM) foods based on experimental auctions carried out in the USA, UK and France.  It explores perceptions of risk and benefits, moral concerns and their antecedents, attitudes to the environment and technology and trust in various sources using Structural Equation Modelling (SEM).  Trust in information provided by industry proved to be the most important determinant of risk/benefit perceptions and WTA followed by general attitudes to the environment and technology.  Education and age are also enhance perceived benefits and lower perceived risks of GM.  Perception of risk/benefit and moral concerns all have significant effects on consumers'' WTA but the perceived benefits are most important.  The research suggests that trust-building by industry would be the most effective in enhancing GM acceptance.', 'en_US'),
(3341, 'A differentiated account of the role of trust in consumers'' acceptance of genetically modified foods in Germany.', 'This paper proposes a sequential model to contrast the causal chain and associationist models on the role of trust in GM food acceptance.  Data from 60 laddering interviews suggest the role of trust in evaluating the perceived consequences of GM food production and consumption is small and that the link between risk and trust is rather weak, too.  Lending further support to the relevancy of the proposed model, the data support the hypothesis that respondents who are likely to accept GM food raise trust issues significantly less often than respondents who are unlikely to accept GM food.  The analysis further identifies the segment with intermediate acceptance likelihood as most important for the future uptake of the technology.', 'en_US'),
(3342, 'Genetically modified plants and human health.', 'Genetically modified (or GM) plants have attracted a large amount of media attention in recent years and continue to do so.  Despite this, the general public remains largely unaware of what a GM plant actually is or what advantages and disadvantages the technology has to offer, particularly with regard to the range of applications for which they can be used.  From the first generation of GM crops, two main areas of concern have emerged, namely risk to the environment and risk to human health.  As GM plants are gradually being introduced into the European Union there is likely to be increasing public concern regarding potential health issues.  Although it is now commonplace for the press to adopt ''health campaigns'', the information they publish is often unreliable and unrepresentative of the available scientific evidence.  We consider it important that the medical profession should be aware of the state of the art, and, as they are often the first port of call for a concerned patient, be in a position to provide an informed opinion. This review will examine how GM plants may impact on human health both directly ? through applications targeted at nutrition and enhancement of recombinant medicine production ? but also indirectly, through potential effects on the environment.  Finally, it will examine the most important opposition currently facing the worldwide adoption of this technology: public opinion.', 'en_US'),
(3343, 'Outcrossing between an agroforestry plantation and remnant native populations of Eucalyptus loxophleba.', 'Gene dispersal among populations of a species is an important force influencing their genetic structure.  Dispersal may also occur between taxa that would normally be isolated when nonendemic, domesticated or transgenic species are planted within the natural range of interfertile taxa.  Such a mosaic of populations is typical of many agricultural landscapes, and investigations are needed to assess the risks of genetic contamination of the endemic populations but a combination of approaches may be necessary because of the limitations of research in this landscape.  This study used microsatellite markers and a range of analyses (mating system, paternity exclusion, Bayesian assignment) to examine gene dispersal between remnants of the endemic Eucalyptus loxophleba ssp. supralaevis and a plantation of a nonendemic subspecies.  Our results indicate that remnant populations are connected by significant dispersal to pollen sources up to 1.94 km away including the plantation.  The combined analyses showed that the pollen pool and outcrossing rates of individuals within remnants varied significantly probably because of asynchronous flowering and that the likelihood of paternity was not correlated with spatial proximity.  More than half of all progeny had male parents from outside their stand with the largest proportions estimated to come from the plantation by exclusion (42.4%) or Bayesian analyses (18.8?76%).  Fragmentation may not be associated with decreased gene dispersal between populations of tree species, natural or planted, so that the distances required to buffer endemic trees in fragmented rural landscapes are likely to be large.', 'en_US'),
(3344, 'Assessing the implementation effects of the Biosafety Protocol''s proposed stringent information requirements for genetically modified commodities in countries of the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation', 'We analyze the potential effects of a generalized implementation of the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety''s proposed stringent information requirements on countries, members of the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC).  This rule would request all traded shipments containing living modified organisms intended for food, feed, or processing to carry a label with the list of precise genetically modified (GM) events in the shipments.  We find that the benefits of such requirements are largely debatable and that this regulation would add significant implementation costs for importers of GM crops, for Protocol members adopting new GM crops, and for countries ratifying the Protocol.', 'en_US'),
(3345, 'Consumer attitudes toward GM food and pesticide residues in India.', 'Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) vegetables will likely be commercialized in India soon. The technology could reduce pesticide residues in foods. Yet it is unclear whether consumers will appreciate this health advantage, or whether potential GM crop risks will dominate their attitudes. Using contingent valuation methods and a sample of urban households, we find that almost 60% of consumers would purchase Bt vegetables at current conventional vegetable prices, indicating a high acceptance level. The rest would purchase at a certain price discount. Strikingly, the required discount increases for people particularly concerned about pesticide residues, demonstrating that risk-averse consumers do not easily offset technology benefits against perceived risks.', 'en_US'),
(3346, 'Quantification of Roundup Ready? soybean in Brazilian soy-derived foods by real-time PCR.', 'A significant increase in the growth of genetically modified organisms has been observed in recent years.  As a result of the market introduction of these genetically modified (GM) crops in foods, legislation worldwide was prepared to deal with the question of the use and labelling requirements on GM crops and their derivatives.  The aim of this work was to detect and to quantify GM soybean in soy-derived food products sold commercially in Florianópolis, Brazil, by polymerase chain reaction-based analysis.  In total sixty-two samples of texturized soy protein and powdered soymilk were analysed and forty samples have been shown to contain Roundup Ready (RR) soy.  Quantitative analysis revealed that only two out of these forty samples presented RR soybean content above 1%.  These findings confirm the presence of RR soybean in Brazilian soy-derived food products and that the amount of samples with % RR content above 1% decreases when compared with previously published data.', 'en_US'),
(3347, 'Male/female opinions of genetically engineered salmon:  Marketing implications.', 'Genetically engineered (GE) fast growing salmon is likely to be the first GE animal approved by FDA.  Our research objectives were to (a) assess men''s and women''s opinions of GE salmon, (b) identify possible differences in their opinions and the reasoning behind detected differences and (c) assess willingness to consume GE salmon based on factual information provided.  Twelve focus groups, six with each sex, were conducted with volunteers, who ate or bought salmon, recruited from non-science units at a university and the surrounding community.  Participants voiced opinions after viewing factual information on GE salmon production.  Data were analyzed by use of constant comparison to develop thematic findings.  Both sex groups identified some similar consequences and concerns about regulatory approval of GE salmon.  However, women''s groups expressed greater concern about fish welfare, the naturalness of GE salmon production, unknown adverse effects on human health and regulatory sufficiency, whereas men''s groups were more concerned about adverse environmental impacts and industry motives, reflecting established outrage factors.  Willingness to consume was influenced by personally relevant consequences and concerns, trust of regulators and choice provided by labeling.  Four options are identified that could help marketers of GE animal products reduce outrage.', 'en_US'),
(3348, 'Utilization of the bar gene to develop an efficient method for detection of the pollen-mediated gene flow in Chinese cabbage ( Brassica rapa spp. pekinensis ).', 'To develop an efficient screening method for detection of the transgene in Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa spp. pekinensis) utilizing Basta spray, optimal conditions for Basta application were examined in this study.  Two transgenic Chinese cabbage lines were obtained through Agrobacterium-mediated transformation and used as transgenic positive controls in the Basta screening experiment.  Differential concentrations of glufosinate-ammonium were sprayed into three different growth stages of 12 commercial Chinese cabbage cultivars.  The results showed that no plants could survive higher than 0.05% glufosinate-ammonium, and plants at the 2?3 leaf stage were most vulnerable to glufosinate-ammonium.  On the other hand, no damage was observed in the transgenic control plants.  Reliability of the Basta spray method was proven by showing perfect co-segregation of the tolerance to glufosinate-ammonium and the presence of the bar gene in T1 segregating populations of the transgenic lines, as revealed by both PCR and Southern blot analyses.  Using the developed Basta screening method, we tried to investigate the transgene flow through pollen dispersal, but failed to detect any transgene-containing non-transgenic Chinese cabbages whose parents had been planted adjacent to transgenic Chinese cabbages in field conditions.  However, the transgene was successfully detected using Basta spray from the non-transgenic plants bearing the transgene introduced by hand-pollination.  Since the Basta spray method developed in this study is easy to apply and economical, it will be a valuable tool for understanding the mechanism of gene flow through pollen transfer and for establishing a biosafety test protocol for genetically modified (GM) Chinese cabbage cultivars.', 'en_US'),
(3349, 'Characterization of directly transformed weedy Brassica rapa and introgressed B. rapa with Bt cry1Ac and gfp genes.', 'Crop to weed transgene flow, which could result in more competitive weed populations, is an agricultural biosafety concern.  Crop Brassica napus to weedy Brassica rapa hybridization has been extensively characterized to better understand the transgene flow and its consequences.  In this study, weedy accessions of B. rapa were transformed with Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) cry1Ac- and green fluorescence protein (gfp)-coding transgenes using Agrobacterium to assess ecological performance of the wild biotype relative to introgressed hybrids in which the transgenic parent was the crop.  Regenerated transgenic B. rapa events were characterized by progeny analysis, Bt protein enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), Southern blot analysis, and GFP expression assay.  GFP expression level and Bt protein concentration were significantly different between independent transgenic B. rapa events.  Similar reproductive productivity was observed in comparison between transgenic B. rapa events and B. rapa × B. napus introgressed hybrids in greenhouse and field experiments.  In the greenhouse, Bt transgenic plants experienced significantly less herbivory damage from the diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella).  No differences were found in the field experiment under ambient, low, herbivore pressure.  Directly transformed transgenic B. rapa plants should be a helpful experimental control to better understand crop genetic load in introgressed transgenic weeds.', 'en_US'),
(3350, 'Non-antibiotic, efficient selection for alfalfa genetic engineering.', 'A selectable marker gene (SMG), usually conferring resistance to an antibiotic or herbicide, is generally introduced into the plant cells with the gene(s) for the trait of interest to allow only the cells that have integrated and express the foreign sequences to regenerate into a plant.  The availability of several SMGs for each plant species is useful for both basic and applied research to combine several genes of interest in the same plant.  A selection system based on gabaculine (3-amino-2,3-dihydrobenzoic acid) as the selective substance and the bacterial hemL gene [encoding a mutant for of the enzyme glutamate 1-semialdehyde aminotransferase (GSA-AT)] as the SMG was previously used for genetic transformation of tobacco.  The hemL gene is a good candidate for a safe SMG, because GSA-AT is present in all plants and is likely involved in one metabolic step only, so that unintended effects of its overexpression in plants are not probable.  In this work, we have compared this new selection system with the conventional, kanamycin-based system for alfalfa Agrobacterium-mediated transformation.  The hemL and NptII genes were placed together into a T-DNA under the control of identical promoters and terminators.  We show that the gabaculine-based system is more efficient than the conventional, kanamycin-based system.  The inheritance of hemL was Mendelian, and no obvious phenotypic effect of its expression was observed.', 'en_US'),
(3351, 'Creation and analysis of a novel chimeric promoter for the complete containment of pollen- and seed-mediated gene flow.', 'Effective containment of gene flow in transgenic plants requires a promoter that is highly specific for male and female gametes or tissues.  Here, we report the creation of a novel pollen-, stigma- and carpel-specific (PSC) promoter through the fusion of the pollen-specific LAT52 and carpel-specific AGL5 enhancers to a stigma-specific SLG promoter.  Gene expression analysis showed that fusion of the LAT52 enhancer to the SLG promoter enables the latter to gain pollen-specific activity while the acquirement of carpel-specific activity requires the correct orientation of the inserted AGL5 enhancer in the PSC promoter, and only a forward- but not a reverse-oriented one is functional.  The resulting fPSC promoter, when fused to DT-A, generated at least three aberrant gynoecium phenotypes.  Type I plants exhibited shortened stigmatic tissues, resembling plants containing the DT-A gene controlled by the SLG promoter.  However, type II and III plants displayed partial or complete ablation of gynoecia, and were unable to support the reproductive process.  Type II and III plants also produced severely perturbed anthers and pollen in comparison to type I or SLG::DT-A plants, and transgenic pollen grains were unable, when out-crossed with control plants, to pass the transgene to the next generation in all plants examined, indicating that they are selectively eliminated.  This tissue-specific ablation or perturbation is highly specific, and does not compromise vegetative growth.  Evidently, the fPSC promoter faithfully acquires tissue specificity from the incorporated enhancers and promoter, and should have a practical application for transgene containment in non-fruit and -grain producing plant crops.', 'en_US'),
(3352, 'Evaluation of selection strategies alternative to nptII in genetic transformation of citrus.', 'The neomycin phosphotransferase (nptII) selection system has proved successful in citrus transformation; however, it may be recommendable to replace it given the pressure exerted against antibiotic-resistance selectable marker genes in transgenic plants.  The present work investigates three different selection alternatives, comparing them to nptII selection in two citrus genotypes, Carrizo citrange and Pineapple sweet orange.  The first method used the â-glucuronidase (uidA) reporter marker gene for selection; the second attempted to generate marker-free plants by transforming explants with a multi-auto-transformation (MAT) vector, combining an inducible R/RS-specific recombination system with transgenic-shoot selection through expression of isopentenyl transferase (ipt) and indoleacetamide hydrolase/tryptophan monooxygenase (iaaM/H) marker genes; while the third exploited the phosphomannose isomerase (PMI)/mannose conditional positive selection system.  Firstly, GUS screening of all regenerated shoots in kanamycin-free medium gave 4.3% transformation efficiency for both genotypes.  Secondly, workable transformation efficiencies were also achieved with the MAT system, 7.2% for citrange and 6.7% for sweet orange.  This system affords an additional advantage as it enables selectable marker genes to be used during the in vitro culture phase and later removed from the transgenic plants by inducible recombination and site-specific excision.  Thirdly, the highest transformation rates were obtained with the PMI/mannose system, 30% for citrange and 13% for sweet orange, which indicates that this marker is also an excellent candidate for citrus transformation.', 'en_US'),
(3353, 'The second intron of AGAMOUS drives carpel- and stamen-specific expression sufficient to induce complete sterility in Arabidopsis.', 'Gene containment technologies that prevent transgene dispersal through pollen, fruit and seed are in immediate demand to address concerns of gene flow from transgenic crops into wild species or close relatives.  In this study, we isolated the enhancer element of Arabidopsis AGAMOUS that drives gene expression specifically in stamens and carpels.  By fusing this AG enhancer to a minimal 35S promoter fragment, two tissue-specific promoters, fAGIP and rAGIP in forward and reverse orientations, respectively, were created and fused to the GUS reporter.  Transgenic Arabidopsis plants harboring either fAGIP::GUS or rAGIP::GUS displayed similar GUS expression specifically in carpel and stamen tissues and their primordial cells.  To test their utility for engineering sterility, the promoters were fused to the Diphtheria toxin A (DT-A) gene coding for a ribosome inactivating protein as well as the Barnase gene coding for an extracellular ribonuclease, and tested for tissue-specific ablation.  Over 89% of AGIP::DT-A and 68% of AGIP::Barnase transgenic plants displayed specific and precise ablation of stamens and carpels and are completely sterile.  These transgenic plants showed normal vegetative development with prolonged vegetative growth.  To evaluate the stability of the sterile phenotype, 16 AGIP::DT-A lines underwent two consecutive cutback generations and showed no reversion of the floral phenotype.  This study demonstrates a simple, precise and efficient approach to achieve absolute sterility through irreversible ablation of both male and female floral organs.  This approach should have a practical application for transgene containment in ornamental, landscaping, and woody species, whose seeds and fruits are of no economic value.', 'en_US'),
(3354, 'Pesticide and transgenic plant resistance management in the field.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(3355, 'Microbial and nematode communities associated with potatoes genetically modified to express the antimicrobial peptide magainin and unmodified potato cultivars.', 'The antimicrobial peptide magainin II has activity against a range of micro-organisms.  Tubers harvested from potatoes genetically modified (GM) to express a synthetic magainin gene show improved resistance to the bacterial pathogen Erwinia carotovora.  The microbial and nematode communities associated with three magainin-expressing potato lines, their near-isogenic, unmodified parental cultivar (Iwa) and an unrelated cultivar (Karaka) were investigated on field-grown plants.  Heterotrophic plate counts were used to enumerate aerobic culturable bacterial and fungal populations, while cultivation-independent analysis of bacterial communities was based on denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) of 16S rRNA gene fragments amplified from community DNA from phyllosphere, rhizosphere and geocaulosphere (tuber surface) samples.  Small but statistically significant differences in the population sizes of culturable bacteria, fungi and yeast were detected among some GM magainin-expressing lines and the unmodified control.  However, these differences were typically smaller than the differences between the unmodified parental line control (Iwa) and the unrelated cultivar control (Karaka).  Similarly, the difference in the proportion of the nematode population belonging to the fungal feeding trophic group between Iwa and Karaka was greater than that amongst Iwa and its near-isogenic GM lines, and was significantly so for the genus Aphelenchus.  The nematode channel ratio (NCR) indicated a more fungal-dominated decomposition channel in soil beneath Karaka compared to Iwa at harvest.  In general, eubacterial phylloplane communities were similar for all lines, while the rhizosphere communities associated with two of the three GM lines differed from communities associated with their unmodified parental line control.  When roots were senescent, there was no significant difference among potato lines in rhizosphere eubacterial communities or individual trophic groups of the nematode community.  Greater diversity was found in geocaulosphere; á-proteobacteria and actinomycete communities of two of the three GM lines differed significantly from their unmodified parental line control and the unrelated cultivar control, while the communities associated with the third GM line were more similar to those of the two control lines.  This highlights the importance of testing several GM lines when assessing non-target effects.  Results suggest that there is little likelihood of any major sustained non-target effect of genetic modification using a magainin II transgene on plant-associated and soil microflora and function.', 'en_US'),
(3356, 'Genetic manipulation of vegetable crops to alleviate diet-related diseases.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(3357, 'Surveying the RR soy content of commercially available food products in Hungary.', 'The main goal of our research was to establish to what extent Hungarian consumers are exposed to consuming genetically modified foods.  To achieve this goal, 251 food samples were bought from the Hungarian food market and examined by the Central Food Research Institute (91 samples) and by the National Institute for Food Safety and Nutrition (160 samples) with PCR.  The GMO screening was based on the detection of 35S promoter and nos terminator sequences.  The GM positive samples were subjected to event specific detection of RR soy with quantitative real-time PCR.  According to the results 38% of the examined samples indicated presence of RR soy in soy-containing foods and 6% of these samples contained RR soy above the 0.9% threshold.  These results demonstrate for the first time the assessment of the presence of GMO in the Hungarian food market for large sample numbers.', 'en_US'),
(3358, 'Farmer knowledge and risk analysis:  Postrelease evaluation of herbicide-tolerant canola in western Canada.', 'The global controversy regarding the use of genetically modified (GM) crops has proved to be a challenge for ''science-based'' risk assessments.  Although risk analysis incorporates societal perspectives in decision making over these crops, it is largely predicated on contrasts between ''expert'' and ''lay'' perspectives.  The overall objective of this study is to explore the role for farmers'' knowledge, and their decade-long experience with herbicide-tolerant (HT) canola, in the risk analysis of GM crops.  From 2002 to 2003, data were collected using interviews (n= 15) and mail surveys (n= 370) with farmers from Manitoba and across Canada.  The main benefits associated with HT canola were management oriented and included easier weed control, herbicide rotation, and better weed control, whereas the main risks were more diverse and included market harm, technology use agreements (TUAs), and increased seed costs.  Benefits and risks were inversely related, and the salient factor influencing risk was farmer experiences with HT canola volunteers, followed by small farm size and duration using HT canola.  These HT volunteers were reported by 38% of farmers, from both internal (e.g., seedbank, farm machinery, etc.) and external (e.g., wind, seed contamination, etc.) sources, and were found to persist over time.  Farmer knowledge is a reliable and rich source of information regarding the efficacy of HT crops, demonstrating that individual experiences are important to risk perception.  The socioeconomic nature of most risks combined with the continuing ''farm income crisis'' in North America demonstrates the need for a more holistic and inclusive approach to risk assessment associated with HT crops and, indeed, with all new agricultural technology.', 'en_US'),
(3359, 'Twenty years of transgenic plants resistant to Cucumber mosaic virus.', 'Plant genetic engineering has promised researchers improved speed and flexibility with regard to the introduction of new traits into cultivated crops.  A variety of approaches have been applied to produce virus-resistant transgenic plants, some of which have proven to be remarkably successful.  Studies on transgenic resistance to Cucumber mosaic virus probably have been the most intense of any plant virus.  Several effective strategies based on pathogen-derived resistance have been identified; namely, resistance mediated by the viral coat protein, the viral replicase, and post-transcriptional gene silencing.  Techniques using non-pathogen-derived resistance strategies, some of which could offer broader resistance, generally have proven to be much less effective.  Not only do the results obtained so far provide a useful guide to help focus on future strategies, but they also suggest that there are a number of possible mechanisms involved in conferring these resistances.  Further detailed studies on the interplay between viral transgene-derived molecules and their host are needed in order to elucidate the mechanisms of resistance and pathogenicity.', 'en_US'),
(3360, 'Interactions of elevated carbon dioxide and temperature with aphid feeding on transgenic oilseed rape:  Are Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) plants more susceptible to nontarget herbivores in future climate?', 'Climate change factors such as elevated carbon dioxide (CO2) and temperature typically affect carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) dynamics of crop plants and the performance of insect herbivores.  Insect-resistant transgenic plants invest some nutrients to the production of specific toxic proteins [i.e., endotoxins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)], which could alter the C?N balance of these plants, especially under changed abiotic conditions.  Aphids are nonsusceptible to Lepidoptera-targeted Bt Cry1Ac toxin and they typically show response to abiotic conditions, and here we sought to discover whether they might perform differently on compositionally changed Bt oilseed rape.  Bt oilseed rape had increased N content in the leaves coupled with reduced total C compared with its nontransgenic counterpart, but in general the C : N responses of both plant types to elevated CO2 and temperature were similar.  Elevated CO2 decreased N content and increased C : N ratio of both plant types.  Elevated temperature increased C and N contents, total chlorophyll and carotenoid concentrations under ambient CO2, but decreased these under elevated CO2.  In addition, soluble sugars were increased and starch decreased by elevated temperature under ambient but not under elevated CO2, whereas photosynthesis was decreased in plants grown under elevated temperature in both CO2 levels.  Myzus persicae, a generalist aphid species, responded directly to elevated temperature with reduced developmental time and decreased adult and progeny weights, whereas the development of the Brassica specialist Brevicoryne brassicae was less affected.  Feeding by M. persicae resulted in an increase in the N content of oilseed rape leaves under ambient CO2, indicating the potential of herbivore feeding itself to cause allocation changes.  The aphids performed equally well on both plant types despite the differences between C?N ratios of Bt and non-Bt oilseed rape, revealing the absence of plant composition-related effects on these pests under elevated CO2, elevated temperature or combined elevated CO2 and temperature conditions.', 'en_US'),
(3361, 'Illegal GMO releases and corporate responsibility:  Questioning the effectiveness of voluntary measures.', 'Recent years have seen a number of cases of ''accidental'' or ''unintentional'' releases of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) that were not approved for human consumption or in some cases even for commercial planting.  The environmental, economic, and social implications of the release of unapproved varieties of GMOs are potentially significant.  The agricultural input industry has recently embraced Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) reporting and some of its major players are participants in the UN''s Global Compact.  While CSR and the Global Compact encourage internalization of environmental costs and application of the precautionary principle amongst firms, in the case of illegal GMO releases these measures have proven extremely weak.  In the case of illegal GMO releases, external, state-based regulation which places liability squarely on firms is likely to be much more successful as a means to prevent future occurrences of this problem.', 'en_US'),
(3362, 'Comparative recovery of uninjured and heat-injured Listeria monocytogenes cells from bovine milk', 'The standard selective enrichment protocols of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) were compared with an experimental nonselective broth enrichment (NSB) protocol and variations of the standard cold-enrichment (CE) protocol for the recovery of heat-injured Listeria monocytogenes.  Bacterial cells (10(7)/ml) were suspended in sterile milk and heated at 71.7 degrees C in a slug-flow heat exchanger for holding times ranging from 1 to 30 s.  Surviving cells were determined (50% endpoint) by the given protocols, and the following D values were obtained: NSB, D = 2.0 +/- 0.5 s; FDA, D = 1.4 +/- 0.3 s; USDA, D = 0.6 +/- 0.2 s; CE, D less than or equal to 1.2 s.  The respective direct-plating media used in these enrichments were also analyzed for recovery, and the following D values were calculated from the enumeration of surviving cells; NSB, D = 2.7 +/- 0.8 s; FDA, D = 1.3 +/- 0.4 s; USDA, D = 0.7 +/- 0.2 s.  The low levels of heat-injured L. monocytogenes cells which were detected at inactivation endpoints on the optimal nonselective media (25 degrees C for 7 days) failed to recover and multiply during experimental CEs (4 degrees C for 28 days).  Initial inactivation experiments in which raw whole milk was used as the heating menstruum gave much lower recoveries with all protocols.  The detectable limits for uninjured cells that were suspended in raw milk were similar (0.35 to 3.2 cells per ml) for the standard CE, FDA, and USDA protocols.', 'en_US'),
(3363, 'Global impact of biotech crops:  Socio-economic and environmental effects, 1996-2006', 'Genetically modified (GM) crops have been grown commercially on a substantial scale for eleven years.  This paper updates the assessment of the impact this technology is having on global agriculture from both economic and environmental perspectives.  It examines specific global economic impacts on farm income and environmental impacts associated with pesticide usage and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for each of the countries where GM crops have been grown since 1996.  The analysis shows that there have been substantial net economic benefits at the farm level amounting to $6.94 billion in 2006 and $33.8 billion for the eleven-year period (in nominal terms).  The technology has reduced pesticide spraying by 286 million kg and, as a result, decreased the environmental impact associated with herbicide and insecticide use on these crops by 15.4%.  GM technology has also significantly reduced the release of GHG emissions from this cropping area, which, in 2006, was equivalent to removing 6.56 million cars from the roads.', 'en_US'),
(3364, 'Can information about genetically modified corn and its oil have significant effects on Japanese consumers'' risk perception and their valuation?', 'This study investigates whether the information regarding the safety of genetically modified (GM) corn and GM corn oil can significantly affect the Japanese consumers'' risk perceptions and whether these risk perceptions can determine their willingness-to-pay (WTP) premium for non-GM corn oil.  This WTP premium was measured by using a contingent valuation method that is commonly applied for valuing non-market commodities.  Our empirical results show that, when the scientific knowledge of the safety of GM corn and GM corn oil was provided, the risk perceptions expressed by the mean of a probability distribution and those by the variance both substantially decreased, while the WTP unchanged with the given information.  In addition, Japanese consumers'' premium percentage for non-GM corn oil was found to be about 40% of the price of the cooking corn oil sold in markets.', 'en_US'),
(3365, 'Biotechnology adoption over time in the presence of non-pecuniary characteristics that directly affect utility:  A derived demand approach', 'Generally, new production technologies are adopted because they will increase profits, mostly due to lower production costs ceteris paribus.  In the case of the first-generation crop biotechnologies, however, additional factors play a role.  These factors affect the utility functions of individual producers directly, as well as possibly affecting their utility functions indirectly through profits.  This article considers the effect that embodied non-pecuniary factors have on the derived demand for a new, first-generation crop biotechnology over time.  We show that the derived demand for the biotechnology will increase (shift out) at first and then begin to become more inelastic to price increases as adopters get accustomed to, and value more highly, the non-pecuniary benefits.  We consider the convenience embodied in the Roundup Ready® soybean system as an example.  Then, as empirical support for the transformation of the elasticity of derived demand, we examine Roundup Ready® soybean system costs and adoption over the period 1996-2007.  The data suggest that, despite recent increases in the system costs of the technology, adoption continued to increase, signaling a relatively inelastic demand response.', 'en_US'),
(3366, 'Heterosis among hybrids derived from genetically improved and unimproved alfalfa germplasm', 'Commercially competitive forage yields, and in some cases high-parent heterosis, were previously reported for several alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) diallel hybrids derived from nine unimproved germplasm sources that have been important contributors to North American cultivars.  This study evaluated biomass production of genetically unimproved and improved sets of nine of those hybrids, and their respective parents, over three years near Las Cruces, NM.  Our objectives were to determine if the performance of unimproved ancestral populations provided useful information to construct superior hybrids using more elite descendant materials, and if such improved hybrids exhibited high-parent heterosis.  All improved hybrids performed either similar to, or superior to, five check cultivars.  High-parent heterosis was detected among the top four yielding improved hybrids.  Unimproved hybrid performance and midparent value rankings provided reasonable indicators of potential hybrids that should be attempted among related elite populations.  The results indicated that opportunities to exploit hybrid vigor still appear to exist among some elite alfalfa populations that possess a predominating germplasm source.', 'en_US'),
(3367, 'Second-generation Bt cotton field trials in Burkina Faso:  Analyzing the potential benefits to West African farmers', 'Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) genetically modified to express protein(s) derived from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), and specifically toxic to caterpillar (Lepidoptera) pests, has been sold commercially since 1996.  On the continent of Africa, only South Africa has approved the commercial use of Bt cotton.  Recently, over three field seasons (2003?2005), second-generation Bt cotton (Bollgard II, Monsanto Co., St. Louis, MO) was tested in confined field trials in the west African country of Burkina Faso.  Observations of pest density, seed cotton yields, and the cost of insecticide sprays were evaluated in an economic model under a wide range of theoretical Bt technology cost premiums to determine the potential relative profitability of Bt cotton and conventional cotton.  Results averaged over three seasons indicate a Bollgard II yield advantage of 15% under conditions of low to moderate lepidopteran pest pressure, while insecticide sprays were reduced by two-thirds in the Bt cotton plots.  According to the economic model, Bollgard II remained profitable to the grower throughout the range of theoretical technology premiums evaluated ($0?75 per hectare) and was represented by economic gains of $79 to 154 per hectare.  Due mainly to the relatively low pest densities encountered at these research sites, the authors suggest that the model results presented may, in fact, underestimate the profitability of Bt cotton in Burkina Faso.', 'en_US'),
(3368, 'Trends in biotechnology and biosafety in Brazil', 'Biotechnology is a Brazilian priority, and has been recognized for its potential to promote sustainable development.  The Government recently announced an ambitious program for Science and Technology, which includes strategies to develop modern biotechnology, continuing three decades of public investments on capacity building and infrastructure, aimed principally at the development of technologies applied to health, agriculture and the environment (MCT, 2008).  Research initiatives have focused on genomics, proteomics, genetically modified organisms (GMOs), gene therapy, stem cells, bio-fuels and nanotechnology, among other biotechnological topics.  Research projects in Brazil have been mainly developed in public universities and institutions funded by federal and state agencies, with a minor participation from the private sector (Silveira et al., 2004).  Genomics, an area of considerable success in the country, was launched a decade ago by S. Paulo State Research Foundation (FAPESP), with the organization of a virtual institute, called ONSA, comprising several laboratorieswith the main task of sequencing the genome of the citrus pathogenic bacterium Xylella fastidiosa (Simpson et al., 2000).', 'en_US'),
(3369, 'Risks from GMOs due to horizontal gene transfer', 'Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) is the stable transfer of genetic material from one organism to another without reproduction or human intervention.  Transfer occurs by the passage of donor genetic material across cellular boundaries, followed by heritable incorporation to the genome of the recipient organism.  In addition to conjugation, transformation and transduction, other diverse mechanisms of DNA and RNA uptake occur in nature.  The genome of almost every organism reveals the footprint of many ancient HGT events.  Most commonly, HGT involves the transmission of genes on viruses or mobile genetic elements.  HGT first became an issue of public concern in the 1970s through the natural spread of antibiotic resistance genes amongst pathogenic bacteria, and more recently with commercial production of genetically modified (GM) crops.  However, the frequency of HGT from plants to other eukaryotes or prokaryotes is extremely low.  The frequency of HGT to viruses is potentially greater, but is restricted by stringent selection pressures.  In most cases the occurrence of HGT from GM crops to other organisms is expected to be lower than background rates.  Therefore, HGT from GM plants poses negligible risks to human health or the environment.', 'en_US'),
(3370, 'Risks from GMOs due to horizontal gene transfer (Erratum)', NULL, 'en_US'),
(3371, 'Swedish farmers attitudes, expectations and fears in relation to growing genetically modified crops', 'This study evaluates a survey about Swedish farmers'' attitude towards genetically modified (GM) crops, and their perception concerning potential benefits and drawbacks that cropping of an insect resistant (IR) GM variety would involve.  The questions were ''tick a box'' choices, included in a yearly omnibus survey sent to 1000 Swedish farmers (68% response rate).  The results showed that a majority of the farmers were negative, although almost one third claimed to be neutral to GM crops.  The farmers recognized several benefits both in terms of agricultural production and for the environment, but they were also highly concerned about the consumers'' unwillingness to buy GM products.  Farmers perceived an increase in yield, but nearly as many farmers thought that there would be no benefits with growing an IR GM crop.  Several differences in hopes and concerns of the farmers surveyed were revealed when they were divided in positive, neutral and negative groups.  Farmers negative to GM were more concerned than positive farmers about IR GM crops being dangerous for humans, livestock or other organisms to consume.  GM-positive farmers seemed to be most concerned about potential problems with growing a marketable crop and expensive seeds, but saw a reduced health risk to the grower, due to less use of pesticides, as a possible benefit.  The results among the GM-neutral farmers were in most cases closely related to the positive farmers'' choices, implying that they believe that there are advantages with growing an IR GM crop, but also fear potential drawbacks.  This general uncertainty about GM IR crops may prevent them from accepting the new technology.', 'en_US'),
