INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(3875, 'Mortality of western corn rootworm larvae on MIR604 transgenic maize roots: field survivorship has no significant impact on survivorship of F1 progeny on MIR604.', 'Mortality of western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte, larvae due to MIR604 transgenic corn, Zea mays L., expressing the modified Cry3A (mCry3A) protein relative to survivorship on corn with the same genetic background without the gene (isoline corn) was evaluated at three Missouri sites in both 2005 and 2006. We made these comparisons by using wild-type western corn rootworm at three different egg densities (6,000, 3,000, and 1,500 eggs per m) so that the role of density-dependent mortality would be known. The mortality due to the mCry3A protein was 94.88% when averaged across all environments and both years. Fifty percent emergence of beetles was delayed &amp;#8781;5.5 d. Beetles were kept alive and their progeny evaluated on MIR604 and isoline corn in the greenhouse to determine whether survivorship on MIR604 in the field for one generation increased survivorship on MIR604 in the greenhouse in the subsequent generation. There was no significant difference in survivorship on MIR604 in greenhouse assays between larvae whose parents survived isoline and larvae whose parents survived MIR604 in the field the previous generation, indicating that many susceptible beetles survived MIR604 in the field the previous season along with any potentially resistant beetles. The data are discussed in terms of rootworm insect resistance management.', 'en_US'),
(3876, 'Recommendations for the design of laboratory studies on non-target arthropods for risk assessment of genetically engineered plants.', 'This paper provides recommendations on experimental design for early-tier laboratory studies used in risk assessments to evaluate potential adverse impacts of arthropod-resistant genetically engineered (GE) plants on non-target arthropods (NTAs). While we rely heavily on the currently used proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) in this discussion, the concepts apply to other arthropod-active proteins. A risk may exist if the newly acquired trait of the GE plant has adverse effects on NTAs when they are exposed to the arthropod-active protein. Typically, the risk assessment follows a tiered approach that starts with laboratory studies under worst-case exposure conditions; such studies have a high ability to detect adverse effects on non-target species. Clear guidance on how such data are produced in laboratory studies assists the product developers and risk assessors. The studies should be reproducible and test clearly defined risk hypotheses. These properties contribute to the robustness of, and confidence in, environmental risk assessments for GE plants. Data from NTA studies, collected during the analysis phase of an environmental risk assessment, are critical to the outcome of the assessment and ultimately the decision taken by regulatory authorities on the release of a GE plant. Confidence in the results of early-tier laboratory studies is a precondition for the acceptance of data across regulatory jurisdictions and should encourage agencies to share useful information and thus avoid redundant testing.', 'en_US'),
(3877, 'Assays of the production of harmful substances by genetically modified oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) plants in accordance with regulations for evaluating the impact on biodiversity in Japan.', 'Environmental risk assessment of transgenic crops is implemented under the Cartagena Protocol domestic law in accordance with guidelines for implementing the assessment established by the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF) and the Ministry of Environment (MOE) in Japan. Environmental risk assessments of transgenic crops are implemented based on the concept of ‘substantial equivalence’ to conventional crops. A unique requirement in Japan to monitor the production of harmful substances, or allelochemicals, is unparalleled in other countries. The potential for allelochemicals to be secreted from the roots of transgenic crops to affect other plants or soil microflora or for substances in the plant body to affect other plants after dying out must be evaluated. We evaluated the allelopathic potential of seven transgenic oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) lines that express glufosinate tolerance in terms of substantial equivalence to conventional oilseed rape lines, and established evaluation methods. Our results indicate no potential production of allelochemicals for any of the seven transgenic oilseed rape lines compared with conventional oilseed rape lines.', 'en_US'),
(3878, 'Pollen-mediated transgene flow in maize grown in the Huang-huai-hai region in China.', 'In order to study pollen-mediated gene flow in transgenic maize (Zea mays L.) in the Huang-huai-hai region of China, field trials were conducted in Jinan, Shandong Province in 2006 and 2007. The frequencies of gene flow from the donor plots, planted with transgenic maize as a pollen source, to the receptor plots, planted with non-transgenic maize, under different temporal or spatial separations were evaluated. The results showed that the frequency of pollen-mediated gene flow of the als gene from transgenic maize to non-transgenic maize decreased significantly with increasing distance. No gene flow was detected at 300 m. At a distance of 30 m, delaying the planting date of the transgenic maize by 1 week decreased the frequency of gene flow by 70%. A delay of 2 weeks decreased the gene flow frequency by more than 90%, while no gene flow was seen when the sowing date was delayed by 3 weeks. The results suggest that an appropriate isolation distance of 300 m or a temporal separation of 3 weeks could prevent gene flow from transgenic maize to non-transgenic maize in the Huang-huai-hai region.', 'en_US'),
(3879, 'Effects of Cry1Ac protein on growth and development, reproduction and flight potential of the oriental army worm, Mythimna separata (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae).', 'To obtain a full scale assessment of the influences of transgenic Bt crops on the oriental armyworm, Mythimna separata (Walker), larval growth and development, adult reproduction, and flight potential of M. separata were examined when newly hatched larvae continuously fed on artificial diet containing different concentrations of Cry1Ac toxin. The results showed that the mean head capsule width, and body length of the larvae fed with diets containing 0 (CK), 3, 6, 12, 24, 48 and 96 &amp;#956;g/g of Cry1Ac toxin for 6 d were significantly decreased as the concentration of toxin increased. Similarly, body weight, mortality, and the developmental period of the larvae treated for 18 d were negatively and significantly affected as the Cry1Ac dosage increased. The larvae fed with diets containing more than 12 &amp;#956;g/g of Cry1Ac toxin could not pupate, while the larvae fed with diets containing 0, 3 and 6 &amp;#956;g/g of Cry1Ac toxin could pupate and emerge normally. Furthermore, the pupal duration was extended, and the pupation rate decreased significantly as Cry1Ac concentration increased from 0 (CK) to 3, and 6 &amp;#956;g/g. Reproductive potential of the moths resulting from the larvae fed with diets containing 0, 3, and 6 &amp;#956;g/g of Cry1Ac toxin was also significantly different. Preoviposition period of adults was significantly prolonged, and the number of eggs laid per female was significantly decreased as the dosage of Cry1Ac toxin increased. Flight potential (including flight duration, distance, and velocity) of the 1-day-old moths was significantly decreased as the dosage of Cry1Ac toxin increased by tethered-flight test. All these results showed that the Cry1Ac had a significant impact on growth and development, reproduction and flight potential of M. separata, and this will help to improve the evaluation of ecological safety of Bt-crops.', 'en_US'),
(3880, 'Multi-generation effects of Bt rice on Anagrus nilaparvatae, a parasitoid of the nontarget pest Nilapavarta lugens.', 'Little is known about the potential cumulative long-term effects of transgenic crops on nontarget organisms. In the present laboratory study, the potential cumulative effects of transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) rice on parasitoids in successive generations were observed for an egg parasitoid, Anagrus nilaparvatae parasitizing eggs of Nilaparvata lugens (Stål) (Hemiptera: Delphacidae) feeding on Bt rice. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay test confirmed that Cry1Ab insecticidal protein could be detected in newly eclosed parasitoid adults. However, no significant effect on the fecundity of Anagrus nilaparvatae Pang et Wang (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae) was observed between Bt and non-Bt rice. Developmental times of both genders of A. nilaparvatae parasitizing host eggs laid in Bt (KMD1 and KMD2) rice lines were significantly prolonged from first generation to second generation, but not always prolonged from third generation to 11th generation as compared with the control rice line. Furthermore, the sex ratio of A. nilaparvatae progeny from the first generation to 11th generation in three rice lines was not significantly different. In general, our results suggested that the effect of Bt rice on this parasitoid could be negligible.', 'en_US'),
(3881, 'Conventional and seed-based insect management strategies similarly influence nontarget coleopteran communities in maize.', 'Seed-based pest management tools, such as transgenes and seed treatments, are emerging as viable alternatives to conventional insecticide applications in numerous crops, and often occur as coupled technologies. Seed-based technologies have been readily adopted in maize, for which ecological studies are needed to examine effects to farmland biodiversity. We compared the response of nontarget coleopteran communities in Cry1Ab/c sweet corn and Cry3Bb field corn to conventional pyrethroid applications and a control. Of particular interest was the Cry3Bb field corn, which was coupled with a neonicotinoid seed treatment and was not rotated across years. A functionally diverse subset of the coleopteran community, consisting of three families (Carabidae, Chrysomelidae, and Nitidulidae) and 9,525 specimens, was identified to species. We compared coleopteran diversity and dynamics using rarefaction and ordination techniques. There were no differences in species richness among treatments; however, higher activity densities were more common in the control. In the nonrotated field corn, principal response curves showed a consistent pattern of treatment communities deviating from the control communities over time, whereas crop rotation in the sweet corn negated treatment effects. Treatment effects could not be detected when beetles were grouped based on functional roles. Results indicate that neonicotinoid seed-based treatments may have effects on some nontarget coleopterans, but these effects are similar to conventional pyrethroid applications.', 'en_US'),
(3882, 'Safety assessment of EPA-rich triglyceride oil produced from yeast: genotoxicity and 28-day oral toxicity in rats.', 'The 28-day repeat-dose oral and genetic toxicity of eicosapentaenoic acid triglyceride oil (EPA oil) produced from genetically modified Yarrowia lipolytica yeast were assessed. Groups of rats received 0 (olive oil), 940, 1880, or 2820 mg EPA oil/kg/day, or fish oil (sardine/anchovy source) by oral gavage. Lower total serum cholesterol was seen in all EPA and fish oil groups. Liver weights were increased in the medium and high-dose EPA (male only), and fish oil groups but were considered non-adverse physiologically adaptive responses. Increased thyroid follicular cell hypertrophy was observed in male high-dose EPA and fish oil groups, and was considered to be an adaptive response to high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids. No adverse test substance-related effects were observed on body weight, nutritional, or other clinical or anatomic pathology parameters. The oil was not mutagenic in the in vitro Ames or mouse lymphoma assay, and was not clastogenic in the in vivo mouse micronucleus test. In conclusion, exposure for 28 days to EPA oil derived from yeast did not produce adverse effects at doses up to 2820 mg/kg/day and was not genotoxic. The safety profile of the EPA oil in these tests was comparable to a commercial fish oil.', 'en_US'),
(3883, 'Uptake and clearance of dietary DNA in the intestine of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) fed conventional or genetically modified soybeans.', 'The aim of this study was to examine the presence or absence of dietary transgenic (Roundup Ready® soybean – RRS®) and soybean DNA (sRubisco) in the intestinal tract of Atlantic salmon fed either genetically modified (GM) or conventional (non-GM) soybeans. Uptake of dietary DNA was evaluated in the post gastric intestine (pyloric ceca – PC, mid intestine – MI and distal intestine – DI) after continuous feeding (6 months), feed restriction and re-feeding using qPCR and in situ hybridization. No transgenic DNA fragments were detected in any of the intestinal samples using event specific primers. Soybean DNA was detected in all segments of the intestinal tissue (PC, MI and DI) and visualized in the cell vacuolar system of the DI in the apex area of the intestinal fold. Dietary DNA was gradually cleared from the intestinal tissues when feed was restricted and could not be detected after 5 days. Re-feeding resulted in dietary plant DNA uptake after 2 h. The results show that the salmon intestine is able to take up dietary plant DNA shortly after feed intake and that one of the factors affecting uptake and clearance of nucleic acids in the various intestinal segments are the feeding status of the fish.', 'en_US'),
(3884, 'Experimental studies on pollen-mediated gene flow in Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench using male-sterile bait plants.', 'Information on the potential of pollen mediated gene flow (PMGF) in sorghum is required for ensuring varietal purity and to mitigate risk transgenic gene flow. Replicated trials were conducted in Kenya using a local landrace, ‘Ochuti’ as pollen donor surrounded by male-sterile pollen baits. Frequency of PMGF decreased with the increase of distance from pollen sources and was significantly influenced by wind direction and speed. Anther dehiscence correlated with increase in vapour pressure deficit in the morning. A negative exponential regression model with logarithmic transformation of PMGF and square-root transformation of distance from source field best fitted the data. Up to 50% of female florets on a male sterile (MS) plant were pollinated at 1 m from pollen source and declined to 14% at 10 m. The maximum distance of PMGF using the PMGF model, based on a threshold of one seed per MS plant, was 203 m when data above the 95th percentile is considered. However, in the presence of self-produced pollen of male-fertile target plants, the possibility of long-distance cross-pollination may be very low.', 'en_US'),
(3885, 'Developmental and photosynthetic regulation of delta-endotoxin reveals that engineered sugarcane conferring resistance to ''dead heart'' contains no toxins in cane juice.', 'The phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) carboxylase is regulated at the levels of transcription and post-translation in C4 plants in light and abundantly accumulates in leaf mesophyll cells. We report here developmental and photosynthetic regulation of stably accumulated Bacillus thuringiensis &amp;#948;-endotoxin under the control of PEP-C promoter in transgenic sugarcane. In young leaves of plants, the transprotein is accumulated to 39% of the levels in mature leaves (135 ng mg&amp;#8722;1), and is induced with the cell development, from base to tip. Nevertheless, these levels are decreased up to 99.98% in non-photosynthetic cells as cane matures, from top to bottom, suggesting the photosynthesis regulation of &amp;#948;-endotoxin in cane cells. Further, transgenic plants are highly resistant to ‘dead heart’. In these studies, Scirpophaga nivela larvae causing ‘dead heart’ were killed within one hour of release to the transgenic plants. Therefore, this report may be regarded as the first report that provides a better strategy for developing transgenic sugarcane lines with absolute protection against invading larvae and no toxin residues in cane juice.', 'en_US'),
(3886, 'An economic evaluation of impact of soil quality on Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) cotton productivity.', 'The study was conducted with the aim to determine the impact of soil quality on the Bt cotton productivity. A sample of 150 farmers was selected by using multi-stage sampling technique from three districts i.e. Rahim Yar Khan, Multan and Mianwali. A Cobb Douglas production function was employed to assess the effect of various agronomic and demographic variables on the Bt cotton productivity. Results of the analysis indicated that land preparation cost, seed cost, fertilizer cost, labour cost and dummy variable of soil quality were significant and positively contributing towards higher Bt cotton yield. While the spray cost and irrigation cost variable were found positive but non-significant. Findings of the study suggested that focusing on maintaining and improving the quality of soils is necessary to obtain higher crop yields. All this needs attention of agricultural extension department to provide information about advance techniques to farmers for improving soil quality.', 'en_US'),
(3887, 'Insect-resistant biotech crops and their impacts on beneficial arthropods.', 'With a projected population of 10 billion by 2050, an immediate priority for agriculture is to achieve increased crop yields in a sustainable and cost-effective way. The concept of using a transgenic approach was realized in the mid-1990s with the commercial introduction of genetically modified (GM) crops. By 2010, the global value of the seed alone was US $11.2 billion, with commercial biotech maize, soya bean grain and cotton valued at approximately US $150 billion. In recent years, it has become evident that insect-resistant crops expressing &amp;#948;-endotoxin genes from Bacillus thuringiensis have made a significant beneficial impact on global agriculture, not least in terms of pest reduction and improved quality. However, because of the potential for pest populations to evolve resistance, and owing to lack of effective control of homopteran pests, alternative strategies are being developed. Some of these are based on Bacillus spp. or other insect pathogens, while others are based on the use of plant- and animal-derived genes. However, if such approaches are to play a useful role in crop protection, it is desirable that they do not have a negative impact on beneficial organisms at higher trophic levels thus affecting the functioning of the agro-ecosystem. This widely held concern over the ecological impacts of GM crops has led to the extensive examination of the potential effects of a range of transgene proteins on non-target and beneficial insects. The findings to date with respect to both commercial and experimental GM crops expressing anti-insect genes are discussed here, with particular emphasis on insect predators and parasitoids.', 'en_US'),
(3888, 'Pollen-mediated gene flow in flax (Linum usitatissimum L.): can genetically engineered and organic flax coexist?', 'Coexistence allows growers and consumers the choice of producing or purchasing conventional or organic crops with known standards for adventitious presence of genetically engineered (GE) seed. Flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) is multipurpose oilseed crop in which product diversity and utility could be enhanced for industrial, nutraceutical and pharmaceutical markets through genetic engineering. If GE flax were released commercially, pollen-mediated gene flow will determine in part whether GE flax could coexist without compromising other markets. As a part of pre-commercialization risk assessment, we quantified pollen-mediated gene flow between two cultivars of flax. Field experiments were conducted at four locations during 2006 and 2007 in western Canada using a concentric donor (20 × 20&amp;#8201;m) receptor (120 × 120&amp;#8201;m) design. Gene flow was detected through the xenia effect of dominant alleles of high &amp;#945;-linolenic acid (ALA; 18:3cis&amp;#916;9,12,15) to the low ALA trait. Seeds were harvested from the pollen recipient plots up to a distance of 50&amp;#8201;m in eight directions from the pollen donor. High ALA seeds were identified using a thiobarbituric acid test and served as a marker for gene flow. Binomial distribution and power analysis were used to predict the minimum number of seeds statistically required to detect the frequency of gene flow at specific &amp;#945; (confidence interval) and power (1&amp;#8722;&amp;#946;) values. As a result of the low frequency of gene flow, approximately 4 million seeds were screened to derive accurate quantification. Frequency of gene flow was highest near the source: averaging 0.0185 at 0.1&amp;#8201;m but declined rapidly with distance, 0.0013 and 0.00003 at 3 and 35&amp;#8201;m, respectively. Gene flow was reduced to 50% (O50) and 90% (O90) between 0.85 to 2.64&amp;#8201;m, and 5.68 to 17.56&amp;#8201;m, respectively. No gene flow was detected at any site or year &gt;35&amp;#8201;m distance from the pollen source, suggesting that frequency of gene flow was less than or equal to0.00003 (P=0.95). Although it is not possible to eliminate all adventitious presence caused by pollen-mediated gene flow, through harvest blending and the use of buffer zones between GE and conventional flax fields, it could be minimized. Managing other sources of adventitious presence including seed mixing and volunteer populations may be more problematic.', 'en_US'),
(3889, 'Willingness to pay for GMO labeling policies: the case of Korea.', 'With the increasing interest in food safety, genetically modified organisms (GMO) have been a topic of intense public debate. To provide a basis for rational debate and develop an appropriate GMO labeling policy, the Korean government is interested in consumer attitudes and responses to GMO labeling policies. In this light, by employing a survey approach that is called “contingent valuation,” the present study attempted to measure the public''s willingness to pay (WTP) that are more stringent than the prevailing policies in Korea. Furthermore, in order to enhance statistical efficiency in WTP estimation and reduce the response effect in the context of WTP elicitation, this study employed a one-and-one-half bound dichotomous choice format. The estimate of the annual mean WTP for GMO labeling policies is 3,756 Korean won (USD 4.04) per household. This quantitative information can be utilized in developing policies related to genetically modified foods.', 'en_US'),
(3890, 'Backcrossing provides an avenue for gene introgression from wheat to jointed goatgrass (Aegilops cylindrica) in the U.S. Great Plains.', 'Jointed goatgrass is an exotic species introduced into the western United States from Eurasia. The weed is an agricultural pest infesting winter wheat fields and causing economic loss. Common ancestry between the two species enables interspecific hybridization, thus providing a mechanism for gene flow to occur. This can facilitate the accumulation of novel genes, which could increase the wild species'' competitiveness with wheat and its ability to invade novel habitats. Interest in the development of transgenic wheat cultivars has increased the concern for interspecific gene flow. Gene introgression requires recurrent backcrossing to the weedy species after the initial hybridization event. Field experiments were conducted at two locations in Colorado in 2007–2008 and 2008–2009, with jointed goatgrass acting as the sole source of viable pollen for fertilization of transplanted hybrid plants. Backcrossing rates were determined by conducting germination studies on spikes collected from a total of 206 hybrid plants. Pollination by jointed goatgrass led to the production of 463 BC1 plants from seed produced on these 206 hybrid plants. Ninety-five percent confidence intervals estimate the rate of backcrossing at 0.028 to 0.306% and 0.077 to 0.604%, with medians of 0.062 and 0.152%, respectively, at the two locations. The results demonstrate that backcrossing to jointed goatgrass can occur, despite low rates of hybrid fertility. Subsequent backcrossing would make it likely that a wheat gene conferring a selective advantage will introgress into the weedy population. For the U.S. Great Plains, it is possible that transgenic wheat cultivars will be released in the future and determining proper management of these cultivars is necessary to minimize hybridization and advantageous gene introgression into weedy relatives.', 'en_US'),
(3891, 'Analysis of soil dwelling rove beetles (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae) in cultivated maize fields containing the Bt toxins, Cry34/35Ab1 and Cry1FCry34/35Ab1.', 'In this study, the potential exposure of non-targeted adult rove beetles and their larvae to Bt toxins (Cry34Ab1, Cry35Ab1, Cry1F (59122 and 1507×59122) designed to target western corn rootworm and European corn borer has been determined. The overall assemblage was not significantly affected by the production of stacked proteins.', 'en_US'),
(3892, 'Lethal and sub-lethal effects of transgenic rice containing cry1Ac and CpTI genes on the Pink Stem Borer, Sesamia inferens (Walker).', 'Lethal and sub-lethal effects of transgenic rice containing cry1Ac and CpTI genes on the pink stem borer, Sesamia inferens, were studied to collect information for ecological risk assessment on insect-resistance of transgenic rice. In vitro insect-feeding bioassays were conducted to evaluate the lethal and sub-lethal effects of transgenic rice lines (II YouKF6 and KF6) containing cry1Ac+CpTI genes on S. inferens at four different growth stages, viz., seedling, tillering and elongation, booting, and milk and maturing. Transgenic rice at seedling stage showed significantly high lethal effect on S. inferens with the shortest lethal duration for 50 and 100% individuals and the highest corrected mortalities after feeding on transgenic lines at this stage for 3 and 6 d. Followed by tillering and elongation stage, 50 and 100% S. inferens were dead after feeding on transgenic lines at this stage for 4 and 10 d, respectively. Moreover, corrected mortalities for 6 d feeding on transgenic lines at this stage were significantly higher than that at booting, and milk and maturing stages. Lethal effect of KF6 on S. inferens decreased significantly at booting stage. Lethal duration for 50% S. inferens significantly extended and its corrected mortalities for 6 d feeding also declined remarkably. However, lethal effect of II YouKF6 on S. inferens did not decrease significantly at this stage. Transgenic rice at booting, and milk and maturing stages did not show significant lethal effect to S. inferens and it showed the longest lethal duration for 50% individuals and the lowest corrected mortalities for 3 and 6 d feeding. A few larvae of S. inferens could survive, pupate and emerge on these two transgenic lines at booting, and milk and maturing stages. Sub-lethal effect of two transgenic lines on S. inferens also differed significantly between different developmental stages. Continuously feeding on transgenic rice lines at seedling, and tillering and elongation stages delayed the development of larvae and pupae and decreased pupation rate, but no effect was observed on eclosion rate. Larval development was significantly inhibited after feeding on transgenic rice at booting stage, but no obvious effect was observed in pupal stage, pupation and eclosion rate. There were no significant differences for larval and pupal development, pupation, and eclosion rates between feeding on transgenic and control rice lines at milk and maturing stage. Larval and pupal weights significantly declined, but no influence was observed on fecundity when S. inferens infested on transgenic rice at any stage. These showed that there were significant differences in lethal and sub-lethal effects of transgenic rice on S. inferens among developmental stages, and the effects gradually decreased with the increase of growth stages of rice plant.', 'en_US'),
(3893, 'Glyphosate tank mixtures controlling Commelina benghalensis, Tridax procumbens and Cenchrus echinatus in Soybean Roundup Ready(R).', 'Although the use of glyphosate tank mixtures for managing weed species of difficult control is prohibited by the Brazilian legislation, it has been a common practice among farmers. This work aimed to evaluate the efficiency and selectivity of herbicide tank mixtures using glyphosate to control Commelina benghalensis L., Tridax procumbens L. and Cenchrus echinatus L. in soybean crop RR®. A field experiment was conducted in the Municipality of Maracai, São Paulo State, between November, 2006 and March 2007, using the genotype CD-214RR® in a complete randomized block design with 21 treatments and four replications. The treatments consisted of the following applications: glyphosate (180; 360; 540 and 720 g ha-1); glyphosate in sequence (180/360; 360/360 and 540/360 g ha-1); glyphosate + chlorimuron-ethyl 360+10; 540+10 and 360+5/ 360+5 g ha-1); glyphosate + lactofen (360+120; 540+120 and 360+60/ 360+60 g ha-1); glyphosate + cloransulam-methyl (360+30; 540+30 and 360+16,9/ 360+12,9 g ha-1); glyphosate + carfentrazone (360+4 g ha-1); glyphosate + imazethapyr (360+50 g ha-1); glyphosate + imazethapyr (177.8+30 g ha-1) and controls with and without weeding. Despite the similarity in grain yield between treatments with glyphosate alone and sequentially at doses 540, 720 and 540 / 360 g ha-1, the tank mixtures with chlorimuron-ethyl, cloransulam-methyl, lactofen and imazethapyr favored control of weed species tolerant to glyphosate such as C. benghalensis and T. procumbens.', 'en_US'),
(3894, 'Expression of the viral antigen VP60 in transgenic potatoes and its effect on the nutritional composition of tubers.', 'Recombinant plant-derived pharmaceuticals have been investigated for the last two decades and some products will soon be brought to market. Since veterinary pharmaceuticals seem to be the front-runners of plant-derived vaccines, we selected one model subunit vaccine, the structural capsid protein VP60 against rabbit haemorrhagic disease, and analyzed the expression of three different sequences representing the vp60 open reading frame in potato plants. The generation of antigenic VP60 molecules in the leaf and tuber tissue of potato was tremendously enhanced by replacing virus-derived sequences with plant-optimized codons. In order to identify potentially undesirable alterations in the composition of these genetically modified food components, we studied their nutrient composition and nutritional value in comparison to two parental conventional breeding varieties (Albatros and Desiree). The largest differences in nutrient composition were found between the two conventional breeds and between conventional Desiree and its near-isogenic genetically modified potato plant, indicating that genetic modification as well as conventional breeding can influence nutrient composition. Nevertheless, most parameters of nutritional value seemed to be more affected by conventional breeding than by genetic modification.', 'en_US'),
(3895, 'Current state of genetically modified plant impact on target and non-target fungi.', 'For two decades, genetic engineering has made it possible to develop crops and trees designed for yield improvement and simplified culture management. This, combined with field deployment of monocultures over large areas, can result in environmental stress and unwanted potential side effects. The commercial production of genetically modified (GM) crops and the recent development of GM trees raise concerns about their potential impact on the environment, in general, and on the biodiversity of non-target organisms, in particular. Fungi are spread worldwide and play key roles in ecosystems. They have been closely associated with plants since they emerged from the oceans. This review critically examines research monitoring the potential effects of GM crops and GM trees on target and non-target fungi. Parsing public databases for peer-reviewed publications about GM plant impacts on fungi yielded 149 studies, a relatively modest number considering the diversity of crops and ecosystems studied. Analysis of these publications showed that the effects of GM plants expressing herbicide and insect tolerance on fungi are understudied while they dominate the GM area worldwide. Experiments monitoring the impact of GM crops and GM trees with enhanced antifungal activity towards target fungi showed, for the most part, significant decreases in disease severity caused by fungal pathogens. Significant changes, expressed as an increase or decrease in fungal development, abundance, and diversity of non-target fungi, were observed in 18 out of 60 studies and all of them involved GM plants expressing traits that were unexpected to affect fungi. The remaining 42 studies did not identify a significant impact on fungal populations. Therefore, in spite of the fact that GM plants have been commercialized since 1996, no clear generalized trend can be identified and it appears that a case-by-case approach is the safest.', 'en_US'),
(3896, 'Seeds of change: corn seed mixtures for resistance management and integrated pest management.', 'The use of mixtures of transgenic insecticidal seed and nontransgenic seed to provide an in-field refuge for susceptible insects in insect-resistance-management (IRM) plans has been considered for at least two decades. However, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has only recently authorized the practice. This commentary explores issues that regulators, industry, and other stakeholders should consider as the use of biotechnology increases and seed mixtures are implemented as a major tactic for IRM. We discuss how block refuges and seed mixtures in transgenic insecticidal corn, Zea mays L., production will influence integrated pest management (IPM) and the evolution of pest resistance. We conclude that seed mixtures will make pest monitoring more difficult and that seed mixtures may make IRM riskier because of larval behavior and greater adoption of insecticidal corn. Conversely, block refuges present a different suite of risks because of adult pest behavior and the lower compliance with IRM rules expected from farmers. It is likely that secondary pests not targeted by the insecticidal corn as well as natural enemies will respond differently to block refuges and seed mixtures.', 'en_US'),
(3897, 'Sublethal effects of Cry 1F Bt corn and clothianidin on black cutworm (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) larval development.', 'Black cutworm, Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagel) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), is an occasional pest of maize (corn), Zea mays L., that may cause severe stand losses and injury to corn seedlings. The efficacy of the neonicotinoid seed treatment clothianidin at two commercially available rates and their interaction with a transgenic corn hybrid (Bt corn), trait expressing the Bacillus thuringiensis variety aizawai insecticidal toxin Cry 1Fa2, against black cutworm larvae was investigated. Clothianidin at a rate of 25 mg kernel&#8722;1 on Bt corn increased larval mortality and reduced larval weight gains additively. In contrast, weights of larvae fed non-Bt corn seedlings treated with clothianidin at a rate of 25 mg kernel&#8722;1 increased significantly, suggesting either compensatory overconsumption, hormesis, or hormoligosis. Both Bt corn alone and clothianidin at a rate of 125 mg kernel&#8722;1 applied to non-Bt corn seedlings caused increased mortality and reduced larval weight gains. In two field trials, plots planted with Bt corn hybrids consistently had the highest plant populations and yields, regardless of whether they were treated with clothianidin at the lower commercial rate of 25 mg kernel&#8722;1 The use of Bt corn alone or in combination with the low rate of clothianidin (25 mg kernel&#8722;1) seems suitable as a means of suppressing black cutworm in no-tillage cornfields, although rescue treatments may still be necessary under severe infestations. Clothianidin alone at the low rate of 25 mg kernel&#8722;1 is not recommended for black cutworm control until further studies of its effects on larval physiology and field performance have been completed.', 'en_US'),
(3898, 'Effect of pyramiding Bt and CpTI genes on resistance of cotton to Helicoverpa armigera (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) under laboratory and field conditions.', 'Transgenic cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) varieties, adapted to China, have been bred that express two genes for resistance to insects. the Cry1Ac gene from Bacillus thuringiensis (Berliner) (Bt), and a trypsin inhibitor gene from cowpea (CpTI). Effectiveness of the double gene modification in conferring resistance to cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), was studied in laboratory and field experiments. In each experiment, performance of Bt+CpTI cotton was compared with Bt cotton and to a conventional nontransgenic variety. Larval survival was lower on both types of transgenic variety, compared with the conventional cotton. Survival of first-, second-, and third-stage larvae was lower on Bt+CpTI cotton than on Bt cotton. Plant structures differed in level of resistance, and these differences were similar on Bt and Bt+CpTI cotton. Likewise, seasonal trends in level of resistance in different plant structures were similar in Bt and Bt+CpTI cotton. Both types of transgenic cotton interfered with development of sixth-stage larvae to adults, and no offspring was produced by H. armigera that fed on Bt or Bt+CpTI cotton from the sixth stage onward. First-, second-, and third-stage larvae spent significantly less time feeding on transgenic cotton than on conventional cotton, and the reduction in feeding time was significantly greater on Bt+CpTI cotton than on Bt cotton. Food conversion efficiency was lower on transgenic varieties than on conventional cotton, but there was no significant difference between Bt and Bt+CpTI cotton. In 3-yr field experimentation, bollworm densities were greatly suppressed on transgenic as compared with conventional cotton, but no significant differences between Bt and Bt+CpTI cotton were found. Overall, the results from laboratory work indicate that introduction of the CpTI gene in Bt cotton raises some components of resistance in cotton against H. armigera, but enhanced control of H. armigera under field conditions, due to expression of the CpTI gene, was not demonstrated.', 'en_US'),
(3899, 'Genetic elimination of dengue vector mosquitoes.', 'An approach based on mosquitoes carrying a conditional dominant lethal gene (release of insects carrying a dominant lethal, RIDL) is being developed to control the transmission of dengue viruses by vector population suppression. A transgenic strain, designated OX3604C, of the major dengue vector, Aedes aegypti, was engineered to have a repressible female-specific flightless phenotype. This strain circumvents the need for radiation-induced sterilization, allows genetic sexing resulting in male-only releases, and permits the release of eggs instead of adult mosquitoes. OX3604C males introduced weekly into large laboratory cages containing stable target mosquito populations at initial ratios of 8.5–10&#8758;1 OX3604C&#8758;target eliminated the populations within 10–20 weeks. These data support the further testing of this strain in contained or confined field trials to evaluate mating competitiveness and environmental and other effects. Successful completion of the field trials should facilitate incorporation of this approach into area-wide dengue control or elimination efforts as a component of an integrated vector management strategy.', 'en_US'),
(3900, 'Economic benefits of genetically-modified herbicide-tolerant canola for producers.', 'Genetically-modified herbicide-tolerant (GMHT) canola was introduced in Western Canada in 1995. In 2007, a producer survey elicited answers to 80 questions regarding their experiences, including production practices, tillage and herbicide use, control of volunteer canola, and weed-control practices. The survey revealed that the new technology generated between $1.063 billion CAD and $1.192 billion annual net direct and indirect benefits for producers from 2005-2007; this is partly attributed to lower input costs and partly attributed to better weed control. One major concern in the early years following introduction was the potential for HT traits to outcross with weedy relatives or for GMHT canola to become a pervasive and uncontrollable volunteer in non-canola crops, either of which would offset some producer gains. The survey largely discounts that concern. More than 94% of respondents reported that weed control was the same or had improved, less than one-quarter expressed any concern about herbicide resistance in weed populations, 62% reported no difference in controlling for volunteer GM canola than for regular canola, and only 8% indicated that they viewed volunteer GM canola to be one of the top five weeds they need to control.', 'en_US'),