(3372, 'Farm questionnaires for monitoring genetically modified crops:  A case study using GM maize', 'Monitoring is a statutory requirement for the cultivation of genetically modified (GM) crops in the European Community.  Questionnaires for farmers to report on observations of effects linked with the cultivation of GM crops can form a useful part of a monitoring regime.  A questionnaire for GM maize (Zea mays L.) was designed, with questions focusing on potential effects related to the GM maize grown, as well as on background information about cultivation methods and on individual field situations.  In this paper we present the methodological approach of the monitoring regime, the structuring of the data, and the contents and structure of the questionnaire.  The statistical requirements and background for an appropriate evaluation and interpretation of the data are described.  Results of interviews made from 2001 to 2005 are also presented.  It is envisaged that this approach will be developed for monitoring other cultivated GM plants and traits, and may be applicable in monitoring certain non-farmed environments.', 'en_US'),
(3373, 'Population dynamics of Sesamia inferens on transgenic rice expressing Cry1Ac and CpTI in Southern China', 'Genetically modified insect-resistant rice lines containing the cry1Ac gene from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) or the CpTI (cowpea trypsin inhibitor) gene developed for the management of lepidopterous pests are highly resistant to the major target pests, Chilo suppressalis (Walker), Cnaphalocrocis medinalis (Guenée), and Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker), in the main rice-growing areas of China.  However, the effects of these transgenic lines on Sesamia inferens (Walker), an important lepidopterous rice pest, are currently unknown.  Because different insect species have varying susceptibility to Bt insecticidal proteins that may affect population dynamics, research into the effects of these transgenic rice lines on the population dynamics of S. inferens was conducted in Fuzhou, southern China, in 2005 and 2006.  The results of laboratory, field cage, and field plot experiments show that S. inferens has comparatively high susceptibility to the transgenic line during the early growing season, with significant differences observed in larval density and infestation levels between transgenic and control lines.  Because of a decrease in Cry1Ac levels in the plant as it ages, the transgenic line provided only a low potential for population suppression late in the growing season.  There is a correlation between the changing expression of Cry1Ac and the impact of transgenic rice on the population dynamics of S. inferens during the season.  These results indicate that S. inferens may become a major pest in fields of prospective commercially released transgenic rice, and more attention should be paid to developing an effective alternative management strategy.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(3374, 'Genetic and agronomic analyses of red rice-Clearfield hybrids and their progeny produced from natural and controlled crosses.', 'Clearfield rice technology is a popular method for controlling noxious red rice weeds (Oryza sativa L.) in commercial rice fields in the southern U.S.  Previous research has detected red rice-Clearfield variety F1 hybrids at low rates in Louisiana and Arkansas.  The first research objective was to determine genetic control of imazethapyr resistance in F1 hybrids and F2 populations derived from natural and controlled hybridizations of red rice and Clearfield rice.  The second objective was to characterize and compare agronomic performance of the hybrids and their progeny with Clearfield varieties.  Genetic analysis showed that imazethapyr resistance was dominant in all tested F1 hybrids with single and two-gene inheritance observed across composite F2 populations.  F1 hybrids exhibited high levels of variation for plant height, heading date, and seven reproductive traits.  Heterosis was observed in the hybrids versus Clearfield varieties for plant height, heading date, seed-bearing tillers, panicle length, and spikelets/panicle.  While seed production of the F1 hybrids was generally inferior to that of the commercial varieties, one red rice/CL121 hybrid produced greater seeds/panicle than the CL121 commercial parent.  Extensive variation was observed for all measured traits in the F2 populations derived from either natural or controlled crosses.  Results from this study indicate that red rice/Clearfield F1 hybrids normally exhibit low reproductive seed capacity, but a small proportion of the subsequent F2 progeny can produce high fecundity levels.  Effective stewardship practices are therefore warranted to reduce the occurrence of such hybrids and their offspring to ensure continued success of the Clearfield technology.', 'en_US'),
(3375, 'Efficacy of Cry1F insecticidal protein in maize and cotton for control of fall armywork (Lepidoptera: noctuidae)', 'Efficacy of maize, Zea mays L., hybrids and cotton, Gossypium hirsutum (L.), varieties expressing Cry1F insecticidal crystal protein of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) var. aizawai Berliner (transformation event TC1507 in corn and event DAS-24236-5 in cotton) was evaluated for control of fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith). Control of natural and artificial fall armyworm infestations of eggs and various larval stages to 3 Cry1F and non-Bt maize isoline pairs at V4-V7 corn growth stage was evaluated at 10 locations across the United States and Brazil. Varieties producing the Cry1F protein provided high levels of control. Furthermore, control provided by Cry1F-maize hybrids was frequently better than when fall armyworm were managed with 3 applications of foliar insecticides. Efficacy of transgenic Cry1Ac:Cry1F cotton against fall armyworm was evaluated for 5 varieties during anthesis in laboratory and natural infestation field studies in the southern United States. Laboratory colonies of fall armyworm originally collected from corn, bermudagrass, Cynodon dactylon (L.), cotton, and royal paulownia, Paulownia tomentosa (Thunb.) and determined to be either the rice or corn-associated host strain, all resulted in low levels of survival when fed matures leaves of Cry1Ac:Cry1F-cotton. In natural infestation studies, levels of fall armyworm in squares (flower buds), flowers, and bolls (fruit), were significantly lower in cotton containing Cry1F as compared to non-Bt cotton. These results demonstrate that maize hybrids and cotton varieties containing Cry1F can be an important component in an overall management program for fall armyworm across a broad range of geographies and crops.', 'en_US'),
(3376, 'Corn expressing Cry1Ab or Cry1F endotoxin for fall armyworm and corn earworm (Lepidoptera: noctuidae) management in field corn for grain production', 'Fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith), and corn earworm, Helicoverpa zea (Boddie), perennially cause leaf and ear damage to corn in the southeastern United States. Transgenic hybrids expressing the Cry1Ab (MON810 event) or Cry 1F (TC1507 event) insecticidal endotoxin from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) were evaluated for management of fall armyworm and corn earworm in central Georgia during 2006 and 2007. Corn was planted at the recommended time in mid-Apr and in late Jun to simulate a double-crop corn planting. Both Bt events reduced whorl infestation and damage by fall armyworm, but TC1507 provided greater protection from whorl injury than MON 810 under severe fall armyworm infestations. Hybrids with the MON810 event usually had less ear infestation by corn earworm than susceptible hybrids, whereas the TC1507 event usually did not reduce ear infestations. Nevertheless, both events prevented ear damage, but there was no consistent difference between the two Bt traits in preventing ear damage. Bt traits did not affect grain yield in either year during the first planting when fall armyworm infestations were low. Both events prevented significant yield loss during the second planting in 2006 when whorl infestation levels exceeded 50% in susceptible hybrids. Because of the greater activity in preventing whorl damage by fall armyworm, the TC1507 event would be useful in mitigating the risk of severe lepidopteran damage to later plantings of field corn for grain production in the southeastern U.S.', 'en_US'),
(3377, 'Evaluations of Bollgard®, Bollgard II®, and Widestrike® technologies against beet and fall armywork larvae (Lepidoptera: noctuidae)', 'Transgenic cottons containing the Bollgard®, Bollgard II® and WideStrike® traits were grown in 2005 and 2007 to examine the efficacy against beet armyworm Spodoptera exigua (Hübner) a nd fall armyworms S. frugiperda (J. E. Smith). Results suggest that both dualgene traits are more efficacious against these armyworm species than Bollgard®. In these studies, WideStrike® appears to be more efficacious against fall armyworms than Bollgard II®, while Bollgard II® is more efficacious against beet armyworms than WideStrike®. Possible reasons for these differences in efficacy are discussed.', 'en_US'),
(3378, 'How to cope with insect resistance to Bt toxins', 'Transgenic Bt crops producing insecticidal crystalline proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis, so-called Cry toxins, have proved useful in controlling insect pests. However, the future of Bt crops is threatened by the evolution of insect resistance. Understanding how Bt toxins work and how insects become resistant will provide the basis for taking measures to counter resistance. Here we review possible mechanisms of resistance and different strategies to cope with resistance, such as expression of several toxins with different modes of action in the same plant, modified Cry toxins active against resistant insects, and the potential use of Cyt toxins or a fragment of cadherin receptor. These approaches should provide the means to assure the successful use of Bt crops for an extended period of time.', 'en_US'),
(3379, 'RNAi-mediated crop protection against insects', 'Downregulation of the expression of specific genes through RNA interference (RNAi), has been widely used for genetic research in insects. The method has relied on the injection of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), which is not possible for practical applications in crop protection. By contrast, specific suppression of gene expression in nematodes is possible through feeding with dsRNA. This approach was thought to be unfeasible in insects, but recent results have shown that dsRNA fed as a diet component can be effective in downregulating targeted genes. More significantly, expression of dsRNA directed against suitable insect target genes in transgenic plants has been shown to give protection against pests, opening the way for a new generation of insect-resistant crops.', 'en_US'),
(3380, 'Reproductive biology of two nontarget insect species, Aphis gossypii (Homoptera: Aphididae) and Orius sauteri (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae), on Bt and non-Bt cotton cultivars', 'Transgenic Bt cotton, engineered to continuously produce activated d-endotoxins of the soil bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis, holds great promise in controlling Helicoverpa armigera and other lepidopteran pests. However, it also may impact the invertebrate community, which needs to be clarified. The effects of Bt cotton on two nontarget insects, Aphis gossypii and Orius sauteri, were assessed under semifield and laboratory conditions. Mean total duration of nymphal stages of A. gossypii was shorter (5.9 versus 6.3 d), and rm was higher (0.418 versus 0.394) on conventional Simian 3 (the most frequently planted non-Bt cotton in northern China) than on Bt transgenic NuCOTN 33B (the first Bt cotton commercially planted in China). Mean duration of fourth-instar O. sauteri was significantly longer on transgenic GK-12 (3.7 d) than on NuCOTN 33B (3.2 d), but no different from Simian 3. Mean total mortality was significantly lower on Simian 3 (3.7%) than on GK-12 (14.8%). During the fourth instar, the predator consumed a significantly higher number of prey on Simian 3 (202.3 prey) than on NuCOTN 33B (159.0), whereas the mean total number of A. gossypii prey consumed during the nymphal stage was significantly higher on Simian 3 (336.8 prey) and GK-12 (330.3 prey) than on NuCOTN 33B (275.7). No detrimental effects were detected on development (nymphs, adults, and progeny eggs), fecundity, longevity, and egg viability of O. sauteri on Bt cotton aphids compared with non-Bt cotton aphids. These results suggest that Bt cotton cultivars GK-12 and NuCOTN 33B have no direct effect on nontargets A. gossypii and O. sauteri. Germplasm divergence may account for the negative effects observed on A. gossypii and O. sauteri when reared on NuCOTN 33B or NuCOTN 33B-fed aphids. The biological meanings of the small difference observed between GK-12 and Simian 3 on survival of O. sauteri will require close monitoring over longer time periods. ', 'en_US'),
(3381, 'Characterization of selected common lambsquarters (Chenopodium album) biotypes with tolerance to glyphosate', 'Biotypes of common lambsquarters with tolerance to glyphosate have been identified in a number of states, but little is known about their fitness characteristics. Field and greenhouse studies were conducted to characterize the response of selected glyphosate-tolerant common lambsquarters biotypes to glyphosate, and also their biological and reproductive characteristics. In a greenhouse dose-response study, GR50 and GR90 values for four tolerant biotypes ranged from 1.48 to 3.22 and 8.73 to 18.7 kg ae ha-1, respectively, compared to 0.57 and 2.39 kg ae ha-1, respectively, for a glyphosate-sensitive biotype. In a field dose-response study, the GR50 and GR90 values were 0.06 and 0.48 kg ae ha-1, respectively, for a tolerant biotype, compared to 0.036 and 0.19 kg ae ha-1, respectively, for the sensitive biotype. The growth rate, time until flowering, and seed production of eight tolerant and two sensitive biotypes was evaluated in a field study. The tolerant biotypes grew taller, amassed more leaf area and dry weight, and advanced through growth stages more rapidly than sensitive biotypes during the early portion of the growing season. The tolerant biotypes were taller than sensitive biotypes at 6 and 10 wk after transplanting, but had lower dry weight at maturity. Tolerant biotypes initiated flower primordia approximately 6 to 8 wk after transplanting, whereas sensitive biotypes required 12 wk. However, no apparent fitness penalties were observed in glyphosate-tolerant biotypes based on seed-production estimates.', 'en_US'),
(3382, 'Field evidence for the exposure of ground beetles to Cry1Ab from transgenic corn', 'Non-target organisms associated with the soil might be adversely affected by exposure to the Cry1Ab protein from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) in transgenic corn (Zea mays L.). To check for such exposure, we used ELISA to test for Cry1Ab in ground beetles collected live from fields with Bt corn residues and Bt corn (Bt/Bt), Bt corn residues and non-Bt crops (Bt/non-Bt), or non-Bt corn residues and non-Bt crops (non-Bt/non-Bt). In fields with Bt corn residues (Bt/Bt and Bt/non Bt), Cry1Ab was present in all seven species of ground beetles examined (Agonum placidum, Bembidion rupicola, Clivina impressefrons, Cyclotrachelus iowensis, Harpalus pensylvanicus, Poecilus chalcites, and Poecilus lucublandus). For the two most abundant species, P. chalcites and P. lucublandus, the proportion of beetles with Cry1Ab was significantly higher in Bt/Bt fields (0.50–1.0) and Bt/non- Bt fields (0.41–0.50) than in non-Bt/non-Bt fields (0.0). This is the first field evidence that some ground beetle species are exposed to Cry1Ab. The implications of exposure on the performance of these non target organisms are unclear.', 'en_US'),
(3383, 'Bt maize expressing Cry3Bb1 does not harm the spider mite, Tetranychus urticae, or its ladybird beetle predator, Stethorus punctillum.', 'Bt maize varieties expressing the insecticidal protein Cry3Bb1 against larvae of the Western corn rootworm (Diabrotica virgifera virgifera; Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) may harm non-target beetles due to the spectrum of activity of the protein. We have conducted studies to assess the prey-mediated effects of Cry3Bb1-expressing Bt maize (event MON88017) on the ladybird beetle Stethorus punctillum (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). This species specifically consumes spider mites that are known to contain high amounts of Bt toxin when feeding on Bt maize. The developmental and reproduction life-history parameters did not differ for spider mites, Tetranychus urticae (Acari: Tetranychidae), fed Bt maize or non-Bt maize. Similarly, larval survival and development, adult survival, and adult dry weight did not differ for S. punctillum fed with spider mites reared on Bt or non-Bt maize for over 2 months. Female beetles that were fed T. urticae from Bt maize had a shorter pre-oviposition period, increased fecundity, and increased fertility relative to females fed spider mites from non-Bt maize. The reasons for these effects are unclear but may be due to unidentified differences in plant characteristics. T. urticae contained 56% of the Cry3Bb1 concentration in Bt maize leaves. Beetle larvae and adults that had consumed Bt maize-fed spider mites contained toxin concentrations that were six and 20 times lower, respectively, than Cry3Bb1 levels in their spider mite prey. Thus, the toxin was diluted at higher trophic levels. The results indicate that S. punctillum is not harmed by feeding on spider mites containing Cry3Bb1. Consequently, detrimental effects on this predator when preying in Cry3Bb1-expressing Bt maize fields are unlikely.', 'en_US'),
(3384, 'Decomposition dynamics and structural plant components of genetically modified Bt maize leaves do not differ from conventional hybrids.', 'The cultivation of genetically modified Bt maize has raised environmental concerns, as large amounts of plant residues remain in the field and may negatively impact the soil ecosystem. In a field experiment, decomposition of leaf residues from three genetically modified (two expressing the Cry1Ab, one the Cry3Bb1 protein) and six non-transgenic hybrids (the three corresponding non-transformed near-isolines and three conventional hybrids) was investigated using litterbags. To elucidate the mechanisms that cause differences in plant decomposition, structural plant components (i.e., C:N ratio, lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose) were examined. Furthermore, Cry1Ab and Cry3Bb1 protein concentrations in maize leaf residues were measured from harvest to the next growing season. While leaf residue decomposition in transgenic and non-transgenic plants was similar, differences among conventional cultivars were evident. Similarly, plant components among conventional hybrids differed more than between transgenic and non-transgenic hybrids. Moreover, differences in senescent plant material collected directly from plants were larger than after exposure to soil for 5 months. While the concentration of Cry3Bb1 was higher in senescent maize leaves than that of Cry1Ab, degradation was faster, indicating that Cry3Bb1 has a shorter persistence in plant residues. As decomposition patterns of Bt-transgenic maize were shown to be well within the range of common conventional hybrids, there is no indication of ecologically relevant, adverse effects on the activity of the decomposer community.', 'en_US'),
(3385, 'Use of maize pollen by adult Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) and fate of Cry proteins in Bt-transgenic varieties.', 'We investigated the use of maize pollen as food by adult Chrysoperla carnea under laboratory and field conditions. Exposure of the insects to insecticidal Cry proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) contained in pollen of transgenic maize was also assessed. Female C. carnea were most abundant in a maize field when the majority of plants were flowering and fresh pollen was abundant. Field-collected females contained an average of approximately 5000 maize pollen grains in their gut at the peak of pollen shedding. Comparable numbers were found in females fed ad libitum maize pollen in the laboratory. Maize pollen is readily used by C. carnea adults. When provided with a carbohydrate source, it allowed the insects to reach their full reproductive potential. Maize pollen was digested mainly in the insect''s mid- and hindgut. When Bt maize pollen passed though the gut of C. carnea, 61% of Cry1Ab (event Bt176) and 79% of Cry3Bb1 (event MON 88017) was digested. The results demonstrate that maize pollen is a suitable food source for C. carnea. Even though the pollen grains are not fully digested, the insects are exposed to transgenic insecticidal proteins that are contained in the pollen.', 'en_US'),
(3386, 'Appropriate analytical methods are necessary to assess non-target effects of insecticidal proteins in GM crops through meta-analysis (response to Andow et al. 2009).', '', 'en_US'),
(3387, 'Honeydew feeding in the solitary bee Osmia bicornis as affected by aphid species and nectar availability.', 'Like honey bees (Apis mellifera), non-Apis bees could exploit honeydew as a carbohydrate source. In addition to providing carbohydrates, this may expose them to potentially harmful plant products secreted in honeydew. However, knowledge on honeydew feeding by solitary bees is very scarce. Here we determine whether the polylectic solitary bee Osmia bicornis (=O. rufa) collects honeydew under semi-field conditions, and whether this is affected by aphid species and presence of floral nectar. Bees were provided with oilseed rape plants containing flowers and/or colonies of either Myzus persicae or Brevicoryne brassicae. We used the total sugar level of the bee crop as a measure of the individual''s nutritional state and the oligosaccharide erlose as indicator for honeydew consumption. Erlose was present in honeydews from both aphid species, while absent in oilseed rape nectar, nor being synthesized by O. bicornis. When bees were confined to a single honeydew type as the only carbohydrate source, consumption of M. persicae honeydew was confirmed for 47% of the bees and consumption of B. brassicae honeydew for only 3%. Increased mortality in the latter treatment provided further evidence that B. brassicae honeydew is an unsuitable food source for O. bicornis. All bees that were given the choice between honeydew and floral nectar showed significantly increased total sugar levels. However, the fact that no erlose was detected in these bees indicates that honeydew was not consumed when suitable floral nectar was available. This study demonstrates that honeydew exploitation by O. bicornis is dependent on honeydew type and the presence of floral nectar.', 'en_US'),
(3388, 'Problem formulation in environmental risk assessment of genetically modified crops: A Brazilian workshop report.', 'A workshop organized by the International Life Sciences Institute (ILSI) Research Foundation, ILSI Brasil, and Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA) brought together scientists from government, industry and academia to explore problem formulation for environmental risk assessment (ERA) of genetically modified crops. The workshop focused on the application of current scientific knowledge related to the ERA of GM crops in the Brazilian context of the National Biosafety Technical Commission (CTNBio) Normative Resolution #05 requirements and the local environment. Due to the importance of cotton and sugarcane to Brazil’s economy and the potential environmental impacts associated with introducing genetically modified varieties, these crops were used as case studies to illustrate and discuss the general concepts in problem formulation. This report is a summary of the discussions from this workshop.', 'en_US'),
(3389, 'The web-building spider Theridion impressum (Araneae: Theridiidae) is not adversely affected by Bt maize resistant to corn rootworms.', 'The growth of genetically engineered maize that produces the insecticidal protein Cry3Bb1 from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is an effective method to control corn rootworms (Diabrotica spp.), which are threatening maize production in North America and Europe. In this study, the risk of Cry3Bb1-expressing maize for the predatory spider Theridion impressum, a common species in European maize fields, was assessed. Quantification of Cry3Bb1 in potential prey species collected in Bt maize plots and prey spectrum analysis revealed that T. impressum ingests Cry3Bb1 in the field. Exposure to the Bt protein, however, was highly variable because some potential prey species, such as phloem-feeding herbivores and predators, contained little or no Cry3Bb1, whereas leaf-feeding herbivores contained high concentrations. Adult and juvenile T. impressum spiders were fed with Cry3Bb1-containing food (prey or maize pollen) for 8 weeks in the laboratory to examine the toxicity of the Bt protein. No differences in mortality, weight development or offspring production were observed between spiders provided with food containing or not containing Cry3Bb1. Retrospective power analysis indicated that the bioassays were sufficiently sensitive to detect meaningful differences if present. Although Cry3Bb1 is ingested by the spider in the field, our data provide no evidence for toxicity. Consequently, the growth of corn rootworm-resistant Bt maize appears to pose no risk for T. impressum.', 'en_US'),
(3390, 'Making effective use of existing data for case-by-case risk assessments of genetically engineered crops.', 'Many crops in developing countries suffer devastating attacks from insect pests. Expression of insecticidal proteins in genetically engineered (GE) crops is a potentially powerful means of controlling such pests. Potentially harmful effects of these crops on non-target organisms (NTOs) is of major concern as many of those provide important ecological functions such as pest regulation. Consequently, the likelihood of adverse effects of insect-resistant GE crops on NTOs is assessed case-by-case as part of environmental risk assessments that inform regulatory decision-making. While risk assessments should be rigorous, it is vital that regulatory barriers do not unnecessarily restrict or prevent the application of genetic engineering to important crops in those countries. Efficient regulatory decision-making should make effective use of published information on the biology and ecology of the crop in the country where approval is sought, along with regulatory data produced for GE insect-resistant crops that have received regulatory approvals elsewhere. Just as the risks are assessed for each GE crop individually, the amount of new regulatory data required for a GE crop should vary between crops depending on the amount of existing data and the severity of the perceived risks: new data should be collected only if existing data do not corroborate identified risk hypotheses with sufficient certainty. In this paper, we illustrate how such an approach could work using risks to NTOs from insect-resistant GE pigeonpea in India as an example.', 'en_US'),
(3391, 'Susceptibility of Diabrotica virgifera virgifera (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) to the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae when feeding on Cry3Bb1-expressing Bt maize.', 'Genetically engineered maize producing the insecticidal protein Cry3Bb1 from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is protected against corn rootworms (Diabrotica spp.), which are serious maize pests in North America and Europe. The aim of the present study was to investigate the interaction of Bt maize (Event MON88017) and the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae for controlling the western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera. Exposure to Cry3Bb1 expressed in Bt maize seedlings resulted in decreased weight gain in D. v. virgifera larvae but did not influence susceptibility to M. anisopliae. Adult beetles were not affected by Cry3Bb1 in their food, but mortality when feeding on maize leaves was higher than when feeding on silk. Adults were more susceptible to the fungus than larvae. The results indicate that the effects of Bt maize and M. anisopliae on D. v. virgifera are additive and that Bt maize will not interfere with the biological control provided by entomopathogenic fungi.', 'en_US'),
(3392, 'Insecticidal activity of Cry3Bb1 expressed in Bt maize on larvae of the Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae).', 'Environmental risk assessment for genetically modified crops producing insecticidal Cry proteins derived from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) includes the evaluation of adverse effects on non-target organisms. Although ELISA concentration measurements indicate the presence of Cry proteins, sensitive insect bioassays determine whether there is biological activity. The insecticidal activity of the coleopteran-active Cry3Bb1 expressed in different tissues of Bt maize, contained in maize-fed herbivores, and in spiked soil was measured in sensitive insect bioassays using larvae of the Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). Biological activity was confirmed of Cry3Bb1 contained in pulverized Bt maize pollen, roots, leaves, silk, and Bt maize-fed spider mites and western corn rootworm adults. When test substances were incorporated into artificial diet at the same concentrations of Cry3Bb1 (measured by ELISA), maize pollen and leaf litter exhibited lower toxicity than fresh plant material and maize-fed arthropods. This suggests that nutritional quality of food and degradation of Cry proteins may influence toxicity to insects. When soil was spiked with Cry3Bb1, the Bt protein was highly adsorbed and retained its full biological activity. Because toxicity of Cry proteins contained in different matrices cannot always be determined from ELISA values alone, sensitive insect bioassays can improve hazard and exposure assessments in environmental risk assessment of Bt crops.', 'en_US'),
(3393, 'Setting the record straight: a rebuttal to a erroneous analysis on transgenic insecticidal crops and natural enemies.', '', 'en_US'),
(3394, 'Case-specific monitoring of butterflies to determine potential effects of transgenic Bt-maize in Switzerland.', 'The present study investigated whether case-specific monitoring (CSM) would be an appropriate option to detect possible effects on butterflies during commercial cultivation of Bt-maize (Cry1Ab). The analysis of an existing dataset on butterfly communities in Switzerland allowed quantifying the variability in species richness and abundance of nine ecological groups of butterflies resulting from habitat features, agricultural field management, landscape features, regional farming characteristics, spatial variability and temporal fluctuations. The data set also enabled to estimate the sample size needed to detect potential effects of Bt-maize in a CSM programme within the determined variability. Fifteen of the 24 tested descriptors of environmental and farming context induced significant variability in butterfly species richness and abundance of generalist butterflies. In case regulatory authorities would request a CSM, a stratified sampling design considering habitat, landscape, and regional farming types would be essential to account for existing sources of variability. However, recording only the presence and abundance of butterfly species will not be sufficient to explain occurring changes and sampling of additional explaining variables is crucial. The analysis showed that CSM will at best detect large effects on ubiquitous butterflies, whilst the detection of small effects would need a considerable sampling effort. A sampling effort of 100 pairs of fields or field margins will only allow detecting changes exceeding 30% in species richness or abundance of the most abundant species. Rare butterfly species can hardly be monitored in CSM and causalities between changes in butterfly communities and the cultivation of Bt-maize will be difficult to determine due to the high variability of communities and the multitude of influencing environmental factors. CSM is thus unlikely to reduce remaining uncertainties on potential effects on butterflies during commercial cultivation of Bt-maize. Ultimately, potential effects might be evaluated more rigorously in pre-market risk assessment by studying hazard and exposure of sensitive butterfly stages to Bt-maize through experimental toxicity studies in the laboratory or in the greenhouse.', 'en_US'),
(3395, 'An approach for post-market monitoring of potential environmental effects of Bt-maize expressing Cry1Ab on natural enemies.', 'Post-market monitoring (PMM) consistent with Swiss and European Union legislation should ensure the detection and prevention of adverse effects on the environment possibly deriving from commercial cultivation of genetically modified (GM) crops. Insect-resistant GM crops (such as Bt-maize) raise particular questions regarding disturbances of biological control functions provided by beneficial insects such as predators and parasitoids (so-called natural enemies). Consensus among regulators, scientists and the agricultural biotech industry on appropriate PMM plans allowing the detection and possibly prevention of such adverse effects is still lacking. The aims of this study were to identify the necessity for PMM of Bt-maize expressing Cry1Ab on natural enemies and to develop an appropriate PMM plan. The approach chosen consisted in determining what type of monitoring is most appropriate to address potential effects of Bt-maize on natural enemies during commercial cultivation. This included identifying whether there remain substantial scientific uncertainties that would support case-specific monitoring. Existing pre-market risk assessment data indicate that Bt-maize (Cry1Ab) comprises a negligible risk for disturbances in biological control functions of natural enemies. As a consequence, a faunistic monitoring of specific groups of natural enemies is not considered an appropriate approach to detect failures in biological control functions. Alternatively, an approach is proposed that consists in indirectly analysing biological control functions by surveying outbreaks of maize herbivores. Unusual herbivore outbreaks could indicate failures in biological control functions of natural enemies. Data could be collected via questionnaires addressed to farmers growing Bt-maize. Significant correlations between unusual occurrences of specific maize herbivores and the cultivation of Bt-maize would subsequently need specific studies to determine possible causalities in more detail. The here proposed approach has the advantage of covering different natural enemy groups. It represents a cost-effective strategy to obtain scientifically sound data as a basis for regulatory decision-making.', 'en_US'),
(3396, 'Snowdrop lectin (Galanthus nivalis agglutinin) in aphid honeydew negatively affects survival of a honeydew-consuming parasitoid.', 'Insecticidal proteins can be excreted in the honeydew when sap-sucking insects feed on insect-resistant transgenic plants. Honeydew can be an important source of carbohydrates, thus potentially exposing a broad range of honeydew-feeding insects to transgene products.Snowdrop lectin (Galanthus nivalis agglutinin; GNA) dissolved in a 2?m sucrose solution had no antifeedant effect on female aphid parasitoids (Aphidius ervi) but had a direct negative effect on their longevity. When feeding on honeydew from Rhopalosiphum padi feeding on a GNA-containing artificial diet, Aphidius ervi suffered a longevity reduction that was more pronounced than was to be expected based on the detected GNA concentration in the honeydew. Analysis of carbohydrate and amino acid composition revealed that a change in honeydew composition caused by a GNA-effect on the aphids could be a possible explanation for the additional reduction in parasitoid longevity.When comparing the effect of honeydew from Sitobion avenae and R.?padi feeding on GNA-expressing or nontransformed wheat plants on A.?ervi longevity, aphid species was found to have a significant effect, whereas the wheat variety had no effect. The latter result was probably due to low GNA expression levels in the plants. Differences in nutritional suitability between honeydew from R.?padi and S.?avenae could be explained by differences in carbohydrate and amino acid composition. This is the first study to demonstrate that GNA ingested by aphids and transported into the honeydew can negatively affect the parasitoids consuming this honeydew. We recommend that honeydew should be considered as a route of exposure to transgene products in future risk assessment studies.', 'en_US'),
(3397, 'Indian Bt cotton varieties do not affect the performance of cotton aphids.', 'Cotton varieties expressing Cry proteins derived from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) are grown worldwide for the management of pest Lepidoptera. To prevent non-target pest outbreaks and to retain the biological control function provided by predators and parasitoids, the potential risk that Bt crops may pose to non-target arthropods is addressed prior to their commercialization. Aphids play an important role in agricultural systems since they serve as prey or host to a number of predators and parasitoids and their honeydew is an important energy source for several arthropods. To explore possible indirect effects of Bt crops we here examined the impact of Bt cotton on aphids and their honeydew. In climate chambers we assessed the performance of cotton aphids, Aphis gossypii Glover (Hemiptera: Aphididae) when grown on three Indian Bt (Cry1Ac) cotton varieties (MECH 12, MECH 162, MECH 184) and their non-transformed near isolines. Furthermore, we examined whether aphids pick up the Bt protein and analyzed the sugar composition of aphid honeydew to evaluate its suitability for honeydew-feeders. Plant transformation did not have any influence on aphid performance. However, some variation was observed among the three cotton varieties which might partly be explained by the variation in trichome density. None of the aphid samples contained Bt protein. As a consequence, natural enemies that feed on aphids are not exposed to the Cry protein. A significant difference in the sugar composition of aphid honeydew was detected among cotton varieties as well as between transformed and non-transformed plants.  However, it is questionable if this variation is of ecological relevance, especially as honeydew is not the only sugar source parasitoids feed on in cotton fields. Our study allows the conclusion that Bt cotton poses a negligible risk for aphid antagonists and that aphids should remain under natural control in Bt cotton fields.', 'en_US'),
(3398, 'Impact of snowdrop lectin (Galanthus nivalis agglutinin; GNA) on adults of the green lacewing, Chrysoperla carnea.', 'Based on the finding that Galanthus nivalis agglutinin (GNA) has direct negative effects on larvae of Chrysoperla carnea, laboratory experiments were conducted to investigate its toxicity to the adults. While the ingestion of GNA dissolved in an artificial diet did not affect adult longevity, there were concentration-dependent negative effects on the pre-oviposition period, daily fecundity and total fecundity (number of eggs laid). When GNA was ingested by larvae of C. carnea, it caused a significant extension of larval development time. Adults that had emerged from GNA-fed larvae did not differ from those that developed from control larvae in terms of adult fresh weight, pre-oviposition period and daily or total fecundity. However, fertility (proportion of hatching eggs) was significantly decreased in adults raised from GNA-treated larvae. Western blots revealed that GNA ingested by larvae of C. carnea was partly transferred to the adult stage and was subsequently excreted or digested within a few days. Our toxicity studies (Tier-1 tests) clearly established a hazard of GNA to adult C. carnea when administered to larvae or adults at high concentrations. Implications of these toxicity data for the non-target risk assessment of GNA-expressing transgenic crops are discussed.', 'en_US'),
(3399, 'Coexistence of genetically modified (GM) and non-GM crops in the European Union. A review.', 'The adoption of genetically modified (GM) crops in the European Union (EU) raises questions on the feasibility of coexistence between GM and non-GM crops. Regulations to ensure that different cropping systems can develop side-by-side without excluding any agricultural option are currently implemented or developed by member states. The aim of this review is to explore whether nationally or regionally proposed coexistence strategies comply with the general principles established by the European Commission that ask for science-based and proportionate coexistence measures. In the first part, existing legal requirements and potential sources of adventitious mixing are reviewed. It is discussed what type of coexistence measures might be necessary to keep GM inputs below the legal tolerance threshold of 0.9%. Concentrating on cross-fertilisation as the major biological source of adventitious mixing in maize, it is then assessed to which extent available scientific data on cross-fertilisation can explain the diversity of currently proposed isolation distances by several member states. In the second part, it is analysed whether currently proposed isolation distances reflect contending policy objectives towards GM crops that largely exceed the economic scope of coexistence. It is investigated how coexistence is intersecting with a wider debate about the role of GM crops in agriculture. Based on the analysis of existing cross-fertilisation data, it is concluded that some of the currently proposed isolation distances are not in line with the coexistence principles laid down by the European Commission: they are (i) excessive from a scientific point of view; (ii) difficult to implement in practice; (iii) rarely proportional to the regional heterogeneity in the agricultural landscape; and (iv) not proportional to the farmers'' basic economic incentives for coexistence. Hence, the range of proposed isolation distances cannot simply be explained by different interpretations of available scientific data, possible error intervals and remaining uncertainties inherent in the scientific process. It is argued that other than scientific issues must be at play. One might thus claim that coexistence has become an arena of contending values and visions on the future of agriculture and on the role GM crops might play therein.', 'en_US'),