(3901, 'From microbial sprays to insect-resistant transgenic plants: history of the biospesticide Bacillus thuringiensis. A review.', 'Bacillus thuringiensis, known as Bt, is a spore-forming bacterium that occurs naturally in soil and that produces highly specific insecticidal proteins called Cry proteins. These proteins are stomach poisons that specifically affect insects. Today, Bt preparations are considered as the most effective, specific and environmentally-friendly bioinsecticides; they have been used as biological pesticides in agriculture, forestry and in human health for the elimination of vectors of diseases for more than 60 years and their implementation far exceeds other microbial agents such as fungi, protozoa or viruses. This review on the use of this entomopathogenic bacterium in crop protection is not intended to be a compilation of the results of all the investigations made in this field. Instead, it is an attempt to provide an overview of the major trends and developments of Bt for the control of agricultural insect pests and to describe the main approaches that have been used to improve this natural bioinsecticide. Bt-based insecticides are considered safe for mammals and birds, and are safer for non-target insects than conventional insecticides; they have become the most widely used microbial insecticides. However, Bt products have several limitations, such as a narrow activity spectrum, instability in rain and sunlight, and inefficiency against pest feeding on internal tissues of the plants. The first step towards improving Bt has involved the isolation of new strains with higher and broader insecticidal activity against targeted insect pests and the cloning of cry genes encoding new insecticidal crystal proteins. A second strategy was to increase the persistence of its toxins in the field by encapsulation in recombinant asporogenic Bt strains or other heterologous recombinant microbial hosts; this protected the toxins against UV degradation and had the advantage that the transgenic microorganisms released into the environment were non-viable. Bt has also become a key source of genes for transgenic expression to provide pest resistance in plants and in so-called genetically modified plants. The engineering of plants to express Bt cry genes has been especially helpful against pests that attack parts of the plant that are usually not well protected by conventional insecticide application. The potential effects on human health and the environment of the large-scale use of these Bt crops are also in the scope of this review.', 'en_US'),
(3902, 'Use of murine models to detect the allergenicity of genetically modified Lactococcus lactis NZ9000/pNZPNK.', 'By introducing aprN into Lactococcus lactis NZ9000, the genetically modified L. lactis NZ9000/pNZPNK successfully expressed the nattokinase. The safety assessment of this novel strain was based on allergenicity of pepsin digestion stability and murine model serologic identity. Subjecting to the GM strain and host to pepsin digestion, the soluble fractions and cell debris were fast degraded completely. Feeding with ovalbumin resulted in significantly higher production of IgG1 and IgE as compared to that of L. lactis NZ9000/pNZPNK or L. lactis NZ9000. Further, the serum IgG2a level increased dose-dependently at week 2 and induced immune reaction toward Th1 pathway. Secretion of cytokines IL-4 and IL-10 fed with lactococci was significantly lower than that of the OVA group. L. lactis NZ9000/pNZPNK did not increase the proliferation of type 2 helper T cells in spleen or induce allergenicity in BALB/c mice. On the basis of the results, the new GM lactic acid bacterium is regarded as safe to use.', 'en_US'),
(3903, 'Nutritional equivalency evaluation of transgenic maize grain from event DP-O9814O-6 and transgenic soybeans containing event DP-356O43-5: laying hen performance and egg quality measures.', 'The objective of this study was to compare the nutritional performance of laying hens fed maize grain from event DP-Ø9814Ø-6 (98140; gat4621 and zm-hra genes) and processed soybean meal from soybeans containing event DP-356Ø43-5 (356043; gat4601 and gm-hra genes), individually or in combination, with the performance of hens fed diets containing nontransgenic maize and soybean meal. Healthy pullets (n = 216) placed in cages (3 hens/cage) were randomly assigned to 9 dietary treatments (8 cages/treatment): nontransgenic controls 1, 2, and 3 (comparable genetic background controls for 98140, 356043, and 98140 + 356043, respectively); reference 1, reference 2, and reference 3 (commercially available nontransgenic maize-soybean meal sources); and 98140 (test 1), 356043 (test 2), and 98140 + 356043 (test 3). The experiment was divided into three 4-wk phases (24 to 28 wk, 28 to 32 wk, and 32 to 36 wk of age), during which time hens were fed mash diets. Performance (BW, feed intake, and egg production) and egg quality data were collected. Data were analyzed using a mixed model ANOVA; differences between the control and respective test group means were considered significant at P &lt; 0.05. Data generated from the reference groups were used only in the estimation of experimental variability and in generating the tolerance interval. Body weight and BW gain, egg production, and production efficiency for hens fed the test diets were similar to the respective values for hens fed the corresponding control diets. Haugh unit measures and egg component weights were similar between the respective test and control groups, and no differences were observed in quality grades or crack measures. All observed values of the control and test groups were within the calculated tolerance intervals. This research indicates that the performance and egg quality of hens fed diets containing 98140 maize grain, 356043 soybean meal, or a combination of the 2 was comparable with that of hens fed diets formulated with nontransgenic maize grain or soybean meal control diets with comparable genetic backgrounds.', 'en_US'),
(3904, 'Genetically modified plants as fish feed ingredients.', 'Genetically modified (GM) plants were first grown commercially more than 20 years ago, but their use is still controversial in some parts of the world. Many GM plant varieties are produced in large quantities globally and are approved for use in fish feeds both in Norway and the European Union. European consumers, however, are skeptical to fish produced by means of GM feed ingredients. Concerns have been raised regarding the safety of GM plants, including potential toxicity and (or) allergenicity of the novel protein, potential unintended effects, and risk of horizontal gene transfer to other species. This review will present the current state of knowledge regarding GM plants as fish feed ingredients, focusing on fish performance and health as well as the fate of the GM DNA fragments in the fish, identifying limitations of the current work and areas where further research is needed.', 'en_US'),
(3905, 'Far-reaching deleterious impacts of regulations on research and environmental studies of recombinant DNA-modified perennial biofuel crops in the United States.', 'Regulatory restrictions have increased in recent years on organisms produced using recombinant DNA and asexual gene transfer, a process commonly called genetic engineering or genetic modification. Regulatory agencies have raised special concerns and required additional scrutiny for perennial grasses and woody plants of interest for biofuels; these plants have incomplete domestication, invasive capabilities, and the ability to mate with wild or feral relatives. Regulations on these plants require extremely stringent containment through all phases of research and development, regardless of the source of the gene, the novelty of the trait, or the plants'' anticipated economic or environmental benefits. We discuss the extent to which these requirements conflict with the realities of practical crop breeding, and prevent meaningful agronomic and environmental studies, thus hampering—and in most cases, precluding—the use of recombinant DNA breeding methods for perennial crop improvement. We propose regulatory reforms to better balance benefit and risk and remove unnecessary barriers to agronomic evaluations and environmental studies.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(3906, 'Societal choice for climate change futures: trees, biotechnology, and clean development.', 'The rate and magnitude of predicted climate change require that we urgently mitigate emissions or sequester carbon on a substantial scale in order to avoid runaway climate change. Geo- and bioengineering solutions are increasingly proposed as viable and practical strategies for tackling global warming. Biotechnology companies are already developing transgenic “super carbon-absorbing” trees, which are sold as a cost-effective and relatively low-risk means of sequestering carbon. The question posed in this article is, Do super carbon trees provide real benefits or are they merely a fanciful illusion? It remains unclear whether growing these trees makes sense in terms of the carbon cost of production and the actual storage of carbon. In particular, it is widely acknowledged that “carbon-eating” trees fail to sequester as much carbon as they oxidize and return to the atmosphere; moreover, there are concerns about the biodiversity impacts of large-scale monoculture plantations. The potential social and ecological risks and opportunities presented by such controversial solutions warrant a societal dialogue.', 'en_US'),
(3907, 'Genetically engineered salmon pose environmental risks that must be considered.', 'As the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) considers whether to approve the first genetically engineered animal to enter the American food supply (Williams 2010), we face the worrying prospect that approval will come without consideration of its full suite of potential environmental and ecological impacts.\r\nIf the veterinarian-led FDA advisory group concludes that the new fish poses no substantial environmental risks (as it appears likely they will; Pollack 2010), the application can be approved without a full environmental impact statement.\r\nThe proposal is for a modified Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) containing genetic material from Chinook salmon and ocean pout, allowing it to produce growth hormone when it normally would not. The new fish grows to marketable size roughly twice as fast as its wild counterparts.\r\nFDA approval of this application could pave the way for greater future production of this and other genetically engineered food animals. The consequences of future production, in farms and ocean pens and potentially in less-well-regulated environments and countries, absolutely must be considered.\r\nEscape by these salmon into marine ecosystems would pose a wide range of environmental and ecological threats beyond those of conventional salmon (Naylor et al. 2005) grown in farms (Krkosek et al. 2007) and ocean pens (Vester and Timme 2010). Larger fish at a given age or season may out-compete wild salmon, potentially reducing individual or population growth rates. Predator-prey dynamics could be disrupted both through lethal and nonlethal means. The larger-at-age engineered salmon are likely to be more effective predators. Importantly, even in the absence of lethal effects, the mere presence of larger fish predators has been shown to alter prey behavior, causing trophic cascades in marine systems that can dramatically alter seafloor structure. Such ecosystem alterations could potentially have unanticipated repercussions throughout the food web.\r\nGiven the wide range of potential environmental and ecological ramifications of engineered salmon escaping into natural ecosystems, the FDA must consult ecologists with the knowledge and tools to accurately assess the risks posed by commercialization of these fish. Critically, a full environmental impact statement must be conducted before this decision is made in order to set a precedent for other genetically engineered species in one of the world''s largest seafood markets.', 'en_US'),
(3908, 'Variation in the spatio-temporal expression of insecticidal genes in cotton.', 'The most significant breakthrough in plant biotechnology is the development of the techniques to transform genes from unrelated sources into commercially important crop plants to develop resistance against targeted insect pests. The spatio-temporal expression of insecticidal genes in transgenic cotton varies with plant age, plant parts and environmental conditions. The understanding of this temporal and spatial variation in efficacy and the resulting mechanisms is essential for cotton protection and production. This review summarizes variations in the efficacy of introduced insecticidal genes in cotton crop. The factors contributing to the variability of endotoxins have also been highlighted. The reduction in Bt protein biosynthesis in late-season cotton tissues could be attributed to the overexpression of the Bt gene at earlier stages, which leads to gene regulation at post-transcription levels and consequently results in gene silencing at a later stage. Methylation of the promoter may also play a role in the declined expression of endotoxin proteins. In genetically modified crops several environmental factors have been reported to affect the expression of transgenes. Among environmental factors nitrogen metabolism, inhibition of synthesis, degradation, remobilization and high temperature are attributable to the quantitative reduction in Bt proteins. Applying plant growth regulators or protein enhancers such as ChaperoneTM may improve Bt cotton efficacy through enhancing the synthesis of proteins. Also some agronomic practices such as nitrogen fertilization and timely irrigation favour the endotoxin expression. Thus, variations in the efficacy of insecticidal genes in transgenic cotton and the involved mechanisms need to be understood fully so as to plan rational resistance management strategies to retard the rate of resistance development and to control target pests effectively by enhancing the endotoxin expression through genetic or agronomic management.', 'en_US'),
(3909, 'Field simulation of transgenic seed admixture dispersion in maize with a blue kernel color marker.', 'Seed purity in maize (Zea mays L.) has been almost neglected in coexistence studies. In this study, the impact of initial seed admixture was assessed in 20 fields (17 integrated pest management [IPM] and three organics) in the Swiss Midlands in 2007 and 2008 and a seed admixture threshold was proposed. The blue-kernelled French hybrid Adonis was used as a color-marker admixture. In 2009, its pollen production was assessed relative to those of two commercial hybrids (LG 32.12 and DKC 2960) that released 41 and 62%, respectively, less pollen than Adonis. Adonis was added to commercial yellow hybrid seeds at a proportion of 1:99. On average, the seed admixture at harvest was 2.8 times greater than the seed admixture at sowing. The greater pollen production of Adonis relative to yellow hybrids explained the increase in the harvest seed admixture via pollen flow. The lesser average kernel number per plant of Adonis (316 kernels plant&amp;#8722;1; 451 kernels plant&amp;#8722;1 for commercial hybrids) buffered the effect of pollen flow. Correcting for these differences provided simulation results compatible with the Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium for a trait with 1% frequency. When compared among the 20 field situations, (i) flower synchrony between admixture and commercial subpopulation and (ii) vertical distance between tassels of Adonis and ears of the commercial hybrid contributed most to field differences. To guarantee the 0.9% threshold imposed by the European Union for non-genetically-modified product, the seed admixture threshold should range between 0.2 and 0.5%.', 'en_US'),
(3910, 'Transgenic soya beans: economic implications for EU livestock sector.', 'World oilseed trade consists of many closely substitutable commodities, with canola and cottonseed as possible alternatives to soya beans for many purposes. Transgenic events in all three crops have been widely adopted, particularly in North and South America, for compelling economic or agronomic reasons. Despite the close attention from organizations concerned about the potential consequences of transgenic crop adoption, there appears to be no substantiated evidence of transgenic DNA in meat or milk products when such crops are fed to livestock. The global area of these transgenic crops continues to increase. No transgenic canola, cotton or soya bean crops are permitted for commercial cultivation in Europe, and although transgenic feed resources are permitted for import, importers risk shipments being denied entry if the traces of an unauthorized transgenic crop are detected. These tight controls can mean that livestock farmers in the EU are disadvantaged due to restricted access to cheaper feed or higher feed costs, and they are thus losing a degree of competitive advantage. This paper reviews the extent to which transgenic soya beans have become the ‘conventional’ method of cultivation elsewhere, and notes implications this has for livestock nutrition, traceability and economics within the EU. The paper concludes with discussion regarding the implications for the EU of delayed acceptance of newly available transgenic traits.', 'en_US'),
(3911, 'Assessing the risk posed to free-living soil nematodes by a genetically modified maize expressing the insecticidal Cry3Bb1 protein.', 'Before pest-resistant genetically modified maize can be grown commercially, the risks for soil-beneficial, non-target organisms must be determined. Here, a tiered approach was used to assess the risk to free-living soil nematodes posed by maize genetically modified to express the insecticidal Cry3Bb1 protein (event Mon88017), which confers resistance towards western corn rootworm (Diabrotica virgifera; Coleoptera). The toxicity of purified Cry3Bb1 for the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans was determined using a bioassay and gene expression analysis. In addition, a soil toxicity test was used to assess the effects on C. elegans of rhizosphere soil obtained from plots of an experimental field grown with Mon88017, the near-isogenic cultivar, or either of two conventional cultivars. Finally, the indigenous nematode communities from the experimental field site with Mon88017 and from the control cultivars were analyzed. The results showed a dose-dependent inhibitory effect of Cry3Bb1 on the growth and reproduction of C. elegans, with EC50 values of 22.3 mg l&amp;#8722;1 and 7.9 mg l&amp;#8722;1, respectively. Moreover, Cry-protein-specific defense genes were found to be up-regulated in the presence of either Cry1Ab or Cry3Bb1. However, C. elegans was not affected by rhizosphere soils from Mon88017 compared to the control plots, due to the very low Cry3Bb1 concentrations, as indicated by quantitative analyses (&lt; 1 ng g&amp;#8722;1 soil). Nematode abundance and diversity were essentially the same between the various maize cultivars. At the last sampling date, nematode genus composition in Bt-maize plots differed significantly from that in two of the three non-Bt cultivars, including the near-isogenic maize, but the shift in genus composition did not influence the composition of functional guilds within the nematode communities. In conclusion, the risk to free-living soil nematodes posed by Mon88017 cultivation can be regarded as low, as long as Cry3Bb1 concentrations in soil remain four orders of magnitude below the toxicity threshold.', 'en_US'),
(3912, 'Research progress and safety evaluation of phytase transgenic maize.', '', 'en_US'),
(3913, 'Effects of Bt rice on the number and hatch rate of planthopper eggs and their attack by natural enemies in paddy fields.', 'In order to assess the effects of transgenic rice on non-target pests and their natural enemies after release, a field study was conducted over 2 years to determine the effects of transgenic Bt rice on population dynamics, hatchability and mortality of planthoppers eggs and their attack (predation and parasitism) by natural enemies at the Experimental Farm of Zhejiang University and the Experimental Farm of China National Rice Research Institute in 2008 and 2009. The results showed that the trends of population dynamics and hatchability of planthopper eggs and their predation and parasitism rate were almost the same on the three different rice lines (Kemingdao1, Kemingdao2 and Xiushui11) at two experimental farms in 2 years. Moreover, the peak of number of planthopper eggs on all the three rice lines lasted about two weeks in paddy fields. However, no uniform trend of the mortality of planthopper eggs was found on the three rice lines at two experimental farms in 2 years. Furthermore, no significant difference was found on population dynamics, hatchability and mortality of planthoppers eggs and attacks (predation and parasitism) by natural enemies among the three rice lines in general (P&gt;0.05). We so conclude that Bt rice does not significantly affect the eggs of planthoppers in paddy fields.', 'en_US'),
(3914, 'Adsorption of transgenic insecticidal Cry1Ab protein to silica particles. Effects on transport and bioactivity.', 'Bt crops are genetically modified to be resistant against insect pests by expressing insecticidal Cry proteins. The processes governing the fate and bioavailability of the expressed transgenic Cry proteins in soils are poorly understood. We studied adsorption of Cry1Ab to negatively charged silica (SiO2) particles, a major soil constituent and a model for negatively charged mineral surfaces, at pH 5 to 10 and ionic strengths I = 10 mM to 250 mM, both in solution depletion and saturated column transport experiments. Cry1Ab-SiO2 interactions were dominated by patch-controlled electrostatic attraction (PCEA), as evident from increasing Cry1Ab attraction to SiO2 with decreasing I at pH at which both Cry1Ab and SiO2 were net negatively charged. Experimental and modeling evidence is provided that the surface heterogeneity of SiO2 particles modulated PCEA, leading to a fraction of adsorption sites with slow Cry1Ab desorption kinetics. Desorption rates from these sites increased upon increasing the solution pH. In toxicity bioassays, we demonstrated that Cry1Ab retained insecticidal activity when adsorbed to SiO2, suggesting high protein conformational stability during adsorption–desorption cycles. Models predicting Cry1A protein adsorption in soils therefore need to account for combined effects of the nonuniform protein surface charge distribution and of sorbent surface heterogeneity.', 'en_US'),
(3915, 'A perspective on genetically modified food crops.', 'Genetic modification is the alteration of genetic material that would not occur naturally. It can be used as a tool to improve the quality of foods. Through genetic modification foods can be produced in larger quantities by increasing its resistance to pests and adverse weather conditions. Their protein and vitamin content may also be increased thus making them more nutritious. There are also claims of potential risks such as possible allergic reactions to modified proteins. To date, no international consensus has been reached for evaluation of the safety of genetically modified plants for consumption. Over the last decade, the safety of genetically modified crops in animal feed or foods for human consumption has been routinely tested in some countries. Protein- and DNA-based methods have been developed for detection of genetically modified organisms. Worldwide legislation now faces questions on the use and labeling requirements of genetically modified crops and their derivatives. Still, there are concerns about the safety of genetically modified crops. Also, genetically modified crops could contain toxic substances or larger amounts of heavy metals and the crops might not be substantially equivalent in genome, proteome, and metabolome to unmodified crops. An additional concern is that contrary to expectations, genetically modified crops may be less nutritious; for example, they might contain lower amounts of essential phytoestrogens, needed to protect against heart disease and cancer. This review will focus on perspectives of the genetically modified food crops.', 'en_US'),
(3916, 'Feeding of fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda, on Bt transgenic cotton and its isoline.', 'Studies on insect food intake and utilization are important for determining the degree of insect/plant association and host species’ resistance, and also for helping design pest management programs by providing estimates of potential economic losses, techniques for mass breeding of insects, and identifying physiological differences between species. We studied the feeding and development of fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (JE Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), on transgenic (Bt) and non-transgenic (non-Bt) cotton. The larvae of S. frugiperda fed on Bt cotton had a longer development period (23.0 days) than those fed on non-Bt cotton (20.2 days). Survivorship of S. frugiperda larvae fed on Bt cotton (74.1%) was lower than that of larvae fed on non-Bt cotton (96.7%). Pupal weight of larvae fed on Bt cotton (0.042 g) was lower than that of larvae fed on non-Bt cotton (0.061 g). The cotton cultivar significantly affected food intake, feces production, metabolization, and food assimilation by S. frugiperda larvae. However, it did not affect their weight gain. Intake of Bt-cotton leaf (0.53 g dry weight) per S. frugiperda larva was lower than the intake of non-Bt-cotton leaf (0.61 g dry weight). Larvae fed on Bt-cotton leaves produced less feces (0.25 g dry weight) than those fed on non-Bt-cotton leaves (0.37 g dry weight). Weight gain per S. frugiperda larva fed on Bt-cotton leaves (0.058 g dry weight) was similar to the weight gain for larvae fed on non-Bt-cotton leaves (0.056 g dry weight). The cotton cultivar significantly affected the relative growth, consumption, and metabolic rates, as well as other nutritional indices: the figures were lower for larvae fed on Bt-cotton leaves than for larvae fed on non-transgenic cotton leaves.', 'en_US'),
(3917, 'Genetically engineered bacteria: an emerging tool for environmental remediation and future research perspectives.', 'This minireview explores the environmental bioremediation mediated by genetically engineered (GE) bacteria and it also highlights the limitations and challenges associated with the release of engineered bacteria in field conditions. Application of GE bacteria based remediation of various heavy metal pollutants is in the forefront due to eco-friendly and lesser health hazards compared to physico-chemical based strategies, which are less eco-friendly and hazardous to human health. A combination of microbiological and ecological knowledge, biochemical mechanisms and field engineering designs would be an essential element for successful in situ bioremediation of heavy metal contaminated sites using engineered bacteria. Critical research questions pertaining to the development and implementation of GE bacteria for enhanced bioremediation have been identified and poised for possible future research. Genetic engineering of indigenous microflora, well adapted to local environmental conditions, may offer more efficient bioremediation of contaminated sites and making the bioremediation more viable and eco-friendly technology. However, many challenges are to be addressed concerning the release of genetically engineered bacteria in field conditions. There are possible risks associated with the use of GE bacteria in field condition, with particular emphasis on ways in which molecular genetics could contribute to the risk mitigation. Both environmental as well as public health concerns need to be addressed by the molecular biologists. Although bioremediation of heavy metals by using the genetically engineered bacteria has been extensively reviewed in the past also, but the bio-safety assessment and factors of genetic pollution have been never the less ignored.', 'en_US'),
(3918, 'Aphid-parasitoid community structure on genetically modified wheat.', 'Since the introduction of genetically modified (GM) plants, one of the main concerns has been their potential effect on non-target insects. Many studies have looked at GM plant effects on single non-target herbivore species or on simple herbivore–natural enemy food chains. Agro-ecosystems, however, are characterized by numerous insect species which are involved in complex interactions, forming food webs. In this study, we looked at transgenic disease-resistant wheat (Triticum aestivum) and its effect on aphid–parasitoid food webs. We hypothesized that the GM of the wheat lines directly or indirectly affect aphids and that these effects cascade up to change the structure of the associated food webs. Over 2 years, we studied different experimental wheat lines under semi-field conditions. We constructed quantitative food webs to compare their properties on GM lines with the properties on corresponding non-transgenic controls. We found significant effects of the different wheat lines on insect community structure up to the fourth trophic level. However, the observed effects were inconsistent between study years and the variation between wheat varieties was as big as between GM plants and their controls. This suggests that the impact of our powdery mildew-resistant GM wheat plants on food web structure may be negligible and potential ecological effects on non-target insects limited.', 'en_US'),
(3919, 'Spatial scale of insect-mediated pollen dispersal in oilseed rape in an open agricultural landscape.', '1.  Interest in pollen-borne gene dispersal has grown with the cultivation of genetically modified plants. To date, both experimental data and models of oilseed rape (OSR) Brassica napus pollen movement at the landscape scale do not clearly differentiate between wind- and insect-mediated dispersal. Estimations of insect-mediated gene dispersal would be valuable for managing potential escapes of transgenes.\r\n2.  To quantify the intensity and spatial scale of pollen dispersal by insect pollinators in an agricultural landscape, bait points made of flowering male-sterile OSR that attract OSR pollinators were located at six distances (10–1100 m) from the closest OSR fields and feral populations. Flower-visiting insects were caught by net on these male-sterile flowers and were rubbed onto the stigmas of male-sterile OSR plants grown in a pollen-proof greenhouse to do a manual pollination of their flowers. In this way we were able to assess the insects’ OSR pollen load and seed production at each of the six distances.\r\n3.  A large diversity of insects carried OSR pollen and contributed to seed production, but not pollen beetles Meligethes aeneus. Logistic regression analyses of the seed-set success from the manual pollination demonstrated that seed set significantly increased with the proximity of OSR fields, the size of the pollinating insect, and the main daily temperature. Seed set was not affected by the pollinating insect’s order or genus. Seed set, both observed and predicted by the model, was above zero for flowers pollinated with large bees caught at &gt;1100 m from the nearest OSR field.\r\n4.  Synthesis and applications.&amp;#8194;Our study provides clear evidence that a large variety of insect species can transfer viable pollen between OSR plants over considerable distances. However, only 39•4% of the insects caught on male-sterile flowers carried OSR pollen. Our results provide valuable data to improve models of pollen dispersal for entomophilous crops at the landscape scale. These models are essential to help land-managers reduce pollen-borne gene dispersal from genetically modified plants to wild and cultivated relatives.\r\n', 'en_US'),
(3920, 'Genetically modified crops: global and Indian perspective.', 'The necessity of a Gene Revolution in the background of declining performance of Green Revolution has drawn a lot of attention in recent times. This article reviews the progress of genetic modification in plant varieties at the global level as well as in India with various benefits available from GM crop and the potential risks associated with it towards mankind and environment. It brings in the issue of biosafety regulations in different countries, diverse consumer perceptions about GM crops across nations, Intellectual Property Rights and the role of WTO. The article also documents the journey of GM crop, mainly Bt cotton in India with briefly touching upon the existing regulatory process, labelling policy and public concern towards Bt Brinjal. The discussion brings out the fact that agricultural biotechnology is expected to play a pivotal role in future in ensuring food security through higher productivity, reducing pesticide use and soil erosion, enhancing nutrition and at the same time preserving the environment for the future generation. However, strict scientific regulations and monitoring are absolutely necessary for its safe and fruitful use by mankind.', 'en_US'),
(3921, 'Genetically modified organisms in agriculture: can regulations work?', 'Genetically modified (GM) crops have been recognised to be economically beneficial to subsistence farmers and have been projected as essential tools for addressing challenges in hunger, environmental sustainability and international development. Yet the uncertainty of their effects on human health and the undesirable ecological consequences of these organisms have raised concerns on the rapid pace of their production. Regulating the release of these organisms is a critical environmental issue. The Cartagena protocol on bio-safety, the principle legal arrangement for the regulation of these organisms, has ratifications from only 157 countries and has proven to be a weak regulator. Countries like India and Brazil have seen the proliferation of unapproved stealth GM varieties which make regulation even more difficult. In this paper, we explore the debate surrounding the introduction of GM organisms and analyse the effectiveness of existing legal regimes to regulate their use.', 'en_US'),
(3922, 'Commercialization of perennial GE crops: looming challenges for regulatory frameworks.', 'Overall, the deregulation of genetically engineered (GE) crops for commercial cultivation in North America has been a success story. In several cases, however, GE crops have sparked concerns and disagreements among the stakeholders and there are incidences of court lawsuits, including a recent one on glyphosate resistant (GR) alfalfa (Medicago sativa, L.). While GE crops can provide operational benefits to farmers, challenges are looming from commercialization of perennial GE crops. The unique ecology and biology of these crops and GE alfalfa in particular can facilitate adventitious presence (AP) of GE traits and it makes more visible that economic risks for conventional growers and food/feed producers have not been adequately addressed by the GE regulatory system in the United States (US). Asynchronous market approvals and the existence of a number of GE sensitive export markets create uncertainties among the exporters. Policy development in these fields may be helpful for ensuring a broader acceptance and market success of GE agriculture in general. The analysis is focusing on the US, although many diagnosed problems are also relevant to other jurisdictions—in particular if no co-existence policy is in place.', 'en_US'),
(3923, 'Sugarcane (Saccharum x officinarum): a reference study for the regulation of genetically modified cultivars in Brazil.', 'Global interest in sugarcane has increased significantly in recent years due to its economic impact on sustainable energy production. Sugarcane breeding and better agronomic practices have contributed to a huge increase in sugarcane yield in the last 30 years. Additional increases in sugarcane yield are expected to result from the use of biotechnology tools in the near future. Genetically modified (GM) sugarcane that incorporates genes to increase resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses could play a major role in achieving this goal. However, to bring GM sugarcane to the market, it is necessary to follow a regulatory process that will evaluate the environmental and health impacts of this crop. The regulatory review process is usually accomplished through a comparison of the biology and composition of the GM cultivar and a non-GM counterpart. This review intends to provide information on non-GM sugarcane biology, genetics, breeding, agronomic management, processing, products and byproducts, as well as the current technologies used to develop GM sugarcane, with the aim of assisting regulators in the decision-making process regarding the commercial release of GM sugarcane cultivars.', 'en_US'),
(3924, 'Bioinformatics and the allergy assessment of agricultural biotechnology products: industry practices and recommendations.', 'Bioinformatic tools are being increasingly utilized to evaluate the degree of similarity between a novel protein and known allergens within the context of a larger allergy safety assessment process. Importantly, bioinformatics is not a predictive analysis that can determine if a novel protein will ‘‘become” an allergen, but rather a tool to assess whether the protein is a known allergen or is potentially cross-reactive with an existing allergen. Bioinformatic tools are key components of the 2009 CodexAlimentarius Commission’s weight-of-evidence approach, which encompasses a variety of experimental approaches for an overall assessment of the allergenic potential of a novel protein. Bioinformatic search comparisons between novel protein sequences, as well as potential novel fusion sequences derived from the genome and transgene, and known allergens are required by all regulatory agencies that assess the safety of genetically modified (GM) products. The objective of this paper is to identify opportunities for consensus in the methods of applying bioinformatics and to outline differences that impact a consistent and reliable allergy safety assessment. The bioinformatic comparison process has some critical features, which are outlined in this paper. One of them is a curated, publicly available and well-managed database with known allergenic sequences. In this paper, the best practices, scientific value, and food safety implications of bioinformatic analyses, as they are applied to GM food crops are discussed. Recommendations for conducting bioinformatic analysis on novel food proteins for potential cross-reactivity to known allergens are also put forth.', 'en_US'),
(3925, 'Laboratory and field evaluation of the transgenic Populus alba x Populus glandulosa expressing double coleopteran-resistance genes.', 'Expression of the two coleopteran-resistant proteins (Bt-Cry3A and oryzacystatin I) was detected in the leaves of field-grown transgenic poplar (BOGA-5) in two or three subsequent years. The BOGA-5 contained &amp;#8764;10&amp;#8201;&amp;#956;g g&amp;#8722;1 of Cry3A over the individual years with no detection in the control, and protein extracts from BOGA-5 displayed a higher reduction in papain activity (&amp;#8764;42%) compared with &amp;#8764;21% in the control. Laboratory feeding experiments showed that the total mortality of the target pest Plagiodera versicolora (Coleoptera, Chrysomelida) larvae fed with BOGA-5 leaves was 76.7%, significantly higher than that of the control (P&amp;#8201;&lt;&amp;#8201;0.05). However, no significant differences were detected in the mortality, exuviation index, pupation rate or adult eclosion rate of the non-target Clostera anachoreta (Lepidoptera, Notodontidae) fed with leaves from transgenic and non-transgenic poplars. Field investigation indicated that the transgenic poplar retained coleopteran insect resistance in the field, suggesting the potential use of the double gene transgenic poplar for pest management in commercial poplar plantations.', 'en_US'),
(3926, 'The role of the concept of ''history of safe use'' in the safety assessment of novel foods and novel food ingredients. Opinion of the Senate Commission on Food Safety (SKLM) of the German Research Foundation (DFG).', 'The Council of the European Union has proposed a revision on the EU regulation on novel foods and novel food ingredients concerning safety assessment of traditional foods from non-EU countries and their introduction onto the EU market. The proposal stipulates that such foods may be placed on the EU market if their history of safe use in the country of origin is appropriately documented. The present statement of the SKLM gives an overview on current discussions on practical implementation of the “history of safe use” concept as well as examples of its application. The SKLM, in principle, agrees with these concepts, underscores, however, in connection with convincing evidence for a “history of safe use” the need for a range of additional information to achieve a comprehensive risk assessment. In the opinion of the SKLM such information must comprise compositional data as well as experience on adverse effects. A list of questions considered essential is presented. The following opinion was adopted on December 23rd 2010.', 'en_US'),
(3927, 'Compositional safety of event DAS-40278-9 (AAD-1) herbicide-tolerant maize.', 'Event DAS-40278-9 maize expresses the aryloxyalkanoate dioxygenase-1 enzyme, which was originally identified in the soil bacterium Sphingobium herbicidovorans. This enzyme degrades 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and aryloxyphenoxypropionate herbicides (e.g., haloxyfop, cyhalofop, quizalofop, etc.); therefore, plants that contain this enzyme are tolerant to these herbicides.  We employed the substantial equivalence approach to investigate the compositional safety of event DAS-40278-9 maize.  A total of 82 different compositional analyses were conducted to evaluate the equivalence of event DAS-40278-9 and conventional maize.  Analyte levels within the transgenic entries were either within literature ranges for non-transgenic maize or statistically indistinguishable from the non-transgenic near-isogenic hybrid, thus indicating substantial equivalence between event DAS-40278-9 and its conventional counterpart.  These results agree with dozens of published studies for other transgenic events where input traits were found to have a negligible effect on crop composition compared with traditional breeding methods.', 'en_US'),
(3928, 'Novel Vip3A Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) maize approaches high-dose efficacy against Helicoverpa zea (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) under field conditions: implications for resistance management.', 'Sweet corn, Zea mays L., transformed to express a novel vegetative insecticidal protein, Vip3A (event MIR162, Syngenta Seeds, Inc..), produced by the bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), was evaluated over four field seasons in Maryland and two field seasons in Minnesota for efficacy against the corn earworm, Helicoverpa zea (Boddie).  Hybrids expressing the Vip3A protein and pyramided in hybrids also expressing the Cry1Ab Bt protein (event Bt11, ATTRIBUTE®, Syngenta Seeds, Inc.) were compared to hybrids expressing only Cry1Ab or to genetically similar non-Bt hybrids each year. In addition to H. zea efficacy, results for Ostrinia nubilalis (Hübner) and Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith) are presented. Over all years and locations, the non-Bt hybrids, without insecticide protection, averaged between 43 and 100% ears infested with a range of 0.24 to 1.74 H. zea larvae per ear. By comparison, in the pyramided Vip3A x Cry1Ab hybrids, no larvae were found and only minimal kernel damage (likely due to other insect pests) was recorded. Hybrids expressing only Cry1Ab incurred a moderate level of H. zea feeding damage, with surviving larvae mostly limited to the first or second instar as a result of previously documented growth inhibition from Cry1Ab. These results suggest that the Vip3A protein, pyramided with Cry1Ab, appears to provide the first “high-dose” under field conditions and will be valuable for ongoing resistance management.', 'en_US'),
(3929, 'Transgene introgression in crop relatives: molecular evidence and mitigation strategies.', 'Incorporation of crop genes into wild and weedy relative populations (i.e. introgression) has long been of interest to ecologists and weed scientists. Potential negative outcomes that result from crop transgene introgression (e.g. extinction of native wild relative populations; invasive spread by wild or weedy hosts) have not been documented, and few examples of transgene introgression exist. However, molecular evidence of introgression from non-transgenic crops to their relatives continues to emerge, even for crops deemed low-risk candidates for transgene introgression. We posit that transgene introgression monitoring and mitigation strategies are warranted in cases in which transgenes are predicted to confer selective advantages and disadvantages to recipient hosts. The utility and consequences of such strategies are examined, and future directions provided.', 'en_US'),
(3930, 'A mechanistic model to predict transgenic seed contamination in bee-pollinated crops validated in an apple orchard.', 'The adventitious presence of transgene containing seed in conventional crops is an issue of considerable interest; a model to predict levels will aid regulators and help to address concerns of farmers and consumers. While outcrossing levels have been described in crops such as rape that are wind-pollinated, or both wind- and insect-pollinated, much less is known about pollen dispersal in exclusively insect-pollinated crops. In this paper, we develop a mechanistic model for pollen movement that is based on a description of bee movement through space. Our model is a system of diffusion-based partial differential equations that we use to predict percent transgenic seed at arbitrary distances from a transgenic source under different planting scenarios. We present a two-pronged study, in which the mathematical modelling work is informed by experimental work. The latter was carried out in an apple orchard with a row of 200 transgenic source trees carrying the GUS marker gene. Fruit from neighbouring conventional trees was gathered at distances ranging from 3.5 m to 183 m, and the seeds were extracted and germinated. Percent transgenic seed at each location was determined by testing the seedlings for the presence of the GUS marker gene. We use the experimental data to validate and parameterize the model, and then run model simulations to determine expected percent transgenic seed in various linear landscapes. We find that the percent transgenic seed in neighbouring conventional trees and orchards is a function of the size of each orchard block and the distance between them. The model explicitly shows the effect of overlapping transgenic and nontransgenic pollen distributions in setting seed distributions, and also shows the value of buffer rows in reducing outcrossing levels in neighbouring crops. The model parameters can be adjusted to suit particular crops and locations, and may be useful for determining plausible distributions on transgenic seed plantings needed to allow for an adventitious presence of, for example, 0.9%.', 'en_US'),
(3931, 'A meta analysis on farm-level costs and benefits of GM crops.', 'This paper reviews the evidence on the socio-economic impacts of GM crops and analyzes whether there are patterns across space and time. To this end, we investigate the effect of GM crops on farm-level costs and benefits using global data from more than one decade of field trials and surveys. More specifically, we analyze the effects of GM-crops on crop yields, seed costs, pesticide costs, and management and labor costs and finally gross margins. Based on collected data from studies on Bt cotton and Bt maize, statistical analyses are conducted to estimate the effect of GM crop adoption on these parameters. Our results show that, compared to conventional crops, GM crops can lead to yield increases and can lead to reductions in the costs of pesticide application, whereas seed costs are usually substantially higher. Thus, the results presented here do support the contention that the adoption of GM crops leads on average to a higher economic performance, which is also underlined by the high adoption rates for GM crops in a number of countries. However, the kind and magnitude of benefits from GM crops are very heterogeneous between countries and regions, particularly due to differences in pest pressure and pest management practices. Countries with poor pest management practices benefited most from a reduction in yield losses, whereas other countries benefited from cost reductions. However, our study also reveals limitations for meta-analyses on farm-level costs and benefits of GM crops. In particular, published data are skewed towards some countries and the employed individual studies rely on different assumptions, purposes and methodologies (e.g., surveys and field trials). Furthermore, a summary of several (often) short-term individual studies may not necessarily capture long-term effects of GM crop adoption.', 'en_US'),
(3932, 'Comparing conventional and biotechnology-based pest management.', 'Pest management has changed dramatically during the past 15 years by the introduction of transgenes into crops for the purpose of pest management. Transgenes for herbicide resistance or for production of one or more Bt toxins are the predominant pest management traits currently available. These two traits have been rapidly adopted where available because of their superior efficacy and simplification of pest management for the farmer. Furthermore, they have substantially reduced the use of environmentally and toxicologically suspect pesticides while reducing the carbon footprint of pest management as reduced tillage became more common, along with fewer trips across the field to spray pesticides. The most successful of these products have been glyphosate-resistant crops, which cover approximately 85% of all land occupied by transgenic crops. Over-reliance on glyphosate with continual use of these crops has resulted in the evolution of highly problematic glyphosate-resistant weeds. This situation has resulted in some farmers using weed management methods similar to those used with conventional crops. Evolution of resistance has not been a significant problem with Bt crops, perhaps because of a mandated resistance management strategy. Transgenic crops with multiple genes for resistance to different herbicides and resistance to additional insects will be available in the next few years. These products will offer opportunities for the kind of pest management diversity that is more sustainable than that provided by the first generation of transgenic crops.', 'en_US'),
(3933, 'Agricultural impacts of glyphosate-resistant soybean cultivation in South America.', 'In the 2009/2010 growing season, Brazil was the second largest world soybean producer, followed by Argentina. Glyphosate-resistant soybeans (GRS) are being cultivated in most of the soybean area in South America. Overall, the GRS system is beneficial to the environment when compared to conventional soybean. GRS resulted in a significant shift toward no-tillage practices in Brazil and Argentina, but weed resistance may reduce this trend. Probably the highest agricultural risk in adopting GRS in Brazil and South America is related to weed resistance due to use of glyphosate. Weed species in GRS fields have shifted in Brazil to those that can more successfully withstand glyphosate or to those that avoid the time of its application. Five weed species, in order of importance, Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist, Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronquist, Lolium multiflorum Lam., Digitaria insularis (L.) Mez ex Ekman, and Euphorbia heterophylla L., have evolved resistance to glyphosate in GRS in Brazil. Conyza spp. are the most difficult to control. A glyphosate-resistant biotype of Sorghum halepense L. has evolved in GRS in Argentina and one of D. insularis in Paraguay. The following actions are proposed to minimize weed resistance problem: (a) rotation of GRS with conventional soybeans in order to rotate herbicide modes of action; (b) avoidance of lower than recommended glyphosate rates; (c) keeping soil covered with a crop or legume at intercrop intervals; (d) keeping machinery free of weed seeds; and (d) use of a preplant nonselective herbicide plus residuals to eliminate early weed interference with the crop and to minimize escapes from later applications of glyphosate due to natural resistance of older weeds and/or incomplete glyphosate coverage.', 'en_US'),
(3934, 'Herbicide-resistant crops: utilities and limitations for herbicide-resistant weed management.', 'Since 1996, genetically modified herbicide-resistant (HR) crops, particularly glyphosate-resistant (GR) crops, have transformed the tactics that corn, soybean, and cotton growers use to manage weeds. The use of GR crops continues to grow, but weeds are adapting to the common practice of using only glyphosate to control weeds. Growers using only a single mode of action to manage weeds need to change to a more diverse array of herbicidal, mechanical, and cultural practices to maintain the effectiveness of glyphosate. Unfortunately, the introduction of GR crops and the high initial efficacy of glyphosate often lead to a decline in the use of other herbicide options and less investment by industry to discover new herbicide active ingredients. With some exceptions, most growers can still manage their weed problems with currently available selective and HR crop-enabled herbicides. However, current crop management systems are in jeopardy given the pace at which weed populations are evolving glyphosate resistance. New HR crop technologies will expand the utility of currently available herbicides and enable new interim solutions for growers to manage HR weeds, but will not replace the long-term need to diversify weed management tactics and discover herbicides with new modes of action. This paper reviews the strengths and weaknesses of anticipated weed management options and the best management practices that growers need to implement in HR crops to maximize the long-term benefits of current technologies and reduce weed shifts to difficult-to-control and HR weeds.', 'en_US'),
(3935, 'Relevance of traditional integrated pest management (IPM) strategies for commercial corn producers in a transgenic agroecosystem: a bygone era?', 'The use of transgenic Bt maize hybrids continues to increase significantly across the Corn Belt of the United States. In 2009, 59% of all maize planted in Illinois was characterized as a “stacked” gene variety. This is a 40% increase since 2006. Stacked hybrids typically express one Cry protein for corn rootworm control and one Cry protein for control of several lepidopteran pests; they also feature herbicide tolerance (to either glyphosate or glufosinate). Slightly more than 50 years has passed since Vernon Stern and his University of California entomology colleagues published (1959) their seminal paper on the integrated control concept, laying the foundation for modern pest management (IPM) programs. To assess the relevance of traditional IPM concepts within a transgenic agroecosystem, commercial maize producers were surveyed at a series of meetings in 2009 and 2010 regarding their perceptions on their use of Bt hybrids and resistance management. Special attention was devoted to two insect pests of corn, the European corn borer and the western corn rootworm. A high percentage of producers who participated in these meetings planted Bt hybrids in 2008 and 2009, 97 and 96.7%, respectively. Refuge compliance in 2008 and 2009, as mandated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), was 82 and 75.7%, respectively, for those producers surveyed. A large majority of producers (79 and 73.3% in 2009 and 2010, respectively) revealed that they would, or had, used a Bt hybrid for corn rootworm (Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte) or European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis Hubner) control even when anticipated densities were low. Currently, the EPA is evaluating the long-term use of seed blends (Bt and non-Bt) as a resistance management strategy. In 2010, a large percentage of producers, 80.4%, indicated they would be willing to use this approach. The current lack of integration of management tactics for insect pests of maize in the U.S. Corn Belt, due primarily to the escalating use of transgenic Bt hybrids, may eventually result in resistance evolution and/or other unforeseen consequences.', 'en_US'),
(3936, 'U.S. EPA regulation of plant-incorporated protectants: assessment of impacts of gene flow from pest-resistant plants.', 'The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency licenses pesticide-expressing plants under the authority of the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA). Transgenes and their pesticidal products represent pesticides under FIFRA and are referred to as plant-incorporated protectants (PIPs). When sexually compatible wild relatives (SCWR) are sympatric with PIP crops, there is a need to assess the potential for adverse effects to man and the environment resulting from transgene introgression in accord with FIFRA requirements. Genetic compatibility, introgression, weediness of SCWR × PIP hybrids, seed dispersal, and dormancy, among other parameters, as well as effects on other species (herbivores and beneficial insects), all need to be considered as part of the risk assessment for experimental use under Section 5 or registration under Section 3 of FIFRA. EPA is currently developing data requirements and guidance toward addressing potential gene flow impacts from PIPs.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(3937, 'Evaluation of compositional equivalence for multitrait biotechnology crops.', 'Compositional analysis is an important tool in the evaluation of the safety and nutritional status of biotechnology-derived crops. As part of the comparative assessment of a biotechnology-derived crop, its composition is evaluated by quantitative measurement of the levels of key nutrients, antinutrients, and secondary metabolites and compared to that of conventional crops. To evaluate the effect of combining multiple biotech traits through conventional breeding, the forage and grain compositions of the double combinations MON 810 × NK603, MON 863 × MON 810, and MON 863 × NK603 and the triple combination MON 863 × NK603 × MON 810 were compared to their respective near-isogenic, conventional control hybrids. Overall, a total of 241 statistical comparisons between the multitrait biotechnology crop and its corresponding conventional controls were conducted. Of these comparisons 192 (79.7%) were not statistically significantly different (p &gt; 0.05), and all 49 of the differences were within the 99% tolerance interval for commercial hybrids grown in the same field or related field trials. These data on combined trait biotechnology-derived products demonstrated that the forage and grain were compositionally equivalent to their conventional comparators, indicating the absence of any influence of combining insect protection and herbicide tolerance traits by conventional breeding on compositional variation.', 'en_US'),
(3938, 'Derivation and interpretation of hazard quotients to assess ecological risks from the cultivation of insect-resistant transgenic crops.', 'Cost-effective and rigorous risk assessments for chemicals may be based on hazard quotients (HQs): the ratio of a measure of exposure to a substance and a measure of the effect of that substance. HQs have been used for many years in ecological risk assessments for the use of synthetic pesticides in agriculture, and methods for calculating pesticide HQs have been adapted for use with transgenic crops. This paper describes how laboratory methods for assessing the ecotoxicological effects of synthetic pesticides have been modified for the measurement of effects of insecticidal proteins, and how these effect measures are combined with exposure estimates to derive HQs for assessing the ecological risks from the cultivation of insect-resistant transgenic crops. The potential for ecological modeling to inform the design of laboratory effects tests for insecticidal proteins is also discussed.', 'en_US'),
(3939, 'Innate factors causing differences in gene flow frequency from transgenic rice to different weedy rice biotypes.', 'BACKGROUND: The compatibility and outcrossing rates between transgenic rice and weedy rice biotypes have been studied in some previous cases. However, few studies have addressed the reasons for these differences. The present study compared the compatibility and outcrossing rates between transgenic rice and selected weedy rice biotypes using manual and natural crossing experiments to elucidate the key innate factors causing the different outcrossing rates.\r\nRESULTS: Hybrid seed sets from manual crossing between transgenic rice and weedy rice varied from 31.8 to 82.7%, which correlated directly with genetic compatibility. Moreover, the significant differences in the quantity of germinated donor pollens and pollen tubes entering the weedy rice ovule directly contributed to the different seed sets. The natural outcrossing rates varied from 0 to 6.66‰. The duration of flowering overlap was the key factor influencing natural outcrossing. Plant and panicle height also affected outcrossing success.\r\nCONCLUSION: From this study, it is concluded that the likelihood of gene flow between transgenic rice and weedy rice biotypes is primarily determined by floral synchronisation and secondarily influenced by genetic compatibility and some morphological characteristics.', 'en_US'),
(3940, 'Comparative assessment of the field-susceptibility of Sesamia nonagrioides to the Cry1Ab toxin in areas with different adoption rates of Bt maize and in Bt-free areas.', 'A three year (2003–2005) field study compared the susceptibility to the Cry1Ab toxin, expressed in Bt maize, of Mediterranean corn borer (MCB) Sesamia nonagrioides populations collected from areas with different adoption rates of Bt maize in Spain with Bt-free areas in Greece. Spain is the only European country where the cultivar Compa CB derived from the event Bt176 was commercially grown, from 1998 to 2005. The large decrease of the titer of the toxin in this cultivar at later growth stages represented the worst-case scenario for resistance development of MCB, since larvae of the second and third generations were exposed to sublethal concentrations of Cry1Ab toxin. Our data revealed that the variation in susceptibility to Cry1Ab for the MCB Spanish field populations analyzed in the three years was very low, with LC50 values fluctuating between 12 and 30 ng Cry1Ab/cm2, regardless of the region of origin, the type of maize (Bt or non-Bt) and the year. Furthermore, no significant differences were found when comparisons were made with a laboratory population (LC50 values: 18–26 ng Cry1Ab/cm2) or with field populations from Greece (Bt-free areas), which displayed LC50 values ranging between 22 and 27 ng Cry1Ab/cm2. Standardizing bioassay protocols proved to be essential for obtaining comparable results. These findings suggest that resistant MCB populations did not evolve in those Spanish maize areas where Compa CB was largely cultivated for eight years, contradicting the expected rapid development of resistance under these unfavourable conditions. Additionally, our results can be used as baseline indices in post-market resistance monitoring programs if Bt maize is introduced in Greece. Further studies should continue, since the insights gained from a resistance monitoring program may help to enhance the durability of Bt maize.', 'en_US'),
(3941, 'Food chain integrity: a holistic approach to food traceability, safety, quality and authenticity.', 'Contains:  History of genetically modified organisms (GMOs); The European regulatory framework for GMOs; Current challenges for traceability in supply chains containing and ‘free from’ GMOs; Conclusions; References.', 'en_US'),
(3942, 'The relevance of sampling for the control of genetically modified organisms in the agri-food chain.', 'Contains:  Introduction; Overview of international norms and legislative provisions; Strategies for cost-effective sampling in different scenarios of food and feed chain; Sample preparation strategies; Estimation of sampling uncertainty; Statistical programs / software; Conclusions; References.', 'en_US'),
(3943, 'The chloroplast transformation toolbox: selectable markers and marker removal.', 'Plastid transformation is widely used in basic research and for biotechnological applications. Initially developed in Chlamydomonas and tobacco, it is now feasible in a broad range of species. Selection of transgenic lines where all copies of the polyploid plastid genome are transformed requires efficient markers. A number of traits have been used for selection such as photoautotrophy, resistance to antibiotics and tolerance to herbicides or to other metabolic inhibitors. Restoration of photosynthesis is an effective primary selection method in Chlamydomonas but can only serve as a screening tool in flowering plants. The most successful and widely used markers are derived from bacterial genes that inactivate antibiotics, such as aadA that confers resistance to spectinomycin and streptomycin. For many applications, the presence of a selectable marker that confers antibiotic resistance is not desirable. Efficient marker removal methods are a major attraction of the plastid engineering tool kit. They exploit the homologous recombination and segregation pathways acting on chloroplast genomes and are based on direct repeats, transient co-integration or co-transformation and segregation of trait and marker genes. Foreign site-specific recombinases and their target sites provide an alternative and effective method for removing marker genes from plastids.', 'en_US'),
(3944, 'Feeding behavior of neonate Ostrinia nubilalis (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) on Cry1Ab Bt corn: implications for resistance management.', 'The European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae), is an economically important insect pest of corn, Zea mays L., in the United States and Canada. The development of genetically modified corn expressing genes derived from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) that encodes insecticidal crystalline (Cry) proteins has proven to be effective in controlling this insect. To assess the feeding behavior of neonate O. nubilalis on Bt corn, we examined differences in feeding behavior, based on presence of plant material in the gut, between Cry1Ab Bt corn and non-Bt near isoline corn for four intervals over a 48-h period. Feeding experiments revealed that there was significantly less feeding on Bt corn compared with non-Bt near isoline corn. The behavior of neonates on the plant corresponded with the differences in feeding on the two corn lines. The findings also showed that &gt;50% of the larvae initially left the plant before there was evidence in the gut of feeding regardless of whether the source was Bt or non-Bt corn. A higher quantity of plant material was found in the gut of larvae recovered from leaves of non-Bt compared with Bt corn. At the end of 48 h among the larvae that had left the plant, a greater proportion from Bt corn had plant material in the gut than did those from non-Bt corn.', 'en_US'),
(3945, 'Modification of hormonal balance in larvae of the corn borer Sesamia nonagrioides (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) due to sublethal Bacillus thuringiensis protein ingestion.', 'Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) corn, Zea mays L., is highly efficient against the corn borer Sesamia nonagrioides (Lefèbvre) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) when the larvae feed only on the transgenic plants. However, when they feed on Bt leaves during only part of their development, thus ingesting sublethal amounts of Bt toxins, some larvae survive. A previous study reported a prolonged development and precocious diapause induction in larvae fed on a diet with sublethal amounts of Cry1Ab protein. To determine whether these effects were accompanied by a modification of the hormonal balance, S. nonagrioides larvae were fed on sublethal amounts of Bt protein provided in Bt leaves or in the diet. The larvae that survived had higher levels of juvenile hormone (JH), whereas their level of ecdysteroids did not increase sufficiently to allow pupation, leading to a longer larval development and more larval molts. This response may be considered a defense mechanism that allows some larvae to survive toxin ingestion; it is similar to the response to insecticidal toxins or viruses observed in other larvae. Changes in the hormone levels in diapausing larvae were undetectable, probably because these changes were masked by the higher level of JH in the hemolymph of diapausing larvae and because of lack of ecdysteroid titer increase, a phenomenon that is usually observed a few days before pupation in nondiapausing larvae. These results should be taken into account in the establishment of non-Bt refuges to prevent development of Bt-resistance in S. nonagrioides populations.', 'en_US'),
(3946, 'Selection for Cry3Bb1 resistance in a genetically diverse population of nondiapausing western corn rootworm (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae).', 'Five short-diapause laboratory lines of western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), were selected for resistance to MON863, a variety of corn genetically modiÞed with the Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner (Bt) transgene that expresses the Cry3Bb1  -endotoxin. Three of the selected lines were developed by incremental increase in the duration of exposure to MON863 over 11 generations (moderate selected lines). Two selected lines were developed from a control group by constant exposure to MON863 for at least 14 d posthatch over seven generations (intense selected lines). At the end of the experiment, survivorship, as measured by adult emergence, was  4 times higher in each of the selected lines reared on MON863 compared with control lines. Estimates of realized heritabilities (h2) were 0.16 and 0.15 for the moderate and intense selected lines, respectively, and are consistent with h2 estimates reported previously from a variety of pest insects. These lines provide data necessary for evaluating the potential for Bt resistance within diabroticite beetles and will be useful for developing improved insect resistance management strategies.', 'en_US'),
(3947, 'Selection for resistance to mCry3A-expressing transgenic corn in western corn rootworm.', 'To investigate the development of resistance to mCry3A, a laboratory colony of the western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte, was established from field survivors of mCry3A-expressing (MIR604) corn, Zea mays L. Feral adults emerging from MIR604 (selected) and isoline (control) field plots were collected and returned to the laboratory. Progeny of each colony was reared one generation on isoline corn and then crossed reciprocally with a nondiapausing colony. The resulting nondiapausing progeny were then reared on greenhouse corn in accordance with the wild type parent''s origin (on MIR604 or isoline corn). After four, seven, and 10 total generations of selection, the resistance ratio of the selected colony was 0.5, 4.3, and 15.4 in terms of lethal concentration (LC)50 values in toxicity assays, with the latter two LC50 values being significant. After seven generations of selection in total, selected and control colonies were screened on MIR604 and isoline corn under field conditions. There was a significant colony × corn pedigree interaction in terms of plant damage. There was no significant difference in damage between MIR604 and isoline corn, whereas this difference was significant for the control colony. After 14 generations of selection, a seedling bioassay was performed. Again, there was a significant colony × corn pedigree interaction, this time in terms of the number of larvae recovered. There was no significant difference in the number of larvae recovered from MIR604 and isoline corn for the selected colony, whereas this difference was significant for the control colony, although larval size was greater on isoline corn for both colonies. Resistance has developed in western corn rootworm laboratory colonies to all Bt proteins currently registered for corn rootworm management, which emphasizes the importance of adhering to resistance management plans for maintaining product efficacy.', 'en_US'),
(3948, 'Effects of genetically modified starch metabolism in potato plants on photosynthate fluxes into the rhizosphere and on microbial degraders of root exudates.', 'A high percentage of photosynthetically assimilated carbon is released into soil via root exudates, which are acknowledged as the most important factor for the development of microbial rhizosphere communities. As quality and quantity of root exudates are dependent on plant genotype, the genetic engineering of plants might also influence carbon partitioning within the plant and thus microbial rhizosphere community structure. In this study, the carbon allocation patterns within the plant-rhizosphere system of a genetically modified amylopectin-accumulating potato line (Solanum tuberosum L.) were linked to microbial degraders of root exudates under greenhouse conditions, using 13C-CO2 pulse-chase labelling in combination with phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) analysis. In addition, GM plants were compared with the parental cultivar as well as a second potato cultivar obtained by classical breeding. Rhizosphere samples were obtained during young leaf developmental and flowering stages. 13C allocation in aboveground plant biomass, water-extractable organic carbon, microbial biomass carbon and PLFA as well as the microbial community structure in the rhizosphere varied significantly between the natural potato cultivars. However, no differences between the GM line and its parental cultivar were observed. Besides the considerable impact of plant cultivar, the plant developmental stage affected carbon partitioning via the plant into the rhizosphere and, subsequently, microbial communities involved in the transformation of root exudates.', 'en_US'),
(3949, 'Laboratory toxicity studies demonstrate no adverse effects of Cry1Ab and Cry3Bb1 to larvae of Adalia bipunctata (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae): the importance of study design.', 'Scientific studies are frequently used to support policy decisions related to transgenic crops. Schmidt et al., Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 56:221–228 (2009) recently reported that Cry1Ab and Cry3Bb were toxic to larvae of Adalia bipunctata in direct feeding studies. This study was quoted, among others, to justify the ban of Bt maize (MON 810) in Germany. The study has subsequently been criticized because of methodological shortcomings that make it questionable whether the observed effects were due to direct toxicity of the two Cry proteins. We therefore conducted tritrophic studies assessing whether an effect of the two proteins on A. bipunctata could be detected under more realistic routes of exposure. Spider mites that had fed on Bt maize (events MON810 and MON88017) were used as carriers to expose young A. bipunctata larvae to high doses of biologically active Cry1Ab and Cry3Bb1. Ingestion of the two Cry proteins by A. bipunctata did not affect larval mortality, weight, or development time. These results were confirmed in a subsequent experiment in which A. bipunctata were directly fed with a sucrose solution containing dissolved purified proteins at concentrations approximately 10 times higher than measured in Bt maize-fed spider mites. Hence, our study does not provide any evidence that larvae of A. bipunctata are sensitive to Cry1Ab and Cry3Bb1 or that Bt maize expressing these proteins would adversely affect this predator. The results suggest that the apparent harmful effects of Cry1Ab and Cry3Bb1 reported by Schmidt et al., Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 56:221–228 (2009) were artifacts of poor study design and procedures. It is thus important that decision-makers evaluate the quality of individual scientific studies and do not view all as equally rigorous and relevant.', 'en_US'),
(3950, 'Expression of Bt-Cry3A in transgenic Populus alba x P. glandulosa and its effects on target and non-target pests and the arthropod community.', 'During the growing seasons of 2006–2008, feeding tests and field studies were conducted in Beijing, China, to investigate the effects of transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) poplar (BGA-5) expressing the Cry3A protein (0.0264–0.0326% of the total soluble protein) on target and non-target pests and the arthropod community. The effects of BGA-5 on the target pest Plagiodera versicolora (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae) and a non-target pest Clostera anachoreta (Lepidoptera, Notodontidae), were assessed under laboratory conditions. Total mortality of P. versicolora larvae fed with BGA-5 leaves was significantly higher than that of the control (P &lt; 0.05). The exuviation index of P. versicolora larvae fed with BGA-5 tended to be higher than that of CK, but it was not significantly different. The pupation rate and eclosion rate of the survived larvae fed with BGA-5 were lower than that of CK, but it was also not significantly different. Additionally, no significant differences were detected in the mortality, exuviations index, pupation rate, or eclosion rate of C. anachoreta fed with leaves of transgenic and non-transgenic poplars. Furthermore, the arthropod communities in the Bt poplar and CK field stands were similar, as indicated by four diversity indices (Berge-Parker index, Shannon-Wiener indices, evenness index, and Simpson’s inverted index) and the Bray-Curtis index. Therefore, the Bt-Cry3A poplar decreased damage by the target pest (P. versicolora), had no effects on a non-target pest (C. anachoreta), and generally did not have any significant negative effect on the poplar arthropod community.', 'en_US'),
(3951, 'Standing genetic variation and compensatory evolution in transgenic organisms: a growth-enhanced salmon simulation.', 'Genetically modified strains usually are generated within defined genetic backgrounds to minimize variation for the engineered characteristic in order to facilitate basic research investigations or for commercial application. However, interactions between transgenes and genetic background have been documented in both model and commercial agricultural species, indicating that allelic variation at transgene-modifying loci are not uncommon in genomes. Engineered organisms that have the potential to allow entry of transgenes into natural populations may cause changes to ecosystems via the interaction of their specific phenotypes with ecosystem components and services. A transgene introgressing through natural populations is likely to encounter a range of natural genetic variation (among individuals or sub-populations) that could result in changes in phenotype, concomitant with effects on fitness and ecosystem consequences that differ from that seen in the progenitor transgenic strain. In the present study, using a growth hormone transgenic salmon example, we have modeled selection of modifier loci (single and multiple) in the presence of a transgene and have found that accounting for genetic background can significantly affect the persistence of transgenes in populations, potentially reducing or reversing a “Trojan gene” effect. Influences from altered life history characteristics (e.g., developmental timing, age of maturation) and compensatory demographic/ecosystem controls (e.g., density dependence) also were found to have a strong influence on transgene effects. Further, with the presence of a transgene in a population, genetic backgrounds were found to shift in non-transgenic individuals as well, an effect expected to direct phenotypes away from naturally selected optima. The present model has revealed the importance of understanding effects of selection for background genetics on the evolution of phenotypes in populations harbouring transgenes.', 'en_US'),
(3952, 'Non-target organism effects tests on Vip3A and their application to the ecological risk assessment for cultivation of MIR162 maize.', 'Transgenic crops producing insecticidal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) provide economic, environmental and health benefits by maintaining or increasing crop yields with fewer applications of insecticide. To sustain these benefits, it is important to delay the evolution of insect resistance to the proteins, and to ensure that the proteins do not harm non-target organisms, particularly those that may control secondary pests that would otherwise flourish because of reduced insecticide applications. Vip3A is a Bt vegetative insecticidal protein that is active against lepidopterous pests. It has a different mode of action from other proteins for control of Lepidoptera in current Bt crops, and when combined with these proteins, it should help to delay the evolution of pest resistance to Bt crops. This paper presents data on the effects of Vip3A on non-target organisms, and an ecological risk assessment of MIR162 maize, which expresses Vip3Aa20. Laboratory studies indicate few adverse effects of Vip3A to non-target organisms: 11 of 12 species tested showed no adverse effects when exposed to high concentrations of Vip3A relative to estimated exposures resulting from cultivation of MIR162 maize. Daphnia magna exposed to Vip3Aa20 were unaffected in terms of survival or fecundity, but grew slightly more slowly than unexposed controls. The data indicate that cultivation of MIR162 maize poses negligible risk to non-target organisms, and that crops producing Vip3A are unlikely to adversely affect biological control organisms such that benefits from reduced insecticide applications are lost.', 'en_US'),
(3953, 'Enhanced yield performance of Bt rice under target-insect attacks: implications for field insect management.', 'The rapid development of transgenic biotechnology has greatly promoted the breeding of genetically engineered (GE) rice in China, and many GE rice lines are in the pipeline for commercialization. To understand field performances of GE rice, key agronomic traits of two insect-resistant Bt rice lines that have been granted biosafety certificates for commercial production in China were evaluated together with their nontransgenic counterparts under environmental conditions with significant differences in insect pressure. Results from the experiments showed enhanced field performances of the Bt GE rice lines compared with the non-GE counterparts for yield-related traits such as number of panicles and filled seeds per plant, under environmental conditions with no insecticide application. No detectable underlying cost of the Bt transgene was observed in the two insect-resistant GE rice lines, particularly in the GE hybrid rice line. Results further indicated significantly greater yield performances of the two insect-resistant GE rice lines under environmental conditions with non-target insect control compared with no insect control. It is concluded from this study that insect-resistant Bt GE rice, particularly the hybrid line, has great potential to maintain its high yield when ambient insect pressure is high. In addition, proper application of insecticides to control non-target insects will guarantee optimal performance of insect-resistant Bt GE rice.', 'en_US'),