(3400, 'Monitoring or surveillance? Balancing between theoretical frameworks and practical experiences.', 'Post-market monitoring (PMM) protocols should ensure the detection and prevention of adverse effects on the environment possibly deriving from commercial cultivation of genetically modified (GM) crops. A need to define the conditions and measures required for PMM on a scientific, legal, and administrative basis has become apparent, particularly since the cultivation area of Bt-maize in the European Union (EU) has gradually increased over the last years. Although several conceptual proposals have been made on how PMM programmes could be designed, as yet, there is no general consensus on how PMM protocols of Bt-maize could be implemented in practice to lead to results that can be used for regulatory decision-making. This lack of consensus inevitably leads to a certain confusion regarding decisions on the implementation of appropriate risk management measures. Although conceptual differences between case-specific monitoring (CSM) and general surveillance (GS) have been identified, it seems that the distinction between the two programmes still remains blurred among many actors involved in the discussion. Particular ambiguity remains concerning the question of how far results obtained in pre-market risk assessment (PMRA) have to be confirmed by CSM and what conditions are necessary to select either a CSM- or a GS-approach when addressing a particular potential risk. The present paper aims at reviewing the conceptual bases of PMM by emphasizing both the role of PMRA data and the differences between CSM and GS when designing appropriate PMM protocols for Bt-maize. The challenges in obtaining significant scientific data for decision-making are discussed using an approach to monitor potential environmental effects on natural enemies.', 'en_US'),
(3401, 'Coexistence in the EU – return of the moratorium on GM crops?', '', 'en_US'),
(3402, 'Consumption of Bt maize pollen expressing Cry1Ab or Cry3Bb1 does not harm adult green lacewings, Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae).', 'Adults of the common green lacewing, Chrysoperla carnea (Stephens) (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae), are prevalent pollen-consumers in maize fields. They are therefore exposed to insecticidal proteins expressed in the pollen of insect-resistant, genetically engineered maize varieties expressing Cry proteins derived from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). Laboratory experiments were conducted to evaluate the impact of Cry3Bb1 or Cry1Ab-expressing transgenic maize (MON 88017, Event Bt176) pollen on fitness parameters of adult C. carnea. Adults were fed pollen from Bt maize varieties or their corresponding near isolines together with sucrose solution for 28 days. Survival, pre-oviposition period, fecundity, fertility and dry weight were not different between Bt or non-Bt maize pollen treatments. In order to ensure that adults of C. carnea are not sensitive to the tested toxins independent from the plant background and to add certainty to the hazard assessment, adult C. carnea were fed with artificial diet containing purified Cry3Bb1 or Cry1Ab at about a 10 times higher concentration than in maize pollen. Artificial diet containing Galanthus nivalis agglutinin (GNA) was included as a positive control. No differences were found in any life-table parameter between Cry protein containing diet treatments and control diet. However, the pre-oviposition period, daily and total fecundity and dry weight of C. carnea were significantly negatively affected by GNA-feeding. In both feeding assays, the stability and bioactivity of Cry proteins in the food sources as well as the uptake by C. carnea was confirmed. These results show that adults of C. carnea are not affected by Bt maize pollen and are not sensitive to Cry1Ab and Cry3Bb1 at concentrations exceeding the levels in pollen. Consequently, Bt maize pollen consumption will pose a negligible risk to adult C. carnea.', 'en_US'),
(3403, 'Potential effects of oilseed rape expressing oryzacystatin-1 (OC-1) and of purified insecticidal proteins on larvae of the solitary bee Osmia bicornis.', 'Despite their importance as pollinators in crops and wild plants, solitary bees have not previously been included in non-target testing of insect-resistant transgenic crop plants. Larvae of many solitary bees feed almost exclusively on pollen and thus could be highly exposed to transgene products expressed in the pollen. The potential effects of pollen from oilseed rape expressing the cysteine protease inhibitor oryzacystatin-1 (OC-1) were investigated on larvae of the solitary bee Osmia bicornis ( = O. rufa). Furthermore, recombinant OC-1 (rOC-1), the Bt toxin Cry1Ab and the snowdrop lectin Galanthus nivalis agglutinin (GNA) were evaluated for effects on the life history parameters of this important pollinator. Pollen provisions from transgenic OC-1 oilseed rape did not affect overall development. Similarly, high doses of rOC-1 and Cry1Ab as well as a low dose of GNA failed to cause any significant effects. However, a high dose of GNA (0.1%) in the larval diet resulted in significantly increased development time and reduced efficiency in conversion of pollen food into larval body weight. Our results suggest that OC-1 and Cry1Ab expressing transgenic crops would pose a negligible risk for O. bicornis larvae, whereas GNA expressing plants could cause detrimental effects, but only if bees were exposed to high levels of the protein. The described bioassay with bee brood is not only suitable for early tier non-target tests of transgenic plants, but also has broader applicability to other crop protection products.', 'en_US'),
(3404, 'Effectiveness of Bacillus thuringiensis-transgenic chickpeas and the entomopathogenic fungus metarhizium anisopliae in controlling Helicoverpa armigera (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae).', 'The use of genetically modified (Bt) crops expressing lepidopteran-specific Cry proteins derived from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis is an effective method to control the polyphagous pest Helicoverpa armigera. As H. armigera potentially develops resistance to Cry proteins, Bt crops should be regarded as one tool in integrated pest management. Therefore, they should be compatible with biological control. Bioassays were conducted to understand the interactions between a Cry2Aa-expressing chickpea line, either a susceptible or a Cry2A-resistant H. armigera strain, and the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae. In a first concentration-response assay, Cry2A-resistant larvae were more tolerant of M. anisopliae than susceptible larvae, while in a second bioassay, the fungus caused similar mortalities in the two strains fed control chickpea leaves. Thus, resistance to Cry2A did not cause any fitness costs that became visible as increased susceptibility to the fungus. On Bt chickpea leaves, susceptible H. armigera larvae were more sensitive to M. anisopliae than on control leaves. It appeared that sublethal damage induced by the B. thuringiensis toxin enhanced the effectiveness of M. anisopliae. For Cry2A-resistant larvae, the mortalities caused by the fungus were similar when they were fed either food source. To examine which strain would be more likely to be exposed to the fungus, their movements on control and Bt chickpea plants were compared. Movement did not appear to differ among larvae on Bt or conventional chickpeas, as indicated by the number of leaflets damaged per leaf. The findings suggest that Bt chickpeas and M. anisopliae are compatible to control H. armigera.', 'en_US'),
(3405, 'Assessing the utilization of a carbohydrate food source and the impact of insecticidal proteins on larvae of the green lacewing, Chrysoperla carnea.', 'A concern with the widespread use of insecticidal transgenic crops is their potential to adversely affect non-target organisms, including biological control agents such as larvae of the green lacewing, Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae). Since the insecticidal proteins expressed by the current transgenic plants are active only after ingestion, dietary bioassays are required to test direct effects on non-target organisms. After showing that C. carnea larvae utilize carbohydrate foods, we exposed them to insecticidal proteins dissolved in a sucrose solution. Feeding on snowdrop lectin (Galanthus nivalis agglutinin, GNA) as a model compound, the larvae were negatively affected in a number of life-table parameters. Interestingly, GNA caused a prolongation in first instar development, but had no effect on subsequent utilization of prey resulting in an increased weight of second instars. Comparable studies with avidin, a biotin-binding protein, revealed strong effects on C. carnea survival at the concentration tested. Despite the fact that the proteolytic digestion of C. carnea larvae is reported to be dominated by serine proteases, ingestion of soybean trypsin inhibitor (SBTI) did not cause any detrimental effects. Similarly, two Cry proteins derived from Bacillus thuringiensis (Cry1Ac and Cry1Ab) did not cause negative effects on C. carnea, what is consistent with earlier studies. The here presented bioassay provides a valuable tool to assess direct impacts of insecticidal proteins to C. carnea larvae and other predators that are known to feed on carbohydrate solutions.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(3406, 'The importance of honeydew for larvae of Chrysoperla carnea when aphids are available.', 'Larvae of the common green lacewing Chrysoperla carnea are predacious and feed on a wide range of small, soft-bodied arthropods. In addition to their feeding on prey arthropods to cover their nutritional requirements for growth and development, the consumption of non-prey foods such as honeydew has been reported. It is commonly believed that these food supplements are primarily exploited by the larvae when prey is scarce or of low nutritional quality. Here, we assess whether C. carnea larvae also use honeydew when high-quality aphid prey are readily available. In a choice experiment, the feeding behaviour of C. carnea larvae was observed in the presence of both aphids and honeydew. The larvae were starved, aphid-fed, or honeydew-fed prior to the experiment. The time spent feeding on honeydew compared with feeding on aphids was highest for starved larvae and lowest for honeydew-fed larvae. Among the three treatments, the aphid-fed larvae spent the most time resting and the least time searching. In an additional experiment food intake was assessed in terms of weight change when larvae were provided with an ad libitum supply of either aphids or honeydew. Larvae yielded a significant lower relative weight increase on honeydew compared with aphids. The reduced weight increase on honeydew was compensated when larvae were subsequently provided with aphids, but not when honeydew was provided again. This study showed that (i) prior honeydew feeding reduces overall aphid consumption, and (ii) larvae do consume honeydew even after they have been given ad libitum access to aphids. The fact that larvae of C. carnea still use honeydew as a food source in the presence of suitable prey underlines the importance of carbohydrates as foods.', 'en_US'),
(3407, 'Performance of transgenic spring wheat plants and effects on non-target organisms under glasshouse and semi-field conditions.', 'A convertible glasshouse was established to study annual transgenic plants under near-field environmental conditions while simultaneously ensuring a high level of biological containment. This system can provide a useful step in the assessment of transgenic plants prior to open-field experiments. Two transgenic wheat lines (cv. Bobwhite) were investigated and compared with their corresponding non-transformed wildtypes with respect to plant performance, expression of the transgenic trait and interactions with antagonists. The first line expressed snowdrop lectin [Galanthus nivalis agglutinin (GNA)] for enhanced resistance to aphids, and the second one overexpressed the endogenous Lr10 gene to enhance resistance to leaf rust. Interestingly, 1000-kernel weight of Lr10-transgenic plants was significantly reduced, indicating that the overexpression of the Lr10 gene caused a significant fitness cost for the plant. GNA-transgenic plants expressed the lectin at levels too low to affect the target aphids. A detached leaf bioassay with Lr10-transgenic plants revealed an increased resistance to leaf rust. No differences in the performance of aphids or cereal leaf beetles on transgenic and non-transformed plants were recorded in the convertible glasshouse and in complementary glasshouse studies. Similarly, infection levels with powdery mildew did not differ between transgenic and non-transformed plants but Bobwhite plants were significantly more infected when compared with conventional Swiss spring wheat cultivars. Overall, the assessment revealed that for the plants investigated here, their genetic background had a stronger impact on the performance of a plant and its interactions with insect herbivores and pathogens than the expression of the transgene.', 'en_US'),
(3408, 'Ecological risk assessment for Bt crops - reply.', '', 'en_US'),
(3409, 'Transgenic crops expressing Bacillus thuringiensis toxins and biological control.', 'The area devoted to growing transgenic plants expressing insecticidal Cry proteins derived from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is increasing worldwide. A major concern with the adoption of Bt crops is their potential impact on nontarget organisms including biological control organisms. Regulatory frameworks should advocate a step-wise (tiered) approach to assess possible nontarget effects of Bt crops. Laboratory and glasshouse studies have revealed effects on natural enemies only when Bt-susceptible, sublethally damaged herbivores were used as prey or host, with no indication of direct toxic effects. Field studies have confirmed that the abundance and activity of parasitoids and predators are similar in Bt and non-Bt crops. In contrast, applications of conventional insecticides have usually resulted in negative impacts on biological control organisms. Because Bt-transgenic varieties can lead to substantial reductions in insecticide use in some crops, they can contribute to integrated pest management systems with a strong biological control component.', 'en_US'),
(3410, 'Biological activity of Cry1Ab toxin expressed by Bt maize following ingestion by herbivorous arthropods and exposure of the predator Chrysoperla carnea.', 'A major concern regarding the deployment of insect resistant transgenic plants is their potential impact on non-target organisms, in particular on beneficial arthropods such as predators. To assess the risks that transgenic plants pose to predators, various experimental testing systems can be used. When using tritrophic studies, it is important to verify the actual exposure of the predator, i.e., the presence of biologically active toxin in the herbivorous arthropod (prey). We therefore investigated the uptake of Cry1Ab toxin by larvae of the green lacewing (Chrysoperla carnea (Stephens); Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) after consuming two Bt maize-fed herbivores (Tetranychus urticae Koch; Acarina: Tetranychidae and Spodoptera littoralis (Boisduval); Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) by means of an immunological test (ELISA) and the activity of the Cry1Ab toxin following ingestion by the herbivores. Moreover, we compared the activity of Cry1Ab toxin produced by Bt maize to that of purified toxin obtained from transformed Escherichia coli, which is recommended to be used in toxicity studies. The activity of the toxin was assessed by performing feeding bioassays with larvae of the European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis (Hübner); Lepidoptera: Crambidae), the target pest of Cry1Ab expressing maize. ELISA confirmed the ingestion of Bt toxin by C. carnea larvae when fed with either of the two prey species and feeding bioassays using the target pest showed that the biological activity of the Cry1Ab toxin is maintained after ingestion by both herbivore species. These findings are discussed in the context of previous risk assessment studies with C. carnea. The purified Cry1Ab protein was more toxic to O. nubilalis compared to the plant-derived Cry1Ab toxin when applied at equal concentrations according to ELISA measurements. Possible reasons for these findings are discussed.', 'en_US'),
(3411, 'Exposure of arthropod predators to Cry1Ab toxin in Bt maize fields.', 'To assess the risks of an insect-resistant transgenic plant for non-target arthropods, it is important to investigate the exposure of non-target species to the transgene product. Exposure of predators in the field depends on the toxin levels in food sources, their feeding ecology and that of their prey.  To verify the transmission of Cry1Ab toxin through the food chain, and thus exposure of predators in the field, samples from different plant tissues, herbivores, and predators in Bt maize fields in Spain (Event 176) were collected at different periods over the season and the toxin content was measured using ELISA. Complementary laboratory studies were performed with the omnivorous predator Orius majusculus to assess the toxin uptake and persistence after feeding on variable Bt-containing food sources.  Field results revealed that toxin content in some herbivores was negligible (aphids, thrips, leafhoppers) compared with those in spider mites. The latter herbivore only occurred after pollen shed and contained three times greater toxin levels than Bt maize leaves.  Data confirmed that the Bt toxin can be transferred to predators, that is to say to Orius spp., Chrysoperla spp., and Stethorus sp. This only applied when Bt maize pollen or spider mites were available. The passage of Bt toxin to O.?majusculus via these two food sources was also confirmed in the laboratory. Contrastingly, some predators in the field (hemerobiids, Nabis sp., Hippodamia sp., Demetrias sp.) contained no or negligible toxin levels even when pollen or spider mites were present.  Besides essential information for exposure assessment of numerous arthropod predators, this study provides an insight into the feeding ecology of different arthropods in the maize system.', 'en_US'),
(3412, 'Assessing the effects of Bt maize on the predatory mite Neoseiulus cucumeris.', 'The investigation of Neoseiulus cucumeris in the context of the ecological risk assessment of insect resistant transgenic plants is of particular interest as this omnivorous predatory mite species is commercially available and considered important for biological control. In a multitrophic feeding experiment we assessed the impact of Bt maize on the performance of N. cucumeris when offered spider mites (Tetranychus urticae) reared on Bt (Bt11, Syngenta) or non-Bt maize (near isogenic line) and Bt or non-Bt maize pollen as a food source. Various parameters including mortality, development time, oviposition rate were measured. Spider mites were used as a prey for N. cucumeris, since these herbivores are known to contain similar levels of Cry1Ab toxin, when reared on Bt maize, as those found in the transgenic leaf material. In contrast, toxin levels in pollen of this transgenic cultivar are very low. No differences in any of the parameters were found when N. cucumeris was fed with spider mites reared on Bt and non-Bt maize. Pollen was shown to be a less suitable food source for this predator as compared to spider mites. Moreover, subtle effects on female N. cucumeris (9% longer development time and 17% reduced fecundity) were measured when fed with pollen originating from Bt maize as compared to non-Bt maize pollen. Our findings indicate that the predatory mite N. cucumeris is not sensitive to the Cry1Ab toxin as no effects could be detected when offered Bt-containing spider mites, and that the effects found when fed with Bt maize pollen can be assigned to differences in nutritional quality of Bt and non-Bt maize pollen. The significance of these findings is discussed with regard to the ecological relevance for risk assessment of transgenic plants.', 'en_US'),
(3413, 'Effects of Bt maize on Frankliniella tenuicornis and exposure of thrips predators to prey-mediated Bt toxin.', 'As a part of a risk assessment procedure, the impact of Bt maize expressing Cry1Ab toxin on the thrips Frankliniella tenuicornis (Uzel) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) was investigated, and the potential risks for predators feeding on thrips on Bt maize were evaluated. The effects of Bt maize on F. tenuicornis were assessed by measuring life-table parameters when reared on Bt and non-Bt maize. The content of Cry1Ab toxin in different stages of F. tenuicornis reared on Bt maize and the persistence of the toxin in adults where determined in order to evaluate the possible exposure of predators when feeding on thrips. In addition, Chrysoperla carnea (Stephens) (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) was used as a model predator to assess how the behaviour of prey and predator may influence the exposure of a natural enemy to the Bt toxin. Life-table parameter results showed that F. tenuicornis was not affected when it was reared on Bt maize. This indicates that the potential for prey quality-mediated effects on predators is low. Bt content was highest in thrips larvae and adults, and negligible in the non-feeding prepupal and pupal stages. The persistence of the Cry1Ab toxin in adult F. tenuicornis was short, resulting in a decrease of 97% within the first 24 h. Predation success by young C. carnea larvae varied among the thrips stages, indicating that exposure of predators to Bt toxin can additionally depend on the prey stage. When combining the current knowledge of the susceptibility of major thrips predators with our findings showing no potential for prey quality-mediated effects, relatively low toxin content in thrips as well as short persistence, it can be concluded that the risks for predators when feeding on thrips in or next to Bt maize fields are negligible.', 'en_US'),
(3414, 'Influence of Bt-transgenic pollen, Bt-toxin and proteinase inhibitor (SBTI) ingestion on development of the hypopharyngeal glands in honeybees.', 'In order to assess the risks of transgenic crops for honey bee colonies, we studied the development of hypopharyngeal glands of adult workers. We introduced 50 newly emerged adult bees into small, queenright colonies of c. 250 bees. Bees were fed either Bt-transgenic maize pollen (MON 810) or a sugar solution containing either purified Bt-toxin (Cry1Ab, 0.0014% w/v) or Kunitz soybean trypsin inhibitor (SBTI) at two concentrations (0.1% and 1% w/v). Neither the Bt maize pollen nor the Bt toxin showed any effect on bee survival or on the development of hypopharyngeal glands after a period of 10 days'' feeding. In contrast, treatment of newly emerged bees with SBTI (0.1 and 1%) for 10 days significantly reduced the mean weights of the hypopharyngeal glands and the mean diameter of the glands'' acini. While small amounts of Bt toxin were detected by ELISA in the hypopharyngeal glands of bees fed the Bt-sugar solution, SBTI could not be detected in gland samples by Western blotting.', 'en_US'),
(3415, 'A conceptual framework for the design of environmental post-market monitoring of genetically modified plants.', 'Genetically modified plants (GMPs) may soon be cultivated commercially in several member countries of the European Union (EU). According to EU Directive 2001/18/EC, post-market monitoring (PMM) for commercial GMP cultivation must be implemented, in order to detect and prevent adverse effects on human health and the environment. However, no general PMM strategies for GMP cultivation have been established so far. We present a conceptual framework for the design of environmental PMM for GMP cultivation based on current EU legislation and common risk analysis procedures. We have established a comprehensive structure of the GMP approval process, consisting of pre-market risk assessment (PMRA) as well as PMM. Both programs can be distinguished conceptually due to principles inherent to risk analysis procedures. The design of PMM programs should take into account the knowledge gained during approval for commercialization of a specific GMP and the decisions made in the environmental risk assessments (ERAs). PMM is composed of case-specific monitoring (CSM) and general surveillance. CSM focuses on anticipated effects of a specific GMP. Selection of case-specific indicators for detection of ecological exposure and effects, as well as definition of effect sizes, are important for CSM. General surveillance is designed to detect unanticipated effects on general safeguard subjects, such as natural resources, which must not be adversely affected by human activities like GMP cultivation. We have identified clear conceptual differences between CSM and general surveillance, and propose to adopt separate frameworks when developing either of the two programs. Common to both programs is the need to put a value on possible ecological effects of GMP cultivation. The structure of PMM presented here will be of assistance to industry, researchers, and regulators, when assessing GMPs during commercialization.', 'en_US'),
(3416, 'Effects of Bt maize expressing Cry1Ab and Bt spray on Spodoptera littoralis.', 'Various studies have been conducted to assess the damage caused by secondary lepidopteran pests to transgenic Bt maize expressing Cry1Ab. However, to date little is known on the effects of transgenic maize on Spodoptera littoralis (Boisduval) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), a polyphagous herbivore which is considered a pest in Mediterranean maize growing areas. Here we present results on the effects of Bt maize (Bt-11) and Bt spray (Dipel) on the various life stage parameters of this herbivore. We further assess the expression of Cry1Ab in different leaves and leaf parts in maize at a given plant growth stage, and determine whether the feeding damage of 3rd instar S. littoralis is influenced by Bt toxin expression. Contrary to previous literature reporting that S. littoralis is not sensitive to Bt Cry1Ab toxin, our results show that insects fed on either transgenic or Bt sprayed plants were negatively affected. Young S. littoralis larvae (1st and 2nd instars) were found to be the most sensitive to the Bt toxin. This was represented by a higher mortality and a slower developmental time of larvae maintained on transgenic or sprayed plants when compared to insects maintained on control plants. Moreover, Bt maize had a stronger and prolonged detrimental effect on insects when compared to Bt spray in maize. This was revealed by the fact that insects maintained on transgenic plants from 3rd instar to pupation took longer to reach adult emergence compared to insects that were maintained on sprayed plants. This was likely due to the continuous exposure of insects to the toxin when kept on transgenic maize. ELISA results showed a variation in the amount of Bt toxin among different leaf sections in transgenic maize at a given plant growth stage. These differences in Bt toxin were primarily found in the youngest leaf of growing plants. Although the lowest amounts of Bt toxin were detected in the growing leaf section of young leaves, this difference did not appear to influence the feeding behavior of 3rd instar S. littoralis.', 'en_US'),
(3417, 'The potential for insect-resistant transgenic chickpeas and their possible effects on non-target arthropods.', 'Chickpea, Cicer arietinum, is the third most important grain legume crop in the world, with India being the largest producer. Insect pests are a major constraint to chickpea production. In India, the legume pod borer Helicoverpa armigera is the major insect pest of chickpeas. However, sap-sucking insects that act as vectors for viral diseases and bruchid beetles in storage are also considered important pests. Here we give an overview over the different management options to control these pests. There is a growing interest in the genetic modification of crops to enhance their resistance against insect pests. Here we present the state-of-the-art of chickpea transformation and give an overview on the available insecticidal genes that could be deployed to increase insect resistance in chickpea. Prior to commercialization, transgenic crops have to be assessed for their effects on the environment including the possible impact on non-target arthropods, many of which are important for biological pest control. Therefore, the arthropod–food web in the Indian chickpea system is described. Possible routes through which entomophagous insects could be exposed to insecticidal proteins expressed by genetically modified chickpeas are discussed, and species that could be selected for pre-release risk assessment are recommended.', 'en_US'),
(3418, 'Pollen consumption in honey bee larvae: a step forward in the risk assessment of transgenic plants.', 'In order to assess the potential impacts of transgenic plants on larvae of the honey bee, Apis mellifera, information on pollen consumption is needed. We here report on experiments that were conducted with small bee colonies kept in field cages (8 × 14 m) containing only flowering maize plants as protein source. Fully grown worker bee larvae were found to contain between 1720 and 2310 maize pollen grains in their gut before defecation, corresponding to 1.52–2.04 mg of pollen consumed per larva. On average, 74.5% of pollen grains were completely digested while 23.3% were partially digested and 2.2% remained undigested. Our data indicate that the contribution of the protein by directly feeding larvae with pollen is less than 5% in relation to the total amount of protein necessary for complete larval development. We suggest that our measurement for pollen consumption should be taken into account when establishing dose regimes to assess the risk that transgenic plants pose for honey bee larvae.', 'en_US'),
(3419, 'Prey-mediated effects of Bacillus thuringiensis spray on the predator Chrysoperla carnea in maize.', 'Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) bioinsecticides are generally considered safe to beneficial insects. However, negative effects of transgenic Bt-expressing maize on an important predator, Chrysoperla carnea, have previously been reported. Here, we make an ecological assessment of the effects of Dipel, one of the most widely used Bt-sprays in agriculture, on C. carnea larvae. Indirect effects due to a reduction of prey were tested by rearing three prey species of C. carnea (the aphid Rhopalosiphum padi, the spider mite Tetranychus urticae, and Lepidoptera larva Spodoptera littoralis) on either maize plants sprayed with Dipel (at the recommended field concentrations) or on control plants. Effects of Dipel on C. carnea were assessed by performing greenhouse experiments in which chrysopid larvae were kept on Bt-sprayed or control plants and fed with herbivores reared on Bt-sprayed or control plants. Dipel had no effect on aphids; however, negative effects on spider mites were observed. Spider mites reared on Bt-sprayed plants had a significantly lower intrinsic rate of natural increase compared to those reared on control plants. Similarly, S. littoralis larvae were significantly affected by Dipel as the developmental time required by larvae which were fed Bt-sprayed plants was prolonged when compared to larvae on untreated plants. Negative effects on C. carnea larvae were also shown through prey-mediated exposure to Dipel. A significant increase in mortality, a prolonged developmental time and a slight decrease in weight was observed for C. carnea fed with ‘Bt-contaminated’ S. littoralis larvae. The effects of Dipel on C. carnea larvae shown in this study, are comparable to earlier published results obtained with Bt maize. The ecological relevance of these results is discussed in comparison with the possible risks that the deployment of Bt-expressing maize plants pose to the predator C. carnea.', 'en_US'),
(3420, 'Uptake of Bt-toxin by herbivores feeding on transgenic maize and consequences for the predator Chrysoperla carnea.', 'Chrysoperla carnea is an important predatory insect in maize. To assess the ecological effects of Bt-maize, expressing the Cry1Ab protein, on larvae of this predator, the following factors were examined: (1) the performance of three prey herbivores (Rhopalosiphum padi, Tetranychus urticae, and Spodoptera littoralis) on transgenic Bt and non-transgenic maize plants; (2) the intake of the Cry1Ab toxin by the three herbivores; and (3) the effects on C. carnea when fed each of the prey species. The intrinsic rate of natural increase (rm) was used as a measure of performance for R. padi and T. urticae. No difference in this parameter was observed between herbivores reared on Bt or non-transgenic plants. In contrast, a higher mortality rate and a delay in development were observed in S. littoralis larvae when fed Bt-maize compared with those fed the control maize plants. The ingestion of Cry1Ab toxin by the different herbivores was measured using an immunological assay (ELISA). Highest amounts of Cry1Ab toxin were detected in T. urticae, followed by S. littoralis, and only trace amounts detected in R. padi. Feeding C. carnea with T. urticae, which were shown to contain the Cry1Ab toxin, or with R. padi, which do not ingest the toxin, did not affect survival, development, or weight of C. carnea. In contrast, a significant increase in mortality and a delay in development were observed when predators were fed S. littoralis larvae reared on Bt-maize.  A combined interaction of poor prey quality and Cry1Ab toxin may account for the negative effects observed on C. carnea when fed S. littoralis. The relevance of these findings to the ecological risks of Bt-maize on C. carnea is discussed.', 'en_US'),
(3421, 'The anticipated value of SmartStax™ for US corn growers.', 'This study provides an estimate of the anticipated value of SmartStax™ corn hybrids in the years after full commercialization. SmartStax™ hybrids have an eight-trait stack of above-ground and below-ground insect-resistance traits and tolerance to two broad spectrum herbicides. Survey data, expert opinion, and public data sources were used to estimate the value of SmartStax™ hybrids to growers. We consider the effects of varying spatial and temporal pest pressure, differing target insects, the current hybrid mix, the anticipated actions of competing seed companies, and geographical location on SmartStax™ adoption and value. We estimate the total value of SmartStax™ hybrids to growers, including the non-pecuniary value, to be $760.98 million per year in the Corn Belt. We then discuss the role that SmartStax™ is expected to play in enhancing crop insurance programs.', 'en_US'),
(3422, 'Stochastic benefit streams, learning, and technology diffusion: why drought tolerance is not the new Bt.', 'The speed of Bt cotton diffusion among smallholders in poor countries such as India, China, and South Africa has been unprecedented. Hopes are high for drought-tolerant (DT) varieties that similarly reduce yield risk and have attracted substantial investments from public, private, and philanthropic sectors. We highlight important learning differences between Bt and DT that will shape diffusion patterns. While the potential welfare benefits of DT are compelling, we caution against glossing over practical complications that farmers will face in assessing the relative merits of DT varieties. We emphasize how and why vulnerable farmers facing marginal growing conditions—ostensibly, the target beneficiaries—may be slowest to adopt DT crops. More frequent extreme drought events associated with climate change may further complicate this learning and diffusion process. Generalized water-use efficiency gains and early maturation could help improve learning in arid and semi-arid regions by conferring benefits across a broader range of rainfall outcomes.', 'en_US'),
(3423, 'The production and price impact of biotech corn, canola, and soybean crops', 'Biotech crops have now been grown commercially on a substantial global scale since 1996. This article examines the production effects of the technology and impacts on cereal and oilseed markets through the use of agricultural commodity models. It analyses the impacts on global production, consumption, trade, and prices in the soybean, canola, and corn sectors. The analysis suggests that world prices of corn, soybeans, and canola would probably be, respectively, 5.8%, 9.6%, and 3.8% higher, on average, than 2007 baseline levels if this technology was no longer available to farmers. Prices of key derivatives of soybeans (meal and oil) would also be between 5% and 9% higher, with rapeseed meal and oil prices being about 4% higher than baseline levels. World prices of related cereals and oilseeds would also be expected to be higher by 3% to 4%.', 'en_US'),
(3424, 'Cost of compliance with biotechnology regulation in the Philippines: implications for developing countries', 'Direct and opportunity costs of regulation are presented for four transgenic products in the Philippines: Bt eggplant, Bt rice, ringspot-virus-resistant papaya, and virus-resistant tomatoes. Understanding the magnitude of these costs is important for evaluating potential net benefits of genetically modified crops, both for countries that are designing their regulatory procedures and for those implementing them. Results indicate that direct regulatory costs are significant but generally smaller than technology development costs. However, the cost of foregone benefits stemming from even a relatively brief delay in product release, which might be due to unexpected regulatory delays, overshadows both research and regulatory costs. Regulatory systems must ensure that none of the steps in its regulatory process for GM products that are required to protect public safety and the environment are omitted, but unnecessary steps are costly. Direct regulatory costs appear to be declining within countries as they gain experience with more products.', 'en_US'),
(3425, 'Prospects for development of genetically modified cassava in sub-saharan Africa', 'The prospect for the development of genetically modified (GM) orphan crops is reviewed from various perspectives. The article specifically assesses the potential constraints for developing GM cassava based on typical patterns of past genetic modification technology application on crops, the low level of basic research that has been done on cassava, African stakeholders&amp;#65533; perceptions on GM crops in general, and regulation issues for cassava. The article also assesses potential factors that might mitigate such constraints, such as the potential benefits of genetic modification technology in overcoming particular problems for cassava over conventional non-genetic modification technologies, the level of interest among African countries on such benefits, and the preferential treatment given to crops like cassava (such as humanitarian use licenses). The article concludes with a discussion of prospects for GM cassava and some knowledge gaps that need to be filled to speed up the commercialization of GM cassava in Sub-Saharan Africa.\r\n', 'en_US'),
(3426, 'Global impact of biotech crops: environmental effects, 1996-2008', 'This article updates the assessment of the impact commercialized agricultural biotechnology is having on global agriculture from an environmental perspective. It focuses on the impact of changes in pesticide use and greenhouse gas emissions arising from the use of biotech crops. The technology has reduced pesticide spraying by 352 million kg (-8.4%) and, as a result, decreased the environmental impact associated with herbicide and insecticide use on these crops (as measured by the indicator the environmental impact quotient) by 16.3%. The technology has also significantly reduced the release of greenhouse gas emissions from this cropping area, which, in 2008, was equivalent to removing 6.9 million cars from the roads.', 'en_US'),
(3427, 'Monitoring of the Roundup Ready soybean in the Vojvodina province in Serbia.', 'The Vojvodina province is the most important agricultural area of the Republic of Serbia and is its largest soybean producer. Serbian low forbids the introduction of genetically modified organisms (GMO) into the environment and demands labeling of food containing more than 0.9% GMO. This aim of this study is to monitor the Roundup Ready (RR) soybean in fields and in food products using PCR and immunoassays. A duplex PCR reaction was performed to analyze the lectin gene and 35S promoter using DNA isolated from soybean leaf and seed sample. Specific detection of RR markers was performed using nested PCR and verified by immunoassay. RR soybeans were found in 68 fields in samples from 2003 and 28 fields in 2004. The presence of the RR soybean was confirmed in 44 seed samples out of 7142 samples examined in 2006 and in 108 out of 7171 samples examined in 2007. The data presented here are the first to demonstrate the presence of RR soybean in the Serbia fields.', 'en_US'),
(3428, 'Safety of transgenic feed materials in poultry nutrition -- results of Polish study.', '', 'en_US'),
(3429, 'Labeling genetically modified food in India: economic consequences in four marketing channels.', 'In 2006, India proposed a draft rule requiring the labeling of all genetically modified (GM) foods and products derived thereof. In this paper, we use primary and secondary market data to assess the economic implications of introducing such a mandatory labeling policy for GM food. We focus on four products that would likely be the first affected by such a regulation in India: cottonseed oil, soybean oil, brinjal (eggplant), and rice. We find that GM food labeling would generate a specific market outcome for each of these products. With GM labeling, virtually all cottonseed oil would be labeled as GM, with limited costs for all actors involved, but also limited benefit for consumers. Labeling soybean oil derived from GM crops could affect market shares for edible oils at the benefit of domestic oils, and non-GM soybean oil could appear on the market at a very limited scale. Labeling GM brinjal would be extremely challenging. Assuming it was implemented, some non-GM brinjal would be sold at a premium in high-income retail outlets, while virtually all others would be labeled GM. A similar outcome would occur for rice, with high-quality rice used for both domestic consumption and exports markets certified non-GM and most of the remaining rice labeled as GM. In each of the cases, labeling would generate significant adjustment costs for the industry and large enforcement costs, and consumer benefit would not always be visible and would highly depend on the degree of enforcement. In fact, voluntary labeling could achieve less-distorted results with lower costs and therefore appears to be a superior regulatory solution. Still, provided enforcement is ensured, a well-designed mandatory labeling regulation with limited product coverage, a non-zero labeling threshold, and an informative labeling content would lead to a much better outcome and lower costs in India than the current draft rule, especially if it is accompanied by a large awareness campaign regarding GM food and consumer safety in India.', 'en_US'),
(3430, 'Assessing the digestibility of genetically modified soybean: physiologically based in vitro digestion and fermentation model.', 'Gastrointestinal digestibility of new proteins inserted in food supply is one of significant parameters for assessing safety of genetically modified (GM) foods on the assumption that digestive stability is undesirable. Digestive stability of GM soybean was evaluated under the physiologically based in vitro digestion model. Electrophoresis was used to follow the in vitro sequential digestions/fermentation procedure and Western blotting was employed to confirm the new protein in GM soybean. CP4EPSPS newly expressed in GM soybean was completely digested in 15 s in the gastric fluid in this model. In the assay of fermentation of new protein, CP4EPSPS was also complete degraded and no fermentation products were found during 24 h of colon fermentation. Results from this study suggested that CP4EPSPS in GM soybean does not have a potential allergenicity due to its complete digestion within a very short time in gastric fluid. No formation of colonic protein fermentation products confirms that new protein is not capable of initiating colon cancer.', 'en_US'),
(3431, 'GM risk assessment', 'GM risk assessments (GMRAs) play an important role in the decision-making process surrounding the regulation, notification and permission to handle Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs). Ultimately the role of each GMRA will be able to ensure the safe handling and containment of the GMO; and to asses any potential impacts on the environment and human health. A risk assessment should answer all “what if” scenarios, based on scientific evidence. This article sets out to provide researchers with helpful guidance notes on producing their own GMRA. While reference is made to UK and EU regulations, the underlying principles and points to consider are generic to most countries.', 'en_US'),
(3432, 'GMOtrack: generator of cost-effective GMO testing strategies.', 'Commercialization of numerous genetically modified organisms (GMOs) has already been approved worldwide, and several additional GMOs are in the approval process. Many countries have adopted legislation to deal with GMO-related issues such as food safety, environmental concerns, and consumers'' right of choice, making GMO traceability a necessity. The growing extent of GMO testing makes it important to study optimal GMO detection and identification strategies. This paper formally defines the problem of routine laboratory-level GMO tracking as a cost optimization problem, thus proposing a shift from &quot;the same strategy for all samples&quot; to &quot;sample-centered GMO testing strategies.&quot; An algorithm (GMOtrack) for finding optimal two-phase (screening-identification) testing strategies is proposed. The advantages of cost optimization with increasing GMO presence on the market are demonstrated, showing that optimization approaches to analytic GMO traceability can result in major cost reductions. The optimal testing strategies are laboratory-dependent, as the costs depend on prior probabilities of local GMO presence, which are exemplified on food and feed samples. The proposed GMOtrack approach, publicly available under the terms of the General Public License, can be extended to other domains where complex testing is involved, such as safety and quality assurance in the food supply chain.', 'en_US'),
(3433, 'Safe composition levels of transgenic crops assessed via a clinical medicine model.', 'Substantial equivalence has become established as a foundation concept in the safety evaluation of transgenic crops. In the case of a food and feed crop, no single variety is considered the standard for safety or nutrition, so the substantial equivalence of transgenic crops is investigated relative to the array of commercial crop varieties with a history of safe consumption. Although used extensively in clinical medicine to compare new generic drugs with brand-name drugs, equivalence limits are shown to be a poor model for comparing transgenic crops with an array of reference crop varieties. We suggest an alternate model, also analogous to that used in clinical medicine, where reference intervals are constructed for a healthy heterogeneous population. Specifically, we advocate the use of distribution-free tolerance intervals calculated across a large amount of publicly available compositional data such as is found in the International Life Sciences Institute Crop Composition Database.', 'en_US'),
(3434, 'Evaluation of bollworm-tobacco budworm control strategies with ICEMM.', 'Economic comparisons of insect pest management strategies were made for the heliothine pests, bollworm, Helicoverpa zea (Boddie), and tobacco budworm, Heliothis virescens (F.); under 18 different combinations of in-season rainfall, pest densities, insecticide use, insect resistant cotton, and densities of beneficials insects. Comparisons were made using a mechanistic simulation model of insect-plant interactions. The model, referred to as the Integrated Crop Ecosystem Management Model (ICEMM), combined modified versions of the insect model, TEXCIM 5.0, and the cotton plant model, GOSSYM. Economic returns were calculated for each management strategy under each combination of in-season rainfall condition and heliothine density. In-season rainfall conditions were categorized as dry, average, optimum, and wet. Tobacco budworm densities were none, low, medium, and high. Management strategies were: no insect management when heliothines were absent; no insect management when heliothines were present; no insect management when heliothines were present with a light or heavy density of beneficial insects; one insecticide application at a low or high rate when heliothines were present; one insecticide application at a low or high rate when heliothines were present with a light or heavy density of beneficials; transgenic cotton expressing a Cry1A gene encoding an insecticidal delta-endotoxin from Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki, (Bt cotton), with no pest management; Bt cotton with a light or heavy density of beneficials; and Bt cotton with one application of insecticide at a low or high rate. The greatest net returns were obtained when heliothines were absent and insect management was not employed. When heliothines were present, the management strategy with doing nothing plus heavy beneficials resulted in the highest net returns. Optimum rain fall also improved net returns compared to other in-season rainfall rates.', 'en_US'),
(3435, 'Weed management costs, weed best management practices, and the Roundup Ready(R) weed management program.', 'Roundup Ready® (RR) crops have been widely adopted because they provide significant benefits to growers, but glyphosate-resistant weeds threaten the sustainability of these benefits. Weed best-management practices (BMPs) help manage resistance, but could increase weed-control costs, limiting their adoption. We use survey results to explore how adoption of BMPs affects weed-management costs in corn, cotton, and soybeans, controlling for farmer and regional characteristics. More experienced growers had lower weed-control costs. Cleaning equipment, using herbicides with different modes of action, and using supplemental tillage are BMPs associated with increased costs for some crops, which may explain why they are less widely adopted than other BMPs. However, growers commonly use other weed BMPs that also increase costs. Regression results suggest adoption of RR crops reduces weed-control costs and that weed scouting reduces costs for cotton and soybean growers. Use of residual herbicides was associated with higher costs for cotton growers, but not for corn or soybean growers. Rotating RR and non-RR crops on the same acreage was associated with higher costs for soybeans, but not for corn or cotton growers.', 'en_US'),
(3436, 'Genetic transformation and the use of glyphosate on soil microbial, biological nitrogen fixation, quality and safety of genetically modified soybean.', 'The genetically modified soybean resistant to glyphosate (GMRR) is the main product of plant biotechnology, considering the evolution of the area cultivated and the use of this grain. EUA, Argentina and Brazil are the largest producers of GMRR. The release of GMRR soybean cultivation in Brazil was done based on researches that were accomplished in other countries without the validation of the same edaphoclimatic conditions. In this context, the main researches about environmental impact, plant metabolism, quality and safety of GMRR soybean with or without glyphosate application were collected and investigated. In general, the researches investigated showed some similar characteristics: a) few variables were studied; b) simulations in green house or in vitro are used to infer possible response on the field. Although scarce, the researches denoted that the genetic transformation did not affect soil microorganisms, biological nitrogen fixation and composition of grains. The factor which could affect these variables is the glyphosate application in weed control, thus the risk of damage to the environment and the safety of products derived from this raw materialare due to the use of the herbicide during cultivation, and not to the genetic transformation. Key words: Transgenic soybean, soil microorganisms, herbicides residue, isoflavones.', 'en_US'),
(3437, 'Effects of weed resistance concerns and resistance management practices on the value of Roundup Ready(R) crops.', 'This study estimates grower benefits of Roundup-Ready® (RR) weed management programs and how weed-resistance concerns and resistance-management practices affect those benefits. Direct survey methods were used to elicit grower valuation\r\nof pecuniary and non-pecuniary benefits. We illustrate a hedonic strategy combined with principal component analysis to address part-whole bias present in previous assessments of non-pecuniary benefits of RR crops. Based on a national telephone survey of 1,205 growers, the mean reported benefit of RR relative to conventional seed varieties was more than $20 per acre for corn and soybean growers and about $50 per acre for cotton growers. Growers concerned about weed resistance reported lower benefits, but this effect was statistically significant only for cotton growers, reducing their perceived benefits by about 20% ($10 per acre). Use of a residual herbicide and annual rotation of herbicides\r\nare two practices to reduce the risk of weed resistance. Corn growers using residual herbicides perceived lower, though still positive, benefits. Soybean growers rotating herbicides perceived benefits to be higher. Growers more concerned about herbicide application costs and crop safety report lower benefits, while those more concerned about the flexibility of timing herbicide applications report higher RR benefits.', 'en_US'),
(3438, 'Stakeholder positions toward GM food: the case of vitamin A biofortified cassava in Brazil.', 'This article examines the factors that affect stakeholders’ positions toward genetically modified (GM) crops in Brazil, both in general and in the case of GM cassava in particular. Perceptions about the benefits of second-generation GM crops that have direct benefits for consumer are analyzed, and the tradeoffs that stakeholders make between the advantages of GM crops in terms of food quality and their potential risks in other areas as the environment are assessed. Using the Multiple Correspondence Analysis and cluster approaches, it was revealed that most of the stakeholders have positive attitudes toward GM crops. A high percentage agrees with the introduction of a GM cassava; however, a significant number of stakeholders are against this introduction because Brazil has other nutritional sources to combat Vitamin A deficiency. In addition, the country is a center of origin and diversity for cassava, which increases potential environmental risk associated with GMO release.', 'en_US'),
(3439, 'Effects of transgenic rice expressing Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Ab protein on ground-dwelling collembolan community in postharvest seasons.', 'During 2005–2008, field studies were conducted at two locations in Chongqing, China, to assess the potential effects of transgenic rice expressing Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Cry1Ab protein on the nontarget ground-dwelling collembolan community in three postharvest seasons. Collembolans in non-Bt and Bt rice fields were sampled with pitfall traps during each of two postharvest seasons of 2005/2006 and 2006/2007 and litterbag traps during each of three postharvest seasons of 2005/2006, 2006/2007, and 2007/2008. Ground-dwelling collembolans in rice fields during the postharvest seasons were abundant, whereas community densities varied considerably between the two locations and among the three seasons. A total of 67,310 collembolans, representing three species, Entomobrya griseoolivata, Hypogastrura matura, and Bourletiella christianseni, were captured during the three postharvest seasons. E. griseoolivata was the predominant species, accounting for 87.7% of the total captures, followed by H. matura (10.7%) and B. christianseni (1.6%). In general, there were no significant differences in species compositions and abundances of each species between Bt and non-Bt paddy fields, suggesting no significantly impact of plant residues of Cry1Ab rice on collembolan communities during postharvest seasons.', 'en_US'),
(3440, 'Glyphosate-resistant crops and weeds: now and in the future.', 'Glyphosate-resistant (GR) crops represent more than 80% of the 120 million ha of transgenic crops grown annually worldwide. GR crops have been rapidly adopted in soybean, maize, cotton, canola, and sugarbeet in large part because of the economic advantage of the technology, as well as the simple and superior weed control that glyphosate delivers. Furthermore, the GR crop/glyphosate technology is generally more environmentally benign than the weed management technologies that it replaced. In the Americas, except for Canada, adoption has meant continuous and intense selection pressure with glyphosate, resulting in evolution of GR weeds and shifts to weed species that are only partially controlled by glyphosate. This development is jeopardizing the benefits of this valuable technology. New transgenic crops with resistance to other herbicide classes&amp;#65533;in some cases coupled with glyphosate resistance&amp;#65533;will be introduced soon. If used wisely, these tools can be integrated into resistance management and prevention strategies. Greater diversity in weed management technologies is badly needed to preserve the utility of the GR crop/glyphosate technology.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(3441, 'Genetically modified plants for non-food or non-feed purposes: straightforward screening for their appearance in food and feed.', 'Genetically modified (GM) plants aimed at producing food/feed are part of regular agriculture in many areas of the World. Commodity plants have also found application as bioreactors, designated non-food/non-feed GM (NFGM) plants, thereby making raw material for further refinement to industrial, diagnostic or pharmaceutical preparations. Many among them may pose health challenge to consumers or livestock animals, if occurring in food/feed. NFGM plants are typically released into the environment, but are grown under special oversight and any among several containment practices, none of which provide full protection against accidental dispersal. Adventitious admixture with food or feed can occur either through distributional mismanagement or as a consequence of gene flow to plant relatives. To facilitate NFGM surveillance we propose a new mandatory tagging of essentially all such plants, prior to cultivation or marketing in the European Union. The suggested tag--Plant-Made Industrial or Pharmaceutical Products Tag (PMIP-T)--is envisaged to occur as a transgenic silent DNA identifier in host plants and designed to enable technically simple identification and characterisation of any NFGM. Implementation of PMIP-T would permit inexpensive, reliable and high-throughput screening for NFGM specifically. The paper outlines key NFGM prospects and challenges as well as the PMIP-T concept.', 'en_US'),
(3442, 'Review of animal models designed to predict the potential allergenicity of novel proteins in genetically modified crops.', 'The safety assessment of genetically modified crops involves the evaluation of the potential allergenicity of novel proteins by using several in silico and in vitro endpoints. In this publication, the variables and questions associated with the development of in vivo models are examined and several unpublished results are presented. Both rodent and non-rodent (dog and pig) models have been investigated using various routes of administration with purified proteins or food extracts, with or without the use of an adjuvant. The ideal model should be simple, reproducible across laboratories over time, specific and sensitive enough for distinguishing a threshold beyond which relevant allergenicity would be predicted and, for ranking proteins correlated with the allergic responses in humans, and acceptable under animal care. Preliminary data suggest that a few appear promising; however, further evaluation of these models is required. In particular, more extensive validation testing with additional allergenic and non-allergenic material should be performed before using them in the safety assessment of genetically modified crops.', 'en_US'),
(3443, 'Biodegradation of genetically modified seeds and plant tissues during composting.', 'BACKGROUND: The increasing global market of genetically modified (GM) crops amplifies the potential for unintentional contamination of food and feed with GM plants. Methods proposed for disposal of crop residues should be assessed to prevent unintended distribution of GM materials. Composting of organic material is inexpensive and location-independent. The objective of this study was to determine the effectiveness of composting for disposal of GM plants in terms of reducing seed viability and promoting the degradation of endogenous as well as transgenic DNA.\r\nRESULTS: Duplicate samples of corn kernels, alfalfa leaves, and GM canola seeds, meal and pellets were sealed in porous nylon bags and implanted in duplicate 85 000 kg (initial weight) feedlot manure compost piles. Samples were collected at intervals over 230 days of composing. Canola seeds and corn kernels were not viable after 14 days of composting with temperatures in the piles exceeding 50 °C. In all samples, PCR analyses revealed that plant endogenous and transgenic fragments were substantially degraded after 230 days of composting. Southern blotting of genomic DNA isolated from canola seeds identified differences in the persistence of endogenous, transgenic, and bacterial DNA.\r\nCONCLUSION: Composting GM and non-GM plant materials with manure rendered seeds non-viable, and resulted in substantial, although not complete, degradation of endogenous and transgenic plant DNA. This study demonstrates that composting could be effective for disposing of GM crops in the event of their inadvertent entry into the food or feed chain. ', 'en_US'),
(3444, 'Determining sex and screening for the adventitious presence of transgenic material in Carica papaya L. seed germplasm.', 'Papaya ringspot virus (PRSV) is a devastating disease that has a detrimental impact on both commercial papaya production and Caricaceac germplasm conservation. In 1998, the PRSV coat protein transgenic line 55-I and derived pro genN were released to growers in Hawaii. The transgenic varieties have provided durable and practical control of the disease that have saved the papaya industry. However, like with transgenic crops throughout the world, there is public concern about the possibility of cross-contamination of these transgenic materials into nontransgenic lines. As the designated germplasm repository for Caricaceae, we are responsible for maintaining the genetic integrity of cacti accession. Therefore, we have developed a protocol using polymerase chain reaction for detection of the adventitious presence of the 55-1 transgene insertion event in both parental plants and their progeny seed populations. This protocol assures a 99.9% confidence level of obtaining seeds that are 99.5% transgene-free. The protocol developed in this study is not typical for most seed validation techniques because there is a higher than normal producer risk resulting from the potential of large numbers of seeds not meeting the stringent criteria. However, we believe this is necessary to ensure the genetic integrity of seeds stored in the repository.', 'en_US'),
(3445, 'Impact of castor as a trap crop in relation to major insect pests in cotton agroecosystem.', 'A field trial was conducted during 2007-2008 crop season to study the effect of castor as a trap crop in cotton agroecosystem in relation to major insect pests. The treatments were 5, 10 and 15 rows of Bt cotton interspersed each with row of castor, respectively, sole crop of Bt cotton and castor. Based on the pooled data, the treatment comprising of 10 rows of Bt cotton interspersed with 1 row of castor registered low incidence of jassids, Amrasca bigutulla Ishida (0.76 nymphs/3 leaves); whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (2.78 adults/ 3 leaves) and tobacco caterpillar, Spodoptera litura (Fabricius) (6.84 larvae/plant). The sole crop of castor recorded high population of whitefly (6.43 adults/ 3 leaves) and tobacco caterpillar (28.83 larvae/plant). No egg as well as larval population of American bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) was observed throughout the cotton-castor season.', 'en_US'),
(3446, 'Heterodera glycines population develoment on soybean treated with glyphosate.', 'Soybean cyst nematode (Heterodera glycines) is a major yield limiting pest in all major soybean producing countries. In the last decade genetically modified soybean tolerant to glyphosate has become widely planted and postemergence application of glyphosate has increased exponentially. Genetically modified crops may affect nontarget microorganisms, either directly or indirectly as in the case of glyphosate application to tolerant crops. Glyphosate translocates to soybean roots where it might affect metabolic sinks such as syncytia produced by Heterodera glycines. In 2002 - 2004 glyphosate tolerant soybean DSR 320 susceptible to H. glycines and DSR 327 resistant to H. glycines were grown in three different fields and either sprayed with glyphosate at the recommended rate and time of application or not sprayed. Nematode reproduction and soybean yield were determined. In all three years, Pf and Pf/Pi were significantly greater on DSR 320 when compared with DSR 327. In 2004, when Pi exceeded the damage threshold, there was a cultivar × glyphosate interaction for Pf on DSR 320 with greater numbers of eggs recovered from glyphosate treated DSR 320. In 2002 and 2003 Pi was below the damage threshold and no differences in yield occurred between the resistant and susceptible cultivars. However, in 2003 a significant cultivar × glyphosate interaction was observed for yield of DSR 320. In 2004 a significant difference in yield between DSR 320 and DSR 327 was observed. Glyphosate application affected Pf of H. glycines eggs in 2004, the only year Pi exceeded the damage threshold. However, the increase Pf did not translate into crop loss.', 'en_US'),
(3447, 'Longterm biosafety assessment of a genetically modified (GM) plant: the genetically modified (GM) insect-resistant Bt11 corn does not affect the performance of multi-generations or life span of mice.', 'The longterm performance of multi-generations or life span was assessed using genetically modified (GM) insect-resistant Bt11 corn. Diet containing 68% of GM Bt11 or non-Bt isoline with sufficient nutrient composition was fed to male and female ICR mice through 5 generations. The results of growth, mating, gestation, milking periods, reproduction and life span were not different between the GM Bt11 and non-Bt fed groups. The percentage of embryonic death, litter size, newborn sex ratio and body weight (21-60 days after birth) were not different between these groups. The life span of the third-generation mice did not differ over 1,072 days of observation. In addition, there was a tendency for a weight decrease among each group as the generations progressed, but there was no significant difference in performance among each group in each generation of mice.', 'en_US'),
(3448, 'Interferences in the agrisystem and environmental risks of herbicide tolerant and insect protected transgenic crops.', 'Genetic engineering allowed the development of transgenic crops, whose area is planted in 18 countries reaches 67,7 million ha, mainly with plants expressing genes for herbicide tolerance and protection against target insects. Even after rigorous risk assessment, transgenic crops have been a major concern due to potential environmental effects, such as gene flow and impacts on biodiversity. Considering corn and soybean, the risks of horizontal gene flow are remote due to the absence of wild compatible species, whereas such a risk exists for cotton in certain regions of Brazil. The genetic contamination of conventional crops may occur, but this can be prevented by spatial or temporal isolations. Other concern is related to impacts of cultivars expressing insecticide proteins, but the various available studies indicate that the risks of such crops are despicable. The reduction in pesticide use in transgenic croppings may favor biodiversity in comparison to conventional ones, but continued use of glyphosate or Bt crops may favor the development of resistant species and environmental contamination. Such risks however are not exclusive of transgenic cropping. The reviewed studies indicate that transgenic croppings may interfere in the agrisystem, but modifications observed so far, are not different in nature and magnitude from those normally observed in conventional cropping systems. In order to ensure ecosystem biosafety, mitigating practices for eventual risks and monitoring have been recommended for transgenic agrisystems. ', 'en_US'),
(3449, 'Introduction of genetically modified plants in Brazil: Is assessment of environmental risk justifiable?', '', 'en_US'),
(3450, 'Effects of Bt transgenic Chinese cabbage pollen expressing Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Ac toxin on the non-target insect Bombyx mori (Lepidoptera: Bombyxidae) larvae.', 'We evaluated the effects of the pollens of transgenic Chinese cabbage (Brassica campestris subsp. napus var. pekinensis Makino), expressing Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Ac toxin (Bt cabbage), on Bombyx mori larvae. Decreased survival rate and body weight of B. mori larvae were observed when fed with an artificial diet containing Bt cabbage pollens. ELISA test using Cry1Ac-antibody revealed that the Cry toxin was detected not only in the alimentary canal but also in the hemolymph and remaining body parts, suggesting that the ingested Cry1Ac protein is distributed inside the body likely through the damaged midgut epithelial membrane of B. mori. Taken together, our results suggested that Bt cabbage pollens adversely affect non-target insect B. mori larvae when consumed. Considering the low possibility of Bt cabbage pollen exposure to B. mori in the actual field condition, however, the risk would be minimal.', 'en_US'),
(3451, 'Assessment of effects of Bt-oilseed rape on large white butterfly (Pieris brassicae) in natural habitats.', 'Much effort has been allocated to the definition of risk, relevant for the assessment of genetically modified plants. However, few studies have emphasised the limitations in testing methods. In this study, tests for and effects on non-target herbivores were exemplified and evaluated for Pieris brassicae (L.) (Lepidoptera: Pieridae) and a genetically modified Brassica napus L. (Brassicaceae) expressing the Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)-toxin Cry1Ac. It was established that this herbivore recognises and accepts the transgenic plant as a host. It was found that ovipositing females of P. brassicae preferred the transgenic variety for egg-laying. Therefore, effects of the transgenic host plant on the herbivore were determined. Larvae feeding on the Bt-plants experienced 100% mortality for all larval stages. Based on these observations, a population model was established. The model showed that larval survival is increased with amount of food (number of plants) and reduced with the frequency of transgenic specimens, number of host plants needed for completing larval development, and number of egg-laying butterflies. Such models may both aid the design of further tests for effects and support the assessment whether population effects are likely to occur due to the presence of insect-resistant plants outside the agricultural area.\r\n', 'en_US'),
(3452, 'How transgenic and classically bred apple genotypes affect non-target organisms on higher trophic levels.', 'Current plant breeding comprises classical techniques as well as biotechnological methods suitable to insert target genes into the plant genome. Potential non-target effects of these newly developed plants have to be evaluated in appropriate risk assessment studies. We investigated non-target effects of four apple genotypes (Malus&amp;#8201;×&amp;#8201;domestica L. Borkh.; Rosaceae). They were either susceptible or resistant to the fungal phytopathogen causing apple scab, Venturia inaequalis (Cke.) Wint. (Ascomycotina: Pleosporales), and were either of transgenic origin or classically bred, differing in or sharing a single trait each. Experiments on insect performance were carried out with two non-target species, namely the apple leafminer Phyllonorycter blancardella Fabricius (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae) and its parasitoid Pholetesor circumscriptus Nees (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). Development time of the apple leafminer was not affected by the four apple genotypes. By contrast, the number of emerged adult moths significantly differed between the two classically bred cultivars, whereas no effect of the two transgenic apple genotypes was detected. Paralleling the observations of the apple leafminer development, no impact of the four apple genotypes on parasitoid development time and parasitism success could be detected. Although mean numbers of emerged parasitoids were lower on the cultivars with fewer emerged apple leafminers, these differences were not significant. Herbivore and parasitoid performance was not altered in the presence of pathogen inoculation. In conclusion, host plant suitability was found to be more determined by variability among classically bred apple cultivars than by the transgenic genotypes tested. To elucidate possible effects of transgenic plants within multitrophic interactions, an appropriate risk assessment incorporating the relevant controls is crucial.', 'en_US'),
(3453, 'Medical and biological safety assessment of genetically modified maize event MIR604: Report 2. Genotoxicologic, immunologic and allergologic examinations..', 'There are presented the results of genotoxicologic, immunologic and allergologic examinations which were conducted within the framework of integrated medical and biological assessment of genetically modified rootworm Diabrotica spp.-protected maize event MIR604. Analysis of damages of DNA and structural chromosome aberrations, assessment of the allergenic potential and immunoreactive properties has not confirmed any genotoxic, allergenic and immunotoxic effect of maize event MIR604.', 'en_US'),
(3454, 'Medical and biological safety assessment of genetically modified maize event MIR604: Report 1. Toxicologo-hygienic examinations.', 'The results of toxicologo-hygienic examinations, which were conducted within the framework of integrated medical and biological assessment of genetically modified rootworm Diabrotica spp.-protected maize event MIR604, are presented. Analysis of morphological, hematological, biochemical parameters and system (sensitive) biomarkers has not confirmed any toxic effect of maize event MIR604.', 'en_US'),
(3455, 'Delivering genetically engineered crops to poor farmers: recommendations for improved biosafety regulations in developing countries.', 'Small-scale, resource-poor farmers in developing countries face daily stresses, including poor soils, drought, and lack of inputs. Ongoing trends such as climate change and population growth will likely exacerbate binding stresses. A new generation of genetically engineered (GE) crop research aims to alleviate these pressures through the improvement of subsistence crops—such as cassava, sorghum, and millet—that incorporate traits such as tolerance to drought, water, and aluminum in soils as well as plants with more efficient nitrogen and phosphor use. However, many developing countries lack the necessary biosafety systems for a timely and cost-effective adoption. This brief focuses on the regulatory reforms necessary for farmers and consumers in developing countries to benefit from GE crops.', 'en_US'),
(3456, 'Video-tracking and on-plant tests show Cry1Ab resistance influences behavior and survival of neonate Ostrinia nubilalis following exposure to Bt maize.', 'To examine how resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxins influences movement and survival of European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis [Hübner]) neonates, the responses of Cry1Ab-resistant , -susceptible, and hybrid (F1) larvae were examined using two different techniques. First, using an automated video-tracking system, aspects of O. nubilalis movement were quantified in the presence of artificial diet incorporating 50% non-Bt or insect-resistant Cry1Ab maize tissue. Second, O. nubilalis dispersal and survival were measured 48–72 h after hatching on a Cry1Ab maize plant surrounded by two non-Bt maize plants. Video tracking indicated the presence of Cry1Ab tissue increased the total distance moved (m), time moving (%), and time away from the diet (%) for O. nubilalis while decreasing meander (degrees/cm). However, resistant larvae showed reduced movement and increased meander (&amp;#8776;localized searching) relative to susceptible or hybrid larvae on diet incorporating Cry1Ab tissue. Conversely, when placed onto Cry1Ab maize plants, resistant larvae were more likely than susceptible O. nubilalis to disperse onto adjacent non-Bt plants. The difference in on-plant dispersal seems to reflect greater survival after toxin exposure for resistant larvae rather than increased activity. These results suggest that simplified ‘Petri dish’ tests may not be predictive of larval movement among non-Bt and insect-resistant Bt maize plants. Because models of O. nubilalis resistance evolution incorporate various movement and survival parameters, improved data for on-plant behavior and survival of Bt- resistant , -susceptible, and hybrid larvae should help preserve the efficacy of transgenic insect-resistant maize.', 'en_US'),
(3457, 'Going to ridiculous lengths -- European coexistence regulations for GM crops.', 'Even if a GM crop can surmount Europe''s excessive product registration process, any farmer hoping to plant it must then navigate tortuous, arbitrary and scientifically unjustifiable coexistence regulations.', 'en_US'),
(3458, 'Efforts to deregulate Rainbow papaya in Japan: molecular characterization of transgene and vector inserts.', 'Transformation plasmid-derived insert number and insert site sequence in 55-1 line papaya derivatives Rainbow and SunUp was determined as part of a larger petition to allow its import into Japan (Suzuki et al., 2007, 2008). Three insertions were detected by Southern analysis and their corresponding sequences determined by clones (Fermín, 2002) or via the whole genome shotgun (WGS) sequence database of SunUp (Ming et al., 2008). All functional transgenes including the coat protein (CP) gene that confers resistance to PRSV, and visible and selectable marker genes, uidA encoding glucuronidase (GUS) and nptII encoding neomycin phosphotransferase II were found in a single 9,789 basepair (bp) insert referred to as the functional transgene. The two other insertion sites consisted of a 290 bp nonfunctional sequence of the nptII gene and a 1,533 bp plasmid-derived fragment containing a nonfunctional 222 bp segment of the tetA gene. Detection of the same three inserts in Rainbow and in samples of SunUp representing transgenic generations five to eight (R5 to R8) suggests that the inserts are stable. Five out of the six genomic DNA segments flanking the three inserts were nuclear plastid sequences (nupts). No changes to endogenous gene function based on sequence structure of the transformation plasmid DNA insertion sites could be determined and no allergenic or toxic proteins were predicted from analysis of the insertion site and flanking genomic DNA. These results should support a positive review of the petition to allow the import and consumption of Rainbow and its derivatives in Japan, which is currently in its final stages. Export of Rainbow papaya to Japan will greatly benefit the local papaya industry in Hawaii and will provide a case for testing consumer acceptance of genetically engineered fresh products in Japan.', 'en_US'),
(3459, 'Does feeding on Bt-maize affect the slug Arion vulgaris (Mollusca: Arionidae)?', 'Via expression of Cry-proteins, toxic for specific insect groups, genetically modified Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) maize offers an effective protection against insect pests. In a laboratory experiment with two transgenic and two non-transgenic maize varieties, a potential impact of Bt-maize was examined for the non-target slug Arion vulgaris. Lifetime after field collection, weight change and oviposition was examined for slugs fed with Bt-maize, non Bt-maize or dandelion (Taraxacum officinale). Test parameters were neither significantly different between transgenic and non-transgenic varieties nor among the maize varieties overall. Slugs fed with dandelion showed a significantly longer lifetime after field collection, gained significantly more weight and laid eggs. The results did not show a Bt-effect but indicated the general poor quality of maize as food resource for slugs. ', 'en_US'),
(3460, 'Confirmation of a predicted lack of IgE binding to Cry3Bb1 from genetically modified (GM) crops.', 'Some GM crops including MON863 corn and stack varieties contain Cry3Bb1 protein. Cry3Bb1 is very important from the standpoint of assessing the safety of GM crops. In this study Cry3Bb1 was assessed from the standpoint of possible binding to IgE from allergy patients. First, an ELISA that was improved in our laboratory was used to test serum samples from 13 corn allergy patients in the United States with recombinant Cry3Bb1 expressed in Escherichia coli, and serum samples from 55 patients in Japan with various food allergies were also assayed. Two samples from the Japanese allergy patients were suspected of being positive, but Western blotting analysis with purified Cry3Bb1 indicated that the binding between IgE and Cry3Bb1 was nonspecific. Ultimately, no specific binding between IgE and recombinant Cry3Bb1 was detected. Next, all proteins extracted from MON863 corn and non-GM corn were probed with IgE antibodies in serum samples from the corn allergy patients by Western blotting, but the staining patterns of MON863 and non-GM corn were similar, meaning that unintended allergic reactions to MON863 are unlikely to occur. Our study provides additional information that confirms the predicted lack of IgE binding to Cry3Bb1 in people with existing food allergies.', 'en_US'),
(3461, 'General recommendations for soil ecotoxicological tests suitable for the environmental risk assessment of genetically modified plants.', 'Before a genetically modified plant (GMP) can be placed on the market in the European Union (EU), an environmental risk assessment has to be conducted according to EU-Directive 2001/18/EC or the Regulation (EC) No 1829/2003 of the European Parliament and of the Council. However, no harmonized concept for the ecotoxicological testing is available today that considers the characteristics of GMPs as a whole. In fact, to date mainly ecotoxicological tests originally developed and standardized for pesticides are used for this purpose. Frequently in these tests, not the whole GMP is tested but only specific transgene products (mainly toxins). In this contribution, ecotoxicological methods developed for the testing of pesticides are evaluated whether they are suitable for the risk assessment of GMPs as well. In total, 105 test methods covering a wide range of terrestrial invertebrates, microbes and plants (laboratory, semi-field and field level) were assessed. Only seven of them had already been used with GMPs, while in about 20 studies the existing tests methods were modified; mostly in a way that non-standard species were used. In the laboratory, few earthworm and non-target arthropod (NTA) species as well as collembolans and isopods were most often tested, and in the field, only the litter-bag test was used. Clearly, more species than those few standard organisms currently used have to be selected for testing purposes. A more detailed analysis of GMP-tests with soil invertebrates published in the literature revealed that some of the relevant GMP exposure routes like via bulk soil, soil pore water and litter from GMPs are well covered. However, studies addressing either the consumption of GMPs themselves or secondary exposure after taking-up invertebrates that fed on living or dead GMPs are underrepresented.', 'en_US'),