(3954, 'Does Cry1Ac Bt-toxin impair development of worker larvae of Africanized honey bee?', 'The western honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) is a widespread pollinator species. The present study aimed to test if Africanized honey bee larvae are negatively affected by the ingestion of diet contaminated with the Bacillus thunringiensis toxin Cry1Ac, which is expressed in GM cotton plants. The toxin activity was confirmed in bioassays with the velvetbean caterpillar (Anticarsia gemmatalis), a soybean pest species susceptible to Cry1Ac. The honey bee larvae were subjected to ingestion of either pure larval diet (control), diluted larval diet (diluted control) or larval diet diluted in a Cry1Ac solution at a concentration compatible with the maximum possible field exposure. Although diluted diet slightly increased larval mortality, Cry1Ac ingestion did not affect survival, developmental time, and neither adult body mass nor size, indicating that GM plants are unlikely to significantly impair the development of honey bee larvae. The larval-rearing system reported here was suitable to assess the lethal and sub-lethal effects of GM expressed toxins against honey bee larvae.', 'en_US'),
(3955, 'Evaluating the non-rice host plant species of Sesamia inferens (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) as natural refuges: resistance management of Bt rice.', 'Although rice (Oryza sativa L.) lines that express Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxins have shown great potential for managing the major Lepidoptera pests of rice in southern China, including Sesamia inferens, their long-term use is dependent on managing resistance development to Bt toxins in pest populations. The maintenance of “natural“ refuges, non-Bt expressing plants that are hosts for a target pest, has been proposed as a means to minimize the evolution of resistance to Bt toxins in transgenic plants. In the current study, field surveys and greenhouse experiments were conducted to identify host plants of S. inferens that could serve as “natural“ refuges in rice growing areas of southern China. A field survey showed that 34 plant species in four families can be alternative host plants of S. inferens. Based on injury level under field conditions, rice (Oryza sativa L.); water oat (Zizania latifolia Griseb.); corn (Zea mays L.); tidalmarsh flatsedge (Cyperus serotinus Rottb.); and narrow-leaved cat-tail (Typha angustifolia Linn.) were identified as the primary host plant species of S. inferens. Greenhouse experiments further demonstrated that water oat, corn, and narrow-leaved cat-tail could support the survival and development of S. inferens. Interestingly, greenhouse experiments showed that S. inferens preferred to lay eggs on tidalmarsh flatsedge compared with the other three nonrice host species, although no pupae were found in the plants examined in field surveys. Few larvae were found to survive on tidalmarsh flatsedge in greenhouse bioassays, suggesting that tidalmarsh flatsedge could serve as a “dead-end“ trap crop for S. inferens, but is not a candidate to serve as natural refuge to maintain susceptible S. inferens. Overall, these results suggest that water-oat, corn, and narrow-leaved cat-tail might serve as “natural refuge“ for S. inferens in rice planting area of southern China when Bt rice varieties are planted.', 'en_US'),
(3956, 'Safety risks of cryptic reading frames and gene disruption due to crop transgenesis: what are the odds?', 'As part of the regulatory safety assessment for transgenic crops, the DNA of the genetic insert and insert/flanking-region junctions are searched for random reading frames that could encode unsafe proteins. In addition, the endogenous flanking regions are examined to determine if the insert disrupts endogenous genes or regulatory elements. We discuss the likelihood of these events in the context of traditional breeding and in the context of the probability that cryptic reading frames might encode unsafe proteins. We conclude that there is a lack of theoretical and empirical evidence to suggest that these safety risks are significant or different compared with those of traditional crop breeding.', 'en_US'),
(3957, 'Impact of GM crops on biodiversity.', 'The potential impact of GM crops on biodiversity has been a topic of interest both in general as well as specifically in the context of the Convention on Biological Diversity. Agricultural biodiversity has been defined at levels from genes to ecosystems that are involved or impacted by agricultural production (www.cbd.int/agro/whatis.shtml). After fifteen years of commercial cultivation, a substantial body of literature now exists addressing the potential impacts of GM crops on the environment. This review takes a biodiversity lens to this literature, considering the impacts at three levels: the crop, farm and landscape scales. Within that framework, this review covers potential impacts of the introduction of genetically engineered crops on: crop diversity, biodiversity of wild relatives, non-target soil organisms, weeds, land use, non-target above-ground organisms, and area-wide pest suppression.', 'en_US'),
(3958, 'Global impact of biotech crops: environmental effects 1996-2009.', 'This paper updates the assessment of the impact commercialised agricultural biotechnology is having on global agriculture from an environmental perspective. It focuses on the impact of changes in pesticide use and greenhouse gas emissions arising from the use of biotech crops. The technology has reduced pesticide spraying by 393 million kg (-8.7%) and, as a result, decreased the environmental impact associated with herbicide and insecticide use on these crops (as measured by the indicator the Environmental Impact Quotient (EIQ)) by17.1 %. The technology has also significantly reduced the release of greenhouse gas emissions from this cropping area, which, in 2009, was equivalent to removing 7.8 million cars from the roads.', 'en_US'),
(3959, 'The trends and future of biotechnology crops for insect pest control.', 'Biotech crops, including those that are genetically modified (GM) with Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) endotoxins for insect resistance, have been cultivated commercially and adopted in steadily increasing numbers of countries over the past 14 years. This review discusses the current status of insect resistant transgenic crops and the often raised concern that its resilience is limited and that its efficacy will be compromised by insect resistance. We consider this trait as it is currently deployed in fields across the world as well as potential candidates that are at various stages of development along the pathway between the laboratory and deregulation. Future trends and prospects for biotechnological applications to mediate crop protection against insects are also considered. These include strategies employing stacked genes, modified Bt toxins, vegetative insecticidal proteins, lectins, endogenous resistance mechanisms as well as novel approaches. In addition, the benefits and risks associated with the adoption of GM insect resistant crops, especially for developing countries and resource-poor smallholder farmers are also discussed.', 'en_US'),
(3960, 'Experiences with the biosafety regulatory system in Kenya during the introduction, testing and development of Bt maize.', 'The introduction of genetically modified (GM) crops in Kenya is governed by a biotechnology policy, a biosafety law, and a biotechnology awareness strategy to enable research and development of GM crops. In addition, Kenya has the National Biosafety Authority (NBA) that regulates plant biosafety through technical institutions including the Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate Services (KEPHIS). Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) maize for stem borer pest control was imported and tested under this regulatory system. The Insect Resistant Maize for Africa (IRMA) project aimed at developing and deploying transgenic Bt maize for stem borer control in Kenya. The IRMA project developed and implemented an internal biosafety strategy. To comply with and implement the biosafety regulations, IRMA set-up biosafety facilities to develop, maintain and test the Bt maize. These included a biosafety level 2 laboratory, a biosafety level 2 greenhouse containment and a confined field trial site, which also provided valuable models to national and international interests. IRMA also developed protocols for the use and disposal of transgenic plant materials, and also generated data for guidance on post-harvest monitoring at Bt-maize trial sites. IRMA also trained Kenyan administrators, scientists, technicians and regulators on conducting and handling GM trials. Training included informal courses, seminars, scientists’ visits to established institutes, and support to research for degree related training. The project, therefore, provided major inputs in the development and advancement of biotechnology framework in Kenya. This paper reports on the achievements realized, challenges encountered by IRMA, and lessons learnt in research and development of GM crops in Kenya.', 'en_US'),
(3961, 'Evaluation of stem borer resistance management strategies for Bt maize in Kenya based on alternative host refugia.', 'Stem borers are the major insect pests of maize in Kenya. The use of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) technology is an effective way of controlling lepidopteran pests.  However, the likelihood of development of resistance to the Bt toxins by the target stem borer species is a concern. Forages, sorghum and maize varieties were evaluated for stem borer preference and survivorship in the laboratory and field in four locations in Kenya to identify suitable species and varieties for refugia.  The economics of using the different kinds of refugia was also investigated. Vegetation surveys were conducted in 15 districts of Kenya to quantify the area covered by natural refugia. The field and laboratory trials indicated highest egg production, survivorship and more exit holes in all sorghum and maize varieties and some forages. Sorghum, non-Bt Maize, and improved Napier grass varieties Kakamega 1 and Kakamega 2) should be promoted as refugia species in Kenya. Some species and cultivars were identified as cost-effective, flexible, easily adoptable and compatible with farmers’ common production practices. Refugia cultivar with multiple uses is expected to give higher pay-offs than one with single use. However, for successful management of a refugia strategy, strict stewardship is required from appropriate government or community institutions.', 'en_US'),
(3962, 'Farmers, consumers and gatekeepers and their attitudes towards biotechnology.', 'In 1999, a project to develop insect resistance maize for Africa was launched. Social scientists from this team used participatory rural appraisals, consumer studies, a baseline and gatekeeper survey to study the awareness and attitudes towards biotechnology among farmers, consumers and gatekeepers. Farmers’ awareness of biotechnology was very low (12.7%). Awareness on genetically modified (GM) crops among consumers was also found to be low, although it was higher among urban consumers (38%) than among rural ones (31%).  Radio was the main source of information. A large majority of consumers agreed to statements expressing the benefits of biotechnology such as increasing productivity. However, they had environmental and health concerns. Half of the urban consumers expressed concerns about the environment, in particular, loss of biodiversity. In contrast, awareness about GM was found to be high for the gatekeepers (87% for millers, and 79% for supermarkets). A majority of gatekeepers in the food industry were concerned that GM food could cause allergic reactions or antibiotic-resistant diseases. Almost all consumers were willing to purchase GM maize meal at the same price. Of those in the industry, more than two thirds, were hesitant to use them preferring to make the decision on a case-by-case basis.', 'en_US'),
(3963, 'The fitness for purpose of randomised experimental designs for analysis of genetically modified ingredients.', 'Randomised experimental designs are considered statistically advantageous for many scientific applications, as they reduce the effect of problematic parameters such as sample position. The effect of randomisation was assessed using real-time PCR experiments for the determination of genetically modified material. Replicate microtitre plates using a randomised design were compared with replicate microtitre plates that contained the same samples allocated in a systematic fashion to experimental position within the plate. Results indicated that randomisation would help reduce between-plate variability and would give advantages in intra-laboratory studies. However, these benefits may be less effective for inter-laboratory studies as the between-laboratory variability often far exceeds the between-plate variability.', 'en_US'),
(3964, 'Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner: isolation to application: a review.', 'Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a ubiquitous soil bacterium that produces an array of insecticidal crystal proteins with varied specificities. Recently a lot of effort is being made to collect, characterize, utilize novel and more potent strains of Bt. The crystal proteins (Cry proteins) produced by Bt are important in agricultural, horticultural and public health pest management. In addition to the above recently identified non-insecticidal Cry toxins are being used in cancer research. There is continuing debate among researchers on the species status for Bt and its ecology. The various toxins particularly Cry toxins are important in eco friendly pest management in organic farming and exported oriented crops also. Many cry genes have been engineered into wide variety of crop plants and microbes, offering efficient and effective pest management strategy. Increased efforts to isolate novel strains of Bt from wide variety habitats have yielded valuable strains with new genes. Intensive use of various Bt formulations and high level of expression of various cry genes in Bt transgenic plants have resulted in resistance development in various pest species. But with the judicious use of gene pyramiding and refugia, continued successful pest management is ensured.', 'en_US'),
(3965, 'Bt cotton hybrids in India -- a review.', 'Cotton ‘White Gold’ is an important commercial crop. The major threat to cotton production is its higher susceptibility to pests especially bollworms. Globally, the maximum amount of pesticides was consumed by cotton alone. But nowadays, chemical pesticides miserably failed to check the menace of bollworms in cotton system. Bollworms have developed resistance to most of the potent pesticides. To combat this problem, transgenic Bt cotton has been developed which evokes inbuilt resistance in host and offers protection against bollworms. Application of insecticides in Bt cotton should be based on scouting and thresholds. Bt end toxin, the insecticidal crystal cry protein efficiency differs on various factors like varieties, season, crop age, environment and management practices like amount of nitrogenous fertilizers applied etc. Bt cotton was found to be safer to human and animal kind.', 'en_US'),
(3966, 'Interaction between host plant resistance and biological activity of Bacillus thuringiensis in managing the pod borer Helicoverpa armigera in chickpea.', 'The legume pod borer Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) has developed high levels of resistance to conventional insecticides, and therefore, efforts are being made to develop transgenic chickpea expressing toxin genes from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) for controlling this pest. However, there is an apprehension that acid exudates in chickpea might interfere with the biological activity of Bt. Therefore, we studied the biological activity of Bt (BiolepR) on four chickpea genotypes with different levels of resistance to H. armigera under field conditions, and by incorporating lyophilized leaf and pod tissue into the artificial diet with and without Bt. The pH of the acid exudates varied from 2.1 to 2.9, and malic and oxalic acids were the major components of the acid exudates in different chickpea genotypes. There was no survival of H. armigera larvae in chickpea plants sprayed with 0.1, 0.2 and 0.5% Bt. There was a significant reduction in larval survival, larval and pupal weights and fecundity, and prolongation of larval and pupal periods in chickpea plots sprayed with Bt (0.05%) as compared to the unsprayed plots. Biological activity of Bt was lower on artificial diets with leaf or pod powder of chickpea genotypes, which might be because of a low intake of Bt toxins due to the antifeedant effects of acid exudates in the chickpea or reduction in biological activity of Bt due to the interaction of biochemical constituents in chickpea with the Bt toxins. Larval survival, larval and pupal weights, pupation and adult emergence were significantly lower on diets with leaf or pod powder of the H. armigera-resistant genotypes than on the susceptible check. Chickpea genotypes with resistance to H. armigera acted in concert with Bt to cause adverse effects on the survival and development of this insect. The results suggested that development of transgenic chickpeas expressing toxin genes form Bt will be quite effective for controlling of the pod borer, H. armigera.', 'en_US'),
(3967, 'Bioinformatic prediction of marker protein allergenicity in transgenic crops.', 'Allergenicity prediction of transgenic expressed protein in crops is important. According to FAO/WHO recommendations, potential food allergenicity in GUS, NptII, and OPH was assessed in the databases of SDAP, Farrp, and NCBI, which were established for allergens prediction. Results of Blast or Fasta alignment online with full sequence or 80 aa window indicated that there was no allergenicity for sequence of GUS, NptII, and OPH. However, in OPH one 6 aa segment matched the sequence of profilin in soybeans, wheat or rubber tree, and another 6 aa segment matched the sequence of allergen-related protein in German cockroach. In GUS, one 6 aa segment matched the allergen “Aed a2” in salivary glands of Aedes aegypti. In NptII, one 6 aa segment matched the hemoglobin of Chironomus thummi. These identical segments did not show antigenicity, so it may be false positive for the matches.', 'en_US'),
(3968, 'Intellectual property rights related to the genetically modified glyphosate tolerant soybeans in Brazil.', 'The present work analyzes the different modalities of protection of the intellectual creations in the biotechnology agricultural field. Regarding the Brazilian legislations related to the theme (the Industrial Property Law - no. 9. 279/96 and the Plant Variety Protection Law - no. 9. 456/97), and based in the international treaties signed by Brazil, the present work points to the inclusions of each of them, as well as to their interfaces using as reference the case study of glyphosate tolerant genetically modified soybean. For this case study, Monsanto''s pipelines patents were searched and used to analyze the limits of patent protection in respect to others related to the Intellectual Property (IP) laws. Thus, it was possible to elucidate the complex scenario of the Intellectual Property of the glyphosate tolerant soybeans, since for the farmer it is hard to correlate the royalties payment with the IP enterprise''s rights.', 'en_US'),
(3969, 'The impact of the EU regulatory constraint of transgenic crops on farm income.', 'World population and the need for nutritious food continue to grow. For 14 years farmers from a range of countries across the globe have been accessing transgenic technologies either to reduce crop production costs, increase yield and/or to exploit a range of rotational benefits. In 2009 134 Mha of transgenic crops was grown. The arable area of the EU 27 is approximately 102 Mha; however, only about 0.1 Mha of transgenic crops, mainly maize in Spain, is grown in the EU. This is in part due to limited approvals before the establishment of a moratorium on the cultivation of transgenic crops. In this paper we estimate the revenue foregone by EU farmers, based on the potential hectarages of IR and HT transgenic crops that have been economically successful elsewhere if they were to be grown in areas of the EU where farmers could expect an overall financial benefit. This benefit would accrue primarily from reduced input costs. We estimate that if the areas of transgenic maize, cotton, soya, oil seed rape and sugar beet were to be grown where there is agronomic need or benefit then farmer margins would increase by between €443 and €929 M/year. It is noted that this margin of revenue foregone is likely to increase if the current level of approval and growth remains low, as new transgenic events come to market and are rapidly taken up by farmers in other parts of the world.', 'en_US'),
(3970, 'Do genetically modified crops affect animal reproduction? A review of the ongoing debate.', 'In the past few years, genetically modified (GM) crops aimed at producing food/feed that became part of the regular agriculture in many areas of the world. However, we are uncertain whether GM food and feed can exert potential adverse effects on humans or animals. Of importance, the reproductive toxicology of GM crops has been studied using a number of methods, and by feeding GM crops to a number species of animals to ensure the safety assessment of GM food and feed. It appears that there are no adverse effects of GM crops on many species of animals in acute and short-term feeding studies, but serious debates of effects of long-term and multigenerational feeding studies remain. The aims of this review are to focus on the latest (last 3 to 4 years) findings and debates on reproduction of male and female animals after feeding daily diets containing the GM crops, and to present the possible mechanism(s) to explain their influences.', 'en_US'),
(3971, 'Success of the high-dose/refuge resistance management strategy after 15 years of Bt crop use in North America.', 'Transgenic maize and cotton expressing Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxins were first commercialized in 1996. By 2009, Bt crops were planted on ca. 47.6 Mha in 22 countries worldwide, with the USA and Canada accounting for 54% of this area. Resistance (virulence) development in target insect pests is a major threat to the sustainable use of Bt crops. Four major target pests of Bt crops in the USA and Canada – European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (Hübner), southwestern corn borer, Diatraea grandiosella Dyar (both Lepidoptera: Crambidae), tobacco budworm, Heliothis virescens Fabricius (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), and pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) – remain susceptible to Bt toxins after 15 years of intensive use of Bt maize and Bt cotton. The success in sustaining susceptibility in these major pests is associated with successful implementation of the ‘high-dose/refuge’ insecticide resistance management (IRM) strategy: (i) Bt crop cultivars express a ‘high dose’, (ii) initial frequency of resistance alleles is very low, and (iii) a refuge is maintained nearby in the environment. Field resistance (including control failure) to a Bt crop has been clearly documented in three situations: fall armyworm [Spodoptera frugiperda JE Smith] in Puerto Rico, African stem borer [Busseola fusca Fuller (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)] in South Africa, and P. gossypiella in India. Factors associated with these cases of field resistance include: failure to use high-dose Bt cultivars and lack of sufficient refuge. These observations support the claim that implementation of the ‘high-dose/refuge’ IRM strategy has been successful in substantially delaying field resistance to Bt crops.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(3972, 'Fall armyworm responses to genetically modified maize expressing the toxin Cry 1A(b).', 'The objective of this work was to evaluate biological parameters of maize fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) fed with Bt maize hybrids expressing the Cry 1A(b) toxin, and with its isogenic non-Bt hybrids. The experiments were carried out in the laboratory of Embrapa Milho e Sorgo, Sete Lagoas, MG, Brazil. The parameters evaluated were: survival of larvae after 48 hours, survival of larval and preimaginal phases, larvae biomass at 14 days of age, pupae biomass, larval development period, and feeding non&#8209;preference of first instar larvae. Larvae of S. frugiperda show less resistance in the first 48 hours of feeding and during the entire larval phase in most Bt maize hybrids, in comparison to non-Bt maize. The biomass of larvae and pupae developed in Bt maize was always smaller, and the larval and preimaginal period were longer. There was interaction between the Cry 1A(b) toxin and the genetic base of the transgenic hybrids regarding survival and larval biomass. Newly hatched S. frugiperda larvae show preference for feeding on non-Bt maize.', 'en_US'),
(3973, 'The science and regulation of food from genetically engineered animals.', 'Humans and animals have been consuming genetically engineered (GE) food from plants for decades, but the recent approval of GE salmon intended as human food has resulted in debate and some controversy. Many still have concerns about the environmental impact and food safety issues of such an approval. More research is needed as policymakers struggle with laws ranging from the approval of GE procedures to the labeling of such food in the markets. This Commentary looks at how GE animals are currently regulated and what type of data is needed to demonstrate the safety of GE organisms. The authors also look at the opportunities for public participation in the regulatory process and the implications for the future of this technology.', 'en_US'),
(3974, 'Transfer of Bt corn byproducts from terrestrial to stream ecosystems.', 'The review deals with the pathways of Bt corn (Zea mays L.) byproduct entry to the environment. Bt plants are genetically modified plants containing the genes of a gram-positive aerobic spore-forming bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis encoding &amp;#948;-endotoxins. Special attention was given to decomposition of corn detritus in fresh water and migration of Bt toxins to stream ecosystems. The results of field and laboratory experiments on the effect of Bt corn byproducts on stream detritophages are summarized.', 'en_US'),
(3975, 'Endophytic fungi associated with transgenic and non-transgenic cotton.', 'Transgenic Bt cotton expresses the Cry1Ac protein from Bacillus thuringiensis, which could influence the plant\\''s capability to host endophytic fungi. The diversity of endophytic fungi in leaves, stems and roots from transgenic (Bt) and its isoline (non-Bt) cotton was evaluated during different plant developmental stages to investigate possible non-target effects of genetically modified cotton on endophytic fungal communities. A total of 17 genera of endophytic fungi were isolated. The most frequently isolated species were Phomopsis archeri from leaves and stems and Phoma destructiva from roots. While the Bt modification had no effect on endophytes, the cotton tissue and the plant developmental stage significantly influenced the diversity and composition of the fungal community. These results represent the first evaluation of the composition of endophytic fungi associated with transgenic cotton plants', 'en_US'),
(3976, 'Chimeric delta-endotoxins of Bacillus thuringiensis with increased activity against Helicoverpa armigera.', 'We selected 50 crystal (Cry) toxins specific to lepidopteran insects. Phylogenetic relationships of whole toxins as well as individual domains revealed that Cry1Jb and Cry1Ac are distantly placed but related to reduced cross-resistance in Helicoverpa armigera. Multiple alignments of Cry1Jb and Cry1Ac amino acid sequences showed significant differences in the composition and length of the loops of domains II and III. This was further confirmed by the superpositioning of 3D structures. cry1Jb and cry1Ac genes cloned in expression vectors were overexpressed in Escherichia coli Castellani &amp; Chalmers, and proteins were harvested. Insect bioassays revealed that the wild-type Cry1Jb and Cry1Ac proteins showed differential specificity to H. armigera (Hu¨ bner), Spodoptera litura (Fab.) and Earias vittella F. Chimeric genes were constructed by exchanging the domains between cry1Jb and cry1Ac and overexpressed in BL21(DE3). Substitution of domain III of Cry1Jb with that of Cry1Ac enhanced its activity against H. armigera 7.8-fold. Bioassay of the parental and chimeric toxins against S. litura revealed noactivity even at thediscriminativedose of 100mg/ml, but a significantdifference in growth was observed. The present results, along with previous domain swapping experiments, suggest that protein engineering not only reveals the mechanismbywhich endotoxins work, but also generates novel toxins with enhanced toxicity/broader specificity.', 'en_US'),
(3977, 'Socio-economic impact of Bt cotton -- a case study of Karnataka.', 'The performance Bt technology and its impact on farming community have been assessed in northern Karnataka based mainly on primary data processed using production functions, decomposition analysis and logit model. On an average, per farm area under Bt cotton was 2.21 ha, accounting for 66 per cent of the total landholding. With a yield of 24 q/ha, Bt cotton has registered 31 per cent higher yield and 151 per cent higher net return over non-Bt, the net additional benefit being 18429/ha. The non-Bt cotton farmers use chemical fertilizers, organic manures and bullock labour excessively which result in a lower net returns. Technology has been found the major contributor to the total productivity difference between Bt and non-Bt cottons. Seed cost, yield of Bt cotton and cost of plant protection have been found to greatly influence the probability of adoption of Bt cotton. Non-availability of quality seeds and in required quantity have been identified as the most important factors constraining Bt technology adoption. The impact of Bt cotton, as perceived by the farmers, has been in terms of enhanced yield; reduced pest and disease incidence; increased income, employment, education and standard of living; and reduced health risk. To foster adoption, availability of quality and quantity of Bt cotton seed to farmers needs greater attention of development agencies, while researchers’ attention is called for incorporating resistance/tolerance to Spodoptera and pink bollworms.', 'en_US'),
(3978, 'Potential benefits of Bt Brinjal in India -- an economic assessment.', 'The potential economic benefits of Bt brinjal hybrids in terms of yield gain, reduction in insecticide-use, and increase in net returns per hectare have been reported in this study. Results have shown that adoption of Bt brinjal hybrids would provide yield gain of 37 per cent and reduction in total insecticide-use of about 42 per cent over non-Bt hybrids. Other benefits like increase in additional brinjal production (30 thousand tonnes), savings from insecticides (47 crore) against Fruit and Shoot Borer (FSB), increase in net returns (11029/ha), and reduction in price of brinjal output (3%), etc. would be at 15 per cent adoption level. With increased adoption level of 60 per cent of Bt brinjal hybrids would provide, additional production of 119 thousand tonnes, savings from insecticides against FSB Rs 187 crore, increase in net returns 44117/ha and likely reduction in brinjal price by 15 per cent. Simulation of gains adopting Bt brinjal hybrids has shown that country may gain aggregate direct economic benefits between 577 crore and 2387 crore annually at 15 per cent and 60 per cent adoption levels of bt brinjal hybrids, respectively. The major gains will accrue to consumers (66% of total) and rest would go to the farmers. In brief, Bt brinjal offers a large scope to increase income of farmers, reduce its cost to consumers, improve food safety and reduce health hazards and environmental pollution. The results of study may be helpful in policy decision on Bt brinjal adoption in the context of smallholders agriculture.', 'en_US'),
(3979, 'Field-evolved resistance to Bt toxin Cry1Ac in the pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), from India.', 'BACKGROUND: The pink bollworm is one of the most destructive pests of cotton. Transgenic cotton producing Bt toxin Cry1Ac or a combination of Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab2 has been used effectively against this pest. However, some other insects have evolved resistance to Bt toxins in the field. During the 2007–2008 and 2008–2009 seasons, pink bollworm populations in India were surveyed to evaluate their responses to Cry1Ac and seed powder containing Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab2.\r\nRESULTS: The results provide evidence that resistance to Cry1Ac had evolved by 2008 in a population sampled from non-Bt cotton in the Amreli district of Gujarat in western India. The median lethal concentration of Cry1Ac for five-day-old larvae (LC50) was significantly higher for insects derived in 2008 from Amreli than for any of the other field populations tested from four locations in India. For Cry1Ac, the mean LC50 for the strain derived from Amreli in 2008 was 44 times higher than for the most susceptible population. However, for seed powder of Bollgard II containing primarily Cry2Ab2, the 2008 Amreli population was only slightly less susceptible than the most susceptible population.\r\nCONCLUSIONS: The data reported here constitute the first evidence of field-evolved resistance of pink bollworm to Cry1Ac. This initial evidence spurred more extensive evaluations during the 2009–2010 growing season, which confirmed field-evolved resistance to Cry1Ac in Amreli. The lack of cross-resistance to Cry2Ab2 suggests that plants producing this toxin are likely to be more effective against resistant populations than plants producing only Cry1Ac.', 'en_US'),
(3980, 'Agronomic performance of F1, F2 and F3 hybrids between weedy rice and transgenic glufosinate-resistant rice.', 'BACKGROUND: Studies of hybrid fitness, of which agronomic performance may be an indicator, can help in evaluating the potential for introgression of a transgene from a transgenic crop to wild relatives. The objective of this study was to assess the agronomic performance of reciprocal hybrids between two transgenic glufosinate-resistant rice lines, Y0003 and 99-t, and two weedy rice accessions, WR1 and WR2, in the greenhouse.\r\nRESULTS: F1 hybrids displayed heterosis in height, flag leaf area and number of spikelets per panicle. The agronomic performance of F1 between WR1 and Y0003 was not affected by crossing direction. The tiller and panicle numbers of F1 individuals were higher than their F2 counterparts. However, these traits did not change significantly from the F2 to the F3 generation or in hybrids with weedy rice as maternal or paternal plants. For all hybrids, the in vitro germination rates of fresh pollen were similar and significantly lower than those of their parents, seed sets were similar to or of lower value than those of weedy rice parents and seed shattering characteristics were partially suppressed, but the survival of hybrids over winter in the field was similar to that of weedy rice parents. All F1, F2 and F3 hybrids had similar composite agronomic performance to weedy rice parents.\r\nCONCLUSION: There was no significant decrease in the composite agronomic performance of any of the hybrids compared with weedy rice. This implies that gene flow from transgenic cultivated rice to weedy rice could occur under natural conditions.', 'en_US'),
(3981, 'Effect of Bt cotton on enzymes activity and microorganisms in rhizosphere.', 'For three consecutive years Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) transgenic cotton (var. Mech 162) and its isogenic non Bt counterpart were assessed for the risks of transgenic crop on the soil ecosystem under Indian subtropical conditions. To observe effect of Bt cotton on soil biochemical properties, activities of dehydrogenase, alkaline phosphatase, nitrate reductase and urease soil enzymes were assayed at its different growth stages i.e., seedling, vegetative, flowering, bolling and harvesting stages. To observe effect of Bt cotton on soil microorganisms, number of nematodes, collembola and ants representing micro, meso and macrofauna, respectively were observed in Bt and non- Bt cotton plants rhizosphere at different growth stages. Results showed no significant difference (P&lt;0.05) in alkaline phosphatase, nitrate reductase and urease activity between Bt and non- Bt cotton rhizosphere during crop growth period. However, dehydrogenase activity was significantly high (P&lt;0.05) in the Bt cotton rhizosphere as compared to non Bt cotton rhizosphere throughout the observation period. At most of the growth stages numbers of micro, meso and macro fauna were more in Bt cotton rhizosphere as compared to non Bt cotton rhizosphere. The temporal and spatial variations observed in number of nematodes, collembola and ants between Bt and non Bt cotton plants rhizosphere were significant. The present study shows that the Mech 162 variety of Bt cotton was not posing any risk to soil microorganisms and soil biochemical properties.', 'en_US'),
(3982, 'Fate of Cry1Ab protein in agricultural systems under slurry management of cows fed genetically modified maize (Zea mays L.) MON810: a quantitative assessment.', 'The objective of the study was to track the fate of recombinant Cry1Ab protein in a liquid manure field trial when feeding GM maize MON810 to dairy cows. A validated ELISA was applied for quantification of Cry1Ab in the agricultural chain from GM maize plants, feed, liquid manure and soil to crops grown on manured fields. Starting with 23.7 &amp;#956;g of Cry1Ab g–1 dry weight GM maize material, a rapid decline of Cry1Ab levels was observed as 2.6% and 0.9% of Cry1Ab from the GM plant were detected in feed and liquid manure, respectively. Half of this residual Cry1Ab persisted during slurry storage for 25 weeks. After application to experimental fields, final degradation of Cry1Ab to below detectable levels in soil was reported. Cry1Ab exhibited a higher rate of degradation compared to total protein in the agricultural processes. Immunoblotting revealed a degradation of the 65 kDa Cry1Ab into immunoreactive fragments of lower size in all analyzed materials.', 'en_US'),
(3983, 'NIMBY or how do the rural neighbours respond to genetically modified (GM) crops? An exploration of the structure of reactions by inhabitants in rural communities in The Netherlands to the commercial cultivation of GM crops in their community.', 'The debate on genetic modification (GM) is persistent, polarized and mainly involves organized groups at the national level. With the European Union’s new policy of coexistence, commercial cultivation of GM crops is expected by the Dutch Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality within the next few years, especially maize (BT) and potato (Phytophthera resistance and starch production). This makes the debate relevant for those directly confronted with this cultivation: the inhabitants of local rural communities. In The Netherlands, stakeholders formulated coexistence rules to prevent problems between conventional, organic and GM farmers that grow their crops in the same limited land area. Little is known, however, regarding the perceptions of the non-farming inhabitants of rural communities (“the neighbours”) in the debate. This paper presents the results of a focus group-based argumentative analysis of whether (and how) the GM issues play a decisive role among non-farming inhabitants of four rural communities in the Netherlands. We analysed the arguments in relation to a conceptual model that describes the potential rise and dynamics from a pre-Nimby ambivalence towards an outspoken Nimby position. We observed that the GM debate was given very little priority relative to other national issues on the political agenda and that more social cohesion correlates with fewer arguments in the national debate. It is argued that this mechanism keeps the Nimby ambivalence in an undetermined mode, which in turn diminishes the chances of radical rural-based protest against local GM cultivation of crops.', 'en_US'),
(3984, 'Debating the merits of biotech crop adoption in sub-Saharan Africa: distributional impacts, climatic variability and pest dynamics.', 'The debate on whether genetically engineered (GE) crops can alleviate poverty in Africa continues to intensify. Thus far only one GE crop has been commercialized among smallholders – a pest resistant form of cotton – and only in two sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries. We present evidence from Burkina Faso to argue that GE cotton adoption may increase the risk of all producers, may only bring benefits in the short term and may only benefit the relatively rich more than the relatively poor. These findings challenge the popular assumption that GE crops are the best way to alleviate rural poverty in SSA.', 'en_US'),
(3985, 'Seasonal expression of Bacillus thuringiensis insecticidal protein and control to cotton bollworm in different varieties of transgenic cotton.', 'The difference for resistant effects to bollworm, the dynamic of resistance and the content of Bt toxin protein in different organs during developmental stages of different varieties of Bt transgenic cotton were explored in laboratory. The results showed that there were significant differences for resistance to cotton bollworm during every growing stage of all varieties; DP 99B has the highest resistance to cotton bollworm, while Hanza 154 has the lowest, and their average corrected mortality to cotton bollworm were 89.23% and 75.91%, respectively. The resistance to cotton bollworm of cotton plants in each growing stage was presented in the following order, budding stage &gt; flowering stage &gt; flowering-boll stage &gt;boll stage. The results of ELISA showed that Bt toxin protein could be detected in all organs of transgenic cotton, but its content varied significantly among organs along the developmental stages. There were significant differences of Bt toxin protein content among the functional leaves in different stages, the order of the content was: seven-leave stage &gt; three-leave stage &gt; budding stage &gt; boll stage &gt; flowering-boll stage.', 'en_US'),