(3462, 'Evaluating western corn rootworm (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) emergence and root damage in a seed mix refuge.', 'Resistance management is essential for maintaining the efficacy and long-term durability of transgenic corn engineered to control western corn rootworm (Diabrotica virgifera virgifera Le Conte). Theoretically, a refuge can be provided by growing susceptible (refuge) plants in either a separate section of the field adjacent to resistant (transgenic) plants, or as a seed mixture. We examined the effects of varying the structure of a 10 and 20% refuge between currently approved structured refuges (block or strip plantings), as well as deploying the refuge within a seed mix, on adult emergence timing and magnitude, root damage and yield. Our 2-yr field study used naturally occurring western corn rootworm populations and included seven treatments: 10 and 20% block refuge, 10 and 20% strip refuge, 10 and 20% seed mix refuge, and 100% refuge. Beetles emerging from refuge corn emerged more synchronously with those emerging from transgenic (Bacillus thuringiensis [Berliner] Bt-RW) corn in seed mix refuges when compared with block refuges. The proportion of beetles emerging from refuge plants was significantly greater in a block and strip refuge structure than in a seed mix refuge. More beetles emerged from Bt-RW corn plants when they were grown as part of a seed mix. We discuss the potential benefits and drawbacks of a seed mix refuge structure in light of these findings.', 'en_US'),
(3463, 'Use of airborne remote sensing to detect riverside Brassica rapa to aid in risk assessment of transgenic crops', 'High resolution descriptions of plant distribution have utility for many ecological applications but are especially useful for predictive modeling of gene flow from transgenic crops. Difficulty lies in the extrapolation errors that occur when limited ground survey data are scaled up to the landscape or national level. This problem is epitomized by the wide confidence limits generated in a previous attempt to describe the national abundance of riverside Brassica rapa (a wild relative of cultivated rapeseed) across the United Kingdom. Here, we assess the value of airborne remote sensing to locate B. rapa over large areas and so reduce the need for extrapolation. We describe results from flights over the river Nene in England acquired using Airborne Thematic Mapper (ATM) and Compact Airborne Spectrographic Imager (CASI) imagery, together with ground truth data. It proved possible to detect 97% of flowering B. rapa on the basis of spectral profiles. This included all stands of plants that occupied &gt;2m square (&gt;5 plants), which were detected using single-pixel classification. It also included very small populations (&lt;5 flowering plants, 1-2m square) that generated mixed pixels, which were detected using spectral unmixing. The high detection accuracy for flowering B. rapa was coupled with a rather large false positive rate (43%). The latter could be reduced by using the image detections to target fieldwork to confirm species identity, or by acquiring additional remote sensing data such as laser altimetry or multitemporal imagery.', 'en_US'),
(3464, 'Bt Cry1Ac insecticidal crystal protein family and its molecular design', 'Bacillus thuringiensis insecticidal crystal protein has exhibited high toxicity to some agricultural insects. Cry1Ac insecticidal crystal proteins were firstly obtained from the Bt kurstaki HD73 in the form of parasporal crystals, the open reading frame of the cry1Ac gene contains 3 534 bp encoding a 133 kD protein with 1 178 amino acids and its IE point was 4.84. This paper summarizes the structure, function and gene taxonomy of Cry1Ac insecticidal crystal proteins and reviews as well the research of genetic engineering of insecticidal crystal proteins of Bacillus thuringiensis and its application in transgenic plant breeding. We also analyzed the problems existed in the transgenic plants and molecular plant breeding at present, gave advices on these problems and proposed some new views about utilization of the Bt insecticidal crystal protein with reasons.', 'en_US'),
(3465, 'China''s biotech crops, opportunities and challenges.', 'In July 2008, Chinese government has launched a $3.5 billion initiative to accelerate the development of new genetically modified plants, which is very significant to the plant biotechnology development in China. In this historic moment for plant biotechnology, we looked back to its historic development globally as well as the current status in China. Moreover, we discussed some issues in China that may cause restriction to the research and commercialization of plant biotechnology. In this paper, the author also presented the different views on the potential risk coming from plant biotechnology as well as the current situation in China, in which there is the necessity to perfect and thoroughly apply a rigor law system to supervise the plant biotechnology research and development. In China, plant biotechnology gives a promising future: however, opportunity always comes with challenge.', 'en_US'),
(3466, 'Effects of genetic modification on the decomposition of corn residues measured by litter-bag method.', '', 'en_US'),
(3467, 'Transgenic perennial biofuel feedstocks and strategies for bioconfinement.', 'The use of transgenic tools for the improvement of plant feedstocks will be required to realize the full economic and environmental benefits of cellulosic and other biofuels, particularly from perennial plants. Traits that are targets for improvement of biofuels crops include herbicide resistance, pest, drought, cold and salt tolerance, nutrient use efficiency, altered cell wall composition and improved processing and end-use characteristics. However, controlling gene flow is a major issue and there is no regulatory experience with perennial plants as dedicated biofuels feedstocks. Bioconfinement of transgenes is thus an obvious regulatory and biosafety objective to the release and commercialization of transgenic bioenergy feedstocks. In this article, we review bioconfinement strategies that target pollen or seeds that can be applied to perennial plants used as biofuels. These include male sterility, integration of transgenes into plastid genomes, removal of transgenes in pollen and seeds, transgene expression in vegetative organs for harvest before appearance of reproductive structures or gene use restriction technologies.', 'en_US'),
(3468, 'Culturable endophytic filamentous fungi from leaves of transgenic imidazolinone-tolerant sugarcane and its non-transgenic isolines.', 'The diversity of endophytic filamentous fungi from leaves of transgenic imidazolinone-tolerant sugarcane plants and its isoline was evaluated by cultivation followed by amplified rDNA restriction analysis (ARDRA) of randomly selected strains. Transgenic and non-transgenic cultivars and their crop management (herbicide application or manual weed control) were used to assess the possible non-target effects of genetically modified sugarcane on the fungal endophytic community. A total of 14 ARDRA haplotypes were identified in the endophytic community of sugarcane. Internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequencing revealed a rich community represented by 12 different families from the Ascomycota phylum. Some isolates had a high sequence similarity with genera that are common endophytes in tropical climates, such as Cladosporium, Epicoccum, Fusarium, Guignardia, Pestalotiopsis and Xylaria. Analysis of molecular variance indicated that fluctuations in fungal population were related to both transgenic plants and herbicide application. While herbicide applications quickly induced transient changes in the fungal community, transgenic plants induced slower changes that were maintained over time. These results represent the first draft on composition of endophytic filamentous fungi associated with sugarcane plants. They are an important step in understanding the possible effects of transgenic plants and their crop management on the fungal endophytic community. ', 'en_US'),
(3469, 'Transcriptome analysis reveals absence of unintended effects in drought-tolerant transgenic plants overexpressing the transcription factor ABF3.', 'Background: Plants engineered for abiotic stress tolerance may soon be commercialized. The engineering of these plants typically involves the manipulation of complex multigene networks and may therefore have a greater potential to introduce pleiotropic effects than the simple monogenic traits that currently dominate the plant biotechnology market. While research on unintended effects in transgenic plant systems has been instrumental in demonstrating the substantial equivalence of many transgenic plant systems, it is essential that such analyses be extended to transgenic plants engineered for stress tolerance. Drought-tolerant Arabidopsis thaliana were engineered through overexpression of the transcription factor ABF3 in order to investigate unintended pleiotropic effects. In order to eliminate position effects, the Cre/lox recombination system was used to create control plant lines that contain identical T-DNA insertion sites but with the ABF3 transgene excised. This additionally allowed us to determine if Cre recombinase can cause unintended effects that impact the transcriptome.\r\n\r\nResults: Microarray analysis of control plant lines that underwent Cre-mediated excision of the ABF3 transgene revealed only two genes that were differentially expressed in more than one plant line, suggesting that the impact of Cre recombinase on the transcriptome was minimal. In the absence of drought stress, overexpression of ABF3 had no effect on the transcriptome, but following drought stress, differences were observed in the gene expression patterns of plants overexpressing ABF3 relative to control plants. Examination of the functional distribution of the differentially expressed genes revealed strong similarity indicating that unintended pathways were not activated.\r\n\r\nConclusions: The action of ABF3 is tightly controlled in Arabidopsis. In the absence of drought stress, ectopic activation of drought response pathways does not occur. In response to drought stress, overexpression of ABF3 results in a reprogramming of the drought response, which is characterized by changes in the timing or strength of expression of some drought response genes, without activating any unexpected gene networks. These results illustrate that important gene networks are highly regulated in Arabidopsis and that engineering stress tolerance may not necessarily cause extensive changes to the transcriptome.\r\n', 'en_US'),
(3470, 'See what you eat--broad GMO screening with microarrays.', 'Despite the controversy of whether genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are beneficial or harmful for humans, animals, and/or ecosystems, the number of cultivated GMOs is increasing every year. Many countries and federations have implemented safety and surveillance systems for GMOs. Potent testing technologies need to be developed and implemented to monitor the increasing number of GMOs. First, these GMO tests need to be comprehensive, i.e., should detect all, or at least the most important, GMOs on the market. This type of GMO screening requires a high degree of parallel tests or multiplexing. To date, DNA microarrays have the highest number of multiplexing capabilities when nucleic acids are analyzed. This trend article focuses on the evolution of DNA microarrays for GMO testing. Over the last 7 years, combinations of multiplex PCR detection and microarray detection have been developed to qualitatively assess the presence of GMOs. One example is the commercially available DualChip® GMO (Eppendorf, Germany; http://www.eppendorf-biochip.com), which is the only GMO screening system successfully validated in a multicenter study. With use of innovative amplification techniques, promising steps have recently been taken to make GMO detection with microarrays quantitative.', 'en_US'),
(3471, 'Towards future reference systems for GM analysis.', 'Despite the fact that the measurement unit for the quantification of GMOs in food and feed products has not yet been unambiguously agreed upon in Europe, international trade requires reliable GMO analysis measuring comparably the GMO content of products. The two reference systems, based either on mass fractions or on copy number ratios, and their metrological traceability chains are presented and discussed. It is concluded that, properly established and expressed, measurement results in copy number ratios can provide a metrologically sound reference system. In this case, certified reference materials used for calibration and quality control can be independent of each other and the uncertainty derived from calibration can correctly be included in the overall uncertainty of the GMO measurement. However, further efforts are required to establish this metrological system.', 'en_US'),
(3472, 'Effect of food processing on plant DNA degradation and PCR-based GMO analysis: a review.', 'The applicability of a DNA-based method for GMO detection and quantification depends on the quality and quantity of the DNA. Important food-processing conditions, for example temperature and pH, may lead to degradation of the DNA, rendering PCR analysis impossible or GMO quantification unreliable. This review discusses the effect of several food processes on DNA degradation and subsequent GMO detection and quantification. The data show that, although many of these processes do indeed lead to the fragmentation of DNA, amplification of the DNA may still be possible. Length and composition of the amplicon may, however, affect the result, as also may the method of extraction used. Also, many techniques are used to describe the behaviour of DNA in food processing, which occasionally makes it difficult to compare research results. Further research should be aimed at defining ingredients in terms of their DNA quality and PCR amplification ability, and elaboration of matrix-specific certified reference materials. ', 'en_US'),
(3473, 'Development of sampling approaches for the determination of the presence of genetically modified organisms at the field level.', 'In order to comply with the European Union regulatory threshold for the adventitious presence of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in food and feed, it is important to trace GMOs from the field. Appropriate sampling methods are needed to accurately predict the presence of GMOs at the field level. A 2-year field experiment with two maize varieties differing in kernel colour was conducted in Slovenia. Based on the results of data mining analyses and modelling, it was concluded that spatial relations between the donor and receptor field were the most important factors influencing the distribution of outcrossing rate (OCR) in the field. The approach for estimation fitting function parameters in the receptor (non-GM) field at two distances from the donor (GM) field (10 and 25 m) for estimation of the OCR (GMO content) in the whole receptor field was developed. Different sampling schemes were tested; a systematic random scheme in rows was proposed to be applied for sampling at the two distances for the estimation of fitting function parameters for determination of OCR. The sampling approach had already been validated with some other OCR data and was practically applied in the 2009 harvest in Poland. The developed approach can be used for determination of the GMO presence at the field level and for making appropriate labelling decisions. The importance of this approach lies in its possibility to also address other threshold levels beside the currently prescribed labelling threshold of 0.9% for food and feed.', 'en_US'),
(3474, 'Detection of Cry1Ab toxin in the leaves of MON 810 transgenic maize.', 'The distribution of Cry1Ab toxin was detected in the leaves of genetically modified maize of genetic event MON 810 by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Cry1Ab toxin contents in the leaves at reproductive (milk, R3) phenological stage were measured to be between 3,878 and 11,148 ng Cry1Ab toxin/g fresh weight. Toxin content was significantly lesser (significant difference (SD)&amp;#8201;=&amp;#8201;1,823 ng Cry1Ab toxin/g fresh leaf weight, p&amp;#8201;&lt;&amp;#8201;0.01) in leaves at the lowest leaf level, than at higher leaf levels, probably due to partial leaf necrotisation. A substantial (up to 22%) plant-to-plant variation in Cry1Ab contents in leaves was observed. When studying toxin distribution within the cross and longitudinal sections of single leaves, lesser variability was detected diagonally, with approximately 20% higher toxin concentrations at or near the leaf vein. More significant variability (SD&amp;#8201;=&amp;#8201;2,220 ng Cry1Ab toxin/g fresh leaf weight, p&amp;#8201;&lt;&amp;#8201;0.01) was seen lengthwise along the leaf, starting at 1,892 ng Cry1Ab toxin/g fresh weight at the sheath and rising to maximum concentration at the middle of the lamella. Cry1Ab toxin content may suffer significant (SD&amp;#8201;=&amp;#8201;2,230 ng Cry1Ab toxin/g fresh leaf weight, p&amp;#8201;&lt;&amp;#8201;0.01) decreases in the leaf due to necrotisation. The results indicate that the longitudinal dimension of the leaf has more significance for sampling purposes than the diagonal position', 'en_US'),
(3475, 'Integration and insertion site of EPSPs gene on the soybean genome in genetically modified glyphosate-resistant soybean.', '', 'en_US'),
(3476, 'Consequences of Bt cotton technology importation.', 'The article discusses the results of an ex-ante assessment of the consequences of importation of Bt cotton tolerant to cotton bollworm and pink bollworm in order to guide policy decisions on whether or not to import and commercialize thetechnology in the Philippines. Primary and secondary data were generated through farm survey, interviews of key informants from the public and the private sectors, and focus group discussions with stakeholders. Four components of ex-ante assessment were done: industry level, location-specific research and development, commercialization and farm-level adoption. Welfare analysis was also conducted. Based on the results, importation could only be economically viable if the land area planted to Bt cotton is greater than 5,000 ha, a little higher than the 3,681 ha planted to traditional cotton for the crop year 2005-2006. Commercialization of Bt cotton in the Philippines will also result in positive benefits if the spill-over effects are taken into account, if regulatory costs are reasonable and if a yield increase of at least 20% is realized by farmers. The introduction of Bt cotton in the Philippines could broaden the farmers'' technology base. With the high level of expected benefits, the private sector can be attracted to invest in its commercialization. Reduced regulatory costs could actually translate to lower seed costs, thereby, promoting farmer adoption. If the technology is made available in the country, government should be vigilant in monitoring its possible environmental impacts and that of all other Bt and genetically modified (GM) crops for feedback to researchers and regulators and for risk reduction strategies.', 'en_US'),
(3477, 'Tubers from potato lines expressing a tomato Kunitz protease inhibitor are substantially equivalent to parental and transgenic controls.', 'Recombinant protease inhibitors represent useful tools for the development of insect-resistant transgenic crops, but questions have been raised in recent years about the impact of these proteins on endogenous proteases and chemical composition of derived food products. In this study, we performed a detailed compositional analysis of tubers from potato lines expressing the broad-spectrum inhibitor of Ser and Asp proteases, tomato cathepsin D inhibitor (SlCDI), to detect possible unintended effects on tuber composition. A compositional analysis of key nutrients and toxic chemicals was carried out with tubers of SlCDI-expressing and control (comparator) lines, followed by a two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE) proteomic profiling of total and allergenic proteins to detect eventual effects at the proteome level. No significant differences were observed among control and SlCDI-expressing lines for most chemicals assayed, in line with the very low abundance of SlCDI in tubers. Likewise, proteins detected after 2-DE showed no quantitative variation among the lines, except for a few proteins in some control and test lines, independent of slcdi transgene expression. Components of the patatin storage protein complex and Kunitz protease inhibitors immunodetected after 2-DE showed unaltered deposition patterns in SlCDI-expressing lines, clearly suggesting a null impact of slcdi on the intrinsic allergenic potential of potato tubers. These data suggest, overall, a null impact of slcdi expression on tuber composition and substantial equivalence between comparator and SlCDI-expressing tubers despite reported effects on leaf protein catabolism. They also illustrate the usefulness of proteomics as a tool to assess the authenticity of foods derived from novel-generation transgenic plants.', 'en_US'),
(3478, 'Ecological risk assessment for transgenic crops: separating the seed from the chaff.', '', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(3479, 'Detailed characterization of Mirafiori lettuce virus-resistant transgenic lettuce.', 'Lettuce big-vein disease is caused by Mirafiori lettuce virus (MiLV), which is vectored by the soil-borne fungus Olpidium brassicae. A MiLV-resistant transgenic lettuce line was developed through introducing inverted repeats of the MiLV coat protein (CP) gene. Here, a detailed characterization study of this lettuce line was conducted by comparing it with the parental, non-transformed ‘Kaiser’ cultivar. There were no significant differences between transgenic and non-transgenic lettuce in terms of pollen fertility, pollen dispersal, seed production, seed dispersal, dormancy, germination, growth of seedlings under low or high temperature, chromatographic patterns of leaf extracts, or effects of lettuce on the growth of broccoli or soil microflora. A significant difference in pollen size was noted, but the difference was small. The length of the cotyledons of the transgenic lettuce was shorter than that of ‘Kaiser,’ but there were no differences in other morphological characteristics. Agrobacterium tumefaciens used for the production of transgenic lettuce was not detected in transgenic seeds. The transgenic T3, T4, and T5 generations showed higher resistance to MiLV and big-vein symptoms expression than the resistant ‘Pacific’ cultivar, indicating that high resistance to lettuce big-vein disease is stably inherited. PCR analysis showed that segregation of the CP gene was nearly 3:1 in the T1 and T2 generations, and that the transgenic T3 generation was homozygous for the CP gene. Segregation of the neomycin phosphotransferase II (npt II) gene was about 3:1 in the T1 generation, but the full length npt II gene was not detected in the T2 or T3 generation. The segregation pattern of the CP and npt II genes in the T1 generation showed the expected 9:3:3:1 ratio. These results suggest that the fragment including the CP gene and that including the npt II gene have been integrated into two unlinked loci, and that the T1 plant selected in our study did not have the npt II gene. DNA sequences flanking T-DNA insertions in the T2 generation were determined using inverse PCR, and showed that the right side of the T-DNA including the npt II gene had been truncated in the transgenic lettuce.', 'en_US'),
(3480, 'Exposure and nontarget effects of transgenic Bt corn debris in streams.', 'Corn (Zea mays L.) transformed with a gene from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) comprises 49% of all corn in the United States. The input of senesced corn tissue expressing the Bt gene may impact stream-inhabiting invertebrates that process plant debris, especially trichopteran species related to the target group of lepidopteran pests. Our goal was to assess risk associated with transgenic corn debris entering streams. First, we show the input of corn tissue after harvest was extended over months in a stream. Second, using laboratory bioassays based on European corn borer [Ostrinia nubilalis (Hübner)], we found no bioactivity of Cry1Ab protein in senesced corn tissue after 2 wk of exposure to terrestrial or aquatic environments. Third, we show that Bt near-isolines modify growth and survivorship of some species of invertebrates. Of the four nontarget invertebrate species fed Bt near-isolines, growth of two closely related trichopterans was not negatively affected, whereas a tipulid crane fly exhibited reduced growth rates, and an isopod exhibited reduced growth and survivorship on the Cry1Ab near-isoline but not on the stacked Cry1Ab + Cry3Bb1 near-isoline. Because of lack of evidence of bioactivity of Bt after 2 wk and because of lack of nontarget effects on the stacked near-isoline, we suggest that tissue-mediated differences, and not the presence of the Cry1Ab protein, caused the different responses among the species. Overall, our results provide evidence that adverse effects to aquatic nontarget shredders involve complex interactions arising from plant genetics and environment that cannot be ascribed to the presence of Cry1Ab proteins.', 'en_US'),
(3481, 'Impacts of six Bt rice lines on nontarget rice feeding thrips under laboratory and field conditions.', 'Nontarget impacts of six transgenic Bt rice lines (expressing the Cry1Ab or Cry1Ab/Cry1Ac protein) on the thrips, Stenchaetothrips biformis (Bagnall), attacking the rice seedling and tillering stages, were evaluated under laboratory and field conditions. Laboratory results showed relatively longer larval, pupal development and preoviposition durations of S. biformis. Although it had a shorter oviposition period, female adult longevity and less total laid eggs were found when fed on some tested Bt rice in comparison to non-Bt controls. S. biformis population dynamics in Bt and non-Bt plots were monitored using the plastic bag and beat plate methods. In the field, the temporal patterns of S. biformis population changes were similar between tested Bt rice lines and their respective control; however, the total number of S. biformis individuals collected from the Bt plots were significantly less or the same, varying from variety to variety, compared with those from the non-Bt plots. ELISA results showed that the Bt insecticidal protein could be transferred from Bt rice to the thrips, and the concentrations of the protein in rice leaves and thrips were not significantly correlated with some important biological parameters of the thrip. In addition, the potential effects of Bt rice on the abundance of S. biformis candidate predators are also discussed. In conclusion, our results show that the six Bt rice lines assessed may be less preferable host plants to S. biformis at the individual and population levels in comparison to the non-Bt rice plants.', 'en_US'),
(3482, 'Supplemental control of lepidopterous pests on Bt transgenic sweet corn with biologically-based spray treatments.', 'Biologically-based spray treatments, including nucleopolyhedroviruses, neem, and spinosad, were evaluated as supplemental controls for the fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith), and corn earworm, Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), on transgenic sweet corn, Zea mays (L.) (Poales: Poaceae), expressing a Cry1Ab toxin from Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner (Bacillales: Bacillaceae) (Bt). Overall, transgenic corn supported lower densities of both pests than did nontransgenic corn. Control of the fall armyworm was improved in both whorl-stage and tassel-stage corn by the use of either a nucleopolyhedrovirus or neem, but the greatest improvement was seen with spinosad. Only\r\nspinosad consistently reduced damage to ears, which was caused by both pest species. In general, efficacy of the spray materials did not differ greatly between transgenic and nontransgenic corn.\r\n', 'en_US'),
(3483, 'A primer for using transgenic insecticidal cotton in developing countries.', 'Many developing countries face the decision of whether to approve the testing and commercial use of insecticidal transgenic cotton and the task of developing adequate regulations for its use. In this review, we outline concepts and provide information to assist farmers, regulators and scientists in making decisions concerning this technology. We address seven critical topics: 1) molecular and breeding techniques used for the development of transgenic cotton cultivars, 2) properties of transgenic cotton cultivars and their efficacy against major insect pests, 3) agronomic performance of transgenic cotton in developing countries, 4) factors affecting transgene expression, 5) impact of gene flow between transgenic and non-transgenic cotton, 6) non-target effects of transgenic cotton, and 7) management of pest resistance to transgenic cotton. ', 'en_US'),
(3484, 'Novel pink bollworm resistance to the Bt toxin Cry1Ac: effects on mating, oviposition, larval development and survival.', 'Bt cotton plants are genetically engineered to produce insecticidal toxins from the Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Berliner (Bacillales: Bacillaceae) bacterium and target key lepidopteran pests. In all previous strains of pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) selected in the laboratory for resistance to insecticidal Cry1Ac toxin using an artificial diet containing the toxin, resistance to Cry1Ac and to Bt cotton is linked to three cadherin alleles (r1, r2, and r3). In contrast, the BG(4) pink bollworm strain was selected for resistance to Bt cotton by feeding larvae for four days in each of 42 generations on bolls of ‘NuCOTN33B®‘ that expressed Cry1Ac toxin. After additional selection for eleven generations on Cry1Ac-incorporated diet, the susceptibility to Cry1Ac, fecundity, egg viability, and mating of this strain (Bt4R) was compared with the unselected Cry1Ac-susceptible parent strain. Some larvae of the Bt4R strain survived on diet containing &amp;#8805;10 &amp;#956;g Cry1Ac per milliliter artificial diet, but none survived on transgenic cotton bolls. In contrast to strains selected exclusively on Cry1Ac diet, some survival of progeny of reciprocal moth crosses of Bt4R resistant and Bt-susceptible strains occurred on Cry1Ac-treated diet, suggesting differences in levels of dominance. The Bt4R resistant strain does not have the r1, r2, or r3 mutant cadherin genes as do all previous strains of pink bollworm selected on Cry1Ac-treated artificial diet. The combined results suggest a mechanism of resistance to Cry1Ac that is different from previously described cadherin mutations.', 'en_US'),
(3485, 'Future fitness of female insect pests in temporally stable and unstable habitats and its impact on habitat utility as refuges for insect resistance management.', 'The long-term fitness of individuals is examined in complex and temporally dynamic ecosystems. We call this multigeneration fitness measure “future fitness”. Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) is a polyphagous insect that feeds on many wild and cultivated hosts. While four generations of H. zea occur during the cropping season in the U.S. Mid Southern agroecosysem, the latter two generations were of most interest, as corn (which has been largely nontransgenic in the Mid-South) dominates the first two generations in the cropping system. In simulations of the evolution of resistance to Bt-transgenic crops, cotton refuge areas were found to be significantly more effective than similar soybean acreages at delaying the evolution of resistance. Cotton is a suitable host for H. zea during two late summer generations, while a soybean field is suitable for only one of these generations, therefore soybean fields of other maturity groups were simulated as being attractive during the alternative generation. A hypothetical soybean variety was tested in which a single field would be attractive over both generations and it was found to be significantly more effective at delaying resistance than simulated conventional soybean varieties. Finally, the placement of individuals emerging at the start of the 3rd (first without corn) generation was simulated in either refuge cotton, conventional soybean and the hypothetical long attractive soybean and the mean number of offspring produced was measured at the end of the season. Although females in conventional and long soybean crops had the same expected fecundity, because of differences in temporal stability of the two crops, the long soybean simulations had significantly more H. zea individuals at the end of the season than the conventional soybean simulations. These simulations demonstrate that the long-term fecundity associated with an individual is dependent not only on the fecundity of that individual in its current habitat, but also the temporal stability of habitats, the ecosystem at large and the likelihood that the individual’s offspring will move into different habitats.', 'en_US'),
(3486, 'Bacterial community as an indicator of genetically modified common bean effect on nontarget organisms.', 'The objective of this work was to evaluate the effect of genetically modified common bean for Bean Golden Mosaic Virus, BGMV, resistance (Olathe M1-4) on nontarget organisms. In a field experiment established in a completely randomized design with two treatments (Olathe Pinto cultivar and M1-4 Olathe elite event), two sampling periods (V4 and R6 stages) and ten replicates, cultivated and non-cultivated bacterial cells from rhizosphere soil and bulk soil were obtained, and their total DNA was extracted. The V6-V8 region of 16S rDNA was amplified for the whole bacterial community, and primers specific for the alpha (&amp;#945;) subgroup of the Proteobacteria phylum were obtained from uncultured cells and used for amplification. Using the Jaccard coefficient and UPGMA (Unweighted pair-group method with arithmetic mean), dendrograms comparing the conventional Olathe Pinto and the elite event Olathe M1-4 transgenic varieties were obtained. The clusters obtained from the 16S rDNA PCR-DGGE profiles indicate changes in the rhizosphere bacterial community in genetically modified plants, being more notable in the profiles obtained for alphaproteobacteria. Sample origin and plant development stages affect bacterial community profiles.', 'en_US'),
(3487, 'Effects of single and mixed infections with wild type and genetically modified Helicoverpa armigera nucleopolyhedrovirus on movement behaviour of cotton bollworm larvae.', 'Naturally occurring insect viruses can modify the behaviour of infected insects and thereby modulate virus transmission. Modifications of the virus genome could alter these behavioural effects. We studied the distance moved and the position of virus-killed cadavers of fourth instars of Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) infected with a wild-type genotype of H. armigera nucleopolyhedrovirus (HaSNPV) or with one of two recombinant genotypes of this virus on cotton plants. The behavioural effects of virus infection were examined both in larvae infected with a single virus genotype, and in larvae challenged with mixtures of the wild-type and one of the recombinant viruses. An egt-negative virus variant caused more rapid death and lower virus yield in fourth instars, but egt-deletion did not produce consistent behavioural effects over three experiments, two under controlled glasshouse conditions and one in field cages. A recombinant virus containing the AaIT-(Androctonus australis Hector) insect-selective toxin gene, which expresses a neurotoxin derived from a scorpion, caused faster death and cadavers were found lower down the plant than insects infected with unmodified virus. Larvae that died from mixed infections of the AaIT-expressing recombinant and the wild-type virus died at positions significantly lower, compared to infection with the pure wild-type viral strain. The results indicate that transmission of egt-negative variants of HaSNPV are likely to be affected by lower virus yield, but not by behavioural effects of egt gene deletion. By contrast, the AaIT recombinant will produce lower virus yields as well as modified behaviour, which together can contribute to reduced virus transmission under field conditions. In addition, larvae infected with both the wild-type virus and the toxin recombinant behaved as larvae infected with the toxin recombinant only, which might be a positive factor for the risk assessment of such toxin recombinants in the environment.', 'en_US'),
(3488, 'Determination of gene escape and fruit quality characteristics in transgenic melon (Cucumis melo L. var. inodorus).', 'Gene escape and fruit quality characteristics of transgenic melons (Cucumis melo L. var inodorus cv. ''Kirkagac 637'') resistant to zucchini yellow mosaic virus (ZYMV) and control plants were investigated under screenhouse conditions. No significant differences were observed between transgenic and transgenic × control genotypes, with regard to rind thickness, fruit cavity length, fruit cavity width, total soluble solids, pistil scar diameter, and peduncle length. Fruit characters, including fruit weight, fruit width, fruit length, fruit flesh thickness, and peduncle diameter were significantly different. These results indicate that transgenic × control genotypes had higher values than transgenic (T4 and T20) genotypes, regarding fruit weight, fruit width, fruit length, fruit flesh thickness, and peduncle diameter. Significant differences were not observed between transgenic (T4 and T20), control, and transgenic × control genotypes in terms of L-ascorbic acid, malic acid, citric acid, sucrose, glucose, or fructose, but differences were observed for fruit total acidity. Esters, lactones, and alcohols were aroma components, but none differed significantly between the transgenic and control genotypes. The results show that there was 100% gene escape in the control plants within 10 m of the transgenic plants, while there was 70% gene escape in plants 12.5, 15, and 17.5 m from the transgenic plants under screenhouse conditions.', 'en_US'),
(3489, 'Long-term persistence of crop alleles in weedy populations of wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum).', 'Hybridization allows transgenes and other crop alleles to spread to wild/weedy populations of related taxa. Researchers have debated whether such alleles will persist because low hybrid fitness and linkage to domestication traits could severely impede introgression. To examine variation in the fates of three unlinked crop alleles, we monitored four experimental, self-seeding, hybrid populations of Raphanus raphanistrum × Raphanus sativus (radish) in Michigan, USA, over a decade. We also compared the fecundity of advanced-generation hybrid plants with wild plants in a common garden experiment. Initially, F1 hybrids had reduced fitness, but the populations quickly evolved wild-type pollen fertility. In Year 10, the fecundity of plants from the experimental populations was similar to that of wild genotypes. Crop-specific alleles at the three loci persisted for 10 yr in all populations, and their frequencies varied among loci, populations and years. This research provides a unique case study of substantial variation in the rates and patterns of crop allele introgression after a single hybridization event. Our findings demonstrate that certain crop alleles can introgress easily while others remain rare, supporting the assumption that neutral or beneficial transgenes that are not linked to maladaptive traits can persist in the wild.', 'en_US'),
(3490, 'Molecular differentiation of commercial varieties and feral populations of oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.).', 'Background: For assessing the risk of escape of transgenes from cultivation, the persistence of feral populations of crop plants is an important aspect. Feral populations of oilseed rape, Brassica napus, are well known, but only scarce information is available on their population dynamics, particularly in Central Europe. To investigate genetic diversity, origin and persistence of feral oilseed rape in Austria, we compared variation at nine polymorphic microsatellite loci in eight feral populations with 19 commercial varieties.\r\n\r\nResults: Overall, commercial varieties and feral populations showed a similar pattern of genetic variation and a similar level of observed heterozygosity. The two groups, however, shared less than 50% of the alleles and no multilocus genotype. A significant among-group (commercial varieties versus feral populations) component of genetic variation was observed (AMOVA: FCT = 0.132). Pairwise comparisons between varieties and feral populations showed moderate to very high genetic differentiation (FST = 0.209 - 0.900). The software STRUCTURE also demonstrated a clear separation between commercial varieties and feral samples: out of 17 identified genetic clusters, only one comprised plants from both a commercial variety and feral sites.\r\n\r\nConclusions: The results suggest that feral oilseed rape is able to maintain persistent populations. The feral populations may have derived from older cultivars that were not included in our analyses or perhaps have already hybridised with related crops or wild relatives. Feral populations therefore have to be considered in ecological risk assessment and future coexistence measures as a potential hybridisation partner of transgenic oilseed rape.\r\n', 'en_US'),