(3986, 'Tobacco plants expressing the Cry1AbMod toxin suppress tolerance to Cry1Ab toxin of Manduca sexta cadherin-silenced larvae.', 'Cry toxins produced by Bacillus thuringiensis bacteria are insecticidal proteins used worldwide in the control of different insect pests. Alterations in toxin–receptor interaction represent the most common mechanism to induce resistance to Cry toxins in lepidopteran insects. Cry toxins bind with high affinity to the cadherin protein present in the midgut cells and this interaction facilitates the proteolytic removal of helix &amp;#945;-1 and pre-pore oligomer formation. Resistance to Cry toxins has been linked with mutations in the cadherin gene. One strategy effective to overcome larval resistance to Cry1A toxins is the production of Cry1AMod toxins that lack helix &amp;#945;-1. Cry1AMod are able to form oligomeric structures without binding to cadherin receptor and were shown to be toxic to cadherin-silenced Manduca sexta larvae and Pectinophora gossypiella strain with resistance linked to mutations in a cadherin gene.\r\nWe developed Cry1AbMod tobacco transgenic plants to analyze if Cry1AMod toxins can be expressed in transgenic crops, do not affect plant development and are able to control insect pests. Our results show that production of the Cry1AbMod toxin in transgenic plants does not affect plant development, since these plants exhibited healthy growth, produced abundant seeds, and were virtually undistinguishable from control plants. Most importantly, Cry1AbMod protein produced in tobacco plants retains its functional toxic activity against susceptible and tolerant M. sexta larvae due to the silencing of cadherin receptor by RNAi. These results suggest that CryMod toxins could potentially be expressed in other transgenic crops to protect them against both toxin-susceptible and resistant lepidopteran larvae affected in cadherin gene.\r\n', 'en_US'),
(3987, 'Comparative susceptibility of Ostrinia furnacalis, Ostrinia nubilalis and Diatraea saccharalis (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) to Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1 toxins.', 'Transgenic corn hybrids that express toxins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) are highly effective against the European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (Hübner), and the closely related Asian corn borer, Ostrinia furnacalis (Guenée). Since the registration of Bt corn hybrids in the U.S. in 1996, there has been a great deal of information generated on O. nubilalis. However, relatively little information exists for O. furnacalis. To help determine whether the information generated for O. nubilalis can be leveraged for decisions regarding the use of transgenic Bt corn against O. furnacalis, experiments were designed to determine whether the pattern of sensitivity to various Bt Cry1 toxins is similar between the two species. Test insects included laboratory-reared O. furnacalis originating from Malaysia, a Bt-susceptible laboratory colony of O. nubilalis maintained at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln (UNL) and an out-group consisting of the sugarcane borer, Diatraea saccharalis (F.), from Louisiana which represents a different genus from the same family. O. furnacalis and O. nubilalis exhibited a similar pattern of susceptibility to all the Cry1 toxins and were highly susceptible to the range of Bt toxins tested including Cry1Aa, Cry1Ab, Cry1Ac and Cry1F. Both of the Ostrinia species were more tolerant to Cry1Ba compared with D. saccharalis, although sensitivity of O. furnacalis was intermediate and did not differ significantly from that of O. nubilalis and D. saccharalis. D. saccharalis was also susceptible to the range of toxins tested but unlike the two Ostrinia species, was more tolerant to Cry1F and more susceptible to Cry1Ba. These results indicate that both of the Ostrinia corn borer species are similar in sensitivity to the Cry1Aa, Cry1Ab, Cry1Ac, Cry1Ba and Cry1F toxins, thus suggesting shared toxin receptors and mechanisms of toxicity for the two species.', 'en_US'),
(3988, 'Sub-chronic toxicity study of transgenic cottonseed in SD rats.', 'Objective: To monitor the effects of genetically modified cottonseed on nutritional status, physiological and biochemical sub-chronic index in rats.\r\nMethods: A total of 140 six to eight-week-old SPF SD rats(male and female,half) were randomly divided into 7 groups,continuously feeding the forage containing 5%,2.5% and 1.25% normal cottonseed and transgenic cottonseed as well as basal forage for 30 days,and then measuring indicators of body weight,food efficiency,blood routine and blood biochemical parameters. \r\nResults: All the animals grow well and there is no poisoning and dead phenomenon during experimental time.Indicators between experimental and control group show no significant difference(P&amp;#8805;0.05).\r\nConclusions: The study did not find genetically modified cotton seeds has sub-chronic toxicity in experimental animals.', 'en_US'),
(3989, 'Suggested improvements for the allergenicity assessment of genetically modified plants used in foods.', 'Genetically modified (GM) plants are increasingly used for food production and industrial applications. As the global population has surpassed 7 billion and per capita consumption rises, food production is challenged by loss of arable land, changing weather patterns, and evolving plant pests and disease. Previous gains in quantity and quality relied on natural or artificial breeding, random mutagenesis, increased pesticide and fertilizer use, and improved farming techniques, all without a formal safety evaluation. However, the direct introduction of novel genes raised questions regarding safety that are being addressed by an evaluation process that considers potential increases in the allergenicity, toxicity, and nutrient availability of foods derived from the GM plants. Opinions vary regarding the adequacy of the assessment, but there is no documented proof of an adverse effect resulting from foods produced from GM plants. This review and opinion discusses current practices and new regulatory demands related to food safety.', 'en_US'),
(3990, 'Comparison of life history characteristics of the genetically modified OX513A line and a wild type strain of Aedes aegypti.', 'The idea of implementing genetics-based insect control strategies modelled on the traditional SIT (Sterile Insect Technique), such as RIDL (Release of Insects carrying a Dominant Lethal), is becoming increasingly popular. In this paper, we compare a genetically modified line of Aedes aegypti carrying a tetracycline repressible, lethal positive feedback system (OX513A) with a genetically similar, unmodified counterpart and their respective responses to increasing larval rearing density using a constant amount of food per larva. The parameters that we examined were larval mortality, developmental rate (i.e., time to pupation), adult size and longevity.\r\nAnalysis revealed some statistically significant differences between the life history traits we examined. The genetically modified OX513A line overall showed 5% lower larval survival as well as reduced adult longevity (20 vs 24 days mean lifespan) compared to the unmodified line. Furthermore, the OX513A line pupated about one day sooner, which could be advantageous in mass-rearing, but produced somewhat smaller adults than the unmodified line; this effect was more pronounced in females than in males.\r\nIncreasing the larval rearing density delayed pupation, decreased adult longevity and reduced adult size in both lines. While the delay in pupation and the decrease in longevity were similar between the two lines, the decrease in adult size was more pronounced for OX513A males.\r\nOur study shows that in a controlled laboratory situation the transgenic sterile OX513A line may have somewhat reduced performance compared to its unmodified counterpart and that high rearing densities may further reduce performance. Laboratory-based cage trials as well as field trials are necessary to assess how the differences in life history traits documented here impact the males'' success upon release. Furthermore, this paper highlights the potential value of optimisation of mass-rearing systems as optimised rearing methods may be able to alleviate performance issues associated with specific lines or with lab-adapted lines in general.', 'en_US'),
(3991, 'Fitness cost of resistance to Bt cotton linked with increased gossypol content in pink bollworm larvae.', 'Fitness costs of resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) crops occur in the absence of Bt toxins, when individuals with resistance alleles are less fit than individuals without resistance alleles. As costs of Bt resistance are common, refuges of non-Bt host plants can delay resistance not only by providing susceptible individuals to mate with resistant individuals, but also by selecting against resistance. Because costs typically vary across host plants, refuges with host plants that magnify costs or make them less recessive could enhance resistance management. Limited understanding of the physiological mechanisms causing fitness costs, however, hampers attempts to increase costs. In several major cotton pests including pink bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella), resistance to Cry1Ac cotton is associated with mutations altering cadherin proteins that bind this toxin in susceptible larvae. Here we report that the concentration of gossypol, a cotton defensive chemical, was higher in pink bollworm larvae with cadherin resistance alleles than in larvae lacking such alleles. Adding gossypol to the larval diet decreased larval weight and survival, and increased the fitness cost affecting larval growth, but not survival. Across cadherin genotypes, the cost affecting larval growth increased as the gossypol concentration of larvae increased. These results suggest that increased accumulation of plant defensive chemicals may contribute to fitness costs associated with resistance to Bt toxins.', 'en_US'),
(3992, 'The effect of GM labeling regime on market outcomes.', 'Purpose – This chapter investigates the role that mandatory genetically modified (GM) labeling versus voluntary labeling has played in the split between those countries with small GM markets and those with large GM markets.\r\nMethodology/approach – Data on product introductions and other market evidence are used to examine market outcomes and identify the likely drivers of GM market bifurcation.\r\nFindings – Labeling has negligible effects on consumer choice or on GM differentiation costs and therefore does not explain the split in GM market outcomes. Other factors have driven market outcomes: namely, consumer confidence in government and the safety of the food supply, competition among manufacturers and retailers, market momentum, and most importantly, the affordability of a non-GM strategy. Ultimately, a non-GM market strategy is feasible only if consumers are willing to cover the additional costs associated with non-GM production and marketing. The two elements composing the cost/price wedge between GM and non-GM products – the cost-reducing benefits of the GM technology and the costs of differentiating non-GM products – therefore play an important role in market outcomes. In the mid-1990s, when producers, manufacturers, and retailers were determining their strategies, neither element was very large. As a result, both GM and non-GM marketing strategies were economically feasible.\r\nPractical implication – Regardless of the labeling regime, changes in the cost/price wedge between GM and non-GM products could change the mix of GM and non-GM products on the market.\r\nOriginality/value of paper – This analysis extends the literature by focusing on the impact of labeling regime on both consumer behavior and the cost/price wedge between GM and non-GM products.', 'en_US'),
(3993, 'International trade and welfare effects of biotechnology innovations: GM food crops in Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, and the Philippines', 'Purpose – The chapter examines the international welfare effects of biotech crop adoption, based on a transversal literature review and a case study of the introduction of genetically modified (GM) food crops in Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, and the Philippines.\r\nMethodology/approach – The analysis is based on (a) a review of lessons from the applied economic literature and (b) simulations using an improved multimarket, multicountry, computable general equilibrium (CGE) model, calibrated with productivity hypotheses formulated with local scientists in the four Asian countries.\r\nFindings – Results from the analysis show that, in the absence of trade-related regulations, GM crop adoption generates economic gains for adopting countries and importing non-adopters, that domestic regulations at adopters and especially non-adopters can reduce these gains, and that import regulations in other countries can also affect gains for exporting adopters. The case study illustrates these conclusions, but it also shows that net importers will mostly benefit from adoption in their terms of trade, and that segregation of non-GM crops for export markets can be beneficial if it is not too costly.\r\nResearch limitations/implications – The use of a CGE model allows for accounting for cross-sectoral effects, and for regulations affecting bilateral trade flows, but it also has a number of limitations. The model used here, like the ones used in the other papers in the literature, is static, based on an aggregated representation of the global economy (GTAP database), and assumes perfect competition. This means that the absolute results of each scenario may not perfectly represent the actual welfare effects engendered by the adoption of biotech crops. Still, what matters here is the comparison of the relative welfare effects across countries and scenarios. The simulations are also done ex-ante, so, even if the model here was calibrated with country-based data, the results do depend on hypothetical assumptions about the performance of the selected technologies.\r\nOriginality/value of the paper – The chapter aims to illustrate the welfare effects generated by GM crops for adopters, non-adopters, in a segmented and regulated international market. Unlike other papers, the review section provides key transversal lessons from the literature, accounting for results from both partial equilibrium and CGE model studies. The empirical application focuses on four populous Asian countries that have been largely left out of the literature. The model used in the simulation presents a number of improvement from the CGE literature on GM crops, including partial adoption, factor-biased productivity shock in each adopting country, GM labeling regulations modeled as trade filters, and the inclusion of costly non-GM segregation as observed in the international market.', 'en_US'),
(3994, 'Genetically modified crops and global food security.', 'Purpose – The role of genetically modified (GM) crops for food security is the subject of controversial debates. Consequently, policy-makers are unsure whether this technology is suitable for developing countries. This chapter reviews the scientific evidence.\r\nMethodology/approach – Starting from a food security definition, potential pathways of how GM crops could contribute to hunger reduction are analyzed conceptually. Furthermore, studies about the socioeconomic impacts of GM crop applications are reviewed. This includes ex post studies for present applications such as insect-resistant and herbicide-tolerant crops, as well as ex ante studies for future GM technologies such as Golden Rice and drought-tolerant varieties.\r\nFindings – GM crops can raise agricultural productivity and thus contribute to better food availability. Especially when tailored to small farm conditions, GM crops can also cause income increases for the rural poor, entailing better access to food. Nutritionally enhanced, biofortified GM crops could reduce problems of micronutrient malnutrition in a cost-effective way.\r\nResearch limitations – The examples observable so far are still limited. Impacts also depend on the wider institutional setting. Like any technology, GM crops are not a substitute but a complement to much needed institutional and infrastructure improvement in developing countries.\r\nSocial implications – The fact that available GM crops already contribute to poverty reduction and improved food security has not been widely recognized up until now.\r\nValue of paper – Results presented in this chapter can contribute to a more constructive public debate, in which GM crop risks are not discussed out of the context of actual and potential benefits.', 'en_US'),
(3995, 'Global welfare and trade-related regulations of GM food: biosafety, markets, and politics.', 'Purpose – The chapter provides a comprehensive review of trade-related regulations of genetically modified (GM) food, identifies their main effects, and analyzes the main motivations behind their support.\r\nMethodology/approach – The analysis is substantiated by (a) results from the literature on GM food regulations and (b) comparative statics results from a simplified three-country partial equilibrium welfare and political economic model.\r\nFindings – The analysis shows that in a non-GM producing country, trade-related regulations will benefit producers, but not necessarily consumers. Producers\\'' support is found to be instrumental to push for a ban, for information requirements on shipments, or for mandatory labeling of GM food products. Outside pressure groups will play the role of swing voters in cases where consumers and producers do not agree.\r\nResearch limitations/implications – The analytical model is based on simplifying assumptions on the groups and market effects of each regulation. Future research is needed to empirically validate some of the main results.\r\nOriginality/value of the chapter – The goal of the chapter is to inform economic and policy researchers on the effects of GM food trade-related regulations. The chapter provides an updated comprehensive overview of the key trade regulations of GM food. It uses a unique model to derive the main welfare effects of GM food regulations. By comparing the effects of GM food regulations in different types of countries for different pressure groups, the findings provide new insights in this area.', 'en_US'),
(3996, 'Innovation, risk, precaution, and the regulation of GM crops.', 'Purpose – New genetically modified (GM) crops are novel but risky interventions, offering a variety of potential benefits but also the possibility of serious unintended consequences. I address the regulatory framework for GM crops, seeking protection from disproportionate risks without unduly stifling innovation.\r\nApproach – Conditions that may justify precautionary interventions are identified, and an idealized regulatory protocol (screening, pre-release testing, and post-release surveillance, STS) is developed to provide protection, encourage research and learning, and focus-in quickly on the cases that pose serious threats of harm. This protocol is adapted to the case of GM crops, and compared with current regulatory practice in the United States, the EU, and Canada, as well as international agreements exemplified by the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. Two real-world cases are considered, Starlink® corn and Roundup-Ready® canola, and some speculations are offered as to how the stylized protocol might have handled them.\r\nFindings for policy – Pre-release, US regulatory practice is more fragmented and incomplete than the stylized protocol; EU practice is more systematic and streamlined, but some critics perceive over-regulation; and Canadian regulatory practice is more consistent with the protocol. Only the EU performs systematic post-release surveillance. International agreements have various weaknesses, beginning with fragmentation: for example, food safety and biosafety are regulated separately.\r\nImplications for further research – Embracing the STS framework opens a broad new avenue of research about to how the mix of pre-release testing and post-release surveillance might be streamlined to provide adequate protection while reducing further the costs and delays entailed.', 'en_US'),
(3997, 'The impact of Bt cotton and the potential impact of biotechnology on other crops in China and India.', 'Since the 1980s agricultural biotech investments by the public sector have increased substantially in both China and India. In the last two decades there has also been a dramatic increase in private section investment in agricultural biotechnology particularly in India. The promise of major benefits of Bt cotton identified in early socioeconomic studies of Bt cotton has proven to be true. Bt cotton has spread to at least 66% and 85% of total cotton areas of China and India, respectively – wherever bollworm is a major problem. Bt cotton continues to control bollworm in both countries, and farmers continue as major beneficiaries rather than biotech or seed companies. The major impacts have been yield increases in India and reduced pesticides consumption in China. In China, evidence also suggests that Bt cotton has suppressed the bollworm population so that non-Bt cotton growers and producers of other crops that are susceptible to bollworm are also benefitting.\r\nThe chapter also provides evidence that in the near future Bt rice and Bt eggplant could have major positive impacts by reducing pesticide use and farmers’ exposure to chemical pesticides and increasing yields. Both crops were approved for commercial production by government biosafety regulators, but are not yet available for commercial cultivation.', 'en_US'),
(3998, 'Genetically modified food and global welfare.', '', 'en_US'),
(3999, 'The environmental benefits and costs of genetically modified (GM) crops.', 'The widespread introduction of genetically modified (GM) crops may change the effect of agriculture on the environment. The magnitude and direction of expected effects are still being hotly debated, and the interests served in this discussion arena are often far from those of science and social welfare maximization. This chapter proposes that GM crops have net positive environmental effects, while regulatory responses focus mainly on environmental concerns, giving an unbalanced picture of the regulatory context. This unbalance supports the hypothesis that environmental concerns about GM crops have been politically instrumentalized and that more attention should be paid to regulatory responses considering the environmental benefits of this technology. It is also argued that a number of environmental effects have not yet been quantified and more research is needed in this direction.', 'en_US'),
(4000, 'Coexistence of genetically modified (GM) and non-modified (non-GM) crops: are the two main property rights regimes equivalent with respect to the coexistence value?', 'Two major regulatory regimes for planting of genetically modified (GM) crops have emerged: one where the property rights for growing GM crops are mainly with the GM farmer and another where the property rights are mainly with the non-GM farmer. In this contribution, the regulatory model chosen by Canada and the United States is compared with that of the EU and its variants, analyzed from an efficiency point of view. While the general view in the literature on ex-ante regulation versus ex-post liability rules under uncertainty holds that the most efficient regulatory regime depends on the specific case under investigation, we have investigated the analytical conditions for one or the other regulatory system to be more efficient, concluding that the property rights systems are almost equivalent, so long as transaction costs are not prohibitively high and using the court system is costless. As using the court system is not cost free, however, we hold that property rights regimes where the GM farmer is not liable are preferable from a social welfare point of view.', 'en_US'),
(4001, 'Integrated assessment of ecological risks in farmlands: thinking overall connections between individual risk assessments of pesticides, genetically modified crops and weed control.', 'The integrated assessment of ecological risks in farmland was examined by examining the overall connections between the individual risk assessments of pesticides, genetically modified (GM) crops, and weed control. For pesticides, the ecological risks in aquatic ecosystems are assessed using the predicted environmental concentrations of focal pesticides and their acute toxicities to legal test organisms. For GM crops, the ecological risks around farmlands and transportation routes are evaluated based on the substantial equivalence of GM crops to their parental lines. For weed control, management practices are determined mainly by economic acceptance based on weed abundance in and around farmlands, and ecological risks are not addressed at present. Therefore, there is little overlap in assessment items across the three risk factors, and so it seems difficult to integrate the ecological risks by adding the individual assessment results. In order to integrate different risk factors, cost-benefit analyses and multi-criteria decision analyses are often used. However, these analyses have both merits and demerits. For application to decision-making at the field level, it is necessary to set common goals by way of &quot;backcasting&quot; and to integrate risk assessments based on agricultural management practices.', 'en_US'),
(4002, 'Comparison of variation in adaptive traits between wild-type and transgenic silver birch (Betula pendula) in a field trial.', 'The use of genetic modification (GM) in tree breeding would require that GM trees are superior to currently used seed orchard seedlings in the target trait and equal in other traits. We compare the variation of silver birch (Betula pendula Roth) lines carrying a sugar beet chitinase IV gene (chiIV) with the objective to improve fungal disease resistance to the variation of wild-type genotypes in disease resistance and other adaptive traits. The genetic variation in disease resistance was at the same level in transgenic (CVg 0.9–19.0%) and wild-type trees (CVg 0–19.7%), but the resistance characteristics of the most resistant wild-type genotype were usually equal or better than those of the best transgenic line. The broad-sense heritabilities varied from very low to moderate in disease resistance in both types. Broad-sense heritabilities in growth and leaf phenology-related traits were moderate and generally higher among the transgenic than the wild-type trees. The introduction of the sugar beet chiIV gene is likely to have fitness consequences in the form of lowered growth and quality characteristics of the transgenic lines without significant improvement in disease resistance compared with the natural variation of the same traits.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(4003, 'Scant evidence supports EPA''s pyramided Bt corn refuge size of 5%.', 'Pyramided genetically modified (GM) plants express two or more Bacillus thuringiensis toxin (Bt) Cry toxins that are different in structure but effective against the same insect pests. One such product, pyramided SmartStax corn Zea mays, has been recently made available to commercial growers through a joint venture between Monsanto (St. Louis) and Dow AgroSciences (Indianapolis). It expresses Cry 1A.105, Cry2Ab2 and Cry1F toxins, which are active against a variety of caterpillars (order Lepidoptera), as well as Cry34Ab1/Cry35Ab1 and Cry3Bb1 toxins that are active against corn rootworms (order Coleoptera). Although older nonstacked varieties are still grown over considerable acreages, the agbiotech industry argues that pyramided corn is highly effective in controlling its target pests and is readily adopted by farmers.\r\n\r\nMore importantly, industry argues that because pyramided plants provide such effective insecticide resistance management1, 2, 3, a substantial reduction in the size of required nontransgenic refuges is possible for such plants without jeopardizing their efficacy. Indeed, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has recently approved the reduction of the non-Bt crop refuge size to as low as 5% for pyramided Bt corn. Here, I question this decision because it is not well supported by published results from theoretical or empirical studies.\r\n\r\nThe initial registration request for reduced refuge requirements for the pyramided Bt corn was denied by the EPA4. After studying additional application materials submitted by industry scientists2, however, EPA changed its stance, agreeing with industry''s push for a reduced refuge and allowing the reduction of refuge size on commercial farms from 20% to 5% of the planted area in corn-growing regions of the United States and from 50% to 20% in the regions where both corn and cotton are grown5. The refuge is supposed to be planted as a block of non-Bt plants within or adjacent to the Bt crop.\r\n\r\nA review of registration materials I have obtained under the US Freedom of Information Act and the existing scientific literature shows that currently available evidence in support of reducing refuge for the pyramided Bt corn to 5% of the total crop area is limited to predictions of a single unpublished mathematical model, developed in-house by industry scientists. Until more scientific evidence is available, I suggest that the reduction in refuge size to 5%, currently being implemented by the EPA for pyramided Bt corn, represents a gamble.\r\n\r\nThus far, Bt plants have proven amazingly durable in terms of resistance compared with chemical insecticides and have outperformed predictions of their rapid failure made in the 1990s. Their sustainability is in large part due to the rigorous resistance management program mandated by the US and other governments and implemented through the joint efforts of agbiotech companies and commercial growers. Nevertheless, resistance remains a serious threat, and there are already several cases of field-evolved insect resistance to Bt plants6, 7.\r\n\r\nThe current strategy to delay the evolution of pest resistance to Bt plants relies on the so-called high dose–refuge approach. This requires planting plots of non-Bt plants in the vicinity of fields planted with Bt plants. Susceptible insects persist within these plots and mate with resistant insects that may survive on Bt plants within the main crop. The resulting offspring are heterozygous at the resistant allele(s) and, because resistance is usually inherited as at least a partially recessive trait, cannot survive the high toxin dose expressed by Bt plants6.\r\n\r\nPyramided Bt plants provide an additional approach to delaying resistance in pest populations6, 8. A key assumption underlying this method is that selection by one toxin does not result in cross-resistance to another toxin. Industry has taken this argument further, proposing that, when pyramided toxin genes are used, a large refuge is no longer required for successful resistance management.\r\n\r\nOn the basis of publicly available information that I obtained, only two experimental studies have ever been conducted to specifically look at pyramided plants as a resistance management technique. Results of the first study9 showed that, in the presence of the 20% refuge, pyramiding performs better than using single-toxin plants, either sequentially or concurrently as a mosaic. A follow-up study conducted using the same greenhouse microcosm8 indicated that, in the presence of the 10% refuge, the efficiency of pyramided plants declines when the plants are grown together with single-toxin plants. Neither study attempted to investigate the effects of reducing refuge size to 5%. On the contrary, because both pyramided and single-toxin corn plants are currently being grown by commercial farmers, results of the second study8 warrant extra caution in relaxing refuge requirements. In the United States, pyramided Bt cotton overlapped with single-toxin Bt cotton for several years, resulting in rapid resistance to both toxins in the corn earworm, Helicoverpa zea6. In contrast, no increase in the frequency of resistant alleles was observed in Australia, which switched completely to the pyramided Bt cotton6.\r\n\r\nIn the absence of empirical data, regulators had to rely on mathematical models predicting the insect rate of adaptation to transgenic plants. Industry submissions to the EPA1, 3 quoted peer-reviewed published results of mathematical modeling by Caprio10, Tabashnik11 and Roush12, 13, as well as unpublished results of in-house modeling2, 3 to support reducing refuge size for GM plants expressing pyramided toxins to 5%.\r\n\r\nThe choices of Caprio10 and Tabashnik11 are surprising because both articles specifically discuss experiments and simulations applied to mixtures of insecticides, but do not address pyramiding genes into Bt plants. Tabashnik''s11 overall conclusion is that multiple pesticide-use tactics have many potential pitfalls and are unlikely to provide long-term solutions to pesticide resistance problems.\r\n\r\nMathematical modeling by Roush12 showed that when mortality of susceptible homozygotes is high, pyramiding of toxins significantly slows down evolution of resistance compared with the use of a single toxin. Subsequently, Roush13 conducted an extensive study using simulation modeling to predict insect adaptation to Bt plants under different scenarios, including varying refuge sizes and presence of cross-resistance. He found that pyramiding of two or more toxins in the same plant can delay resistance for an extended period of time, even in the presence of a refuge that would be unacceptably small for single-toxin plants. Even so, Roush13 concluded that 10% was the minimum refuge size adequate for pyramided plants, and explicitly cautioned that small refuges remain risky.\r\n\r\nMore recently, Gould et al.14 published another modeling study on insect adaptation to plants expressing multiple toxins and found that a 10% refuge size is highly effective in delaying resistance. Again, that study assumed no cross-resistance and provided no evidence that 5% of a planted area constitutes a sufficient refuge size.\r\n\r\nUnpublished mathematical models submitted to the EPA by the industry3 specifically showed that pyramiding toxins in combination with the 5% refuge is more effective in delaying resistance evolution in the corn rootworm compared with the currently used single-toxin plants with the 20% refuge. Once again, however, the study assumes a lack of cross-resistance between the expressed toxins.\r\n\r\nClearly, the possibility of cross-resistance is an important issue. The industry''s main argument in support of using pyramided plants as a resistance management tool is that cross-resistance to different Cry proteins is highly unlikely because they have different structure and binding patterns in insect midguts1, 3. Even so, all Cry endotoxins have essentially the same mode of action (microbial disruptors of insect midgut membranes) and might be similar enough for the development of resistance genes that can overcome toxins with different binding sites13. Moreover, resistance to multiple structurally different chemicals is also not unusual among insects. Some of the resistance mechanisms known to reduce insect susceptibility to Cry toxins, such as enhanced metabolism and regeneration of damaged midgut epithelium, are likely to affect structurally different molecules.\r\n\r\nIndeed, several studies have produced evidence of considerable cross-resistance among structurally different Cry toxins, and even among Cry toxins and synthetic insecticides. The diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella, showed cross-resistance to Cry1Ac and a synthetic pyrethroid deltamethrin when selected by either compound in the laboratory15. Laboratory selection of the tobacco budworm, Heliothis virescens, strain with Cry1Ac caused 50-fold resistance to Cry1Ac and a 53-fold cross-resistance to structurally different Cry2Aa16. A single gene controlled &gt;1,000-fold resistance to Cry1Aa, Cry1Ab, Cry1Ac, and a structurally different Cry1F in the field population of P. xylostella17 (although sharing of binding sites could have been possible in that particular case). A more recent study18 has shown that laboratory selection of the pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella, with Cry2Ab caused up to 420-fold cross-resistance to Cry1Ac, which was higher than 240-fold resistance to Cry2Ab in the same strain. Similarly, selection of the beet armyworm, Spodoptera exigua, with Cry1Ab caused more than 20-fold cross-resistance to the structurally different toxins Cry1Ca and Cry1Da19. Even the experimental data submitted by the industry to the EPA3 suggest that selection by Cry1F might have resulted in the fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda, and the European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis, strains becoming twice as resistant to CrylA.105 as they were to the toxin with which they were selected. Positive correlations between resistance to Cry2Ab and Cry1Ac were also detected in the field populations of H. zea6. Furthermore, H. zea evolved resistance in the field to Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab in pyramided Bt cotton6.\r\n\r\nIn response to the initial rejection of its application by the EPA, the industry developed a modification to its model2 allowing various degrees of cross-resistance between the toxins. The modified model predicted that pyramided GM corn with a 5% refuge would be more durable for control of O. nubilalis, and the Southwestern corn borer, Diatraea grandiosella, than the single Bt products with a 20% refuge under all adoption, cross-resistance and efficacy scenarios.', 'en_US'),
(4004, 'Tempo and mode of plant RNA virus escape from RNA interference-mediated resistance.', 'A biotechnological application of artificial microRNAs (amiRs) is the generation of plants that are resistant to virus infection. This resistance has proven to be highly effective and sequence specific. However, before these transgenic plants can be deployed in the field, it is important to evaluate the likelihood of the emergence of resistance-breaking mutants. Two issues are of particular interest: (i) whether such mutants can arise in nontransgenic plants that may act as reservoirs and (ii) whether a suboptimal expression level of the transgene, resulting in subinhibitory concentrations of the amiR, would favor the emergence of escape mutants. To address the first issue, we experimentally evolved independent lineages of Turnip mosaic virus (TuMV) (family Potyviridae) in fully susceptible wild-type Arabidopsis thaliana plants and then simulated the spillover of the evolving virus to fully resistant A. thaliana transgenic plants. To address the second issue, the evolution phase took place with transgenic plants that expressed the amiR at subinhibitory concentrations. Our results show that TuMV populations replicating in susceptible hosts accumulated resistance-breaking alleles that resulted in the overcoming of the resistance of fully resistant plants. The rate at which resistance was broken was 7 times higher for TuMV populations that experienced subinhibitory concentrations of the antiviral amiR. A molecular characterization of escape alleles showed that they all contained at least one nucleotide substitution in the target sequence, generally a transition of the G-to-A and C-to-U types, with many instances of convergent molecular evolution. To better understand the viral population dynamics taking place within each host, as well as to evaluate relevant population genetic parameters, we performed in silico simulations of the experiments. Together, our results contribute to the rational management of amiR-based antiviral resistance in plants.', 'en_US'),
(4005, 'Locus-dependent selection in crop-wild hybrids of lettuce under field conditions and its implication for GM crop development.', 'Gene escape from crops has gained much attention in the last two decades, as transgenes introgressing into wild populations could affect the latter’s ecological characteristics. However, different genes have different likelihoods of introgression. The mixture of selective forces provided by natural conditions creates an adaptive mosaic of alleles from both parental species. We investigated segregation patterns after hybridization between lettuce (Lactuca sativa) and its wild relative, L. serriola. Three generations of hybrids (S1, BC1, and BC1S1) were grown in habitats mimicking the wild parent’s habitat. As control, we harvested S1 seedlings grown under controlled conditions, providing very limited possibility for selection. We used 89 AFLP loci, as well as more recently developed dominant markers, 115 retrotransposon markers (SSAP), and 28 NBS loci linked to resistance genes. For many loci, allele frequencies were biased in plants exposed to natural field conditions, including over-representation of crop alleles for various loci. Furthermore, Linkage disequilibrium was locally changed, allegedly by selection caused by the natural field conditions, providing ample opportunity for genetic hitchhiking. Our study indicates that when developing genetically modified crops, a judicious selection of insertion sites, based on knowledge of selective (dis)advantages of the surrounding crop genome under field conditions, could diminish transgene persistence.', 'en_US'),