(3491, 'Molecular aspects of gene transfer and foreign DNA acquisition in prokaryotes with regard to safety issues.', 'Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) is part of prokaryotic life style and a major factor in evolution. In principle, any combinations of genetic information can be explored via HGT for effects on prokaryotic fitness. HGT mechanisms including transformation, conjugation, transduction, and variations of these plus the role of mobile genetic elements are summarized with emphasis on their potential to translocate foreign DNA. Complementarily, we discuss how foreign DNA can be integrated in recipient cells through homologous recombination (HR), illegitimate recombination (IR), and combinations of both, site-specific recombination, and the reconstitution of plasmids. Integration of foreign DNA by IR is very low, and combinations of IR with HR provide intermediate levels compared to the high frequency of homologous integration. A survey of studies on potential HGT from various transgenic plants indicates very rare transfer of foreign DNA. At the same time, in prokaryotic habitats, genes introduced into transgenic plants are abundant, and natural HGT frequencies are relatively high providing a greater chance for direct transfer instead of via transgenic plants. It is concluded that potential HGT from transgenic plants to prokaryotes is not expected to influence prokaryotic evolution and to have negative effects on human or animal health and the environment.', 'en_US'),
(3492, 'The use of biotin-binding proteins for insect control.', 'Biotin-binding proteins (BBPs), expressed in transgenic plants, are insecticidal to a very wide range of insects. The expression levels required are generally low (&amp;#8776;100 ppm), and although higher than required for Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) &amp;#948;-endotoxins, BBPs are effective across a broader range of insect orders and other invertebrates than the Bt Cry proteins. Avidin and streptavidin, in particular, have been reported as causing death or severe growth reduction in at least 40 species of insects across five insect orders (Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Orthoptera, Diptera, and leaf-eating Hymenoptera) and mites. In addition, due largely to its rapid dilution in ecosystems, no adverse impacts on nontarget microorganisms or invertebrates have been recorded, Because the target, biotin, cannot itself be modified to prevent it binding to BBPs and remain effective as a vitamin, the major avenue open to insects to develop resistance is unavailable. Two properties of the biotin-avidin complex make it highly suitable for use in transgenic plant crop protection strategies against a large range of insects; its extreme stability and its resistance to proteolysis, However, because the nutritional value of the plant could potentially be compromised in the absence of biotin supplementation, its use in nonfood crops such as fiber, forestry, and biofuel crops is seen as the most suitable initial focus for this technology.', 'en_US'),
(3493, 'Distances needed to limit cross-fertilization between GM and conventional maize in Europe', 'To avoid the economic consequences of admixtures of genetically modified (GM) and non-GM harvests, and to ensure that agricultural production complies with mandatory labeling provisions, the European Union (EU; Brussels) member states have adopted co-existence measures directed to farmers cultivating GM varieties. For GM maize cultivation, regulators have established mandatory isolation distances, which differ between countries and in some cases have been regarded as disproportionate. Taking advantage of numerous field studies conducted by EU researchers in recent years, we report here a statistical analysis of crossfertilization data in maize, showing that separating fields 40 m is sufficient to keep GM adventitious presence below the legal labeling threshold in the EU set at 0.9%.', 'en_US'),
(3494, 'Ethylene and biotechnology of fruit ripening - pre and postharvest behavior of transgenic melons with inhibited ethylene production.', 'In this paper we review our recent data on the pre- and postharvest behavior of transgenic melons (Cucumis melo cantalupensis Naud, cv. Védrantais) expressing an antisense construct of the ACC oxidase gene. The transgenic fruit exhibited less than 1% of the maximum ethylene production of control untransformed fruit and some aspects of the ripening process were blocked both on and off the vine. Compared to wild type, transgenic fruit did not undergo significant yellowing of the rind and softening of the flesh but these effects were completely reversed by treatment of transgenic fruit with exogenous ethylene. The pigmentation of the flesh occurred early before the onset of the climacteric and was thus unaffected by ethylene inhibition. Similarly, the total soluble solids accumulated at the same rate in both types of fruit until the wild type fruit abscissed from the plant. However, as ethylene-inhibited fruit failed to develop a peduncular abscission zone, they remained attached to the plant and accumulated a higher amount of sugars. Transgenic melons, described in this study, exhibit specific traits that are not encountered in antisense ACC oxidase and ACC synthase tomatoes described previously. They have allowed discriminating between ethylene-dependent and ethylene-independent ripening traits in the melon.', 'en_US'),
(3495, 'Transgenic broccoli - Brassica oleracea L. cv. (Italica) - plants containing an antisense ACC oxidase gene.', 'Agrobacterium rhizogenes harbouring the binary vector pLN35 which carries the antisense ACC oxidase gene from pTOM13 was used to transform ‘Shogun’ broccoli plants. Molecular analysis using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and Southern blotting confirmed the transgenic nature of these plants. Ethylene production by the mature heads was evaluated in normal and three transgenic antisense plants using a gas chromatograph. The transgenic antisense plants TA3 (8 copies), TA4 (1 copy) and TA5 (8 copies) showed an ethylene production that was reduced by 39%, 42% and 77% respectively. Analysis of these mutants suggested that pTOM13 encodes a polypeptide similar to that involved in conversion of ACC to ethylene in broccoli.', 'en_US'),
(3496, 'Composition and diversity of the weed community in transgenic Bt cotton (four Bollgard strains) fields.', 'In order to evaluate the ecological safety and planting risk of insect resistant transgenic cotton, the composition and diversity of the weed community in transgenic Bt cotton (four Bollgard strains: ’109B’,’154’,’690’ and ’972’) fields were studied by means of the quantitative analysis method in Dafeng of Jiangsu coastal district and Rugao of Jiangsu Changjiang River bank district. There were marked differences in water content of soil due to differences in crop rotation systems (i.e. rotation with rice following dry-cropping) between cotton fields. The experimental design was as follows: five treatments include four Bollgard strains and traditional variety and four replicates in each location. Each plot area is about 60 m2. The traditional variety check was Simian-3 in Dafeng and Sumian-16 in Rugao respectively. All weed species and their number were investigated with the sampled method of five spots per plot and the spots area investigated per plot was 2.5 m2 in Dafeng and 1.25 m2 in Rugao respectively. The average of weed species and number per square meter for each treatment was calculated. The parameters and components analysis of weed community for each treatment and coefficients of weed species/community similarity between each of four Bollgard strains and traditional variety check were calculated and analyzed also. The results showed: 1) no significant difference in weed species was found between each of four transgenic Bollgard cotton strains and the traditional variety checked in the same location. The dominant species and their abundance were very similar among them.2) the parameters of weed community structure included species richness(S)&amp;#65292;total number of individuals(N), community diversity (H&amp;#8242;), evenness(J), and concentration(C) in each of the transgenic Bt cotton (four Bollgard strains) fluctuated similarly to the ones in the traditional variety in the same date and same location. The results of comprehensive analysis for two locations showed that the value of community diversity(H&amp;#8242;) and evenness(J) in transgenic Bt cotton was a little higher than the ones in traditional cotton check, but the value of concentration(C) in transgenic Bt cotton was a little lower than the ones in traditional variety check. 3) the path analysis of diversity index(H&amp;#8242;) with other parameters showed that it all was dominant concentration(C) and evenness(J) that mainly decided the change of diversity index(H&amp;#8242;) for weed community in five treatments. Diversity index(H&amp;#8242;) would be reduced with increasing of dominant concentration(C) and decreasing of evenness(J) for all treatments.4) the coefficient of weed species similarity(V1) and the coefficient of weed community similarity(V2) between each of four transgenic Bt Bollgard cotton strains and traditional variety check was determined by the Sorensen’s formula and all very high. The value of V 1 is 0.718 0&amp;#65293;0.844 5 in Dafeng and 0.489 4-0.603 7 in Rugao&amp;#65292;and V2 is 0.451 1-0.598 1 in Dafeng and 0.329 3-0.484 7 in Rugao respectively.  From the above results, it is clear that the stability of weed community of transgenic Bt cotton field (four Bollgard cotton strains) is not different significantly than traditional cotton check and its weed risk increased by planting transgenic Bt cotton is not obvious. There was a close correlation among the structure of weed community, crop rotation system and geographical factors. The main factor that affected the weed occurrence and distribution pattern of weed infestation and community in the cotton fields was the difference of soil water content, which resulted from the different cropping system.', 'en_US'),
(3497, 'Interactions between Bt transgenic crops and Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi: a new urgent issue of soil ecology in agroecosystems.', 'Species, varieties and area of Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) transgenic crops have increased rapidly worldwide in the past 11 years (1996-2006) for economic, environmental and health benefits. However, the ecological risks of Bt transgenic crops were critically highlighted for potential adverse effects on agroecosystems, in particular, non-target effects on soil microorganisms. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are important soil microorganisms providing a range of benefits to the majority of crop plants in the agroecosystem, worthy of monitoring for non-target effects of Bt transgenic crops. Bt transgenic crops may affect AMF in many ways during their life with regard to the temporal-spatial relevance between the occurrence of Bt proteins and fungal symbiotic development of AMF. This may lead to an unwelcome surprise with regard to specific abundance and diversity of AMF when Bt transgenic crops are planted continuously. It is concluded that interactions between AMF and Bt transgenic crops at individual and community level are a new urgent soil ecological issue. Some evidence about Bt transgenic crop effects on AMF revealed by recent articles are summarized, and research prospects are highlighted in the paper.', 'en_US'),
(3498, 'An Agronomic and Economic Assessment of Transgenic Canola - Impact of Transgenic Canola on Growers, Industry and Environment.', '', 'en_US'),
(3499, 'Harvest on the Horizon - Future Uses of Agricultural Biotechnology.', '', 'en_US'),
(3500, 'Plant biotechnology regulation - science-based and consumer accessible from plow to plate.', 'Since the introduction of plant biotechnology on the American farm began in the mid-1990s, farmers have planted millions of acres of biotech corn, cotton, soybeans, fruit and other crops.  While these new varieties have enhanced crop protection, reduced production costs and increased yields, they have raised concern among some consumers, legislators and activists.  What is government’s role in assuring human, animal and environmental safety?  To what degree are biotech-derived crops reviewed and regulated?', 'en_US'),
(3501, 'Foliage-dwelling arthropods in Bt-transgenic and isogenic maize:  a comparison through spider web analysis.', 'Theridion impressum is one of the dominant foliage dwelling spider species of maize fields in Hungary. Spider webs were collected from Bt and isogenic maize plots in three successive years. Captured insects in the web were identified. The most frequent prey items were aphids, plant hoppers and beetles. Although the number of captured insects in web samples from isogenic maize was slightly higher than those from Bt maize in the case of almost each insect order, except for two samples (Sternorrhyncha, 2001; Neuroptera, 2002), the differences between Bt and isogenic samples were not significant.', 'en_US'),
(3502, 'The EPSPS gene flow from glyphosate-resistant Brassica napus to untransgene B. napus and wild relative species Orychophragmus violaceus.', 'Gene flow from transgenic plants to compatible wild relatives is one of the major impediments to the development of the culture of genetically engineered crop plants. In this work, the flow of EPSPS (conferring resistance to glyphosate) gene of transgene Brassica napus toward the untransgene B. napus and wild relative species Orychophragmus violaceus in an open field (1 ha) was studied. The data related to only the 2004 and 2005 autumn season on one location of southwest of China. Pollen dispersal and fertilization of the target plants were favored and a detailed analysis of the hybrid offspring was performed. In field, the data studied show that the gene flow frequency was 0.16% between GM and non-GM B. napus at a distance of 1 m from the transgenic donor area. The crosspollination frequency was 0.05% between GM and non-GM B. napus at a distance of 5 m from the transgenic donor area. At a distance of 10 m, no crosspollination was observed. According to the results of this study, B. napus transgene flow was low. However, the wild relative species O. violaceus could not be fertilized by the transgenic pollen of B. napus, no matter what the distance was.', 'en_US'),
(3503, 'Bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner), Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) occurrences in Bt- and non-Bt-cotton fields, Marble Hall, Mpumalanga, South Africa.', 'Helicoverpa armigera is one of the major pests of cotton crops. Bt-cotton, (transgenic cotton) that contains cry genes from Bacillus thuringiensis, was introduced as a control measure against Heliothis virescens in the U.S.A. Cry genes encode for toxins that are toxic to lepidoteran pests. The effect of Bt-cotton (cv. NuOpal) on H. armigera population numbers and egg parasitism was investigated. Scouting was conducted once a week over two cotton-growing seasons at a cotton farm near Marble Hall. The number of damaged bolls, bollworm eggs and larvae were determined in non-Bt- (cv. Delta Opal) and Bt-cotton fields. No pesticides were used during the first season. A sprayed non-Bt cotton field was included in the second season\\''s study. Pheromone traps baited with the sex pheromone of H. armigera were checked on a weekly basis to determine the number of adults in the fields under investigation. Bollworm eggs were collected during the second season to determine egg parasitism. The number of bollworm larvae and damaged cotton bolls were kept below threshold levels by the presence of the Bt-gene in the Bt-cotton fields and by insecticide applications in the non-Bt-cotton fields. Moth numbers, H. armigera oviposition and parasitoid emergence from bollworm eggs by Trichogrammatoidea lutea and Telenomus ullyetti were not influenced by the presence of the Bt-gene. Bt-cotton can therefore be useful in an integrated pest management programme under an irrigation system, because it resulted in a reduction in the number of insecticide applications per season and did not affect the biological control agents T. lutea and T. ullyetti. ', 'en_US'),
(3504, 'Comparing the performance of official and unofficial genetically modified cotton in India', 'Genetically modified (GM) cotton was approved for commercial cultivation in 2002. Hybrids to date have carried the Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) gene, which confers resistance to Lepidoptera and certain Coleoptera. As well as “official” Bt hybrids (i.e., those that have gone through a formal approval process), there are “unofficial” Bt hybrids produced without such approval. The owners of the official hybrids, Monsanto-Mahyco, claim that the unofficial hybrids are not as good and could even damage the perception of Bt cotton amongst farmers. Anti-GM groups claim that neither type of Bt hybrid provides either yield or economic advantages over non-Bt hybrids. This paper reports the first study of official versus unofficial versus non-Bt hybrids in India (622 farmers in Gujarat State) with the specific aim of comparing one hypothesized ranking in terms of gross margin of (a) official Bt hybrids, (b) unofficial Bt hybrids, and (c) non-Bt hybrids. Results suggest that the official Bt varieties (MECH 12 and MECH 162) significantly outperform the unofficial varieties in terms of gross margin. However, unofficial, locally produced Bt hybrids can also perform significantly better than non-Bt hybrids, although second-generation (F2) Bt seed appears to have no yield advantage compared to non-Bt hybrids but can save on insecticide use. The paper explores some of the implications of this ranking.', 'en_US'),
(3505, 'Inequality and GM crops: a case-study of Bt cotton in India.', 'Critics of genetically modified (GM) crops often contend that their introduction enhances the gap between rich and poor farmers, as the former group are in the best position to afford the expensive seed as well as provide other inputs such as fertilizer and irrigation. The research reported in this paper explores this issue with regard to Bt cotton (cotton with the endotoxtin gene from Bacillus thuringiensis conferring resistance to some insect pests) in Jalgaon, Maharashtra State, India, spanning the 2002 and 2003 seasons. Questionnaire–based survey results from 63 non–adopting and 94 adopting households of Bt cotton were analyzed, spanning 137 Bt cotton plots and 95 non–Bt cotton plots of both Bt adopters and non–adopters. For these households, cotton income accounted for 85 to 88% of total household income, and is thus of vital importance. Results suggest that in 2003 Bt adopting households have significantly more income from cotton than do non–adopting households (Rp 66,872 versus Rp 46,351) but inequality in cotton income, measured with the Gini coefficient (G), was greater amongst non–adopters than adopters. While Bt adopters had greater acreage of cotton in 2003 (9.92 acres versus 7.42 for non–adopters), the respective values of G were comparable. The main reason for the lessening of inequality amongst adopters would appear to be the consistency in the performance of Bt cotton along with the preferred non–Bt cultivar of Bt adopters—Bunny. Taking gross margin as the basis for comparison, Bt plots had 2.5 times the gross margin of non–Bt plots of non–adopters, while the advantage of Bt plots over non–Bt plots of adopters was 1.6 times. Measured in terms of the Gini coefficient of gross margin/acre it was apparent that inequality was lessened with the adoption of Bunny (G = 0.47) and Bt (G = 0.3) relative to all other non–Bt plots (G = 0.63). Hence the issue of equality needs to be seen both in terms of differences between adopters and non–adopters as well as within each of the groups.', 'en_US'),
(3506, 'Factors affecting the likelihood of corn rootworm Bt seed adoption.', 'The likelihood of adopting corn rootworm (CRW) Bt seed technology was analyzed using an ordered logit model. Data used to estimate the model came from USDA’s 2001 Agricultural Resource Management Survey. Statistically significant variables include operator age, farm type, farm size, rootworm loss and current treatment for rootworm, off farm labor, and Bt technology for corn borer. The likelihood of adoption was not related to crop rotation, tillage system, new variant CRW region, or education.', 'en_US'),
(3507, 'The net gain to cotton farmers of a natural refuge plan for Bollgard II cotton', 'This paper presents an evaluation of the initial potential eco- nomic benefit at both the farm-level and to Monsanto Company of a change in refuge policy for Bollgard II® cotton. The pro- posed policy change is to eliminate the cotton refuge require- ment for Bollgard II cotton in favor of a natural refuge. We first present an evaluative model that is appropriate for any cotton state. We then present an empirical application of the model for North Carolina. We estimate the annual per-acre, farm-level benefit to North Carolina cotton farmers, based on 2005 data as the counterfactual, to be $22.82 and the total farm-level benefit to be $13,037,614 when non-pecuniary benefits are not consid- ered. When non-pecuniary benefits are taken into account, the per-acre benefit is estimated to increase to $26.90 and the total benefit to $15,379,129. The increase in revenue accruing to Monsanto Company is estimated to be $2,427,620.', 'en_US'),
(3508, 'Global impact of insect-resistant Bt cotton.', 'Insect-resistant (Bt) cotton has been rapidly adopted since its introduction in 1996. Farmers around the world, both large and small holders, benefit from this technology through increased productivity, convenience, and time savings. The vast majority of farmers using Bt cotton globally are smallholder farmers. The economic, environmental, and social benefits derived from adoption of this important tool have very positive implications for the farmers, their surrounding communities, and the future of agriculture.', 'en_US'),
(3509, 'Agronomics and sustainability of transgenic cotton in Argentina', 'Transgenic Bt cotton can halve pesticide application rates in Argentina while significantly increasing yields. Yield effects are bigger than in other countries, due to the current low levels of insecticide use. Although smallholder farmers are not currently using the technology, gross benefits are predicted to be highest for them. Biological model simulations show that rapid resistance buildup in pest populations appears to be unlikely if minimum non-Bt refuge areas are maintained.', 'en_US'),
(3510, 'Agricultural applications of biotechnology and the potential for biodiversity valorization in Latin America and the Caribbean', 'This article provides a brief account of key developments in agricultural applications of biotechnology in Latin American and Caribbean (LAC) countries; it also focuses on the potential of developing value-added products from the biological diversity harbored in the region. Most agricultural biotechnologies involve tissue culture and DNA-based markers for germplasm conservation, production of disease-free planting material, and assistance to genetic improvement. More recently, LAC countries such as Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Honduras, Mexico, and Uruguay have commercially grown transgenic crops. Advanced biotechnologies, such as genetic sequencing and microarray genomics, are differentially utilized in some LAC countries, with Brazil being at the forefront, for characterization, mapping, and trait screening for important crops and pathogens. There is great potential for the integration of these technologies with chemical analyses in bioprospecting biodiversity. Implementation of effective regulatory frameworks for access, genetic resource benefit sharing, and biosafety need urgent attention in most countries.', 'en_US'),
(3511, 'The status of plant biotechnology in Africa', 'Most of the plant biotechnology in Africa is being carried out in South Africa, Egypt, and Kenya. At the University of Cape Town, maize resistant to maize streak virus (MSV) and drought-tolerant maize are being developed, as well as vaccine production in tobacco. The South African Sugar Experiment Station is developing herbicide-resistant sugarcane. The Council for Scientific and Industrial Research has engineered fungi-resistant maize and millet. The Agricultural Genetic Engineering Research Institute in Cairo has developed insect-resistant Egyptian cotton and is carrying out field trails on a variety of other genetically modified (GM) crops. The Kenya Agricultural Research Institute is conducting field trials on virus-resistant sweet potatoes. Problems faced by many scientists on the continent are the slow passage of GM crops from experimental to commercial stages and the difficulties in meeting regulatory requirements.', 'en_US'),
(3512, 'Transgenic cotton in Mexico', 'We examine the farm-level impact of Bt cotton in Coahuila, Mexico. Bt cotton was introduced in Mexico in 1996. It has been an important tool in reducing pesticide use by more than 50% and generating annual benefits of US$2.7 million. About 85% of benefits accrued to farmers and 15% to seed suppliers. Adopting farmers spent $100 less on pest control and had $295/ha higher net revenue than nonadopting farmers. The average holding of adopting farmers was 14 ha. Bt cotton has been a valuable technology for certain areas in Mexico. Cotton profitability and competitiveness have increased, and the risk of crop failure from insect infestation has been reduced. Victory over the pink bollworm, once the dominant insect pest, would not have been possible without Bt cotton. Because Bt cotton protects only against a certain spectrum of the pest population, national adoption stands at 33%.', 'en_US'),
(3513, 'The impact of the introduction of transgenic crops in Argentinean agriculture', 'Since the early 1990s, Argentinean grain production underwent a dramatic increase in grains production (from 26 million tons in 1988/89 to over 75 million tons in 2002/2003). Several factors contributed to this &quot;revolution,&quot; but probably one of the most important was the introduction of new genetic modification (GM) technologies, specifically herbicide-tolerant soybeans. This article analyses this process, reporting on the economic benefits accruing to producers and other participating actors as well as some of the environmental and social impacts that could be associated with the introduction of the new technologies. In doing so, it lends attention to the synergies between GM soy- beans and reduced-tillage technologies and also explores some of the institutional factors that shed light on the success of this case, including aspects such as the early availability of a reliable biosafety mechanism and a special intellectual property rights (IPR) situation. In its concluding comments, this article also posts a number of questions about the replicability of the experience and some pending policy issues regarding the future exploitation of GM technologies in Argentina.', 'en_US'),
(3514, 'Efficiency of alternative technologies and cultural practices for cotton in Georgia', 'Transgenic cotton varieties and conservation tillage practices are evaluated for technical and allocative efficiency, as well as net returns above variable costs. Data Envelopment Analysis is applied to a survey of Georgia cotton producers. Results sup- port production with transgenic cotton varieties having greater net returns and efficiency rankings than conventional cotton. Net returns and efficiency rankings are greatest with conservation tillage. Conservation tillage benefits are associated with cotton varieties having herbicide resistant technology.', 'en_US'),
(3515, 'Determinants of corn rootworm resistant corn adoption in Indiana', 'Adoption of transgenic corn resistant to corn rootworm (CRW corn) was analyzed using a probit model with data from a survey of Indiana producers. Operator age, farm size, and regional and self-reported measures of rootworm pressure were all statistically significant in explaining adoption. In addition to these typical explanatory variables, market access variables, price variables, and insect resistant management plan requirements were very significant. These findings suggest that the value of CRW corn to the producer is strongly influenced by the fact that it is not yet fully approved for sale in Europe.', 'en_US'),
(3516, 'An ex ante analysis of the benefits from the adoption of corn rootworm resistant transgenic corn technology', 'If a new corn rootworm resistant transgenic corn technology had been adopted on all of the United States acres treated for corn rootworm in the year 2000, the total benefits in that year alone would have been $460 million: $171 million to the technology developer and seed companies, $231 million to farmers from yield gains, and a further $58 million to farmers as nonpecuniary benefits associated with reduced use of insecticides. Our nationwide survey of corn producers suggests that initial adoption might be as low as 30%, implying first-year benefits of about $138 million.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(3517, 'Effects of Bt maize on Agrotis segetum (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae): a pest of maize seedlings', 'The lepidopteran stemborers Busseola fusca (Fuller) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), Sesamia calamistis (Hampson) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), and Chilo partellus (Swinhoe) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) are effectively controlled by Bt maize that expresses the Cry1Ab insecticidal protein. Another noctuid species, the cutworm Agrotis segetum (Denis and Schiffermuller) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), which is the most common and injurious pest of maize seedlings in South Africa, is exposed to Bt toxin for a part of its life cycle. The effect of this exposure to Bt maize has not been studied yet. The aims of this study were to determine the effects of Bt maize (events MON810 and Bt11) on larval mass, development time, survival, and fecundity of A. segetum. Laboratory studies were conducted with first- and fourth-instar larvae and moths. Results showed that the effect of Cry1Ab toxin on the biology of A. segetum larvae and moths were largely insignificant. The effects of the two Bt maize events on the different parameters measured in this study was not similar between the Bt events and their respective iso-hybrids. Compared with larvae that fed on conventional (non-Bt) maize, Bt maize did not affect survival of first-instar larvae. However, mean mass of larvae that fed on Bt maize (Bt11) was significantly lower. Feeding on Bt maize did not have a significant effect on development and survival of fourth-instar larvae or moth longevity. It did, however, delay the development period to pupa formation. Fewer eggs were laid by moths fed as larvae on maize event Bt11 compared with MON810. This study indicates that Bt maize will most likely not have any significant effect on the control of A. segetum under field conditions.', 'en_US'),
(3518, 'A novel technology for removing potential risks from genetically modified plants', 'Scientists have been searching an effective tool for solving the safety issue of GM (genetically modified) plants for many years. The group led by Chinese American scientist Yi Li, a professor at University of Connecticut, made a great breakthrough in this field after 6 years'' intensive research: his group published the ''Gene-deletor'' technology in 2007. The technology was developed from two recombination systems Cre/Loxp and FLP/FRT, and FLP/Cre was driven by Organ/Tissue-specific promoter, all transgenic foreign genes will be thoroughly removed from pollen, fruit and seed after they have accomplished function. It could effectively prevent GM gene flow into non-biotech plants or weeds, and may help alleviate public concerns on ecological risks and food safety caused by GM plants. Here the concept, principle of ''gene-deletor'' technology were introduced and its applications in genetic engineering research were discussed.', 'en_US'),
(3519, 'The advances of transgenic plants detection techniques', 'With the development of genetic engineering, more and more transgenic plants and their products released to people''s lives and greatly changed our lives. The controversy over potential ecological risks and the impact of transgenic plants on human health are becoming increasingly acute. Therefore, the techniques for detecting transgenic plants must be established and perfected. The advances in detection techniques of transgenic plants were summarized. The progresses of PCR, ELISA as well as gene chip in transgenic plants detection were emphasized, and their characteristics were compared. Furthermore, detection on specific metabolites in transgenic plants was also introduced. Based on detection of the differential protein, one project of two-dimensional electrophoresis technology for traceability of genetically modified organisms and products was put forward finally.', 'en_US'),
(3520, 'Pollen flow analysis in sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.).', 'Biofuels from wood, wastes and various agricultural crops are currently quite expensive. Seed oil plants, instead, represent a relevant renewable natural resource for biodiesel to be used as engine fuel. In consequence, new genetic modified varieties (GMV) have been obtained by biotechnological methods, which offer a wide range of special oils for bio-energetic purposes. However, growing sunflower GMVs for biodiesel production could create a potential risk due to pollen flow from transgenic to non-transgenic varieties when grown in the same geographic areas. Presently, pollen flow analysis by DNA-based tools is expensive and time consuming, and new, cheap and rapid methods are needed. The goal of this research was to estimate pollen flow in sunflower by using a ''composite'' line, with a monogenic dominant marker (TT) for a high phenotypic expression of blue leaf nervure, as pollinator, and an inbred line and a cytoplasmic male sterile line (cms) as recipient plants. The obtained results suggest that cytoplasmic male sterility could be used for the analysis of sunflower pollen flow.', 'en_US'),
(3521, 'Reliability of PCR based screening for identification and quantification of GMOs', 'Handling with genetically modified organisms (GMOs) is regulated namely in EC. Laboratories often use polymerase chain reaction (PCR) based screening methods to monitor the presence of GM particles in food commodities as a cost effective approach. The reliability was tested of such screening using 35S CaMV promoter as the target sequences. Soya grown from non-GM cultivar as declared by a seed company was investigated after the harvest, transport to the silo, and before processing. The results based on PCR and real-time PCR analysis clearly showed that, the contamination with debris of other species, dust during transport, storage, and other kind of handling led to contamination with detectable amounts of Cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV). Impurities are allowed by EC regulations but may, as we have shown, interfere with the analytical procedures based on PCR. The identification of 35S CaMV promoter and NOS terminator in food with uncertain history and no approved specific events may indicate unknown GMOs and perhaps emergency situation.', 'en_US'),
(3522, 'Frequency analysis of field trials of genetic modified crops in America', 'Through analysis of the databank of Inspection America on field trials of genetic modified crops during the last 20 years, the basic rule and characteristics in research and development of genetic modified crops were studied. Data were processed with the software ''data perspective table'' method imbedded in Microsoft Excel. Results showed that the field trials undertaken in America by the end of September 2008 totaled to 13782, involving 158 crops, ten categories of novel traits and about 98 companies or institutions. During 1987-2008, the number of field trials approved were firstly rising in a straight line, then stabilized at around 1 000 a year. The main test species included corn, soybean and cotton, accounting for 45.8%, 9.7%, 6.4%, respectively. The main characters were involved in the anti-herbicide, insect resistance and quality traits. About 62.7% field trials were undertaken by 5 private companies such as Monsanto and Pioneer Hi-Bred International, Inc. It is considered that the genetic modified crops which have a high economic value, mature technology and acceptable by consumers have broader prospects. China should continuously strengthen genetic modified research on non food crops.', 'en_US'),
(3523, 'The opportunity and challenge faced by transgenic herbicide-resistant crops and their development strategy', 'The planting area of transgenic herbicide-resistant crops accounted for more than 80% of the total planting area of transgenic crops in 2008. Herbicide resistance becomes the major one among all the transgenic traits that has been engineered into crops. The application of transgenic herbicide-resistant crops results in the drop in weed control cost, the decrease of herbicide residue, and the increase crop safety. However, large-scale commercialization of transgenic herbicide-resistant crops may lead to uniform of herbicidal market, thus exert great influences on herbicidal industry development. In addition, environmental safety issues, such as herbicide resistant weed evolution and transgene escape, may be involved. Therefore, the development of herbicide-resistant crops faces a variety of challenges. However, development of transgenic herbicide-resistant crops, in spite of not commercialized yet in China, is meeting a good development opportunity due to huge potential market and policy support. In addition, this paper addresses how to use herbicide-resistant gene reasonably, and the research and development strategy for transgenic herbicide-resistant crop in order to provide beneficial information for the research and development of transgenic herbicide-resistant crops in China.', 'en_US'),
(3524, 'Development, adoption and performance of Bt cotton in Pakistan: a review', 'This article reviews development, adoption and performance of Bt cotton against the background of monopoly pricing of its seed in Pakistan. The area under illegal Bt cotton is 80% with nearly 36 unapproved varieties. Most of these varieties are Cotton leaf curl virus susceptible, poor in fiber quality and high input demanding unapproved varieties. Almost all these varieties employed Monsanto Cry1Acgene (MON 531) as it was not patented in Pakistan. A positive development was approval of Monsanto plan to introduce advanced genetically modified (GM) crop technology in Pakistan by Government of Pakistan during 2009. In this regard Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MINFA) has been working on a two pronged strategy i.e. developing the technology through indigenous capabilities as well as inviting the multi-national companies (MNCs) to bring in the latest cotton production and protection in the country. Bt cotton can play a significant role to enhance agricultural productivity as the productivity of cotton in Pakistan 0.5 t ha-1 as compared productivity of Bt cotton in China 9 t ha-1, which implies a huge cotton productivity gap. This gap can be narrowed down by the adoption of Bt cotton in Pakistan which will have major impact on food security efforts in the country. The findings of literature review revealed that Bt technology significantly reduces pesticide application and increases yields; however, these advantages are curbed by the high prices charged for genetically modified illegal cotton seeds in the country. National Biosafety Guidelines of 2005, must be followed to approve all genetically modified crop varieties including cotton. This will encourage the introduction of this advanced technology through legal means with its complete package of benefits. After approval of Bt cotton cultivation by Government of Pakistan, R&amp;D sector should be encouraged to transfer Bt-Cry genes into such genetic backgrounds which: (i) must have resistance against CLCuV, (ii) are suitable for a given ecology, (iii) meet the set fiber quality parameters (fiber length and strength, GOT% etc.) and (iv) other desirable features required for the release of a normal commercial variety.', 'en_US'),
(3525, 'General surveillance of genetically modified plants in the EC and the need for controls', 'This paper describes the current method of general surveillance of genetically modified plants (GMO) in the European Union that is aimed at the detection of unexpected adverse effects of the GMO (those that were not identified in the environmental risk assessment) at the farm level. The weakness of the current method in detecting the ecological effects of GMO due to a lack of a well-defined control (usual scenario in the absence of a GMO) is described, and a more quantitative method of assessment (that which involves the collection of data on both GM and non-GM crops) is proposed.', 'en_US'),