(4006, 'Transgenes for insect resistance reduce herbivory and enhance fecundity in advanced generations of crop-weed hybrids of rice.', 'Gene flow from transgenic crops allows novel traits to spread to sexually compatible weeds. Traits such as resistance to insects may enhance the fitness of weeds, but few studies have tested for these effects under natural field conditions. We created F2 and F3 crop–weed hybrid lineages of genetically engineered rice (Oryza sativa) using lines with two transgene constructs, cowpea trypsin inhibitor (CpTI) and a Bt transgene linked to CpTI (Bt/CpTI). Experiments conducted in Fuzhou, China, demonstrated that CpTI alone did not significantly affect fecundity, although it reduced herbivory. In contrast, under certain conditions, Bt/CpTI conferred up to 79% less insect damage and 47% greater fecundity relative to nontransgenic controls, and a 44% increase in fecundity relative to the weedy parent. A small fitness cost was detected in F3 progeny with Bt/CpTI when grown under low insect pressure and direct competition with transgene-negative controls. We conclude that Bt/CpTI transgenes may introgress into co-occurring weedy rice populations and contribute to greater seed production when target insects are abundant. However, the net fitness benefits that are associated with Bt/CpTI could be ephemeral if insect pressure is lacking, for example, because of widespread planting of Bt cultivars that suppress target insect populations.', 'en_US'),
(4007, 'Centre of origin and the Bt brinjal controversy.', 'The probability of crop-to-wild gene flow depends on the geographic distribution of crops and their wild relatives1. In this context, caution has been advised in relation to the release of transgenic crops into their centres of origin, i.e. the geographical regions in which they were domesticated, and where wild relatives and/or weedy forms persist. In countries with high plant biodiversity like India, where almost 400 species of crop wild relatives are found, this is a relevant approach. The Indo-Burma zone2, or the Indian subcontinent itself3 are regions in which the brinjal eggplant,  Solanum melongena  L., may have originated. Other parts of Asia have also been suggested as candidate areas4, and the precise centre of origin remains in question.', 'en_US'),
(4008, 'Bt resistance in Helicoverpa species: Indian policy needs urgent revision.', '', 'en_US'),
(4009, 'Coexistence of GM and non-GM crops with endogenously determined separation.', '', 'en_US'),
(4010, 'A 90-day safety study in Sprague-Dawley rats fed milk powder containing recombinant human lactoferrin (rhLF) derived from transgenic cloned cattle.', 'Transgenic cloned animals expressing beneficial human nutritional traits offer a new strategy for large-scale production of some kinds of functional substances. In some cases, the required safety testing for genetically modified (GM) foods do not seem appropriate for human food safety, though regulations do not seem to provide alternatives. A 90-day rat feeding study is the core study for the safety assessment of GM foods. The test material in this 90-day study was prepared nonfat milk powder containing recombinant human lactoferrin (rhLF), which was expressed in transgenic cloned cattle. Groups of 10 male and female Sprague-Dawley rats were given a nutritionally balanced purified diet containing 7.5, 15, or 30% transgenic or conventional milk powder for 90 days. A commercial AIN93G diet was used as an additional control group. Clinical, biological, and pathological parameters were compared between groups. The only significant effect of treatment was higher mean ferritin and Fe+ concentrations for both male and female rats fed the transgenic milk powder diets, as compared to rats fed nontransgenic milk diets or the commercial diet. The results of the present study are consistent with previous research, which indicates that milk powder containing rhLF derived from healthy transgenic cloned cattle is as safe as conventional milk powder.', 'en_US'),
(4011, 'Susceptibility of Helicoverpa armigera from different host plants in northern China to Bacillus thuringiensis toxin Cry1Ac.', 'Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) is a serious pest of cotton and many other crops in northern China. To evaluate the contribution of alternative hosts as an effective refuge for transgenic cotton expressing the Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Cry1Ac toxin, the susceptibility to this toxin was measured in progeny derived from field-collected H. armigera larvae and pupae from different hosts in the Xiajin’s region of the Shandong Province in northern China. During 2008–2010, progeny from a total of 258,56,184 and 160 single-pair crosses derived from wheat (first-generation), Bt cotton (second-generation), Bt cotton (third-generation), and corn (third-generation) were screened on Cry1Ac diets, respectively. Based on relative average development rates (RADR) of H. armigera larvae in these F1 tests, the second and third-generation moths emerging from Bt cotton fields were more tolerant to the Bt toxin than the first and third-generation moths emerging from wheat and corn each year. These results suggest that there is significant variation in susceptibility to Bt toxins among H. armigera populations derived from different host crops. Alternate crops, such as corn, that maintain Bt susceptible populations of H. armigera could be used as refugia to minimize the evolution of resistance to Bt cotton.', 'en_US'),
(4012, 'The BioCassava Plus program: biofortification of cassava for sub-saharan Africa.', 'More than 250 million Africans rely on the starchy root crop cassava (Manihot esculenta) as their staple source of calories. A typical cassava-based diet, however, provides less than 30% of the minimum daily requirement for protein and only 10%–20% of that for iron, zinc, and vitamin A. The BioCassava Plus (BC+) program has employed modern biotechnologies intended to improve the health of Africans through the development and delivery of genetically engineered cassava with increased nutrient (zinc, iron, protein, and vitamin A) levels. Additional traits addressed by BioCassava Plus include increased shelf life, reductions in toxic cyanogenic glycosides to safe levels, and resistance to viral disease. The program also provides incentives for the adoption of biofortified cassava. Proof of concept was achieved for each of the target traits. Results from field trials in Puerto Rico, the first confined field trials in Nigeria to use genetically engineered organisms, and ex ante impact analyses support the efficacy of using transgenic strategies for the biofortification of cassava.', 'en_US'),
(4013, 'Transgene fragments in the blood and tissue of chicken fed with genetically modified soy and maize.', 'The aim was to evaluate the transfer of DNA fragments into the blood, kidney and liver of broilers fed with diet containing the genetically modified (GM) Roundup Ready soybean GTS40-3-2, and the genetically modified Bt maize MON 810. Unsexed broilers ROSS 308 were used, animals were fed by diet with the same nutritional composition and components, except of GM soybean and maize. The diet for the first experimental group contained GM soybean, for the second group GM maize corn, for the third both GM soy and maize, and for the control GM-gree soybean and maize.  The experiments were done on day-old chicks up to the 42nd day of life. Control genese and transgene fragments were amplified by PCR. Fragments of control soy lectin gene were detected in 7 blood samples out of 118, and in 18 liver samples out of 20. Fragments of control maize HMG gene was present in 5 blood samples out of 118, liver and kidney were negative. The control gene positive samples were from all three experimental groups, the control group was negavie. Transgene fragments of Roundup Ready soybean were found in 11 blood samples out of 118, and in 3 liver samples out of 20 in the experimental group fed with GM soybean, kidney was negative. For maize transgene, 19 blood samples out of 118 were positive, always in the experimental group fed with GM maize, liver and kidney were negative. Nutritional safety was not compromised by the analysis, as only the fragments were looked for, not whole genes.', 'en_US'),
(4014, 'Recent long-distance transgene flow into wild populations conforms to historical patterns of gene flow in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) at its centre of origin.', 'Over 95% of the currently cultivated cotton was domesticated from Gossypium hirsutum, which originated and diversified in Mexico. Demographic and genetic studies of this species at its centre of origin and diversification are lacking, although they are critical for cotton conservation and breeding. We investigated the actual and potential distribution of wild cotton populations, as well as the contribution of historical and recent gene flow in shaping cotton genetic diversity and structure. We evaluated historical gene flow using chloroplast microsatellites and recent gene flow through the assessment of transgene presence in wild cotton populations, exploiting the fact that genetically modified cotton has been planted in the North of Mexico since 1996. Assessment of geographic structure through Bayesian spatial analysis, BAPS and Genetic Algorithm for Rule-set Production (GARP), suggests that G. hirsutum seems to conform to a metapopulation scheme, with eight distinct metapopulations. Despite evidence for long-distance gene flow, genetic variation among the metapopulations of G. hirsutum is high (He = 0.894 ± 0.01). We identified 46 different haplotypes, 78% of which are unique to a particular metapopulation, in contrast to a single haplotype detected in cotton cultivars. Recent gene flow was also detected (m = 66/270 = 0.24), with four out of eight metapopulations having transgenes. We discuss the implications of the data presented here with respect to the conservation and future breeding of cotton populations and genetic diversity at its centre of crop origin.', 'en_US'),
(4015, 'Seasonal expression of Bt proteins in transgenic rice lines and the resistance against Asiatic Rice Borer Chilo suppressalis (Walker).', 'Laboratory bioassays and field surveys were carried out to compare the resistance of three transgenic rice (Oryza sativa L.) lines including Bt-DL expressing a single gene cry1Ab, Bt-KF6 expressing stacked genes cry1Ab and CpTI genes and Bt-SY63 expressing a fusion gene cry1Ab/cry1Ac, respectively, to an important rice pest Chilo suppressalis (Walker). In addition, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) were conducted to monitor the Bt protein expressions in rice leaves and stems at different rice growth stages. Results showed that all the transgenic rice lines exhibited significantly high resistance to the pest compared with their corresponding nontransformed isolines. Among the transgenic rice lines, Bt-SY63 and Bt-KF6 had higher resistance to C. suppressalis at early growth stage, but lower resistance at late stages, while the pest resistance of Bt-DL was relatively stable throughout the growing season. The results were consistent with ELISA results showing that Bt protein levels in Bt-SY63 or Bt-KF6 leaves decreased in late growth stages, but were relatively stable in Bt-DL at all growth stages. This demonstrates that the resistance to a pest by Bt plants is positively correlated with Cry protein expression levels in plant tissues. Compared with Bt-SY63 and Bt-KF6, the Bt protein expression levels were significantly lower in Bt-DL, while its resistance to C. suppressalis was the highest. This may suggest that C. suppressalis is more susceptible to Cry1Ab than to Cry1Ac. The data from the current study are valuable for decision-making for commercial use of Bt rice lines and development of appropriate pest control and resistance management strategies for the transgenic rice lines.', 'en_US'),
(4016, 'No impact of transgenic nptII-leafy Pinus radiata (Pinales: Pinaceae) on Pseudocoremia suavis (Lepidoptera: Geometridae) or its endoparasitoid Meteorus pulchricornis (Hymenoptera: Braconidae).', 'To investigate the biosafety to insects of transgenic Pinus radiata D. Don containing the antibiotic resistance marker gene nptII and the reproductive control gene leafy, bioassays were conducted with an endemic lepidopteran pest of New Zealand plantation pine forests and a hymenopteran endoparasitoid. Larvae of the common forest looper, Pseudocoremia suavis (Butler), were fed from hatching on P. radiata needles from either one of two nptII-leafy transgenic clones, or an isogenic unmodified control line. For both unparasitized P. suavis and those parasitized by Meteorus pulchricornis (Wesmael), consuming transgenic versus control pine had no impact on larval growth rate or mass at any age, larval duration, survival, pupation or successful emergence as an adult. Total larval duration was 1 d (3%) longer in larvae fed nptII-2 than nptII-1, but this difference was considered trivial and neither differed from the control. In unparasitized P. suavis larvae, pine type consumed did not affect rate of pupation or adult emergence, pupal mass, or pupal duration. Pine type had no effect on the duration or survival of M. pulchricornis larval or pupal stages, mass of cocoons, stage at which they died, adult emergence, or fecundity. Parasitism by M. pulchricornis reduced P. suavis larval growth rate, increased the duration of the third larval stadium, and resulted in the death of all host larvae before pupation. The lack of impact of an exclusive diet of nptII-leafy transgenic pines on the life history of P. suavis and M. pulchricornis suggests that transgenic plantation pines expressing nptII are unlikely to affect insect populations in the field.', 'en_US'),
(4017, 'Molecular-based environmental risk assessment of three varieties of genetically engineered cows.', 'The development of animal biotechnology has led to an increase in attention to biosafety issues. Here we evaluated the impact of genetically engineered cows on the environment. The probability of horizontal gene transfer and the impact on the microbial communities in cow gut and soil were tested using three varieties of genetically engineered cows that were previously transformed with a human gene encoding lysozyme, lactoferrin, or human alpha lactalbumin. The results showed that the transgenes were not detectable by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or quantitative real-time PCR in gut microbial DNA extracts of manure or microbial DNA extracts of topsoil. In addition, the transgenes had no impact on the microbial communities in cow gut or soil as assessed by PCR-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis or 16S rDNA sequencing. Furthermore, phylogenetic analyses showed that the manure bacteria sampled during each of the four seasons belonged primarily to two groups, Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes, and the soil bacteria belonged to four groups, Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, Actinobacteria, and &amp;#945;-proteobacteria. Other groups, such as &amp;#946;-proteobacteria, &amp;#947;-proteobacteria, &amp;#948;-proteobacteria, &amp;#949;-proteobacteria, Spirochaetes, Acidobacteria, Chloroflexi, and Nitrospira, were not dominant in the manure or soil.', 'en_US'),
(4018, 'A semi-quantitative approach to GMO risk-benefit analysis.', 'In many countries there are increasing calls for the benefits of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) to be considered as well as the risks, and for a risk-benefit analysis to form an integral part of GMO regulatory frameworks. This trend represents a shift away from the strict emphasis on risks, which is encapsulated in the Precautionary Principle that forms the basis for the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, and which is reflected in the national legislation of many countries. The introduction of risk-benefit analysis of GMOs would be facilitated if clear methodologies were available to support the analysis. Up to now, methodologies for risk-benefit analysis that would be applicable to the introduction of GMOs have not been well defined. This paper describes a relatively simple semi-quantitative methodology that could be easily applied as a decision support tool, giving particular consideration to the needs of regulators in developing countries where there are limited resources and experience. The application of the methodology is demonstrated using the release of an insect resistant maize variety in South Africa as a case study. The applicability of the method in the South African regulatory system is also discussed, as an example of what might be involved in introducing changes into an existing regulatory process.', 'en_US'),
(4019, 'Effect of genetically modified, insect resistant corn (MON 810) and glyphosate tolerant soybean meal (Roundup Ready) on physico-chemical properties of broilers'' breast and thigh muscles.', 'The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of genetically modified (GM), insect resistant corn (MON 810) and glyphosate tolerant soybean meal (Roundup Ready, MON 40-30-2), used as the main dietary components, on physico-chemical properties of broilers’ breast and thigh muscles. The pH and water holding capacity values of breast and thigh muscles indicated no statistically significant differences between broilers fed diets containing non-transgenic or transgenic feeds. Results for the oxidation reduction potential measurements of the breast muscles from the group fed GM corn and non-modified soybean meal as well as muscles of female chickens from the group fed GM corn and GM soybean meal were significantly lower than those for other dietary treatments. The results of presented study showed that chickens, which had consumed transgenic diet exhibited improved lipid stability of breast and thigh muscles, as indicated by TBARS values. The use of transgenic corn or soybean meal did not cause significant changes in colour parameters L* and b*. Incorporation of transgenic corn and soybean meal into broilers diet significantly affect the a* colour parameter for breast muscles.', 'en_US'),
(4020, 'Herbicide-tolerant transgenic soybean over 15 years of cultivation: pesticide use, weed resistance, and some economic issues. The case of the USA.', 'Genetically modified (GM) herbicide-tolerant (HT) crops have been largely adopted where they have been authorized. Nevertheless, they are fiercely criticized by some, notably because of the herbicide use associated with them. However, how much herbicide is applied to GMHT crops compared to conventional crops, and what impacts does the use of herbicide have? The paper first presents some factors explaining the predominance of GMHT crops. Then, trends in the use of herbicide for GM crops are studied in the case of the most widespread HT crop: HT soybean in the USA. The trends in the toxicity of herbicides applied to HT soybean are also addressed, as well as the appearance of glyphosate-resistant (GR) weeds. Lastly, the paper examines the spread of GR weeds and its impact. How are farmers, weed scientists, and the industry coping with this development, and what are the prospects of glyphosate-tolerant crops given weed resistance? In conclusion, some issues of sustainability and innovation governance raised by genetically modified herbicide-tolerant crops are discussed.', 'en_US'),
(4021, 'Coexistence in maize: effect on pollen-mediated gene flow by conventional maize border rows edging genetically modified maize fields.', 'In addition to or as substitution for a regulated isolation distance, conventional maize (Zea mays L.) border rows at the genetically modified (GM) maize field edge are considered as feasible measure to ensure coexistence between GM and conventional or organic maize. Therefore, we examined the effectiveness of 9-m- and 18-m-wide non-GM maize borders at the GM maize field edge on outcrossing rates into a neighboring non-GM maize field. One field experiment each was conducted in 2008 at three sites in Germany using a field orientation representing a worst-case scenario concerning wind direction. In each case, the distance between GM and non-GM maize fields was 51 m. At two sites, sizes of GM and non-GM maize fields were 0.8 ha, respectively, and at the third site 0.5 ha (GM) and 0.3 ha (non-GM). The GM percentages of individual samples taken at recipient field depths between 0 and 90 m were quantified by real-time polymerase chain reaction. Overall, no pollen-mediated gene flow reducing effect of border rows was observed in the present study, although synchrony of anthesis between GM maize and border row maize was given at each site. Calculated GM contents of the total non-GM fields harvest were always below the European Union labeling threshold of 0.9%. In consequence, planting 9-m- or 18-m-wide conventional maize border rows at the GM field edge is no reliable coexistence measure, at least if combined with an isolation distance.', 'en_US'),
(4022, 'Transgenesis in animal agriculture: addressing animal health and welfare concerns.', 'The US Food and Drug Administration’s final Guidance for Industry on the regulation of transgenesis in animal agriculture has paved the way for the commercialization of genetically engineered (GE) farm animals. The production-related diseases associated with extant breeding technologies are reviewed, as well as the predictable welfare consequences of continued emphasis on prolificacy at the potential expense of physical fitness. Areas in which biotechnology could be used to improve the welfare of animals while maintaining profitability are explored along with regulatory schema to improve agency integration in GE animal oversight.', 'en_US'),
(4023, 'Can genetically modified cotton contribute to sustainable development in Africa?', 'Genetically modified (GM) crops and sustainable development remain the foci of much media attention, especially given current concerns about a global food crisis. However, whilst the latter is embraced with enthusiasm by almost all groups, GM crops generate very mixed views. Some countries have welcomed GM, but others, notably those in Europe, adopt a cautious stance. This article aims to review the contribution that GM crops can make to agricultural sustainability in the developing world. Following brief reviews of both issues and their linkages, notably the pros and cons of GM cotton as a contributory factor in sustainability, a number of case studies from resourcepoor cotton farmers in Makhathini Flats, South Africa, is presented for a six-year period. Data on expenditure, productivity and income indicate that Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) cotton is advantageous because it reduces costs, for example, of pesticides, and increases income, and the indications are that those benefits continued over at least the six years covered by the studies. There are repercussions of the additional income in the households; debts are reduced and money is invested in children''s education and in the farms. However, in the general GM debate, the results show that GM crops are not miracle products which alleviate poverty at a stroke, but nor is there evidence that they will cause the scale of environmental damage associated with indiscriminate pesticide use. Indeed, for some GM antagonists, perhaps even the majority, such debates are irrelevant – the transfer of genes between species is unnatural and unethical. For them, GM crops will never be acceptable despite the evidence and pressure to increase world food production.', 'en_US'),
(4024, 'Changes in fitness-associated traits due to the stacking of transgenic glyphosate resistance and insect resistance in Brassica napus L.', 'Increasingly, genetically modified crops are being developed to express multiple ‘stacked’ traits for different types of transgenes, for example, herbicide resistance, insect resistance, crop quality and tolerance to environmental stresses. The release of crops that express multiple traits could result in ecological changes in weedy environments if feral crop plants or hybrids formed with compatible weeds results in more competitive plants outside of agriculture. To examine the effects of combining transgenes, we developed a stacked line of canola (Brassica napus L.) from a segregating F2 population that expresses both transgenic glyphosate resistance (CP4 EPSPS) and lepidopteran insect resistance (Cry1Ac). Fitness-associated traits were evaluated between this stacked genotype and five other Brassica genotypes in constructed mesocosm plant communities exposed to insect herbivores (Plutella xylostella L.) or glyphosate-drift. Vegetative biomass, seed production and relative fecundity were all reduced in stacked trait plants when compared with non-transgenic plants in control treatments, indicating potential costs of expressing multiple transgenes without selection pressure. Although costs of the transgenes were offset by selective treatment, the stacked genotype continued to produce fewer seeds than either single transgenic line. However, the increase in fitness of the stacked genotype under selective pressure contributed to an increased number of seeds within the mesocosm community carrying unselected, hitchhiking transgenes. These results demonstrate that the stacking of these transgenes in canola results in fitness costs and benefits that are dependent on the type and strength of selection pressure, and could also contribute to changes in plant communities through hitchhiking of unselected traits.', 'en_US'),
(4025, 'Genetically modified trees for a sustainable, environmentally responsible and resource-saving production of wood for energy production.', 'Genetically modified trees (GM trees) are long-living plants. In regard to their special ecological and economic importance deployment of genetically modified trees is controversial because of the possible risks they are involved.\r\nCommercial use of GM trees for example as a plantation culture is supported by proponents, if they were previously subjected to a comprehensive risk analysis and safety assessment. In contrast, many critics exclude a commercial use of GM trees completely. They demand to stop the research.\r\nIn this paper, the possibilities of a sustainable, environmentally sound and resource-efficient use of GM trees are discussed. Arguments are given in favor of GM trees in respect to both, as a source of renewable raw material to cover an increasing demand for energy and chemical raw materials.\r\nBesides, arguments are given in favor of GM trees to mitigate effects of climate change in comparison to agronomical energy crops such as maize, sugar beet and cereals.\r\nFinally, an overview of an international project on risk assessment of GM trees (recently approved by the European Union) is given. The paper concludes with a presentation of requested and approved field trials of GM trees in the last five years in Europe.', 'en_US'),
(4026, 'Application of GM crops in Sub-Saharan Africa: lessons learned from Green Revolution.', '', 'en_US'),
(4027, 'Unintended effects of genetic modifications and methods of their analysis in plants.', 'The problem of unintended effects, which may be caused by genetic modification of plants, is analyzed. The factors that provoke the occurrence of unintended effects in genetically engineered plants, the consequences caused by the influence of these factors, and the possibility to minimize such effects by the use of improved methods of genetic engineering are discussed. Modern methodological approaches that can be applied to the analysis of unintended effects considered as a stage of safety assessment of transgenic plants, especially the methods of molecular profiling with the use of different “-omic” technologies, are described.', 'en_US'),
(4028, 'No effect of transgene and strong wild parent effects on seed dormancy in crop-wild hybrids of rice: implications for transgene persistence in wild populations.', 'Soil seed banks act as a gene pool for local plant species and, as such, can buffer local populations, especially those experiencing challenging environmental conditions. Seed dormancy has important implications to dynamics of soil seed banks. Therefore, estimating the seed dormancy of transgenic crop–wild hybrids could shed light on the persistence of transgenes in wild-plant soil seed banks. Individuals from eight populations of wild rice Oryza rufipogon were crossed with those of three insect-resistant transgenic rice lines. Selfed (F2–F4) and backcrossed populations (BC1, BC1F2 and BC1F3) were then made from the hybrids. Seed germination was tested under three treatments: (a) normal; (b) overwintering in soil; and (c) one-week heat-shocking. The effects of transgene, wild parent and hybrid generation on hybrid seed germination were examined. No significant effect of insect-resistant transgenes (Bt and CpTI) was detected on the seed dormancy of crop–wild hybrids, while a significant wild parent effect was found. The seeds of advanced generation hybrids have higher germination percentages and lower dormancy than do those of F1 and BC1 generations. The study showed that the dormancy of hybrid seeds was determined mainly by their genetic backgrounds. All hybrid seeds have higher germination percentages and lower dormancy (and, consequently, a poorer overwintering ability), compared with wild seeds, and reduce dormancy would contribute to a fitness disadvantage, compared with wild types. Therefore, such seeds might form part of naturally occurring soil seed banks, through which crop genes would persist in wild populations.', 'en_US'),
(4029, 'The ethics of using GM crops in developing countries.', 'This proceedings contains papers/posters providing up-to-date insights into the prudent application of recent and prospective biological advances in plant science and biotechnology and showing how they can contribute to the &quot;sustainable intensification&quot; of agriculture in Africa. The need to enhance education in novel areas of plant research and biotechnology that might provide suitable solutions for Africa is addressed. It is hoped that this volume will provide interesting and thought-provoking insights in new areas of plant science research and its implementation and that this will prompt further experimentation and breakthroughs in this important field.', 'en_US'),
(4030, 'Is Golden Rice a GMO which will rescue the eyesight and lives of many children?', 'This proceedings contains papers/posters providing up-to-date insights into the prudent application of recent and prospective biological advances in plant science and biotechnology and showing how they can contribute to the &quot;sustainable intensification&quot; of agriculture in Africa. The need to enhance education in novel areas of plant research and biotechnology that might provide suitable solutions for Africa is addressed. It is hoped that this volume will provide interesting and thought-provoking insights in new areas of plant science research and its implementation and that this will prompt further experimentation and breakthroughs in this important field.', 'en_US'),
(4031, 'Training for implementing risk assessment regulations for the release of GM crops.', 'This proceedings contains papers/posters providing up-to-date insights into the prudent application of recent and prospective biological advances in plant science and biotechnology and showing how they can contribute to the &quot;sustainable intensification&quot; of agriculture in Africa. The need to enhance education in novel areas of plant research and biotechnology that might provide suitable solutions for Africa is addressed. It is hoped that this volume will provide interesting and thought-provoking insights in new areas of plant science research and its implementation and that this will prompt further experimentation and breakthroughs in this important field.', 'en_US'),
(4032, 'GMO-projects for public good are faced with prohibitive conditions.', 'This proceedings contains papers/posters providing up-to-date insights into the prudent application of recent and prospective biological advances in plant science and biotechnology and showing how they can contribute to the &quot;sustainable intensification&quot; of agriculture in Africa. The need to enhance education in novel areas of plant research and biotechnology that might provide suitable solutions for Africa is addressed. It is hoped that this volume will provide interesting and thought-provoking insights in new areas of plant science research and its implementation and that this will prompt further experimentation and breakthroughs in this important field.', 'en_US'),
(4033, 'Transgenic rice evaluated for risks to marketability.', 'The California Rice Certification Act aims to protect the state''s rice from varieties that could damage sales to Asia, Europe and other regions.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(4034, 'The effect of Bt-maize on butterflies -- reckoning the risk.', 'Insect-resistant genetically-modified (GM) crops have been developed to provide protection against target pests by the introduction of a Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) gene encoding various insecticidal Cry proteins. Such is the pervasiveness of this technology that the global area planted commercially with these genetically-modified Bt crops exceeded 50 million hectares in 2010. Bt maize crops engineered for toxicity to the larvae of lepidopteran pests such as the European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis, present a potential risk to the larvae of non-target butterflies that are not pests, but that feed in the vicinity of the crop and that might therefore be affected by toxic maize pollen. The hazard is from contact with the Bt protein by ingestion of maize pollen adhering to host plants. In North America, such a potential hazard was highlighted by a laboratory assay of Monarch butterfly larvae (Danaus plexippus) that consumed Bt maize pollen on milkweed (Asclepias syriaca) and led to extensive exposure assessments in the field in the USA. However, these found that that the amounts of maize pollen potentially ingested by monarch larvae on their host-plants in and around Bt-maize fields are unlikely to adversely affect a significant proportion of this species. However, extrapolating the monarch butterfly results to other species is problematic because of between-species variability in acute sensitivity to specific Cry1 proteins, differences in host-plants and other ecological factors. Within Europe, although lethal and sub-lethal effects of Bt-maize pollen consumption by lepidopteran larvae have now been reported for several non-target lepidopteran species under laboratory conditions, there have been few intensive field-based studies of exposure on prominent non-target butterflies of conservation concern. Only a minority of lepidopteran species live in habitats inside arable maize ecosystems, and the larvae of those that do are often found in greater numbers on host-plants in field margins, rather than in the crop itself, because host-plant densities are usually much greater in margins than in the crop. However, the intensification of agriculture over the last 50 years has been associated with substantial losses of biodiversity in arable ecosystems. Butterflies are popular indicators of biodiversity and are in decline in arable ecosystems throughout Europe, partly as a result of farming practice. In addition, genetic modification remains a controversial area for environmental policy in Europe, where public acceptance of genetically-engineered plants is much weaker than in North America. For example, in January 2005 Hungary invoked an emergency ''safeguard clause'' to attempt to ban the cultivation of the Bt-maize event MON810 (which expresses the Cry1Ab protein). Despite its lack of success, this was followed in 2008 and 2009 by other EU states, including France and Germany; these safeguard clauses currently remain in place but are being challenged legally. MON810 is the only GM crop currently cultivated on a wide scale (c. 105 ha) in Europe, mainly in Spain, but also in the Czech Republic, Poland, Portugal, Romania and Slovakia. Obtaining direct data on the mortality of non-target Lepidoptera is difficult because there are many species potentially at risk; these have different host-plants; exposure studies require good estimates of population densities of both lepidopteran species and host-plant, in both crop, margin and alternative habitats; the species at risk may be rare and have a low population density; larvae may be difficult to find in the field; and the period over which pollen is shed is relatively short. Such difficulties were discussed by Aviron et al. (2009), who calculated that to detect a change in abundance of 20% with adequate statistical power would require more than 100 pairs of fields or field margins. Furthermore, there are restrictions due to limited resources and time limitations for largescale agro-ecological experiments (Perry et al., 2003). Additional problems include refusals to grant permission for trials in many EU member states and the risk of damage by activists.', 'en_US'),
(4035, 'Field trials with genetically modified powdery mildew-resistant wheat.', 'The benefits and environmental risks of genetically modified (GM) spring wheat with improved powdery mildew resistance were investigated on two field sites by a consortium of Swiss research groups from 2008 to 2010. GM wheat lines with specific powdery mildew resistance and general fungal resistance were compared with control lines, commercial wheat varieties, and with barley and triticale. The impact on insects and soil organisms (bacteria, mycorrhizal fungi, soil fauna) as well as outcrossing to wheat were investigated in addition to powdery mildew resistance. Several GM wheat lines were significantly more resistant to powdery mildew than their controls. No relevant impact was found on non-target organisms, their biodiversity or selected ecosystem services. On the whole, the differences between GM and control lines were smaller than between commercial wheat varieties or other cereal crops. Outcrossing events were rare and found only at a short distance from GM test plants.', 'en_US'),
(4036, 'Cross-pollination of nontransgenic corn ears with transgenic Bt corn: efficacy against lepidopteran pests and implications for resistance management.', 'The efficacy of nontransgenic sweet corn, Zea mays L., hybrids cross-pollinated by Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) sweet corn hybrids expressing Cry1Ab toxin was evaluated in both field and laboratory studies in Minnesota in 2000. Non-Bt and Bt hybrids (maternal plants) were cross-pollinated with pollen from both non-Bt and Bt hybrids (paternal plants) to create four crosses. Subsequent crosses were evaluated for efficacy in the field against European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (Hübner), and corn earworm, Helicoverpa zea (Boddie), and in laboratory bioassays against O. nubilalis. Field studies indicated that crosses with maternal Bt plants led to low levels of survival for both O. nubilalis and H. zea compared with the non-Bt × non-Bt cross. However, the cross between non-Bt ears and Bt pollen led to survival rates of 43 and 63% for O. nubilalis and H. zea larvae, respectively. This intermediate level of survival also was reflected in the number of kernels damaged. Laboratory bioassays for O. nubilalis, further confirmed field results with larval survival on kernels from the cross between non-Bt ears and Bt pollen reaching 60% compared with non-Bt crossed with non-Bt. These results suggest that non-Bt refuge plants, when planted in proximity to Bt plants, and cross-pollinated, can result in sublethal exposure of O. nubilalis and H. zea larvae to Bt and may undermine the high-dose / refuge resistance management strategy for corn hybrids expressing Cry1Ab.', 'en_US'),
(4037, 'Mortality impact of Bt transgenic maize roots expressing eCry3.1Ab, mCry3A, and eCry3.1Ab plus mCry3A on western corn rootworm larvae in the field.', 'Mortality of the western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte, larvae due to feeding on maize, Zea mays L., expressing Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner (Bt) was evaluated in five Missouri sites in 2007, 2008, and 2009. Specifically, eCry3.1Ab (5307), mCry3A (MIR604), and eCry3.1Ab plus mCry3A proteins relative to survivorship on maize with the same genetic background without these genes (isoline maize) was evaluated. An average of 890.8 ± 152.3 beetles emerged from isoline plots, whereas average beetle emergence from 5307, MIR604, and 5307 × MIR604 was 1.9 ± 0.6,19.3 ± 6.3, and 0.8 ± 0.3, respectively, when averaged across 22 replications in five environments. Overall, 66, 50, 61, and 51% of beetles recovered from 5307, MIR604, 5307 × MIR604, and isoline maize, respectively, were female, and there was no significant difference between the number of male and female beetles that emerged from any of these treatments. Mortality due to 5307, MIR604, and 5307 × MIR604 was 99.79, 97.83, and 99.91%, respectively. There was an 8.0-d delay in time to 50% beetle emergence from 5307 compared with isoline maize, which was significantly later than to the other three maize lines. The average delay to 50% emergence from MIR604 and 5307 × MIR604 averaged 4.1 and 4.6 d, respectively later than 50% emergence from isoline maize. Female beetles had a significant delay in time to 50% emergence compared with male beetles from all treatments with the exception of 5307 × MIR604. Data are discussed in terms of insect resistance management in relation to other control measures for western corn rootworm.', 'en_US'),
(4038, 'Cry1Ac expression in transgenic Bt cotton hybrids is influenced by soil moisture and depth.', 'Cry1Ac toxin concentration was assessed in leaves of Bt transgenic cotton hybrid grown on shallow (&lt;60 cm) and deep (&gt;90 cm) black soils of Nagpur, Maharashtra, India. Cry toxin concentration increased up to 80 days after sowing followed by a steep decline. In general, toxin concentration was greater on the deep black soils than the shallow soil. This was because of greater water-holding capacity of the deep soils. Cry toxin concentration was closely related to the soil water content. Beyond (excess moisture) and below (moisture deficit) field capacity, toxin concentration declined. A cubic polynomial best described the relationship between Cry toxin concentration and soil moisture content (R2 = 0.95).', 'en_US'),
(4039, 'Movement of Spodoptera frugiperda adults (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in maize in Brazil.', 'The fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith), is one of the most important maize pests in the Americas and particularly in South America. With the adoption of genetically modified plants expressing Bacillus thuringiensis toxins for lepidopterous pest control, there is a need for establishing strategies to delay the development of insect resistance (e.g. refuge areas). Thus, information on target insects’ dispersal is essential to improve pest management techniques. The objective of this work was to evaluate the dispersal capacity of S. frugiperda adults using mark-release-recapture techniques. Insects were marked using red oil-soluble dye in the larval artificial diet. Marked adults were released twice in each growing season (dry and wet) in southeastern Brazil in 2006 and 2007. Recapture of marked insects was performed using light and pheromone traps. Males are more attracted to light traps than females and the recapture rate was higher in the dry season than in the rainy season. The most adequate model to explain the relationship between flight distance and number of recaptured insects is y = a 2 / (1+ (2a 1.8 + bx)) (2.6), where y is the distance and x is the number captured. The maximum recapture distances were 806 m for males and 608 m for females. Therefore, strategies for establishment of refuges should take such distances into consideration.', 'en_US'),
(4040, 'Coexistence in maize: effect of the genetically modified maize field depth on pollen-mediated gene flow.', 'Although it is generally accepted that field depth of the recipient non–genetically modified (non-GM) neighboring maize (Zea mays L.) field is significantly affecting pollen-mediated gene flow, information about the influence of GM donor field depth is extremely scarce. Therefore, we investigated the effect of 75-m compared with 150-m donor field depth. In 2007 and 2008, one field experiment each was established in northern Germany at Mariensee. In both GM field-depth variants, the distance between GM and non-GM maize field was 25 m. Sizes of non-GM maize fields were generally 1.5 ha, whereas two GM field sizes (1.5 and 3.0 ha) were compared in a field arrangement side-by-side oriented to favor pollen-mediated gene flow from GM to non-GM field. The GM percentages of individual samples taken at recipient field depths between 0 and 60 m were quantified by real-time polymerase chain reaction. In both years, no difference in pollen-mediated gene flow in dependence on the two compared donor field depths was observed. Calculated GM contents of the total non-GM fields harvests were 1.4% (75 m) and 1.5% (150 m) in 2007 as well as 1.0% (both 75 and 150 m) in 2008. In consequence, maize pollen-mediated gene flow seems not to be considerably affected by GM field depth if fields are at least 75 m deep.', 'en_US'),
(4041, 'Application of a novel method PCR-ligase detection reaction for tracking predator-prey trophic links in insect-resistant GM rice ecosystem.', 'Insect-resistant genetically modified (IRGM) rice is on the verge of commercial release in China, however, its potential non-target effect on non-target insect natural enemies remains controversial. Tracking trophic interactions between predators and preys in IRGM rice ecosystem can provide new insights into better understanding of the ecological risks of IRGM rice. In the present study, a novel method based on ligase detection reaction (LDR), PCR-LDR was introduced to track 15 prey species in the gut of a predaceous spider Pirata subpiraticus, a dominant natural enemy in rice field. Our results indicated that PCR-LDR could provide high specificity and sensitivity in tracking prey-predator interactions in rice ecosystems. PCR-LDR could detect as little as 1,000th of DNA mixture. Reliable detection of DNA samples of prey species using PCR-LDR could be significantly affected by digestion time and prey species. In the analysis of 200 field-collected P. subpiraticus and 105 field-collected Tetragnatha maxillosa individuals using PCR-LDR, prey remains were identified in 78.3 and 74.3% of the individuals, respectively, from which significant predation differences between the two spider species were observed. Predation behavior of the spider species was not significantly different between Bt and non-Bt control rice lines. These results indicated that PCR-LDR can be used as an important tool for ecological studies, especially on the interactions between predators and preys in IRGM rice or other similar ecosystems.', 'en_US'),
(4042, 'Long-term impact of Bt cotton: findings from a case study in China using panel data.', 'Bt cotton has been cultivated in China for a decade. Studies have been conducted to assess theimpact on productivity and pesticide use. Limitations of these studies are the short time period considered and the reliability of data. This paper presents findings from monitoring 150 Bt cotton farmers in Shandong province in 2002 and 2005. Descriptive analysis reveals that pesticide use increased while seed price and Bt toxin concentration decreased. The Bt variable was consistently insignificant in the estimated production function with damage control specification and a fixed effects model. There is indication that poor standards in Bt varieties have caused this result. Due to market imperfections and emergence of a largely unregulated seed market for genetically modified crops, Bt toxin levels may be below the threshold required to effectively control target pests. Furthermore, rising cotton prices may have created additional incentive to increase pesticide applications. The emergence of secondary pests calls for further in-depth studies that should include local agro-ecological conditions. Our results indicate that farmers with more experience in Bt cotton cultivation apply less pesticides, confirming the findings of other studies that farmer knowledge and understanding of the Bt technology is an important condition for its success.', 'en_US'),
(4043, 'Bt Brinjal in India: a long way to go.', 'Brinjal occupies the major proportion amongst all vegetable crops in India and is vulnerable to many diseases caused by insect-pests, fungus, bacteria and virus. Brinjal production is extensively affected by the insect brinjal fruit and shoot borer. Use of conventional chemical pesticides not only damage environment including the biotic and abiotic components but, also affect human health. Bt Brinjal was developed to combat brinjal fruit and shoot borer that has an advantage minimizing use of chemical pesticides. Extensive biosafety investigations, nutritional studies, substantial equivalence studies, relative toxicity and allergenicity assessment using animal models like Sprague Dawley rats, Brown Norway rats, rabbit, fish, chicken, goats, etc. revealed no significant differences between genetically modified brinjal and its native counterpart. Bt brinjal could effectively control the target pest and was found to be safe for environment and human health. In spite of all the scientific studies, release of Bt Brinjal has been put under moratorium. Indian government has constituted an expert committee to address this issue. In this review we have tried to explore the facts related to Bt Brinjal including its production, use of Bt toxin, use of chemical pesticides in controlling the FSB in native brinjal, along with perspective of public opinion and government initiatives.', 'en_US'),
(4044, 'Proteomic analysis of four Brazilian MON810 maize varieties and their four non-genetically-modified isogenic varieties.', 'Profiling techniques have been suggested as a nontargeted approach to detect unintended effects in genetically modified (GM) plants. Seedlings from eight Brazilian maize varieties, four MON810 GM varieties and four non-GM isogenic varieties, were grown under controlled environmental conditions. Physiological parameters (aerial part weight, main leaf length, and chlorophyll and total protein contents) were compared, and some differences were observed. Nevertheless, these differences were not constant among all GM and non-GM counterparts. Leaf proteomic profiles were analyzed using two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2DE) coupled to mass spectrometry, using six 2DE gels per variety. The comparison between MON810 and its counterpart was limited to qualitative differences of fully reproducible protein spot patterns. Twelve exclusive proteins were observed in two of four maize variety pairs; all of these leaf proteins were variety specific. In this study, MON810 leaf proteomes of four varieties were similar to non-GM counterpart leaf proteomes.', 'en_US'),
(4045, 'Compositional equivalence of insect-protected glyphosate-tolerant soybean MON 87701 x MON 89788 to conventional soybean extends across different world regions and multiple growing seasons.', 'The soybean product MON 87701 × MON 89788 expresses both the cry1Ac gene derived from Bacillus thuringiensis and the cp4 epsps (5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase) gene derived from Agrobacterium sp. strain CP4. Each biotechnology-derived trait confers specific benefits of insect resistance and glyphosate tolerance, respectively. The purpose of this study was to compare the composition of seed and forage from this combined-trait product to those of conventional soybean grown in geographically and climatically distinct regions. Field trials were conducted in the United States during the 2007 growing season, in Argentina during the 2007–2008 growing season, and in the northern and southern soybean regions of Brazil during the 2007–2008 and 2008–2009 growing seasons. Results demonstrated that the compositional equivalence of MON 87701 × MON 89788 to the conventional soybean extended across all regions and growing seasons. Further evaluation of the data showed that natural variation (region and growing season) contributed more to compositional variability in soybean, particularly for such components as isoflavones, fatty acids, and vitamin E, than transgene insertion.', 'en_US'),
(4046, 'Predation and food limitation influence fitness traits of growth-enhanced transgenic and wild-type fish.', 'Genetically engineered fish are nearing commercialization for aquaculture. If transgenic fish escape from farms, they could encounter and interbreed with natural populations. Relative advantages of transgenic fish for fitness-related traits could drive population processes like gene flow, but fitness trait estimates will best inform risk assessments if measured under environmental conditions that are relevant to natural environments. Wild-type and growth-enhanced transgenic Japanese medakas Oryzias latipes of different genetic backgrounds were compared for the following fitness traits: fecundity, fertility, survival to sexual maturity, age at sexual maturity, and mating advantage. Because food availability and predation have been shown to alter the life histories of growth-enhanced transgenic fish, we measured traits under four different environments: (1) high food availability and no predation, (2) high food availability with simulated predation, (3) low food availability and no predation, and (4) low food availability with simulated predation. We found that regardless of environment, there was no clear fitness trend by genotype: transgenic females were more fecund than wild-type females, wild-type males obtained more matings than transgenic males, and offspring of transgenic × wild-type crosses had higher survival to sexual maturity than offspring of two wild-type parents, possibly due to heterosis. Regardless of genotype, females produced more eggs in environments with high food availability and matured fastest under conditions of high food availability and no predation. Our results imply that population-level processes like gene flow will be difficult to predict from measurements of one or two fitness traits taken on fish in a single environment. Therefore, gene flow risk assessments should be based on estimates of fitness traits that span the entire life cycle, incorporate relevant environmental variation, and compare the transgenic fish strain with a wild-type strain of relevant genetic background.', 'en_US'),
(4047, 'Evaluation of Bt cotton under integrated pest management.', 'Field experiments were conducted at Regional Agricultural Research Station, Lam, Guntur to study the performance of Bt cotton under IPM, conventional control (CC) and unprotected conditions (check) for two consecutive seasons.  The incidence of aphids and whiteflies was low in IPM block compared to conventional control, while the incidence of leafhoppers was high under IPM. But the population of thrips was more or less similar.  The larval incidence of fruiting bodies damage of American and pink bollworm were slightly high in IPM block.  The activity of natural enemies under ecofriendly IPM was more compared to conventional control and check without presticidal application.  Though the yield was slightly less, the cost benefit ratio was high from IPM block (1:2.26) compared to conventional control (1:1.57) due to low cost of plant protection. Hence, ''Bt'' cotton hybrids should be viewed as a foundation on which Integrated Pest Management (IPM) has to be built up to combat the pest problems for sustainable transgenic Bt cotton cultivation.', 'en_US'),
(4048, 'Impact of bee species and plant density on alfalfa pollination and potential for gene flow.', 'In outcrossing crops like alfalfa, various bee species can contribute to pollination and gene flow in seed production fields. With the increasing use of transgenic crops, it becomes important to determine the role of these distinct pollinators on alfalfa pollination and gene flow. The current study examines the relative contribution of honeybees, three bumble bee species, and three solitary bee species to pollination and gene flow in alfalfa. Two wild solitary bee species and one wild bumble bee species were best at tripping flowers, while the two managed pollinators commonly used in alfalfa seed production, honeybees and leaf cutting bees, had the lowest tripping rate. Honeybees had the greatest potential for gene flow and risk of transgene escape relative to the other pollinators. For honeybees, gene flow and risk of transgene escape were not affected by plant density although for the three bumble bee species gene flow and risk of transgene escape were the greatest in high-density fields.', 'en_US'),
(4049, 'A single major QTL controls expression of larval Cry1F resistance trait in Ostrinia nubilalis (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) and is independent of midgut receptor genes.', 'The European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (Lepidoptera: Crambidae), is an introduced crop pest in North America that causes major damage to corn and reduces yield of food, feed, and biofuel materials. The Cry1F toxin from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) expressed in transgenic hybrid corn is highly toxic to O. nubilalis larvae and effective in minimizing feeding damage. A laboratory colony of O. nubilalis was selected for high levels of Cry1F resistance (&gt;12,000-fold compared to susceptible larvae) and is capable of survival on transgenic hybrid corn. Genetic linkage maps with segregating AFLP markers show that the Cry1F resistance trait is controlled by a single quantitative trait locus (QTL) on linkage group 12. The map position of single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers indicated that midgut Bt toxin-receptor genes, alkaline phosphatase, aminopeptidase N, and cadherin, are not linked with the Cry1F QTL. Evidence suggests that genes within this genome interval may give rise to a novel Bt toxin resistance trait for Lepidoptera that appears independent of known receptor-based mechanisms of resistance.', 'en_US'),
(4050, 'Effect of insect-resistant transgenic maize on growth and development, utilization of nutrients and in vivo activity of the detoxification enzymes of the Asian corn borer, Ostrinia furnacalis (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae).', 'There is little systematic research on the effect of transgenic maize expressing Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxins on insect survival and the response in vivo of their detoxification enzymes. Results of laboratory bioassays indicate that the whorl leaves of transgenic maize lines G03-2396 and G03-2739 significantly affected the survival of neonate and third instar larvae of the Asian corn borer, Ostrinia furnacalis (Güenée). Neonate mortality two days after being fed on G03-2739 was 72.5% and exceeded 92.5% four days later. The percentage mortality of third instar larvae six days after being fed whorl leaves from G03-2396 exceeded 65%. The resistance of whorl leaves to insect attack was greater than that of maize-ears, but less effective against attacks by third instar larvae. Neonate development was more prolonged when they were fed on whorl leaves of both the transgenic maize lines. In contrast, low pupation (<80% of that recorded in the controls), ecolosion and fecundity were recorded following ingestion of maize-ears, with pupal weights 10–14 mg lower than that of controls. The growth rates of third instar larvae recorded three and six days after feeding on whorl leaves were lower, but food utilization, conversion and relative metabolism were not significantly affected. Relative food ingestion, relative growth rate and other nutritional indicators of third instar larvae were significantly lower six days after the ingestion of ears and that of fifth instar larvae after three days. In vivo activity of carboxylesterase was decreased to a greater degree after three days when the larvae were fed on whorl leaves than ears, with no significant effect on fifth instar larvae. Furthermore, in vivo activity of glutathione S-transferase (GST) of third instar larvae was significantly affected following the ingestion of whorl leaves. These results are discussed in the context of the literature on the resistance of transgenic plants and of improving the resistance of plants to attack by the different larval stages of insects.', 'en_US'),
(4051, 'Influence of transgenic Bt176 and non-transgenic corn silage on the structure of rumen bacterial communities.', 'The aim of the present study was to investigate the possible effects of a diet containing transgenic corn (Zea mays), cultivar Bt176 expressing the insecticidal protein CryIA(b), on bacterial diversity of the cow rumen in vivo. Silage prepared with Bt176 corn and its parental non-transgenic cultivar showed no significant differences in either composition or in vivo degradability. Four cows were fed for 35 days with the different silage in a cross-over feeding experiment. The overall structure of rumen bacterial populations was analyzed using a cultivation-independent approach—ribosomal intergenic spacer analysis (RISA)—during 3 consecutive days of each feeding trial in all cows. Planktonic bacterial populations present in the rumen fluid and biofilm grown directly on the silage were analyzed separately. Statistical analysis of RISA fingerprints did not reveal significant differences in bacterial community structure between different feedings. Small differences were nevertheless observed between individuals on the structure of bacterial communities directly colonizing the silage material. A diet constituted by transgenic Bt-corn silage was demonstrated not to be substantially different from non-transgenic corn silage in terms of composition, digestibility and impact on the overall rumen microbiota.', 'en_US'),
(4052, 'Leaf litter from insect-resistant transgenic trees causes changes in aquatic insect community composition.', '1. Recent research has addressed how transgenic residues from arable crops may influence adjacent waterways, aquatic consumers and important ecosystem processes such as litter breakdown rates. With future applications of transgenic plants in forestry, such concerns may apply to forest stream ecosystems. Before any large-scale release of genetically modified (GM) trees, it is therefore imperative to evaluate the effects of genetic modifications in trees on such ecosystems.\r\n\r\n2. We conducted decomposition experiments under natural stream conditions using leaf litter from greenhouse grown GM trees (Populus tremula × Populus tremuloides) that express Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxins (cry3Aa; targeting coleopteran leaf-feeding beetles) to examine the hypothesis that GM trees would affect litter decomposition rates and/or the aquatic arthropod community that colonizes and feeds on leaf litter in streams.\r\n\r\n3. We show that two independent transformations of isogenic Populus trees to express Bt toxins caused similar changes to the composition of aquatic insects colonizing the leaf litter, ultimately manifested in a 25% and 33% increases in average insect abundance.\r\n\r\n4. Measurements of 24 phenolic compounds as well as nitrogen (N) and carbon (C) in the litter did not significantly differ among modified and wild-type trees and were thus not sufficient to explain these differences in the insect assemblage.\r\n\r\n5. Decomposition rates were comparable among litter treatments suggesting that the normal suite of leaf traits influencing decomposition was similar among litter treatments and that the shredding functions of the community were maintained despite the changes in insect community composition.\r\n\r\n6. Synthesis and applications.  We report that leaf litter from GM trees affected the composition of aquatic insect communities that colonized litter under natural stream conditions. This suggests that forest management using GM trees may affect adjacent waterways in unanticipated ways, which should be considered in future commercial applications of GM trees. We also argue that studies at different scales (e.g. species, communities and ecosystems) will be needed for a full understanding of the environmental effects of Bt plants.', 'en_US'),
(4053, 'No adverse effect of genetically modified antifungal wheat on decomposition dynamics and the soil fauna community -- a field study.', 'The cultivation of genetically modified (GM) plants has raised several environmental concerns. One of these concerns regards non-target soil fauna organisms, which play an important role in the decomposition of organic matter and hence are largely exposed to GM plant residues. Soil fauna may be directly affected by transgene products or indirectly by pleiotropic effects such as a modified plant metabolism. Thus, ecosystem services and functioning might be affected negatively. In a litterbag experiment in the field we analysed the decomposition process and the soil fauna community involved. Therefore, we used four experimental GM wheat varieties, two with a race-specific antifungal resistance against powdery mildew (Pm3b) and two with an unspecific antifungal resistance based on the expression of chitinase and glucanase. We compared them with two non-GM isolines and six conventional cereal varieties. To elucidate the mechanisms that cause differences in plant decomposition, structural plant components (i.e. C:N ratio, lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose) were examined and soil properties, temperature and precipitation were monitored. The most frequent taxa extracted from decaying plant material were mites (Cryptostigmata, Gamasina and Uropodina), springtails (Isotomidae), annelids (Enchytraeidae) and Diptera (Cecidomyiidae larvae). Despite a single significant transgenic/month interaction for Cecidomyiidae larvae, which is probably random, we detected no impact of the GM wheat on the soil fauna community. However, soil fauna differences among conventional cereal varieties were more pronounced than between GM and non-GM wheat. While leaf residue decomposition in GM and non-GM wheat was similar, differences among conventional cereals were evident. Furthermore, sampling date and location were found to greatly influence soil fauna community and decomposition processes. The results give no indication of ecologically relevant adverse effects of antifungal GM wheat on the composition and the activity of the soil fauna community.', 'en_US'),
(4054, 'The establishment of genetically engineered Canola populations in the U.S.', 'Concerns regarding the commercial release of genetically engineered (GE) crops include naturalization, introgression to sexually compatible relatives and the transfer of beneficial traits to native and weedy species through hybridization. To date there have been few documented reports of escape leading some researchers to question the environmental risks of biotech products. In this study we conducted a systematic roadside survey of canola (Brassica napus) populations growing outside of cultivation in North Dakota, USA, the dominant canola growing region in the U.S. We document the presence of two escaped, transgenic genotypes, as well as non-GE canola, and provide evidence of novel combinations of transgenic forms in the wild. Our results demonstrate that feral populations are large and widespread. Moreover, flowering times of escaped populations, as well as the fertile condition of the majority of collections suggest that these populations are established and persistent outside of cultivation.', 'en_US'),
(4055, 'Pollen competition as a reproductive isolation barrier represses transgene flow between compatible and co-flowering citrus genotypes.', 'Background/Objective\r\nDespite potential benefits granted by genetically modified (GM) fruit trees, their release and commercialization raises concerns about their potential environmental impact, and the transfer via pollen of transgenes to cross-compatible cultivars is deemed to be the greatest source for environmental exposure. Information compiled from field trials on GM trees is essential to propose measures to minimize the transgene dispersal. We have conducted a field trial of seven consecutive years to investigate the maximum frequency of pollen-mediated crop-to-crop transgene flow in a citrus orchard, and its relation to the genetic, phenological and environmental factors involved.\r\n\r\nMethodology/Principal Findings\r\nThree different citrus genotypes carrying the uidA (GUS) tracer marker gene (pollen donors) and a non-GM self-incompatible contiguous citrus genotype (recipient) were used in conditions allowing natural entomophilous pollination to occur. The examination of 603 to 2990 seeds per year showed unexpectedly low frequencies (0.17–2.86%) of transgene flow. Paternity analyses of the progeny of subsets of recipient plants using 10 microsatellite (SSR) loci demonstrated a higher mating competence of trees from another non-GM pollen source population that greatly limited the mating chance of the contiguous cross-compatible and flowering-synchronized transgenic pollen source. This mating superiority could be explained by a much higher pollen competition capacity of the non-GM genotypes, as was confirmed through mixed-hand pollinations.\r\n\r\nConclusions/Significance\r\nPollen competition strongly contributed to transgene confinement. Based on this finding, suitable isolation measures are proposed for the first time to prevent transgene outflow between contiguous plantings of citrus types that may be extendible to other entomophilous transgenic fruit tree species.', 'en_US'),
(4056, 'Coexistence of genetically modified crops with conventional and organic agriculture: the Italian situation.', '', 'en_US'),
(4057, 'Applicability of three alternative instruments for food authenticity analysis: GMO identification.', 'Ensuring foods are correctly labelled for ingredients derived from genetically modified organisms (GMOs) is an issue facing manufacturers, retailers, and enforcement agencies. DNA approaches for the determination of food authenticitys often use the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and PCR products can be detected using capillary or gel electrophoresis. This study examines the fitness for purpose of the application of three laboratory electrophoresis instruments (Agilent Bioanalyzer 2100, Lab901 TapeStation, and Shimadzu MCE-202 MultiNA) for the detection of GMOs using PCR based on a previously validated protocol. Whilst minor differences in the performance characteristics of bias and precision were observed, all three instruments demonstrated their applicability in using this protocol for screening of GMO ingredients.', 'en_US'),
(4058, 'A 90-day toxicology study of high-amylose transgenic rice grain in Sprague-Dawley rats.', 'A transgenic rice line (TRS) with high amylose level has been developed by antisense RNA inhibition of starch branching enzymes. Compositional analysis of TRS demonstrated that the content of resistant starch (RS) was significantly higher compared to conventional non-transgenic rice. High level of RS is an important raw material in food industry and has various physiological effects for human health. In order to provide the reliable theory basis for field release of TRS rice, we evaluated the potential health effects of long-term consumption of the TRS. The 90-day toxicology feeding experiment was conducted in Sprague–Dawley rats fed with diets containing 70% of either TRS rice flour, its near-isogenic rice flour or the control diet. The clinical performance variables (body weight, body weight gain and food consumption) were measured and pathological responses (hematological parameters and serum chemistry at the midterm and the completion of the experiment, urinalysis profile and serum sex hormone response at the completion of the experiment) were performed. Besides, clinical signs, relative organ weights and microscopic observations were also compared between TRS group and its near-isogenic rice group. The combined data indicates that high-amylose TRS grain is as safe as the conventional non-transgenic rice for rat consumption.', 'en_US'),
(4059, 'Allergenicity assessment of Allium sativum leaf agglutinin, a potential candidate protein for developing sap sucking insect resistant food crops.', 'Background\r\nMannose-binding Allium sativum leaf agglutinin (ASAL) is highly antinutritional and toxic to various phloem-feeding hemipteran insects. ASAL has been expressed in a number of agriculturally important crops to develop resistance against those insects. Awareness of the safety aspect of ASAL is absolutely essential for developing ASAL transgenic plants.\r\n\r\nMethodology/Principal Findings\r\nFollowing the guidelines framed by the Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization, the source of the gene, its sequence homology with potent allergens, clinical tests on mammalian systems, and the pepsin resistance and thermostability of the protein were considered to address the issue. No significant homology to the ASAL sequence was detected when compared to known allergenic proteins. The ELISA of blood sera collected from known allergy patients also failed to show significant evidence of cross-reactivity. In vitro and in vivo assays both indicated the digestibility of ASAL in the presence of pepsin in a minimum time period.\r\n\r\nConclusions/Significance\r\nWith these experiments, we concluded that ASAL does not possess any apparent features of an allergen. This is the first report regarding the monitoring of the allergenicity of any mannose-binding monocot lectin having insecticidal efficacy against hemipteran insects.', 'en_US'),
(4060, 'Effects of transgenic Bt rice on growth, reproduction, and superoxide dismutase activity of Folsomia candida (Collembola: Isotomidae) in laboratory studies.', 'Transgenic rice expressing Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Cry1Ab protein is expected to be commercialized in China in the near future. The use of Bt rice for controlling insect pests sparks intensive debates regarding its biosafety. Folsomia candida is an euedaphic species and is often used as a “standard“ test organism in assessing effects of environmental pollutants on soil organisms. In this study, growth, development, reproduction, and superoxide dismutase activity (SOD) of F. candida were investigated in the laboratory for populations reared on leaf tissue or leaf-soil mixtures of two Cry1Ab rice lines and a non-Bt rice isoline. Two independent tests were performed: 1) a 35-d test using petri dishes containing yeast diet (positive control) or fresh rice leaf tissue, and 2) a 28-d test in soil-litter microcosms containing yeast or a mixture of soil and rice leaf tissue. Biological parameters measured in both tests were number of progeny production, population growth rate, and SOD activity. For the petri dish test, data measured also included insect body length and number of exuviation. There were no significant differences between the populations reared on Bt and non-Bt rice leaf tissue in all measured parameters in both tests and for both Bt rice lines, suggesting no significant effects of the Cry1Ab protein in Bt rice on F. candida in the laboratory studies. Results of this study should add additional biosafety proofs for use of Bt rice to manage rice pests in China.', 'en_US'),
(4061, 'Effect of MIR604 transgenic maize at different stages of development on western corn rootworm (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) in a central Missouri field environment.', 'The establishment and survival of western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte, was evaluated on transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner maize, Zea mays L., expressing the mCry3A protein (MIR604) and non-Bt maize with the same genetic background (isoline maize) at different stages of development in 2007 and 2008. Overall, western corn rootworm larval recovery, root damage, and adult emergence were significantly higher on isoline maize compared with MIR604. The number of larvae and adults collected from MIR604 did not significantly differ among egg hatch dates from each maize developmental stage evaluated in either year. In 2007, damage to isoline maize roots was lower than expected and never exceeded 0.24 nodes of damage. In 2008, over 0.60 nodes of damage occurred on isoline maize roots. The mean weight and head capsule width of larvae and adults recovered from MIR604 and isoline maize were generally not significantly different. Results are discussed in relation to insect resistance management of western corn rootworm.', 'en_US'),
(4062, 'The influence of transgenic cry1Ab/cry1Ac, cry1C and cry2A rice on non-target planthoppers and their main predators under field conditions.', 'The establishment and survival of western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte, was evaluated on transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner maize, Zea mays L., expressing the mCry3A protein (MIR604) and non-Bt maize with the same genetic background (isoline maize) at different stages of development in 2007 and 2008. Overall, western corn rootworm larval recovery, root damage, and adult emergence were significantly higher on isoline maize compared with MIR604. The number of larvae and adults collected from MIR604 did not significantly differ among egg hatch dates from each maize developmental stage evaluated in either year. In 2007, damage to isoline maize roots was lower than expected and never exceeded 0.24 nodes of damage. In 2008, over 0.60 nodes of damage occurred on isoline maize roots. The mean weight and head capsule width of larvae and adults recovered from MIR604 and isoline maize were generally not significantly different. Results are discussed in relation to insect resistance management of western corn rootworm.', 'en_US'),
(4063, 'Foraging range of honey bees, Apis mellifera, in alfalfa seed production fields.', 'A study was conducted in 2006 and 2007 designed to examine the foraging range of honey bees, Apis mellifera (Hymenoptera: Apidae), in a 15.2 km2 area dominated by a 128.9 ha glyphosate-resistant Roundup Ready® alfalfa seed production field and several non-Roundup Ready alfalfa seed production fields (totaling 120.2 ha). Each year, honey bee self-marking devices were placed on 112 selected honey bee colonies originating from nine different apiary locations. The foraging bees exiting each apiary location were uniquely marked so that the apiary of origin and the distance traveled by the marked (field-collected) bees into each of the alfalfa fields could be pinpointed. Honey bee self-marking devices were installed on 14.4 and 11.2% of the total hives located within the research area in 2006 and 2007, respectively. The frequency of field-collected bees possessing a distinct mark was similar, averaging 14.0% in 2006 and 12.6% in 2007. A grand total of 12,266 bees were collected from the various alfalfa fields on seven sampling dates over the course of the study. The distances traveled by marked bees ranged from a minimum of 45 m to a maximum of 5983 m. On average, marked bees were recovered ~ 800 m from their apiary of origin and the recovery rate of marked bees decreased exponentially as the distance from the apiary of origin increased. Ultimately, these data will be used to identify the extent of pollen-mediated gene flow from Roundup Ready to conventional alfalfa.', 'en_US'),
(4064, 'GMO-Regulation (EC) No.1829/2003 and honey: how to proceed.', 'For many years honey and the requirements of Regulation (EC) No. 1829/2003 on genetically modified food and feed were different worlds. This has ended with the judgment of the European Court of Justice (ECJ) dated 6 September 2011 in the”Bablock”-case C-442/091. The ECJ held that pollen from GM crops which is detected in honey results in the application of Art. 3 para. 1 lit. c) of Regulation (EC) No. 1829/2003 and thus pulls the affected honey into the scope of the strict GMO-requirements of the Regulation, including mandatory authorization and labelling provisions. The ruling has potentially severe consequences for the marketing of honey in the EU. Thus, at the moment, one of the main legal and economic questions in regard to the commercial sale of honey is: How to proceed?', 'en_US'),
(4065, 'Case note: political issue of GMOs -- ECJ on MON 810.', 'Case Note I. Introduction By judgment dated 8 September 2011, the ECJ (again) had to answer questions concerning MON 810 maize1 admitted as GMO in the ten joined cases C-58/10 to C-68/10. Although the ECJ could answer some formal questions in its judgment, the ECJ – unsurprisingly – could not solve the basic problem, i.e. that Member States adopt national measures in respect of GMOs primarily on the basis of political considerations and that both legal and scientific aspects are mostly disregarded or, at best, used as an excuse. II. Main Proceedings By Decision 98/294/EC, the Commission authorised the placing on the market of MON 810 maize on the basis of Directive 90/220/EC. Subsequentl...', 'en_US');

INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(4095, 'Assessing the potential risks of transgenic plants for non-target invertebrates in Europe: a review of classification approaches of the receiving environment.', 'According to the current legal background for the regulation of genetically modified plants (GMPs) in Europe, an environmental risk assessment (ERA) has to be performed considering i) the crop plant, ii) the novel trait relating to its intended effect and phenotypic characteristics of the GM crop plant and iii) the receiving environment related to the intended use of the GMP. However, the current GMP-ERA does not differentiate between different intended receiving environments. Therefore, the question is to be raised: How can the ’receiving environment’ be classified on the European scale, both in an ecologically relevant and feasible way? As a first step this proposal focuses on invertebrates in the terrestrial environmental compartment. In order to check if already existing regionalization concepts are suitable for the above raised question the following selection criteria were employed:\r\n\r\n•	Distribution of non-target organisms (NTOs): A suitable regionalization concept should appropriately reflect the specific characteristics of the animal and plant communities of the different receiving environments of a GMP. Therefore, such a classification should be done by an ecoregion approach, meaning that different ecoregions support different organism communities that may play a different role in supporting relevant ecosystem services. However, information on the distribution of invertebrates in Europe is not available in sufficient detail for this purpose. Hence, it is proposed to use the information about site conditions like climatic, vegetation and soil parameters, which determine the composition of invertebrate communities, for the selection of an appropriate classification concept.\r\n•	Size and number of geographical units: This is a trade-off between the total number of ‘receiving environments’ in Europe manageable in a regulatory context and the ecological uniformity of a single geographical unit. An intermediate size and number of geographical units should be the aim of the classification.\r\n\r\nWith the ‘Indicative map of European biogeographical regions’ (IMEBR) there is an existing regionalization concept that meets many of the requirements identified above: the classification is based on parameters that also determine the distribution of invertebrate communities (i.e., the potential natural vegetation) and nine biogeographical regions represented within the 27 member states of the European (EU-27) are a manageable number for regulatory purposes. However, epigeic (living above ground) and endogeic (living below ground) faunal communities are determined by different biotic and abiotic parameters. For example, climate data is much more relevant for epigeic species than for endogeic organisms. The most important soil properties related to the distribution of endogeic organisms and plants are pH, texture, organic matter content and/or content of organic carbon, C/N ratio, and water-holding capacity. Hence, for endogeic non-target organisms there is currently no suitable regionalization concept available. For the time being, it is recommended to identify important species for testing purposes in each ecoregion with GMP cultivation by means of expert knowledge using the IMEBR for both epigeic and endogeic communities.\r\n\r\nThe regionalization concept is intended to be used in the context of the ERA of GMPs for the assessment of risk for NTOs. Hence, it should be tailored for the area in the EU where GMPs are likely to be grown. The overlap between the biogeographical regions and the intended area of cultivation for a novel GMP form the different cases, each of which should undergo a specific ERA process.\r\n\r\nFor example, there would be eight or nine separate potato cases for the EU-27 area, i.e. the Alpine, Atlantic, Boreal, Continental, Macaronesian, Mediterranean, Pannonian, Steppic and possibly the Black Sea biogeographical regions. For grain maize there would be five to nine separate cases, i.e. the Atlantic, Continental, Mediterranean, Pannonian, Steppic and possibly the Alpine, Black Sea, Boreal and Macaronesian biogeographical regions.', 'en_US'),