(3526, 'Cumulative impact of GM herbicide-tolerant cropping on arable plants assessed through species-based and functional taxonomies', 'Data were used from experiments on the effect of (GMHT) crops and non-GM, or conventional, comparators in fields sown with four crop types (beet, maize, spring and winter oilseed rape) at a total of 250 sites in the UK between 2000 and 2003. Indices of biodiversity were measured in a split-field design comparing GMHT with the farmers'' usual weed management. In the original analyses based on the means at site level, effects were detected on the mass of weeds in the three spring crops and the proportion of broadleaf and grass weeds in winter oilseed rape, but not on indices of plant species diversity. To explore the links between site means and total taxa, accumulation curves were constructed based on the number of plant species (a pool of around 250 species in total) and the number of plant functional types (24), inferred from the general life-history characteristics of a species. Species accumulation differed between GMHT and conventional treatments in direction and size, depending on the type of crop and its conventional management. Differences were mostly in the asymptote of the curve, indicative of the maximum number of species found in a treatment, rather than the steepness of the curve. In winter oilseed rape, 8% more species were accumulated in the GMHT treatment, mainly as a result of the encouragement of grass species by the herbicide when applied in the autumn. (Overall, GMHT winter oilseed rape had strong negative effects on both the food web and the potential weed burden by increasing the biomass of grasses and decreasing that of broadleaf weeds.) In maize, 33% more species -- a substantial increase -- were accumulated in the GMHT than in the conventional, consistent with the latter''s highly suppressive weed management using triazine herbicides. In the spring oilseed rape and beet, fewer species (around 10%) were accumulated in the GMHT than the conventional. The GMHT treatments did not remove or add any functional (life history) types, however. Differences in species accumulation between treatments appeared to be caused by loss or gain of rarer species. The generality of this effect was confirmed by simulations of species accumulation in which the species complement at each of 50 sites was drawn from a regional pool and subjected to reducing treatment at each site. Shifts in the species-accumulation parameters, comparable to those measured, occurred only when a treatment removed the rarer species at each site. Species accumulation provided a set of simple curve-parameters that captured the net result of numerous local effects of treatments on plant species and, in some instances, the balance between grass and broadleaf types. The direction of effect was not the same in the four crops and depended on the severity of the conventional treatment and on complex interactions between season, herbicide and crop. The accumulation curves gave an indication of potential positive or negative consequences for regional species pools of replacing a conventional practice with GMHT weed management. In this and related studies, a range of indicators, through which diversity was assessed by both species and functional type, and at both site and regional scales, gave more insight into effects of GMHT treatment than provided by any one indicator.', 'en_US'),
(3527, 'Dispersal and persistence of genetically modified oilseed rape around Japanese harbors', 'Background, aim, and scope: The possibility of gene transfer from genetically modified oilseed rape (OSR) to its cultivated or wild relatives is of concern since its commercial cultivation, because of its potential weediness and impact on the environment. Introgression of modified genes can affect conservation of agricultural crops, because there are many cultivars and wild Brassicaceae that may cross with genetically modified OSR (Brassica napus) in Japan. Japan imports more than 2 million tons of OSR a year from Canada and other countries. Since volunteers of GM OSR were found around harbors in 2004, a lot of feral GM OSR was discovered in Japan. To consider the way how to keep domestic Brassicaceae from GM contamination, we surveyed and analyzed the dispersal and persistence of GM OSR around Japanese harbors. We present the cause and abundance of GM OSR in Japan by this paper. Materials and methods: Survey of the feral OSR was performed several times a year at different seasons when domestic OSR either grows or does not around port areas. Detection of herbicide tolerance in feral B. napus was done by test papers that cross react with the modified gene product. Two kinds of herbicide tolerance (glyphosate and glufosinate) were tested. Results: The feral B. napus were discovered around all 13 harbors that import rapeseeds from foreign countries. Genetically modified, herbicide-tolerant OSR were frequently found in the surveyed populations. Two kinds of herbicide-tolerant OSR (glyphosate- and glufosinate-tolerant) were discovered in a natural condition 40 km from port to an oil factory where 60,000 tons of OSR seed are processed a year. The cause of voluntary growth of OSR is seed spillage during transportation by trucks from harbors to oil factories and other processing facilities. Some of the feral OSR growing along the roadsides of transport paths exhibited perennial growth spilling their seeds around the places. Alteration of the generation of feral GM OSR was discovered for the first time in Japan as a result of this study. We studied the yearly change of feral OSR abundances focusing on Yokkaichi port over the 4 years since 2004. The rate of GM OSR increases year to year, and reaches nearly 90% in 2008. Discussion: The possibility and consequences of gene transfer from the genetically modified OSR to domestic species (B. rapa and B. juncea) were discussed in relation to impact on domestic agriculture and on environments. Evolutional meaning of the gene transfer was also discussed with respect to the gene construct of GM OSR. This study shows the importance of another pathway of modified gene transfer to non-GM relative species by seed transportation in addition to pollen transfer from commercial cultivation of genetically modified OSR. Conclusions and recommendations: We identified unintended dispersal and persistence of GM OSR around Japanese harbors that import OSR from Canada and other countries. Both glyphosate- and glufosinate-tolerant feral B. napus were discovered. The cause of volunteer OSR is spillage of the seeds during transportation by truck to oil factory. The feral GM OSR sometimes showed perennial growth in Japanese phonological conditions which are not observed for domestic Brassicaceae. In addition, we confirmed an alteration of generations by feral GM OSR in Japan. The possibility of cross pollination and GM gene introgression to domestic varieties can occur in these environments. To improve the situation, each responsible organization, company, administration, or government should establish measures how to stop the dispersal and persistence of GM OSR in nature. Also, the GM plant developers are responsible for revising this situation.', 'en_US'),
(3528, 'How to model and simulate the effects of cropping systems on population dynamics and gene flow at the landscape level: example of oilseed rape volunteers and their role for co-existence of GM and non-GM crops', 'Background, aim and scope -- Agricultural landscapes comprise cultivated fields and semi-natural areas. Biological components of these compartments such as weeds, insect pests and pathogenic fungi can disperse sometimes over very large distances, colonise new habitats via insect flight, spores, pollen or seeds and are responsible for losses in crop yield (e.g. weeds, pathogens) and biodiversity (e.g. invasive weeds). The spatiotemporal dynamics of these biological components interact with crop locations, successions and management as well as the location and management of semi-natural areas such as roadverges. The objective of this investigation was to establish a modelling and simulation methodology for describing, analysing and predicting spatiotemporal dynamics and genetics of biological components of agricultural landscapes. The ultimate aim of the models was to evaluate and propose innovative cropping systems adapted to particular agricultural concerns. The method was applied to oilseed rape (OSR) volunteers playing a key role for the coexistence of genetically modified (GM) and non-GM oilseed rape crops, where the adventitious presence of GM seeds in non-GM harvests (AGMP) could result in financial losses for farmers and cooperatives. Material and methods -- A multi-year, spatially explicit model was built, using field patterns, climate, cropping systems and OSR varieties as input variables, focusing on processes and cultivation techniques crucial for plant densities and pollen flow. The sensitivity of the model to input variables was analysed to identify the major cropping factors. These should be modified first when searching for solutions limiting gene flow. The sensitivity to model processes and species life-traits were analysed to facilitate the future adaptation of the model to other species. The model was evaluated by comparing its simulations to independent field observations to determine its domain of validity and prediction error. Results -- The cropping system study determined contrasted farm types, simulated the current situation and tested a large range of modifications compatible with each farm to identify solutions for reducing the AGMP. The landscape study simulated gene flow in a large number of actual and virtual field patterns, four combinations of regional OSR and GM proportions and three contrasted cropping systems. The analysis of the AGMP rate at the landscape level determined a maximum acceptable GM OSR area for the different cropping systems, depending on the regional OSR volunteer infestation. The analysis at the field level determined minimum distances between GM and non-GM crops, again for different cropping systems and volunteer infestations. Discussion -- The main challenge in building spatially explicit models of the effects of cropping systems and landscape patterns on species dynamics and gene flow is to determine the spatial extent, the time scale, the major processes and the degree of mechanistic description to include in the model, depending on the species characteristics and the model objective.', 'en_US'),
(3529, 'The variability of processes involved in transgene dispersal--case studies from Brassica and related genera', 'Background, aim, and scope -- We strive to predict consequences of genetically modified plants (GMPs) being cultivated openly in the environment, as human and animal health, biodiversity, agricultural practise and farmers'' economy could be affected. Therefore, it is unfortunate that the risk assessment of GMPs is burdened by uncertainty. One of the reasons for the uncertainty is that the GMPs are interacting with the ecosystems at the release site thereby creating variability. This variability, e.g. in gene flow, makes consequence analysis difficult. The review illustrates the great uncertainty of results from gene-flow analysis. Main features -- Many independent experiments were performed on the individual processes in gene flow. The results comprise information both from laboratory, growth chambers and field trials, and they were generated using molecular or phenotypic markers and analysis of fitness parameters. Monitoring of the extent of spontaneous introgression in natural populations was also performed. Modelling was used as an additional tool to identify key parameters in gene flow. Results -- The GM plant may affect the environment directly or indirectly by dispersal of the transgene. Magnitude of the transgene dispersal will depend on the GM crop, the agricultural practise and the environment of the release site. From case-to-case these three factors provide a variability that is reflected in widely different likelihoods of transgene dispersal and fitness of introgressed plants. In the present review, this is illustrated through a bunch of examples mostly from our own research on oilseed rape, Brassica napus. In the Brassica cases, the variability affected all five main steps in the process of gene dispersal. The modelling performed suggests that in Brassica, differences in fitness among plant genome classes could be a dominant factor in the establishment and survival of introgressed populations. Discussion -- Up to now, experimental analyses have mainly focused on studying the many individual processes of gene flow. This can be criticised, as these experiments are normally carried out in widely different environments and with different genotypes, and thus providing bits and pieces difficult to assemble. Only few gene-flow studies have been performed in natural populations and over several plant generations, though this could give a more coherent and holistic view. Conclusion -- The variability inherent in the processes of gene flow in Brassica is apparent and remedies are wished for. One possibility is to expose the study species to additional experiments and monitoring, but this is costly and will likely not cover all possible scenarios. Another remedy is modelling gene flow. Modelling is a valuable tool in identifying key factors in the gene-flow process for which more knowledge is needed, and identifying parameters and processes which are relatively insensitive to change and therefore require less attention in future collections of data. But the interdependence between models and experimental data is extensive, as models depend on experimental data for their development or testing. Recommendations -- More and more transgenic varieties are being grown worldwide harbouring genes that might potentially affect the environment (e.g. drought tolerance, salt tolerance, disease tolerance, pharmaceutical genes). This calls for a thorough risk assessment. However, in Brassica, the limited and uncertain knowledge on gene flow is an obstacle to this. Modelling of gene flow should be optimised, and modelling outputs verified in targeted field studies and at the landscape level. Last but not least, it is important to remember that transgene flow in itself is not necessarily a thread, but it is the consequences of gene flow that may jeopardise the ecosystems and the agricultural production. This emphasises the importance of consequence analysis of genetically modified plants.', 'en_US'),
(3530, 'Specific respiration rates, adenylates, and energy budgets of soil microorganisms after addition of transgenic Bt-maize straw', 'An arable soil was incubated with straw (stem+leaves) of two transgenic Bt-maize varieties (Novelis: event MON810 and Valmont: event Bt176) and the two corresponding near-isogenic varieties (Nobilis and Prelude). The aim was to evaluate the use of these substrates for microbial growth and maintenance in soil during early decomposition. The addition of Bt-maize straw increased CO2 production rates and the specific respiration rates CO2-C/microbial biomass C and CO2-C/ATP significantly compared with the addition of non-Bt maize straw. This extra energy in the Bt-maize straw could not be used for microbial biomass or ATP and ADP production, and was lost for maintenance. In addition, increased death rates of microbial biomass occurred in the soils treated with the Bt-maize straw from day 3 to 21. Generally, most of the energy was stored in microbial biomass, whereas only 10% of energy was stored in ATP, and only 1-2% in ADP. The AEC (adenylate energy charge: (ATP+0.5 x ADP)/(AMP+ADP+ATP)) was not affected by any treatment. The reasons for the lower efficiency of microbial substrate use after adding Bt-maize straw cannot be fully explained by the present experiment. However, a risk assessment has to look at the impact of transgenic plant material on soil microorganisms at different maturity stages.', 'en_US'),
(3531, 'Modeling the impact of alternative hosts on Helicoverpa zea adaptation to bollgard cotton', 'For highly polyphagous cotton, Gossypium hirsutum L., pests such as Helicoverpa zea (Boddie), a substantial portion of the larval population develops on noncotton alternative hosts. These noncotton hosts potentially provide a natural refuge for H. zea, thereby slowing the evolution of resistance to the Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner (Bt)-derived Cry1Ac protein present in Bollgard cotton. Here, we demonstrate how the measured contribution of such alternative hosts can be included in estimating the ''effective refuge'' present for H. zea and in modeling resistance evolution in this species. A single-gene, two-compartment model was used in which one compartment represented corn, Zea mays L., and cotton that express the Cry1Ac protein or similar proteins, and the other compartment was the effective refuge, made up of a weighted average of non-Bt cotton and noncotton hosts. The effective refuge was estimated for each of six generations of H. zea based upon available data on larval population densities on different hosts and cropping patterns. Model runs were performed for regions centered on three states: Georgia, Mississippi, and North Carolina. Three sets of fitness cost assumptions for the putative resistance gene were used: none, low, and moderate, with either recessive or additive inheritance for resistance and fitness costs. For Georgia and North Carolina, resistance was predicted to take &gt; 30 yr to evolve except in the absence of fitness costs. For Mississippi, results were sensitive to fitness costs: &gt; 30 yr with moderate costs, 7-14 yr with low costs, and 6-10 yr without such costs.', 'en_US'),
(3532, 'DNA screening reveals pink bollworm resistance to Bt cotton remains rare after a decade of exposure', 'Transgenic crops producing toxins from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) kill insect pests and can reduce reliance on insecticide sprays. Although Bt cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) and Bt corn (Zea mays L.) covered 26 million ha worldwide in 2005, their success could be cut short by evolution of pest resistance. Monitoring the early phases of pest resistance to Bt crops is crucial, but it has been extremely difficult because bioassays usually cannot detect heterozygotes harboring one allele for resistance. We report here monitoring of resistance to Bt cotton with DNA-based screening, which detects single resistance alleles in heterozygotes. We used polymerase chain reaction primers that specifically amplify three mutant alleles of a cadherin gene linked with resistance to Bt cotton in pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders), a major pest. We screened DNA of 5,571 insects derived from 59 cotton fields in Arizona, California, and Texas during 2001-2005. No resistance alleles were detected despite a decade of exposure to Bt cotton. In conjunction with data from bioassays and field efficacy tests, the results reported here contradict predictions of rapid pest resistance to Bt crops.', 'en_US'),
(3533, 'Integrating biological and chemical controls in decision making: European corn borer (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) control in sweet corn as an example', 'As growers switch to transgenic crops and selective insecticides that are less toxic to natural enemies, natural enemies can become more important in agricultural pest management. Current decision-making guides are generally based on pest abundance and do not address pest and natural enemy toxicity differences among insecticides or the impact of natural enemies on pest survival. A refined approach to making pest management decisions is to include the impact of natural enemies and insecticides, thereby better integrating biological and chemical control. The result of this integration is a dynamic threshold that varies for each product and the level of biological control expected. To demonstrate the significance of conserved biological control in commercial production, a decision-making guide was developed that evaluates control options for European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (Hubner) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae), in sweet corn, Zea mays L., where the primary natural enemies are generalist predators. Management options are lambda-cyhalothrin (broad-spectrum insecticide), spinosad (selective insecticide), Trichogramma ostriniae (Peng &amp; Chen) (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) (parasitoid), and Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) sweet corn (transgenic variety). The key factors influencing thresholds for all treatments are the intended market, predator populations, and the presence of alternative foods for the predators. Treatment cost is the primary factor separating the threshold for each treatment within a common scenario, with the lowest cost treatment having the lowest pest threshold. However, when the impact of a treatment on natural enemies is projected over the 3-wk control period, the impact of the treatment on predators becomes the key factor in determining the threshold, so the lowest thresholds are for broad-spectrum treatments, whereas selective products can have thresholds &gt; 6 times higher by the third week. This decision guide can serve as a framework to help focus future integrated pest management research and to aid in the selection of pest management tools.', 'en_US'),
(3534, 'Monitoring the Cry1Ab susceptibility of European corn borer in Germany', 'The European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (Hubner), is one of the most important insect pests in corn, Zea mays L. Transgenic corn cultivars expressing Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxin provide a promising crop protection strategy against European corn borer; however, management is needed to avoid resistance development of the target pest species. The aim of this work was to establish the baseline susceptibility of different European corn borer populations in Germany to be able to forecast a possible development of resistance at an early stage. To standardize test procedures for future resistance management, the efficiency of Cry1Ab toxins from different suppliers and different production was assessed. Furthermore, two different test methods, surface treatment and the incorporation method, were compared with regard to their practicability and efficiency. Neither method provided significant differences in the baseline susceptibility of populations from different German regions. Overall, the data suggested little differentiation among German populations in terms of their susceptibility to Bt toxin and their genetic background. Future monitoring could therefore use a single European corn borer population as a representative for southwestern Germany. However, toxins from different suppliers and different production batches produced a vast range of LC50 values. Changes because of different toxin batches may be mistaken as a change in baseline susceptibility or even as the start of a resistance development. Thus, it is important throughout insect resistance management that the same toxin batches will be available for baseline susceptibility bioassays and for future tests.', 'en_US'),
(3535, 'Genetic variation for resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis toxins in Helicoverpa zea (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in eastern North Carolina', 'To evaluate resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner (Bt) toxins, adult female bollworms, Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), were collected from four light trap locations in two eastern North Carolina counties from August to October during 2001 and 2002. Females were allowed to oviposit, and upon hatching, 24 neonates from each female (F1 lines) were screened for survival and growth rate on each of three diets: non-Bt diet, diet containing 5.0 microg/ml Cry1Ac toxin, or diet containing 5.0 microg/ml Cry2Ab toxin. These screens were designed to identify nonrecessive Bt resistance alleles present in field populations of bollworm. Of 561 and 691 families screened with both Cry1Ac- and Cry2Ab-containing diets in 2001 and 2002, respectively, no F1 lines were identified that seemed to carry a gene conferring substantial resistance to either Cry1Ac or Cry2Ab. Adults from F1 lines with growth scores in the highest (R) and lowest (S) quartiles were mated in four combinations, R x R, S x R, R x S, and S x S. Differences in growth rates of larvae from these crosses demonstrated that there is substantial quantitative genetic variation in eastern North Carolina populations for resistance to both Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab toxins. These findings, in addition to results suggesting partially dominant inheritance of resistance to Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab, are critically important for determining appropriate resistance management strategies that impact the sustainability of transgenic cotton, Gossypium hirsutum (L.).', 'en_US'),
(3536, 'Selecting for efficacy of Bollgard cotton cultivars against various Lepidoptera using forward breeding techniques', 'Studies during the past 5 yr have shown that the overall level of protein (Cry1Ac) produced from the cry1Ac transgene (Monsanto Co., St. Louis, MO) differ among commercial Bollgard cotton, Gossypium hirsutum L., cultivars. These differences between cultivars are under genetic control and have been correlated with efficacy of certain lepidopteran pests. Previous studies have shown that the parental background (i.e., non-Cry1Ac conventional cultivar) has a significant influence on the amount of Cry1Ac protein in Bollgard cultivars. Unlike the backcross technique commonly used to acquire commercial Bollgard cultivars, we used forward breeding to obtain cultivars of Bollgard cotton that were selected for various levels of Cry1Ac. These differences in the amount of Cry1Ac were correlated with growth and survival of two lepidopteran pests of cotton. Implications for effective resistance management as well as relative ease of this procedure are discussed.', 'en_US'),
(3537, 'Cadherin-based resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis cotton in hybrid strains of pink bollworm: fitness costs and incomplete resistance', 'Recessive resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) cotton, Gossypium hirsutum L., in laboratory-selected strains of pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders), is associated with three resistance alleles (r1, r2, and r3) of a cadherin gene. Previous experiments based on measurement of fitness components in Bt-resistant and Bt-susceptible strains revealed that fitness costs and incomplete resistance are associated with resistance. Here, we used two hybrid strains of pink bollworm, each containing a mixture of susceptible and resistant individuals, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplifications to test the association between cadherin genotype and fitness components for individuals sharing a common genetic background. All survivors on Bt cotton had two r alleles, confirming that recessive cadherin alleles are tightly linked with resistance to Bt cotton. On non-Bt cotton, significantly greater developmental time for rr than ss larvae indicated a recessive fitness cost, but costs did not affect survival or pupal weight. Incomplete resistance was manifested as longer developmental time, lower survival, and smaller pupal weight in rr individuals developing on Bt cotton compared with non-Bt cotton. As in previous experiments, no significant variation in performance on Bt cotton was detected among rr genotypes. However, a meta-analysis of data from seven experiments revealed that survival on Bt cotton relative to non-Bt cotton was lower in r2r3 and higher in r1r2 compared with the other rr genotypes. Assessment of fitness components associated with cadherin genotypes in hybrid strains of pink bollworm confirms that recessive resistance to Bt cotton is associated with recessive fitness costs and incomplete resistance.', 'en_US'),
(3538, 'Interactions among white spruce tannins, Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki, and spruce budworm (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), on larval survival, growth, and development', 'Recessive resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) cotton, Gossypium hirsutum L., in laboratory-selected strains of pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders), is associated with three resistance alleles (r1, r2, and r3) of a cadherin gene. Previous experiments based on measurement of fitness components in Bt-resistant and Bt-susceptible strains revealed that fitness costs and incomplete resistance are associated with resistance. Here, we used two hybrid strains of pink bollworm, each containing a mixture of susceptible and resistant individuals, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplifications to test the association between cadherin genotype and fitness components for individuals sharing a common genetic background. All survivors on Bt cotton had two r alleles, confirming that recessive cadherin alleles are tightly linked with resistance to Bt cotton. On non-Bt cotton, significantly greater developmental time for rr than ss larvae indicated a recessive fitness cost, but costs did not affect survival or pupal weight. Incomplete resistance was manifested as longer developmental time, lower survival, and smaller pupal weight in rr individuals developing on Bt cotton compared with non-Bt cotton. As in previous experiments, no significant variation in performance on Bt cotton was detected among rr genotypes. However, a meta-analysis of data from seven experiments revealed that survival on Bt cotton relative to non-Bt cotton was lower in r2r3 and higher in r1r2 compared with the other rr genotypes. Assessment of fitness components associated with cadherin genotypes in hybrid strains of pink bollworm confirms that recessive resistance to Bt cotton is associated with recessive fitness costs and incomplete resistance.', 'en_US'),
(3539, 'Impact of small fitness costs on pest adaptation to crop varieties with multiple toxins: a heuristic model', 'A deterministic two-locus model was used to examine how small fitness costs to individuals carrying resistance alleles could impact the risk of panmictic insect pest populations adapting to crop varieties that produced two distinct toxins. Parameters examined were (1) level of toxicity of each toxin, (2) initial frequencies of alleles for adaptation to the toxins, (3) percentage of population feeding on nontoxic plants, and (4) level of fitness cost associated with adaptation to each of the two toxins. Resistance to each toxin was assumed to be biochemically independent, controlled by a resistance coding allele at a single locus, and inherited as a partially recessive trait in the field. When plants are extremely toxic to the pest, effective refuge size is 10%, and there is a fitness cost to resistance alleles only when in homozygous form (5%), the pest population is never predicted to adapt to either toxin as long as the initial frequencies of the resistance alleles are below 0.05. Even if the initial frequency of the allele for adapting to one toxin is 0.95 when a two-toxin cultivar completely replaces a one-toxin cultivar, the model predicts that a low equilibrium allelic frequency will develop for both resistance alleles, as long as the frequency of the allele for adapting to the second toxin is initially 0.001 or less. If cultivars with one and two toxins are planted, the model predicts that resistance will develop. Nonrandom mating and stochastic variation within subpopulations also could lead to evolution of resistance.', 'en_US'),
(3540, 'Evaluation of oviposition deterrence in management of resistance to transgenic corn by European corn borer (Lepidoptera: Crambidae)', 'We modified an existing model for European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (Hubner) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae), population dynamics and genetics to evaluate the effectiveness of oviposition deterrence in transgenic fields for resistance management. We simulated two types of deterrence: one type has females reducing their oviposition because of lost opportunities to lay eggs (eggs lost), and the other type has the deterred females moving to the refuge to lay eggs. Oviposition deterrence was clearly effective in extending the time to resistance to transgenic corn (R allele) in the European corn borer, particularly when 80% or more of the eggs were deterred from being oviposited on the transgenic plants. With 90% of eggs deterred, the time required to reach 50% R-allele frequency increases 3.7- to 5.5-fold compared with the no-deterrence scenario. The time to 50% R-allele frequency was similar for the two types of simulated deterrence, but the densities of the European corn borer were 100-fold higher when the deterred females oviposited in the refuge. The Y allele for insensitivity or resistance to deterrence never reached 50% within the 50-yr time line for these simulations except when the R allele was dominant and the Y allele was not recessive. The time to 50% Y-allele frequency was 33 and 26 yr when the Y allele was additive or dominant, respectively, when 50% of the eggs were deterred, but the time decreased to 18 and 16 yr when 90% of the eggs were deterred. The effectiveness of oviposition deterrence on time to resistance to transgenic insecticidal plants was not changed much when we altered our assumptions about behavior in a sensitivity analysis.', 'en_US'),
(3541, 'High-level resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis toxin Cry1Ac and cadherin genotype in pink bollworm', 'Resistance to transgenic cotton, Gossypium hirsutum L., producing Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxin Cry1Ac is linked with three recessive alleles of a cadherin gene in laboratory-selected strains of pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders), a major cotton pest. Here, we analyzed a strain (MOV97-R) with a high frequency of cadherin resistance alleles, a high frequency of resistance to 10 microg of Cry1Ac per milliliter of diet, and an intermediate frequency of resistance to 1,000 microg of Cry1Ac per ml of diet. We selected two strains for increased resistance by exposing larvae from MOV97-R to diet with 1,000 microg of Cry1Ac per ml of diet. In both selected strains, two to three rounds of selection increased survival at 1,000 microg of Cry1Ac per ml of diet to at least 76%, indicating genetic variation in survival at this high concentration and yielding &gt; 4,300-fold resistance relative to a susceptible strain. Variation in cadherin genotype did not explain variation in survival at 1,000 microg of Cry1Ac per ml of diet, implying that one or more other loci affected survival at this concentration. This conclusion was confirmed with results showing that when exposure to Cry1Ac stopped, survival at 1,000 microg of Cry1Ac per ml of diet dropped substantially, but survival at 10 microg Cry1Ac per ml of diet remained close to 100% and all survivors had two cadherin resistance alleles. Although survival at 1,000 microg of Cry1Ac per ml of diet is not required for resistance to Bt cotton, understanding how genes other than cadherin confer increased survival at this high concentration may reveal novel mechanisms of resistance.', 'en_US'),
(3542, 'Potential gene flow of two herbicide-tolerant transgenes from oilseed rape to wild B. juncea var. gracilis', 'Four successive reciprocal backcrosses between F1 (obtained from wild Brassica juncea as maternal plants and transgenic glyphosate- or glufosinate-tolerant oilseed rape, B. napus, as paternal plants) or subsequent herbicide-tolerant backcross progenies and wild B. juncea were achieved by hand pollination to assess potential transgene flow. The third and forth reciprocal backcrosses produced a number of seeds per silique similar to that of self-pollinated wild B. juncea, except in plants with glufosinate-tolerant backcross progeny used as maternal plants and wild B. juncea as paternal plants, which produced fewer seeds per silique than did self-pollinated wild B. juncea. Germination percentages of reciprocal backcross progenies were high and equivalent to those of wild B. juncea. The herbicide-tolerant first reciprocal backcross progenies produced fewer siliques per plant than did wild B. juncea, but the herbicide-tolerant second or third reciprocal backcross progenies did not differ from the wild B. juncea in siliques per plant. The herbicide-tolerant second and third reciprocal backcross progenies produced an amount of seeds per silique similar to that of wild B. juncea except for with the glufosinate-tolerant first and second backcross progeny used as maternal plants and wild B. juncea as paternal plants. In the presence of herbicide selection pressure, inheritance of the glyphosate-tolerant transgene was stable across the second and third backcross generation, whereas the glufosinate-tolerant transgene was maintained, despite a lack of stabilized introgression. The occurrence of fertile, transgenic weed-like plants after only three crosses (F1, first backcross, second backcross) suggests a potential rapid spread of transgenes from oilseed rape into its wild relative wild B. juncea. Transgene flow from glyphosate-tolerant oilseed rape might be easier than that from glufosinate-tolerant oilseed rape to wild B. juncea. The original insertion site of the transgene could affect introgression.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(3543, 'Sample size for detecting and estimating the proportion of transgenic plants with narrow confidence intervals', 'Detecting the presence of genetically modified plants (adventitious presence of unwanted transgenic plants, AP) from outcrossing species such as maize requires a method that lowers laboratory costs without losing precision. Group testing is a procedure in which groups that contain several units (plants) are analysed without having to inspect individual plants, with the purpose of estimating the prevalence of AP in a population at a low cost without losing precision. When pool (group) testing is used to estimate the prevalence of AP (p), there are sampling procedures for calculating a confidence interval (CI); however, they usually do not ensure precision in the estimation of p. This research proposes a method to determine the number of pools (g), given a pool size (k), that ensures precision in the estimated proportion of AP (that is, it ensures a narrow CI). In addition, the study computes the maximum likelihood estimator of p under pool testing and its exact CI, considering the detection limit of the laboratory, d, and the concentration of AP per unit (c). The proposed sample procedure involves two steps: (1) obtain a sample size that guarantees that the mean width of the CI (w) is narrower than the desired width (omega); and (2) iteratively increase the sample size until w is smaller than the desired width (omega) with a specified degree of certainty (gamma). Simulated data were created and tables are presented showing the different possible scenarios that a researcher may encounter. An R program is given and explained that will reproduce the results and make it easy for the researcher to create other scenarios. ', 'en_US'),
(3544, 'Sustainable introduction of GM crops into European agriculture: a summary report of the FP6 SIGMEA research project', 'In 2003, the European Commission established the principle of coexistence which refers to ''the ability of farmers to make a practical choice between conventional, organic and GM-crop production, in compliance with the legal obligations for labelling and/or purity standards'' and laid down guidelines defining the context of this coexistence. In order to determine what is needed for the sustainable introduction of GM crops in Europe, the cross-disciplinary SIGMEA Research Project was set up to create a science-based framework to inform decision-makers. SIGMEA has (i) collated and analysed European data on gene flow and the environmental impacts of the major crop species which are likely to be transgenic in the future (maize, rapeseed, sugar beet, rice, and wheat), (ii) designed predictive models of gene flow at the landscape level, (iii) analysed the technical feasibility and economic impacts of coexistence in the principal farming regions of Europe, (iv) developed novel GMO detection methods, (v) addressed legal issues related to coexistence, and (vi) proposed public and farm scale decision-making tools, as well as guidelines regarding management and governance. This publishable version of the final activity report of the FP6 SIGMEA research project, covers the fourteen major issues under investigation.', 'en_US'),
(3545, 'Mirid bug outbreaks in multiple crops correlated with wide-scale adoption of Bt cotton in China', 'Long-term ecological effects of transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) crops on nontarget pests have received limited attention, more so in diverse small holder-based cropping systems of the developing world. Field trials conducted over 10 years in northern China show that mirid bugs (Heteroptera: Miridae) have progressively increased population sizes and acquired pest status in cotton and multiple other crops, in association with a regional increase in Bt cotton adoption. More specifically, our analyses show that Bt cotton has become a source of mirid bugs and that their population increases are related to drops in insecticide use in this crop. Hence, alterations of pest management regimes in Bt cotton could be responsible for the appearance and subsequent spread of nontarget pests at an agro-landscape level.', 'en_US'),
(3546, 'Problem formulation in the environmental risk assessment for genetically modified plants', 'Problem formulation is the first step in environmental risk assessment (ERA) where policy goals, scope, assessment endpoints, and methodology are distilled to an explicitly stated problem and approach for analysis. The consistency and utility of ERAs for genetically modified (GM) plants can be improved through rigorous problem formulation (PF), producing an analysis plan that describes relevant exposure scenarios and the potential consequences of these scenarios. A properly executed PF assures the relevance of ERA outcomes for decision-making. Adopting a harmonized approach to problem formulation should bring about greater uniformity in the ERA process for GM plants among regulatory regimes globally. This paper is the product of an international expert group convened by the International Life Sciences Institute (ILSI) Research Foundation.', 'en_US'),
(3547, 'Identification of a hybridization window that facilitates sizeable reductions of pollen-mediated gene flow in spring wheat', 'Transgenic wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) with improved agronomic traits is currently being field-tested. Gene flow in space is well-documented, but isolation in time has not received comparable attention. Here, we report the results of a field experiment that investigated reductions in intraspecific gene flow associated with temporal isolation of flowering between T. aestivum conspecifics. Pollen-mediated gene flow (PMGF) between an imazamox-resistant (IR) volunteer wheat population and a non-IR spring wheat crop was assessed over a range of volunteer emergence timings and plant population densities that collectively promoted flowering asynchrony. Natural hybridization events between the two populations were detected by phenotypically scoring plants in F1 populations followed by verification with Mendelian segregation ratios in the F1:2 lines. Based on the examination of &gt; 545,000 seedlings, we identified a hybridization window in spring wheat approximately 125 growing degree-days (GDD) in length. We found a sizeable reduction (two- to four-fold) in gene flow frequencies when flowering occurred outside of this window. The hybridization window identified in this research also will serve to temporally isolate neighboring wheat crops. However, strict control of volunteer populations or spatial isolation of neighbouring crops emerging within a 125 GDD hybridization window will be necessary to maintain low frequencies of PMGF in spring wheat fields. The model developed herein also is likely to be applicable to other wind-pollinated species.', 'en_US'),
(3548, 'Comparative effects of dietary administered transgenic and conventional papaya on selected intestinal parameters in rat models', 'Transformation of agricultural crops with novel genes has significantly advanced disease-resistance breeding, including virus resistance through the expression of virus sequences. In this study, the effects of long-term, repeated exposure to transgenic papayas carrying the coat protein gene of Papaya ringspot virus and conventional non-transgenic papaya on the histology and selected biochemical parameters of the intestinal tract were compared. For 3 months, male and female Wistar rats received diets containing transgenic or non-transgenic papaya at twice the equivalent of the average daily consumption of fresh papayas. Gross and macroscopic appearance of intestinal tissues, as well as stomach tissues, was comparable (P &lt; 0.05) as were total intestinal bacterial counts and activities of beta-glucuronidase. Activities of disaccharidases were not affected, neither were those of amylase (P &lt; 0.05). Although significant differences were noted in the activity of Ca2+ and Na+/K+ ATPase brush border enzymes, no morphological alteration in the integrity of the intestinal mucosa was found. Overall, negligible effects on feed intake, body weight, and fecal output were observed (P &lt; 0.05). Taken together, long-term exposure to diets formulated with transgenic papaya did not result in biologically important unintended effects.', 'en_US'),
(3549, 'Rove beetle (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae) communities in transgenic Bt (MON810) and near isogenic maize', 'Field experiments were conducted to investigate the mechanism of the underlying patterns (abundance, species richness, diversity and similarity) of rove beetles in transgenic Bt (MON810) and in near isogenic maize stands in Hungary. During the three-year (2001-2003) survey, 1538 individuals and 21 species were sampled with pitfall traps. The Cry1Ab protein expressed by the MON810 maize hybrid did not influence the overall community structure. After grouping staphylinids into guilds we found no significant differences for non-aphidophagous predators and parasitoids, whereas there were significantly and marginally significantly higher abundances for predators with aphids in their diet in isogenic maize stands in 2002 and 2003 respectively. The abundance of the prey Rhopalosiphum padi (L.) showed a high fluctuation between stands and years and was numerically higher only in isogenic stands in the second half of the maize-growing season. The abundance of predatory guilds including aphids in their diet did not correlate with the total annual number of R. padi in the same year, but there was a linear correlation in successive years.', 'en_US'),
(3550, 'A preliminary study on the effects of a transgenic corn event on the non-target pest Dalbulus maidis (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae)', 'The inclusion of the cry gene in corn may produce direct effects on non-target pests. Our research was focused on the relationship between Bt corn germplasm, expressing the cry1F protein to control the fall armyworm Spodoptera frugiperda (Noctuidae), and a non-target pest, the corn leafhopper Dalbulus maidis (Cicadellidae). The aim of this contribution was to elucidate if Bt corn plants have influence on the oviposition preference of the leafhopper and to evaluate the effect of the transgenic plant on the hatching rate of egg. Female corn leafhoppers were released in cages each containing two potted plants in the V2 stage: a Bt germplasm and the corresponding isogenic hybrid. Laid eggs were counted and the number of hatched nymphs recorded. D. maidis females oviposited and laid more eggs in Bt plants. The egg hatching rate was negatively affected by the Bt germplasm. In addition, a field study was conducted in order to determine the abundance of D. maidis adults in Bt corn and the corresponding non-Bt isoline. Two corn plots sown with the same germplasms as used in the laboratory bioassays were sampled weekly. In the field, the population of the corn leafhopper was higher in the Bt corn plot than in the non-Bt isoline. Possible hypotheses for the differences in abundance of the vector in the field are: (a) that pleiotropic effects of Bt corn could attract adults; (b) the existence of a possible direct competition between the corn leafhopper and the target pest in order to utilize the whorls of corn plants as refuge and feeding sites, so the high populations of the vector could be due to the large supply of healthy whorls in the transgenic plot; and/or (c) a differential attack of natural enemies occurring in non-Bt plots.', 'en_US'),
(3551, 'Strategies on the safety of selectable marker genes in transgenic plant', 'Selectable marker genes encoding antibiotic and herbicide are widely used in transgenic plants and have a potential risk to the environment and human health. Currently, there are three kinds of strategies to improve security in using marker genes in transgenic plants: One approach is to develop the use of uncontested biosafety marker genes, the second is to use transgenic plants-removed selectable marker genes and the third is the use of non-selective marker gene transformation system. In this review, each of the strategy principles and problems are highlighted. Moreover, the perspectives are discussed to improve the safety of selectable marker genes in transgenic plants.', 'en_US'),
(3552, 'Proposed definition of environmental damage illustrated by the cases of genetically modified crops and invasive species', 'The introduction of non-native plant species and the release of genetically modified (GM) crops can induce environmental changes at gene to ecosystem levels. Regulatory frameworks such as the Convention on Biological Diversity or the EU Deliberate Release Directive aim to prevent environmental damage but do not define the term. Although ecologists and conservationists often refer to environmental effects of GM crops or invasive species as damage, most authors do not disclose their normative assumptions or explain why some environmental impacts are regarded as detrimental and others are not. Thus far, a concise definition of environmental damage is missing and is necessary for a transparent assessment of environmental effects or risks. Therefore, we suggest defining environmental damage as a significant adverse effect on a biotic or abiotic conservation resource (i.e., a biotic or abiotic natural resource that is protected by conservational or environmental legislation) that has an impact on the value of the conservation resource, the conservation resource as an ecosystem component, or the sustainable use of the conservation resource. This definition relies on three normative assumptions: only concrete effects on a conservation resource can be damages; only adverse effects that lead to a decrease in the value of the conservation resource can be damages; and only significant adverse effects constitute damage to a conservation resource. Applying this definition within the framework of environmental risk assessment requires further normative determinations, for example, selection of a threshold to distinguish between adverse and significant adverse effects and approaches for assessing the environmental value of conservation resources. Such determinations, however, are not part of the definition of environmental damage. Rather they are part of the definition''s operationalization through assessment procedures, which must be grounded in a comprehensible definition of environmental damage.', 'en_US'),
(3553, 'Long-term persistence of GM oilseed rape in the seedbank', 'Coexistence between genetically modified (GM) and non-GM plants is a field of rapid development and considerable controversy. In crops, it is increasingly important to understand and predict the GM volunteer emergence in subsequent non-GM crops. Theoretical models suggest recruitment from the seedbank over extended periods, but empirical evidence matching these predictions has been scarce. Here, we provide evidence of long-term GM seed persistence in conventional agriculture. Ten years after a trial of GM herbicide-tolerant oilseed rape, emergent seedlings were collected and tested for herbicide tolerance. Seedlings that survived the glufosinate herbicide (15 out of 38 volunteers) tested positive for at least one GM insert. The resulting density was equivalent to 0.01 plants m-2, despite complying with volunteer reduction recommendations. These results are important in relation to debating and regulating coexistence of GM and non-GM crops, particularly for planting non-GM crops after GM crops in the same field.', 'en_US'),
(3554, 'Hybridization between GM crops and their wild ancestors and its effect on biological diversity', 'Environmental safety issues are discussed using a case study on Glycine soja, a wild ancestral species of the GM crop Glycine max. GM Glycine max is considered a threat to biological diversity in the Far East region. The reliability of a press release reported by the Japanese Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery Ministry in 2008 is questioned, particularly regarding the statistical treatment of the data presented. In this press release, the safety of Glycine max is confirmed, based on results that reported small natural hybridization ratios between Glycine max and Glycine soja of approximately less than one in a thousand. However, this natural hybridization ratio was calculated without removing the number of plants whose flowering period differed from Glycine soja. Thus the re-calculated natural hybridization ratios have been corrected to 0.084 and 0.272 for the tests undertaken in 2005 and 2007, respectively. Considering that the natural mutation ratio is between 10&lt;Minus&gt;5 and 10&lt;Minus&gt;7, those natural hybridization ratios can be considered significantly high. The establishment of reliable technology for assessing levels of hybridization is recommended. Also, monitoring technology for early detection of hybridization effects in wild plants as well as corrective measures in case gene flow does occur into the wild are required.', 'en_US'),
(3555, 'On the competitiveness of Diabrotica virgifera virgifera damage abatement strategies in Hungary: a bio-economic approach', 'Diabrotica virgifera virgifera Le Conte or western corn rootworm (WCR) is a major pest of cultivated maize, Zea mays L., introduced into Europe in 1992. Since then, the beetle spread through Central Europe, leading to a continuous pest population in 11 European countries. This article presents an economic assessment of different damage abatement strategies against this invasive species in the Hungarian maize sector. A bio-economic model, using Monte Carlo sampling, estimates the potential damage from WCR under no control and the value created by Bt maize, seed treatment, soil insecticides and cultural control. At the same time, potential market shares for the different damage abatement options under perfect information are deducted. The potential damages under a no control scenario are estimated at Euro 176/ha for grain maize farmers on average, which points out the need for well-designed damage abatement strategies. For land-constrained farmers cultural control is a valuable damage abatement strategy, being the optimal choice in 69% of the cases. In monoculture Bt maize is the best option as it creates the highest value in 78% of the cases. However, as Bt maize active against WCR is not deregulated in the European Union, soil insecticides in 54% of the cases and seed treatment in 46% of the cases are the rational choices. As the value created by Bt maize is positive, not deregulating Bt maize in Hungary leads to benefits foregone ranging from Euro 16/ha for land-constrained grain farmers to Euro 49/ha in the case of silage maize under monoculture. Finally, the results of the sensitivity analysis can be used to develop a multi-criteria tool to aid farmers in applying the appropriate damage abatement strategy. This could decrease the dependency of farmers on scouting techniques and economic thresholds of WCR presence.', 'en_US'),
(3556, 'Cross-resistance of Cry1Ab-selected Asian corn borer to other Cry toxins', 'The Asian corn borer, Ostrinia furnacalis (Guenee) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae), is the most important insect pest of maize in China. Despite the proven track record of biotech Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) maize to provide an effective means to control lepidopteran pests such as the European corn borer Ostrinia nubilalis (Hubner), these crops have not been commercialized in China. However, Cry1Ab- and Cry1F-expressing maize derived from genetic transformation events MON810 (Monsanto), Bt11 (Syngenta) and TC1507 (Pioneer, DuPont) as well as Cry1Ah-, Cry1A- (a Cry1Ab/Cry1Ac hybrid toxin), and Cry1Ac-, Cry1Ie-expressing maize developed by the Chinese institutions have been shown to effectively suppress O. furnacalis in field trials. The development of resistance in target pests is a major threat to the use of Bt maize. A strain of O. furnacalis selected with Cry1Ab protein incorporated into artificial diet developed more than 100-fold resistance to Cry1Ab after 35 generations of selection, and readily consumed Cry1Ab-expressing maize silks. Although LC50s of the selected insect strain were not progressively increased, and even decreased in the following generations, these insects (ACB-AbR) could survive on Cry1Ab-expressing maize tissue after 51 generations of selection. In addition, susceptibility of ACB-AbR to a number of other Bt toxins to which the selected strains had not previously been exposed, was significantly decreased. The highest level of cross-resistance was observed with Cry1Ah (131-fold), followed by Cry1Ac (36-fold). A low level of cross-resistance (6-fold) to Cry1F was also detected. In contrast, ACB-AbR was equally susceptible to Cry1Ie as the unselected control strain. These results indicate that the availability of multiple toxins could improve resistance management strategies, provided that the potential for cross-resistance among toxins is not an issue.', 'en_US'),
(3557, 'Effects of genetically modified herbicide-tolerant (GMHT) rice on biodiversity of weed in paddy fields', 'To detect potential changes in properties of weed communities in fields of GMHT rice Bar68-1, trials were carried out from 2007-2008 at Changsha, China with conventional indica rice D68 served as control. The average richness of weed community measured by species accumulation curve tended to be identical in the fields of Bar68-1 and D68 as the number of sampling points increased. There were no significant differences (p &gt; 0.05) in diversity indices which included numbers of species(S), Shannon-Wiener (H''), Pielou evenness (J''), Simpson diversity (D) and evenness (E) indices. Species composition for these two weed communities was roughly comparable. The top four weed species, sorted by individual abundance, were Monochoria vaginalis (Burm. f.) Presl ex Kunth, Lindernia procumbens (Krock.) Philcox, Cyperus diformis L. and Juncellus serotinus (Rottb.). B. Clarke in the fields of Bar68-1 and D68. ABC curves showed that the weed communities were ''unpolluted''. The data above confirm the hypothesis that the difference between the effect of GMHT rice Bar68-1 on biodiversity of weed in paddy fields and that of non-GM rice D68 was not significant.', 'en_US'),
(3558, 'The origin and fate of morphological intermediates between wild and cultivated soybeans in their natural habitats in Japan', 'The spread of transgenes into the genome of wild soybean is a concern when transgenic and wild soybeans are planted sympatrically. The objectives of this study were to investigate the origin and fate of morphological intermediates between wild and cultivated soybeans in their natural habitats in Japan. Twenty nuclear microsatellite and two chloroplast dCAPS markers were used to evaluate genetic variation of 468 wild, 17 intermediate, and 12 cultivated soybean samples collected from six sites between 2003 and 2006. Allelic differentiation of microsatellite markers between wild and cultivated soybeans was sufficient to detect their hybrids. Based on levels of observed heterozygosity, intermediate soybean plants were from two generations: either F1 or an early segregating generation. Genetic admixture analysis and parentage assignment analysis revealed that the parents of all intermediate soybean plants could be assigned to a particular wild soybean plant and late-maturing cultivar. The chloroplast DNA haplotypes revealed that all intermediate soybean plants originated from gene flow from cultivated to wild soybeans at all sites. Based on monitoring at both the phenotypic and molecular levels, hybrids quickly disappeared from natural habitats, and secondary gene flow from these plants to wild soybean was not detected. Thus, while gene flow from transgenic soybean into wild soybean can occur, gene introgression appears to be rare in natural habitats in Japan. This is the first report on the detection of gene flow from cultivated to wild soybean at the molecular level.', 'en_US'),
(3559, 'Genetic diversity of feral alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) populations occurring in Manitoba, Canada and comparison with alfalfa cultivars: an analysis using SSR markers and phenotypic traits', 'Feral populations of cultivated crops may act as reservoirs for novel traits and aid in trait movement across the landscape. Knowledge on the genetic diversity of feral populations may provide new insights into their origin and evolution and may help in the design of efficient novel trait confinement protocols. In this study, the genetic diversity of 12 feral alfalfa (Medicago sativa) populations originating from southern Manitoba (Canada) and 10 alfalfa cultivars and a M. falcata germplasm were investigated using eight SSR markers (i.e., microsatellites) and 14 phenotypic traits. We found that the genetic diversity observed in feral populations was similar to the diversity detected among the 10 cultivars. Analysis of molecular variance revealed that there was great genetic variation within (99.8%) rather than between different feral populations. Cluster analysis (unweighted pair-group method using arithmetic average) revealed no differentiation between feral populations and cultivars for neutral loci. High levels of population differentiation for phenotypic traits (and not for neutral markers) suggest the occurrence of heterogeneous selection for adaptive traits. The phenotypic traits we studied did not distinctly separate feral populations from cultivars but there was evidence of natural selection in feral populations for traits including winter survivability, rhizome production, and prostrate growth habit. Our results suggest that feral alfalfa populations need to be considered in the risk assessment of alfalfa containing novel genetically modified (GM) traits. Further, feral alfalfa populations may be regarded as a source of new germplasm for plant improvement.', 'en_US'),
(3560, 'Natural variation explains most transcriptomic changes among maize plants of MON810 and comparable non-GM varieties subjected to two N-fertilization farming practices', 'The introduction of genetically modified organisms (GMO) in many countries follows strict regulations to ensure that only safety-tested products are marketed. Over the last few years, targeted approaches have been complemented by profiling methods to assess possible unintended effects of transformation. Here we used a commercial (Affymertix) microarray platform (i.e. allowing assessing the expression of approx. 1/3 of the genes of maize) to evaluate transcriptional differences between commercial MON810 GM maize and non-transgenic crops in real agricultural conditions, in a region where about 70% of the maize grown was MON810. To consider natural variation in gene expression in relation to biotech plants we took two common MON810/non-GM variety pairs as examples, and two farming practices (conventional and low-nitrogen fertilization). MON810 and comparable non-GM varieties grown in the field have very low numbers of sequences with differential expression, and their identity differs among varieties. Furthermore, we show that the differences between a given MON810 variety and the non-GM counterpart do not appear to depend to any major extent on the assayed cultural conditions, even though these differences may slightly vary between the conditions. In our study, natural variation explained most of the variability in gene expression among the samples. Up to 37.4% was dependent upon the variety (obtained by conventional breeding) and 31.9% a result of the fertilization treatment. In contrast, the MON810 GM character had a very minor effect (9.7%) on gene expression in the analyzed varieties and conditions, even though similar cryIA(b) expression levels were detected in the two MON810 varieties and nitrogen treatments. This indicates that transcriptional differences of conventionally-bred varieties and under different environmental conditions should be taken into account in safety assessment studies of GM plants.', 'en_US'),
(3561, 'Transgenic disease-resistant wheat does not affect the clonal performance of the aphid Metopolophium dirhodum Walker', 'Ever since the introduction of transgenic crops one of the main concerns has been their potential impact on non-target organisms. In this study we looked at the impact of transgenic disease-resistant wheat on different clones of the aphid Metopolophium dirhodum. Looking at different clones allowed us to assess whether impacts depended on aphid clone and whether there were aphid clone x wheat line interactions (genotype x environment interactions). The performance of 30 aphid clones on four different transgenic wheat lines and their corresponding control lines was studied in a life-table experiment assessing the following aphid life-history parameters: development time, adult weight, daily fecundity, total offspring number and the fitness estimate F''i. As expected, we found significant variation among aphid clones for all the measured life-history parameters. However, our experiments did not reveal any major impact of the transgenic wheat lines on aphid performance. The only significant difference was found for total offspring number which was reduced by 3.33% on the transgenic wheat lines compared with the control lines. There was no evidence for a genotype x environment interaction between aphid clones and wheat lines. In sum, our results imply that the genetically modified plants used in this assay were of similar host plant quality as the non-transformed control lines and that the introduced transgene had no major effect on the performance of individual aphid clones.', 'en_US'),
(3562, 'Establishing diagnostic platform for environmental biosafety assessment of genetically modified plants based on the decision-tree method', 'Transgenic biotechnology and its products provide important solutions for the great challenge of global food security. Biosafety assessment of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) including their food and environmental safety is a prerequisite for the commercialization and safe application of transgenic biotechnology products. However, existing methodologies cannot meet the urgent requirements for rapid biosafety assessment of the increasing number of new and sophisticated GMOs. Therefore, a new, more efficient and objective biosafety assessment methodology is needed. The decision tree, a widely used methodology for data mining and analysis, has a particular function in solving complicated problems. This article introduces the concepts, characteristics, and categorization of a decision tree, as well as methods for decision tree construction. Our objective is to explore the potential of establishing a diagnostic platform for biosafety assessment of GMOs in an efficient and accurate way. This biosafety assessment platform should also be useful for predicting the safety of the new generation of GMOs, and for educating the public on environmental biosafety, thereby providing a solid base for further development of transgenic technology and safe application of transgenic products.', 'en_US'),
(3563, 'Does GM wheat affect saprophagous Diptera species (Drosophilidae, Phoridae)?', 'Genetically modified (GM) plants might affect ecosystem functioning through effects on non-target decomposer organisms, which play an important role in the decomposition of organic matter and nutrient release. These organisms can be affected directly by the transgene products, or indirectly by pleiotropic effects, which may influence the composition of plant compounds, such as the lignin content or the C/N ratio that could even modify matter flux. Therefore, an ecological risk assessment for GM plants also has to include decomposers. In a laboratory diet experiment, we investigated possible effects of transgenic antifungal wheat on two saprophagous Diptera species, the drosophilid Drosophila melanogaster and the phorid Megaselia scalaris. We used several experimental transgenic wheat varieties with a specific antifungal powdery mildew resistance (Pm3b) and varieties with a broad antifungal resistance, which is based on the expression of chitinase and glucanase. We determined if important fitness parameters, such as fertility, development time and sex ratio differed when the two saprophagous Diptera species were fed with either leaves of transgenic or non-transgenic wheat. To include potential long-term effects, we performed our experiments over four fly generations. Additionally, we analysed the C/N ratio, and the cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin contents of the different wheat lines to investigate any changes in the diet composition, which may alter food quality through potential pleiotropic effects. We found occasional differences in development time or the number of offspring for both dipteran species in several investigated diet comparisons but we found no consistent pattern of GM wheat effects on the tested dipteran species. Though some wheat lines showed an altered chemical composition, possibly indicating a pleiotropic effect, we found no correlation between diet quality of the wheat lines and fitness parameters. Our study shows also that dipterans represent useful model species with M. scalaris being the most suitable species, and that our experimental approach is an appropriate laboratory method to investigate the decomposition of GM material by insect larvae.', 'en_US'),
(3564, 'Natural introgression from cultivated soybean (Glycine max) into wild soybean (Glycine soja) with the implications for origin of populations of semi-wild type and for biosafety of wild species in China', 'Introgression from soybean cultivars to its wild progenitor species is an interesting antidromic recombination in natural ecosystem with many consequences, including the alteration of genetic diversity, the origin of semi-wild soybean, and implication for biosafety of the wild progenitor species with future release of the genetically modified varieties. Although such interspecific introgression is not suspected to be ubiquitous in the sympatric regions of wild and cultivated soybeans, the documentations published based on some molecular experimental analyses on the introgression have been little substantiated by the occurring process morphologically and remain deficient for unquestionable evidence, owing to the lack of actual insight into the population dynamics. Here, we found the phenomenon of gene escape and presented the evidence for occurrence of introgression from soybeans into the wild species and for how originates about the semi-wild type soybean based on morphological investigation of population dynamics. Our results suggest that more attention should be paid to the escape of genetically modified genotypes to safeguard the biosafety of wild soybean gene pool, if GM soybeans are released in China, the place of origin of cultivated soybeans.', 'en_US'),
(3565, 'Susceptibility and fitness cost of cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera associated with cry 1Ac toxin of Bt cotton.', 'Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) populations collected from different cotton-growing areas of Punjab and Rajasthan (India) were studied for change in the baseline susceptibility (LC50) to Cry1Ac and impact of continuous laboratory selection of this pest on Cry1Ac toxin protein. Two years of Bt-cotton cultivation in these states did not result in any significant changes in susceptibility of H. armigera with LC50 values (microg Cry1Ac/ml of SS (semi-synthetic) diet) for populations from this cotton-growing area ranging between 0.109 to 0.203 in 2005 compared to 0.140 to 0.223 in 2006. As this was indicative of a low change in tolerance levels, the susceptibility differences observed among different populations were attributed to existence of genetic variability/molecular differences, which were established using comparative RAPD profiles. On an average, the tolerance levels of these populations to Cry1Ac-showed only 1.57 to 2.91 fold increase in 2005 and 2.02 to 3.23 fold in 2006, compared to the values of a susceptible population established in 2002 i.e., three years before the approval of Bt cotton cultivation in these two states. The laboratory selection (0.1 microg Cry 1Ac/ml diet) of these populations for six continuous generations resulted in decrease in susceptibility with LC50 values ranging from 0.165 to 0.311 microg/ml diet for seven populations from Punjab and Rajasthan. However, this improvement in tolerance level of H. armigera was associated with increased larval mortality, decreased pupation and adult emergence, low rate of fecundity and decreased hatching of eggs coupled with numerous deformities as compared to populations on normal diet. This higher level of fitness cost that was observed during selection of earlier generation of H. armigera however showed a continuous decline as the populations entered into subsequent generation thus resulting in improved survival due to decrease in per cent deformities of different development stages. The observed high fitness cost of H. armigera even at Cry1Ac level is much lower than the expressed toxin levels in most Bt-cotton hybrids goes against the possibility of a rapid resistance development in this pest.', 'en_US'),
(3566, 'Community structure of arthropods in transgenic cotton fields and their seasonal dynamics.', '', 'en_US'),
(3567, 'A 104-week feeding study of genetically modified soybeans in F344 rats.', 'A chronic feeding study to evaluate the safety of genetically modified glyphosate-tolerant soybeans (GM soybeans) was conducted using F344 DuCrj rats. The rats were fed diet containing GM soybeans or Non-GM soybeans at the concentration of 30% in basal diet. Non-GM soybeans were a closely related strain to the GM soybeans. These two diets were adjusted to an identical nutrient level. In this study, the influence of GM soybeans in rats was compared with that of the Non-GM soybeans, and furthermore, to assess the effect of soybeans themselves, the groups of rats fed GM and Non-GM soybeans were compared with a group fed commercial diet (CE-2). General conditions were observed daily and body weight and food consumption were recorded. At the termination (104 weeks), animals were subjected to hematology, serum biochemistry, and pathological examinations. There were several differences in animal growth, food intake, organ weights and histological findings between the rats fed the GM and/or Non-GM soybeans and the rats fed CE-2. However, body weight and food intake were similar for the rats fed the GM and Non-GM soybeans. Gross necropsy findings, hematological and serum biochemical parameters, and organ weights showed no meaningful difference between rats fed the GM and Non-GM soybeans. In pathological observation, there was neither an increase in incidence nor any specific type of nonneoplastic or neoplastic lesions in the GM soybeans group in each sex. These results indicate that long-term intake of GM soybeans at the level of 30% in diet has no apparent adverse effect in rats. ', 'en_US'),
(3568, 'Bt protein rhizosecreted from transgenic maize does not accumulate in soil', 'The persistence of CryIAb protein rhizosecreted in soil is important in the assessment of its environmental risk. Here we report that CryIAb protein from transgenic maize does not accumulate at high levels in soils. Levels of CryIAb protein rhizosecreted by three maize transgenic events (BT11, MON810 and 176) were studied in hydroponic cultures and found only in the MON810 and BT11 events but not in event 176 or control plants. Under field conditions, the cryIAb  gene and a basal level of CryIAb protein was detected in soils from plots cultivated with transgenic and non-transgenic maize, possibly from Bacillus thuringiensis present in the soils.', 'en_US'),
(3569, 'The biology and ecology of hexaploid wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and its implications for trait confinement', 'This review summarizes the biological and ecological factors of hexaploid wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) that contribute to trait movement including the ability to volunteer, germination and establishment characteristics, breeding system, pollen movement, and hybridization potential. Although wheat has a short-lived seedbank with a wide range of temperature and moisture requirements for germination and no evidence of secondary dormancy, volunteer wheat populations are increasing in relative abundance and some level of seed persistence in the soil has been observed. Hexaploid wheat is predominantly self-pollinating with cleistogamous flowers and pollen viability under optimal conditions of only 0.5 h, yet observations indicate that pollen-mediated gene flow can and will occur at distances up to 3 km and is highly dependent on prevailing wind patterns. Hybridization with wild relatives such as A. cylindrica Host., Secale cereale  L., and Triticum turgidum L. is a serious concern in regions where these species grow in field margins and unmanaged lands, regardless of which genome the transgene is located on. More research is needed to determine the long-term population dynamics of volunteer wheat populations before conclusions can be drawn with regard to their role in trait movement. Seed movement has the potential to create adventitious presence (AP) on a larger scale than pollen, and studies tracing the movement of wheat seed in the grain handling system are needed. Finally, the development of mechanistic models that predict landscape-level trait movement are required to identify transgene escape routes and critical points for gene containment in various cropping systems.', 'en_US'),
(3570, 'Environmental impact of herbicide regimes used with genetically modified herbicide-resistant maize', 'With the potential advent of genetically modified herbicide-resistant (GMHR) crops in the European Union, changes in patterns of herbicide use are predicted. Broad-spectrum, non-selective herbicides used with GMHR crops are expected to substitute for a set of currently used herbicides, which might alter the agro-environmental footprint from crop production. To test this hypothesis, the environmental impact of various herbicide regimes currently used with non-GMHR maize in Belgium was calculated and compared with that of possible herbicide regimes applied in GMHR maize. Impacts on human health and the environment were calculated through the pesticide occupational and environmental risk (POCER) indicator. Results showed that the environmental impact of herbicide regimes solely relying on the active ingredients glyphosate (GLY) or glufosinate-ammonium (GLU) is lower than that of herbicide regimes applied in non-GMHR maize. Due to the lower potential of GLY and GLU to contaminate ground water and their lower acute toxicity to aquatic organisms, the POCER exceedence factor values for the environment were reduced approximately by a sixth when GLY or GLU is used alone. However, the environmental impact of novel herbicide regimes tested may be underestimated due to the assumption that active ingredients used with GMHR maize would be used alone. Data retrieved from literature suggest that weed control efficacy is increased and resistance development delayed when GLY or GLU is used together with other herbicides in the GMHR system. Due to the partial instead of complete replacement of currently used herbicide regimes, the beneficial environmental impact of novel herbicide regimes might sometimes be reduced or counterbalanced. Despite the high weed control efficacy provided by the biotechnology-based weed management strategy, neither indirect harmful effects on farmland biodiversity through losses in food resources and shelter, nor shifts in weed communities have been demonstrated in GMHR maize yet. However, with the increasing adoption rate of GMHR maize and their associated novel herbicide regimes, this situation is expected to change in the short-term.', 'en_US'),
(3571, 'Cultivation of genetically modified organisms: resource needs for monitoring adverse effects on biodiversity', 'Genetically modified organisms (GMO) in non-European countries are introduced into the agro-environment on large scale with little knowledge of adverse effects on biodiversity. In the European Union (EU) possible effects of GMOs on biodiversity have to be accurately and precisely monitored. Monitoring biodiversity with a high precision is expensive and may only be achieved in close cooperation between GMO monitoring and general biodiversity monitoring. The EuMon project sampled metadata on biodiversity monitoring in Europe. Basing on the metadata, we estimated resource needs for biodiversity monitoring as needed for detecting potential adverse effects of GMOs on biodiversity. On average the analyzed schemes with a potential to detect at least a 5% change of biodiversity monitor 242.6 ± 105.4 sites at 322.6 ± 172.1 person days employing 63 ± 23 persons per year. The time invested in monitoring, given as person days, however, differed greatly between schemes and species groups, so that real manpower might be considerably higher.', 'en_US'),
(3572, 'Effects of subchronic exposure to transgenic papayas (Carica papaya L.) on liver and kidney enzymes and lipid parameters in rats', 'BACKGROUND: Declines due to Papaya ringspot virus (PRSV) are the primary constraint limiting production of papaya (Carica papaya L.) in tropical and subtropical regions. Given the lack of suitable sources of resistance in the genus, transgenic papayas carrying the coat protein gene of a local strain of PRSV were recently developed to manage the disease in Jamaica. For assurance of food safety, a 90 day subchronic whole-food feeding study in rats was conducted with transgenic and non-transgenic papayas. RESULTS: Male and female Wistar rats (N = 56) received diets containing transgenic or non-transgenic papayas at twice the equivalent of the average daily human consumption of fresh papayas. No adverse effects on animal behaviour or differences in body weight and organ weight between the animal groups (P &lt; 0.05) were observed during the study. Necropsy at the end of the study indicated that neither pathological nor histopathological abnormalities were present in the liver and kidneys of rats in the control and treated groups. In addition, the levels of activity of plasma, liver and kidney acid and alkaline phosphatases and alanine and aspartate transaminases were comparable (P &lt; 0.05). Although significant differences (P &lt; 0.05) were found in the cholesterol and triglyceride levels in the plasma and liver among animals of the treated groups, overall the values were comparable to those of the control. CONCLUSION: The results suggest that consumption of transgenic papayas may not have adverse effects in rats as regards the parameters considered in this study.', 'en_US'),
(3573, 'Individual and combined effects of salinity and waterlogging on Cry1Ac expression and insecticidal efficacy of Bt cotton', 'Salinity, waterlogging and a combination of both stresses are severe threats to plant growth, development and yield of field-grown cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.), but their individual or combined effects on insecticidal efficacy of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) transgenic cotton and the underlying mechanisms are not well understood. In the present study, two cotton cultivars (33B and SCRC17) containing the Cry1Ac  insecticidal protein gene were planted in 10 L pots filled with soil and allowed to grow in a greenhouse. The potted plants were either treated with NaCl (5 mg/g, w/w), waterlogging, or a combination of both stresses at the three true-leaf stage, and levels of total soluble protein, Bt insecticidal protein, gossypol and the control efficacy as indicated by mortality of bollworm larvae were examined at 7-day intervals after stress. Waterlogging and a combination of salinity and waterlogging reduced total protein content by 40–46% and 45–65% and Bt protein content by 38–50% and 45–72% from 7 to 21 days after stress, relative to the non-stressed control, respectively. The control efficacy was significantly reduced by either waterlogging or the combined stress. Regression analysis indicated that Bt protein content was correlated to total soluble protein content (R2 = 0.7677*), while Bt cotton efficacy was correlated to Bt protein level (R2 = 0.7917**). Salinity reduced Bt protein by 11–22% and total soluble protein by 5.7–7.2% from 7 to 21 days after NaCl stress, but did not result in reduction in control efficacy. It is concluded that reduced bollworm control efficacy under waterlogging or the combined stress could be mainly attributed to the declined levels of Bt protein, which is closely associated with the inhibited nitrogen metabolism by stresses. As one of the secondary compounds that are toxic to pests, increases in gossypol may be involved in maintaining the efficacy when Bt protein level was reduced under salinity.', 'en_US');