(4096, 'Developing risk hypotheses and selecting species for assessing non-target impacts of GM trees with novel traits: the case of altered-lignin pine trees.', 'A procedure is presented for developing environmental risk hypotheses associated with the deployment of forest trees genetically modified to have altered wood properties and for selecting non-target species to test these hypotheses. Altered-lignin Pinus radiata trees intended for use in New Zealand are used as a hypothetical case study to illustrate our approach. Firstly, environmental management goals (such as wood production, flood control or preservation of biodiversity) were identified and linked to the forest attributes they require. Necessary conditions for each attribute were listed and appropriate assessment endpoints for them developed. For example, biological control of pests may be one condition necessary for a forest to have healthy trees, and the diversity and abundance of natural enemy species in the forest could be an appropriate assessment endpoint for measuring this condition. A conceptual model describing the relationships between an altered-lignin GM pine tree and potentially affected invertebrates and micro-organisms in a plantation forest was used to develop a set of risk hypotheses describing how the GM trees might affect each assessment endpoint. Because purified lignin does not represent the properties it imparts to wood, maximum hazard dose tests with non-target organisms, as are used to inform toxin risk assessment, cannot be conducted. Alternative experiments, based on current knowledge of the responses of organisms to lignin, must be designed. A screening method was adapted and applied to a database of invertebrate species known to inhabit New Zealand pine forests to identify and prioritize non-target invertebrate species that could be used as experimental subjects for examining these hypotheses. The screening model and its application are presented, along with a set of recommendations for pre-release tests with GM pines and potentially affected invertebrates and micro-organisms.', 'en_US'),
(4097, 'Future challenges in environmental risk assessment of transgenic plants with abiotic stress tolerance.', 'Environmental risk assessment of transgenic plants is a prerequisite to their release into the target environment for commercial use. Risk assessment of the first generation transgenic plants with simple monogenic traits has been carried out with principles and guidelines enlisted in the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. For more complex traits such as abiotic stress tolerance, there is a growing need to examine for additional considerations in the risk assessment process based on the different nature of this trait. The salt tolerance-inducing codA gene is a representative of many abiotic stress tolerance genes that confer salt stress tolerance in transgenic plants. In comparison with simple monogenic Bt trait, the future challenge to environmental release of abiotic stress tolerance genes lies in the question whether these genes such as the salt tolerance-inducing codA will need additional considerations in the risk assessment process?. In the present work, we discussed the nature of abiotic stress tolerance trait, environmental risk assessment issues and comparison of the risk assessment elements on Bt and salt tolerance-inducing codA genes to examine needs for additional considerations in the risk assessment process. We concluded and recommended that the use of abiotic stress tolerance genes such as the salt tolerance-inducing codA gene in transgenic plants does not need additional considerations in risk assessment.', 'en_US'),
(4098, 'The price and trade effects of strict information requirements for genetically modified commodities under the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety.', 'This paper assesses the global economic implications of the proposed strict documentation requirements on traded shipments of potentially genetically modified (GM) commodities under the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. More specifically, we evaluate the trade diversion, price, and welfare effects of requiring all shipments to bear a list of specific GM events (the does contain rule) in the maize and soybean sectors. Using a spatial equilibrium model with 80 maize- and 53 soybean-trading countries, we show that information requirements would have a significant effect on the world market for maize and soybeans. But they would have even greater effects on trade, creating significant trade distortion that diverts exports from their original destination. The measure would also lead to significant negative welfare effects for all members of the Protocol and nonmembers that produce GM maize, soybeans, or both. While non-GM producers in Protocol member countries would benefit from this regulation, consumers and producers in many developing countries would have to pay a proportionally much heftier price for such a measure.', 'en_US'),
(4099, 'GM crops: between biological risk and environmental and economic benefits.', 'Los cultivos transgénicos, biotecnológicos o genéticamente modificados (GM) son el resultado de la aplicación de la tecnología del DNA recombinante en la agricultura. Este tipo de organismos se forman con la transferencia de genes foráneos (transgenes) de cualquier origen biológico (animal, vegetal, microbiano, viral) al genoma de las especies cultivadas de plantas. Los cultivos GM se utilizan en el mundo desde 1996 y en diciembre de 2010 se llego a mil millones de hectáreas, sembradas en todo el período (James, 2010). En solo el pasado año 2010 se sembraron 148 millones de hectáreas, cultivadas por 15,4 millones de agricultores en 29 países (James, 2010). Los cultivos GM que se usan en la agricultura global son principalmente soya, algodón, maíz y colza, que expresan transgenes derivados de bacterias y que confieren resistencia a insectos lepidópteros (RIL) o tolerancia a algunos herbicidas (TH), como glifosato y glufosinato de amonio. Las primeras variedades transgénicas contenían un solo transgen de interés, o evento simple, mientras que las variedades actuales expresan varios transgenes, o eventos apilados, que en algunos casos confieren resistencia a diferentes especies de insectos lepidópteros y coleópteros, así como tolerancia a dos tipos diferentes de herbicidas. Según Agrobio (2009), para el año 2009 se sembraron en Colombia, 35.671 hectáreas de cultivos GM de algodón, maíz, clavel y rosas. Maíz y algodón se sembraron en los departamentos de Sucre, Cesar, Córdoba, Huila y Tolima. Solo maíz en los departamentos de Antioquia, Valle del cauca, Meta, Cundinamarca y Santander, y clavel y rosas en el departamento de Cundinamarca. Las variedades transgénicas de maíz y algodón, expresan las características RIL y TH, como eventos simples o como eventos apilados. En el caso de clavel y rosa, se trata de genotipos que expresan el color azul. Desde la academia se ha tratado de organizar el debate sobre la adopción de los cultivos GM, alrededor del análisis ponderado de los riegos biológicos y los beneficios ambientales y económicos. Los riesgos biológicos se definen por los posibles efectos negativos sobre el consumidor humano o sobre el ambiente en que se liberan. Los beneficios ambientales tienen que ver con los efectos de la reducción en el uso de agroquímicos (insecticidas y herbicidas), y los beneficios económicos con la reducción en las perdidas debidas al ataque de insectos y a la competencia de malezas, así como a la reducción de los costos de producción. El debate debe considerar también, que las herramientas desarrolladas para la transferencia de genes entre diferentes organismos, facilitan la apropiación de los recursos genéticos vía derechos de propiedad intelectual. Apropiarse de este conocimiento y ponerlo a jugar al lado de sus intereses, es un asunto vital para los países biodiversos como Colombia.', 'en_US'),
(4100, 'Performance of insect-resistant Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)-expressing aspens under semi-natural field conditions including natural herbivory in Sweden.', 'Conservation of forest-dependent amphibians is dependent on finding a balance between timber management and species’ habitat requirements. To examine the effect of short-term vegetative regrowth post-harvesting on amphibian habitat use, we studied the response of eight species (four forest specialists and four habitat generalists) to four forestry treatments (partial harvest, clearcut with coarse woody debris [CWD] removed, clearcut with CWD retained, and uncut control) over a 6-year period, using replicated experimental treatments in Maine, USA. Forest amphibians showed a strong negative response to clearcutting through the duration of the study, regardless of the presence of CWD, but only during the post-breeding season (i.e., summer). The spring breeding migrations of wood frogs and spotted salamanders to experimental pools were not affected by the forestry treatments. The use of partial cut treatments by forest amphibians differed between animals emerging from experimental pools (i.e., juvenile wood frogs and spotted salamanders), and animals originating from outside the experimental arrays (i.e., adults of all forest species, juvenile wood frogs and spotted salamanders). Animals emerging from our experimental pools showed no difference in the use of control and partial cut treatments, while all the other animals preferred control plots. In addition, we found a modest increase in the use of clearcuts over the 6 years following harvesting by juvenile wood frogs from experimental pools (from an 8-fold difference between forest and clearcut treatments in the first year post-clearcutting to a 3-fold difference during years 3–5). However, this increase was not significantly associated with vegetation regrowth. Forest specialists declined in abundance in all treatments beginning 2–3 years post-disturbance. Despite high yearly fluctuations in abundance, there was a shift in relative abundance towards habitat generalist species, most notably green frog juveniles. Most habitat generalist species were not affected by clearcutting or vegetative regrowth; however, we observed a lower use of clearcut treatments by green frogs starting 3 years post-harvesting, perhaps due to an increase in habitat resistance to movements associated with vegetative regrowth. These general patterns of habitat use were overridden at the local scale by site-specific variation in the use of forestry treatments, most evident in emigrating juvenile wood frogs. From a management standpoint, implementing broad silvicultural prescriptions could be a viable strategy in extensively forested landscapes, but local variation in habitat use has to be acknowledged when managers focus on a limited area.', 'en_US'),
(4101, 'The spread of illegal transgenic cotton varieties in India: biosafety regulation, monopoly, and enforcement.', 'The spread of illegal transgenic cotton varieties in India: biosafety regulation, monopoly, and enforcement.', 'en_US'),
(4102, 'Evaluating environmental risks of genetically modified crops: ecological harm criteria for regulatory decision-making.', 'European risk managers currently face substantial difficulty in evaluating the risks of genetically modified (GM) crops for biodiversity. This difficulty is not primarily due to a lack of scientific data (the data are abundant) but rather to a lack of clear criteria for determining what represents environmental harm. Establishing criteria that define harm is not a scientific process but a process of analysing and implementing policy requirements, and policy-makers and regulatory authorities need to define what is to be regarded harmful based on existing legislation. This process is a necessary pre-condition for the environmental risk assessment of GM crops. The present paper proposes a systematic approach on how harm can be explicitly and operationally defined for decision-making. Most legal frameworks require the protection of the environment or more specifically of biodiversity from harm. It follows that the first step in defining harm should be the characterisation of protection goals; protection goals are those valued environmental resources that should not be harmed by GM crop cultivation or by any other agricultural practice. In a second step, one must derive scientifically measurable entities (so-called assessment endpoints) on the basis of the protection goals. Such endpoints are required for regulatory decision-making because they specify what deserves protection. They furthermore allow quantifiable predictions of adverse changes during environmental risk assessment. Definitions of harm also require decisions on which environmental changes should be regarded as relevant and thus represent unacceptable harm. Using a case study comparing different effects of various pest management practices, the current paper proposes an approach that differentiates between intended effects that are acceptable and harmful unintended effects. By making explicit the assumptions underlying policy choices, the ecological criteria proposed here may result in a better and more transparent evaluation of the probability of harm to biodiversity due to the cultivation of GM crops. The paper can help risk managers improve decision-making by providing methods for deriving operational decision-making criteria from policy objectives.', 'en_US'),
(4103, 'Tritrophic interactions among Bt maize, an insect pest and entomopathogens: effects on development and survival of western corn rootworm.', 'Agricultural systems often provide a model for testing ecological hypotheses, while ecological theory can enable more effective pest management. One of the best examples of this is the interaction between host-plant resistance and natural enemies. With the advent of crops that are genetically modified to produce insecticidal toxins from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), a new form of host-plant resistance has been introduced to agroecosystems. How Bt crops interact with natural enemies, especially insect pathogens in below-ground systems, is not well understood, but provides a unique opportunity to study below-ground tritrophic interactions. In this study, we used two species of entomopathogenic fungi and three species of entomopathogenic nematodes to determine how this community of soil-borne natural enemies might interact with Bt maize (event 59122, expressing the insecticidal protein Cry34/35Ab1) to affect survival and development of western corn rootworm (Diabrotica virgifera virgifera), which is an obligate root feeder and a serious pest of maize. We ran two experiments, one in a greenhouse and one in a growth chamber. Both experiments consisted of a fully crossed design with two maize treatments (Bt maize and non-Bt maize) and two entomopathogen treatments (present or absent). The community of entomopathogens significantly increased mortality of western corn rootworm, and Bt maize increased larval developmental time and mortality. Entomopathogens and Bt maize acted in an independent and additive manner, with both factors increasing the mortality of western corn rootworm. Results from this study suggest that entomopathogens may complement host-plant resistance from Bt crops.', 'en_US'),
(4104, 'A molecular approach to combat spatio-temporal variation in insecticidal gene (Cry1ac) expression in cotton.', 'Spatio-temporal expression of an insecticidal gene (Cry1Ac) in pre existing transgenic lines of transgenic cotton was studied. Seasonal decline in expression of Cry1Ac differed significantly among different cotton lines tested in the field conditions. The leaves of the Bt cotton plants were found to have the highest levels of toxin expression followed by squares, bolls, anthers and petals. Expression of the gene decreased consistently with the age of plants. Toxin expression in fruiting parts was not enough to confer full resistance against bollworms. The reduction in efficacy of transgenic cotton plants late in the season was attributed to reduction in promoter activity. For this purpose, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco) small subunit (rbcS) promoter was isolated from Gossypium arboreum that was further cloned upstream of an insecticidal gene (Cry1Ac) in expression vector pCAMBIA 1301. A local cotton cultivar NIAB-846 was transformed with Cry1Ac driven by rbcS promoter. The same cotton cultivar was also transformed with Cry1Ac gene driven by 35SCaMV promoter to compare the expression pattern of insecticidal gene under two different promoters. The results showed that rbcS is an efficient promoter to drive the expression of Cry1Ac gene consistent throughout the life of cotton plant as compared to 35S promoter. The use of tissue specific promoter is also useful for addressing the biosafety issues as the promoter activity is limited to green parts of plants, hence no gene expression in roots, cotton seed and other cotton products and by products.', 'en_US'),
(4105, 'Ecological risk assessments for transgenic crops with combined insect-resistance traits: the example of Bt11 x MIR604 maize.', 'Transgenic insect-resistant crops produced by combining two or more insect-control traits through conventional breeding are increasingly common in commercial cultivation. In some countries, cultivation of crops with combined insect-control traits may require additional regulatory risk assessments, even though all component traits are approved for cultivation, which requires, among other things, a demonstration that cultivation of the crop poses negligible ecological risk; that is, there is a low probability of harm to non-target organisms. In such situations, cultivation of a crop with the combined traits will also pose negligible ecological risk, provided two hypotheses hold: the potency of the proteins when combined is not greater than when separate; and the exposure of non-target organisms to the proteins is not greater when the traits are combined than when they are separate. The ecological risk assessment for combined traits may be based on tests of these hypotheses, comprising tests for synergism between the proteins in species sensitive to the proteins, and comparisons of protein production in plants with the combined traits and plants with the separate component traits. Tests of these hypotheses are illustrated using Bt11 × MIR604 maize, which produces the insecticidal proteins Cry1Ab and mCry3A. Results from synergism studies using European corn borer and Colorado potato beetle, and from comparisons of the concentrations of Cry1Ab and mCry3A in Bt11 × MIR604, Event Bt11 and Event MIR604 maize, indicate that risks to non-target organisms from the cultivation of Bt11 × MIR604 maize are no greater than from the cultivation of Event Bt11 or Event MIR604 maize.', 'en_US'),
(4106, 'Transgenic Bt maize: farmers'' perceptions, refuge compliance and reports of stem borer resistance in South Africa.', 'Based on surface area, South Africa is currently ranked the eighth in planting genetically modified (GM) crops in the world. Bt maize (MON810) has been grown to control lepidopterous stem borers in South Africa since its first release during 1998. The first report of resistance of the African maize stem borer, Busseola fusca (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and poor compliance to refuge requirements that could have contributed to resistance development prompted this study which was done in the main maize production area of South Africa. Objectives were to evaluate farmer’s perceptions of the regulatory aspects guiding the planting of Bt maize and refugia and how it was applied between 1998 and 2010. This study involved 105 commercial farmers covering 87 778 ha of maize throughout the main maize production region on the Highveld of South Africa. A questionnaire survey was conducted and addressed signing of technical agreements upon purchasing GM seed, refuge compliance, pest management practices, perceived benefits and risks relating to Bt maize. Compliance with refugia requirements was low especially during the initial 5–7 years after release. An alarmingly high number of farmers applied insecticides as preventative sprays on Bt maize and refugia irrespective of stem borer infestation levels. A large proportion of farmers reported significant borer infestation levels on Bt maize and between 5% and 93% farmers in all districts applied insecticides to Bt maize to limit borer damage, indicating that the occurrence of resistance is more wide-spread in the country than previously thought. This study shows irresponsible management of GM crop technology by farmers, chemical and seed companies. Concerns and perceptions of farmers in South Africa seem to differ from those in Europe. South African farmers perceived little, if any, negative impact on non-target organisms and remain positive about the technology in spite of resistance development. Other studies indicated that European farmers were concerned about these aspects. A shared concern, however, was consumer acceptance of GM maize and marketability on the export market.', 'en_US'),
(4107, 'Food preference in the woodlouse Porcellio scaber (Isopoda) in a choice test with fungicidal GM wheat.', 'Two independent food choice experiments were conducted in the laboratory to study the effects of four transgenic and five non-GM fungicidal wheat varieties on the food selection behaviour of the woodlouse Porcellio scaber. In general, woodlice did not avoid GM wheat as a food source and we detected no adverse effects of GM wheat on the non-target P. scaber. Moreover, we found a food preference of the woodlouse for one of the four GM varieties, Pm3b1, but not for the closely related GM Pm3b2 or for their non-GM isolines. We assume either a pleiotropic effect like lower lignin content or more suitable leaf litter coverage by microorganisms that may cause this preference and thus increasing palatability or digestibility. We discuss that this effect is ecologically not relevant.', 'en_US'),
(4108, 'Confinement of gene drive systems to local populations: a comparative analysis.', 'Mosquito-borne diseases such as malaria and dengue fever pose a major health problem through much of the world. One approach to disease prevention involves the use of selfish genetic elements to drive disease-refractory genes into wild mosquito populations. Recently engineered synthetic drive systems have provided encouragement for this strategy; but at the same time have been greeted with caution over the concern that transgenes may spread into countries and communities without their consent. Consequently, there is also interest in gene drive systems that, while strong enough to bring about local population replacement, are unable to establish themselves beyond a partially isolated release site, at least during the testing phase. Here, we develop simple deterministic and stochastic models to compare the confinement properties of a variety of gene drive systems. Our results highlight several systems with desirable features for confinement—a high migration rate required to become established in neighboring populations, and low-frequency persistence in neighboring populations for moderate migration rates. Single-allele underdominance and single-locus engineered underdominance have the strongest confinement properties, but are difficult to engineer and require a high introduction frequency, respectively. Toxin–antidote systems such as Semele, Merea and two-locus engineered underdominance show promising confinement properties and require lower introduction frequencies. Killer-rescue is self-limiting in time, but is able to disperse to significant levels in neighboring populations. We discuss the significance of these results in the context of a phased release of transgenic mosquitoes, and the need for characterization of local ecology prior to a release.', 'en_US'),
(4109, 'European discussion forum on transgenic tree biosafety.', '', 'en_US'),
(4110, 'Estimating the effects of Cry1F Bt-maize pollen on non-target Lepidoptera using a mathematical model of exposure.', 'Summary\r\n1. In farmland biodiversity, a potential risk to the larvae of non-target Lepidoptera from genetically modified (GM) Bt-maize expressing insecticidal Cry1 proteins is the ingestion of harmful amounts of pollen deposited on their host plants. A previous mathematical model of exposure quantified this risk for Cry1Ab protein. We extend this model to quantify the risk for sensitive species exposed to pollen containing Cry1F protein from maize event 1507 and to provide recommendations for management to mitigate this risk.\r\n2. A 14-parameter mathematical model integrating small- and large-scale exposure was used to estimate the larval mortality of hypothetical species with a range of sensitivities, and under a range of simulated mitigation measures consisting of non-Bt maize strips of different widths placed around the field edge.\r\n3. The greatest source of variability in estimated mortality was species sensitivity. Before allowance for effects of large-scale exposure, with moderate within-crop host-plant density and with no mitigation, estimated mortality locally was &lt;10% for species of average sensitivity. For the worst-case extreme sensitivity considered, estimated mortality locally was 99•6% with no mitigation, although this estimate was reduced to below 40% with mitigation of 24-m-wide strips of non-Bt maize. For highly sensitive species, a 12-m-wide strip reduced estimated local mortality under 1•5%, when within-crop host-plant density was zero. Allowance for large-scale exposure effects would reduce these estimates of local mortality by a highly variable amount, but typically of the order of 50-fold.\r\n4. Mitigation efficacy depended critically on assumed within-crop host-plant density; if this could be assumed negligible, then the estimated effect of mitigation would reduce local mortality below 1% even for very highly sensitive species.\r\n5. Synthesis and applications.&amp;#8194;Mitigation measures of risks of Bt-maize to sensitive larvae of non-target lepidopteran species can be effective, but depend on host-plant densities which are in turn affected by weed-management regimes. We discuss the relevance for management of maize events where cry1F is combined (stacked) with a herbicide-tolerance trait. This exemplifies how interactions between biota may occur when different traits are stacked irrespective of interactions between the proteins themselves and highlights the importance of accounting for crop management in the assessment of the ecological impact of GM plants.', 'en_US'),
(4111, 'Consequences of intra-specific metabolic diversity in plants for soil organisms: a baseline approach for evaluating ecological effects of genetic modifications.', '', 'en_US'),
(4112, 'Capitalizing on deliberate, accidental, and GM-driven environmental change caused by crop modification.', 'The transgenic traits associated with the majority of commercial genetically modified crops are focused on improving herbicide and insecticide management practices. The use of the transgenic technology in these crops and the associated chemistry has been the basis of studies that provide evidence for occasional improvement in environmental benefits due to the use of less residual herbicides, more targeted pesticides, and reduced field traffic. This is nicely exemplified through studies using Environmental Impact Quotient (EIQ) assessments. Whilst EIQ evaluations may sometimes illustrate environmental benefits they have their limitations. EIQ evaluations are not a surrogate for Environmental Risk Assessments and may not reflect real environmental interactions between crops and the environment. Addressing the impact cultivated plants have on the environment generally attracts little public attention and research funding, but the introduction of GM has facilitated an expansion of research to address potential environmental concerns from government, NGOs, industry, consumers, and growers. In this commentary, some evidence from our own research and several key papers that highlight EIQ assessments of the impact crops are having on the environment are presented. This information may be useful as an education tool on the potential benefits of GM and conventional farming. In addition, other deliberate, accidental, and GM-driven benefits derived from the examination of GM cropping systems is briefly discussed.', 'en_US'),
(4113, 'Scientific standards and the regulation of genetically modified insects.', 'Experimental releases of genetically modified (GM) insects are reportedly being evaluated in various countries, including Brazil, the Cayman Islands (United Kingdom), France, Guatemala, India, Malaysia, Mexico, Panama, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, the United States of America, and Vietnam. GM mosquitoes (Aedes aegypti) have already been released for field trials into inhabited areas in the Cayman Islands (2009–?), Malaysia (2010–2011), and Brazil (2011–2012). Here, we assess the regulatory process in the first three countries permitting releases (Malaysia, US, and the Cayman Islands) in terms of pre-release transparency and scientific quality. We find that, despite 14 US government–funded field trials over the last 9 years (on a moth pest of cotton), there has been no scientific publication of experimental data, and in only two instances have permit applications been published. The world\\\\\\''s first environmental impact statement (EIS) on GM insects, produced by US authorities in 2008, is found to be scientifically deficient on the basis that (1) most consideration of environmental risk is too generic to be scientifically meaningful; (2) it relies on unpublished data to establish central scientific points; and (3) of the approximately 170 scientific publications cited, the endorsement of the majority of novel transgenic approaches is based on just two laboratory studies in only one of the four species covered by the document. We find that it is not possible to determine from documents publically available prior to the start of releases if obvious hazards of the particular GM mosquitoes released in Malaysia, the Cayman Islands, and Brazil received expert examination. Simple regulatory measures are proposed that would build public confidence and stimulate the independent experimental studies that environmental risk assessments require. Finally, a checklist is provided to assist the general public, journalists, and lawmakers in determining, from documents issued by regulators prior to the start of releases, whether permit approval is likely to have a scientifically high quality basis.', 'en_US'),
(4114, 'Science, regulation, and precedent for genetically modified insects.', 'The author has no financial interest in companies doing commercial GM exploitation. The author has no patents related to GM insects. The author is involved in the direction of academic research contracts through Imperial College London with WHO on international guidance for the deployment and implementation of GM mosquitoes for malaria and dengue control. Other partners in that WHO research contract do have commercial interests in GM insect exploitation. In 2012, the author will become involved in the direction of academic research on the design and implementation of risk analysis approaches relevant to GM mosquitoes as part of a research contract from the Gates Foundation to Imperial College London. The author is a member of a working group on GM mosquitoes for WHO and the FNIH. The author is a member of a working group on GM insects for the European Food Safety Authority. The working groups are unpaid, but cover travelling costs when needed for occasional meetings of the groups. The author is a College appointed director of a company called Agra-CEAS Consulting Ltd, which is part owned by Imperial College London, which has produced some reports on various aspects of GM technology in agriculture for various clients (such as the European Commission), but the author has not had any day to day involvement in any of those reports. The author acts as an academic reviewer for various national and international research funders evaluating research proposals that sometimes include GM technologies. No funding bodies or other organisations have influenced this manuscript.', 'en_US'),
(4115, 'The stability and degradation of dietary DNA in the gastrointestinal tract of mammals: implications for horizontal gene transfer and the biosafety of GMOs.', 'The fate of dietary DNA in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) of animals has gained renewed interest after the commercial introduction of genetically modified organisms (GMO). Among the concerns regarding GM food, are the possible consequences of horizontal gene transfer (HGT) of recombinant dietary DNA to bacteria or animal cells. The exposure of the GIT to dietary DNA is related to the extent of food processing, food composition, and to the level of intake. Animal feeding studies have demonstrated that a minor amount of fragmented dietary DNA may resist the digestive process. Mammals have been shown to take up dietary DNA from the GIT, but stable integration and expression of internalized DNA has not been demonstrated. Despite the ability of several bacterial species to acquire external DNA by natural transformation, in vivo transfer of dietary DNA to bacteria in the intestine has not been detected in the few experimental studies conducted so far. However, major methodological limitations and knowledge gaps of the mechanistic aspects of HGT calls for methodological improvements and further studies to understand the fate of various types of dietary DNA in the GIT.', 'en_US'),
(4116, 'Compositional comparative analysis between insect-resistant rice (Oryza sativa L.) with a synthetic cry1Ac gene and its non-transgenic counterpart.', 'Composition analysis of genetically modified crops is an important consideration in the assessment of food safety. Agb0101 (Oryza sativa L. cv. Nakdongbyeo) developed in Korea is a form of insect-resistant rice that contains a synthetic truncated cry1Ac gene isolated from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), and demonstrates high resistance to rice leaf folder under field conditions. Nutrients, anti-nutritive components, and secondary metabolites of Agb0101 were analyzed and compared with those of its non-transgenic counterpart. The amounts of proximates, amino acids, fatty acids, minerals, vitamins, trypsin inhibitors, phytic acid, and ferulic acid in brown rice from Agb0101 were comparable to those of its non-transgenic counterpart. Statistical comparisons to test for equivalence showed that all the analyzed components in the insect-resistant rice plants were substantially equivalent to those of its non-transgenic counterpart. Furthermore, most of the measured values from Agb0101 were within the range of values reported for other commercial rice varieties.', 'en_US'),
(4117, 'Susceptibility to the Cry1F toxin of field populations of Sesamia nonagrioides (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in Mediterranean maize cultivation regions.', 'Maize hybrids expressing the Cry1F toxin provide efficient control of lepidopteran pests. The Mediterranean corn borer, Sesamia nonagrioides (Lefèvre), is one of the most damaging pests of maize in the Mediterranean basin. In this work we firstly determined the efficacy of maize hybrids expressing the Cry1F toxin (event TC1507) to control neonates of S. nonagrioides. Leaf tissue feeding bioassays revealed that TC1507 maize is highly effective against this pest, and the percentage mortality obtained was comparable to that obtained with a Cry1Ab-expressing maize hybrid (Compa CB, event 176), which is known to be highly efficacious against S. nonagrioides. Secondly, interpopulation variation in the susceptibility to the Cry1F insecticidal protein was established for nine field-collected populations of S. nonagrioides (three Spanish, two French, two Italian, one Greek, and one Turkish). Estimates of the susceptibility of larvae to the Cry1F toxin showed low variability in lethal concentrations and growth inhibition concentrations among field populations. Moreover, no significant differences were found when they were grouped by geographical areas [Western Mediterranean (Spain and France) versus Eastern Mediterranean (Italy, Greece and Turkey)] or by history of exposure to Bt plants (Spanish vs. other populations). Therefore, the minor differences found in field populations can be attributed to natural variation in sensitivity to Cry1F. The importance of establishing baselines of susceptibility for resistance detection is discussed. Future changes in susceptibility of S. nonagrioides populations to Cry1F could be documented based on this baseline data.', 'en_US'),
(4118, 'Interactions between Bt-expressing tomato and non-target insects: the aphid Macrosiphum euphorbiae and its natural enemies.', 'Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner toxins are highly specific in terms of insect pest targeted. For example, Cry3Bb is active against Coleoptera. As a consequence, in the framework of using genetically modified plants expressing different Bt toxins in sustainable agriculture, there is a growing interest about the impact of these crops on the environment and on non-target organisms. The effects of genetically modified Bt-tomato plants expressing the toxin Cry3Bb on the aphid Macrosiphum euphorbiae (Thomas) and its natural enemies, the generalist predator Macrolophus caliginosus Wagner and the endoparasitoid wasp Aphidius ervi Haliday, were assessed under laboratory conditions. No significant differences between performance of M. euphorbiae were observed on genetically modified tomato plants (line UC82Bt) with respect to their near-isogenic control line (line UC82). Immunoassays did not detect Cry3Bb protein in M. euphorbiae developing on Bt-expressing tomato plants. Similarly, no significant differences were found on the longevity and prey consumption of M. caliginosus when fed aphids reared on UC82Bt or on UC82. Moreover, the genetic modification did not affect the attractiveness of uninfested tomato plants toward A. ervi. It is therefore concluded that Cry3Bb-expressing tomato plants did not show any acute adverse effects on the biological parameters of the non-target herbivore M. euphorbiae or its natural enemies, M. caliginosus and A. ervi, under laboratory conditions.', 'en_US'),
(4119, 'Navigating a critical juncture for sustainable weed management.', 'Agricultural weed management has become entrenched in a single tactic—herbicide—resistant crops—and needs greater emphasis on integrated practices that are sustainable over the long term. In response to the outbreak of glyphosate-resistant weeds, the seed and agrichemical industries are developing crops that are genetically modified to have combined resistance to glyphosate and synthetic auxin herbicides. This technology will allow these herbicides to be used over vastly expanded areas and will likely create three interrelated challenges for sustainable weed management. First, crops with stacked herbicide resistance are likely to increase the severity of resistant weeds. Second, these crops will facilitate a significant increase in herbicide use, with potential negative consequences for environmental quality. Finally, the short-term fix provided by the new traits will encourage continued neglect of public research and extension in integrated weed management. Here, we discuss the risks to sustainable agriculture from the new resistant crops and present alternatives for research and policy.', 'en_US'),
(4120, 'New hope for dedicated genetically engineered bioenergy feedstocks?', 'The unique regulatory requirements and costs of genetic engineering (GE) are likely to inhibit commercialization of dedicated bioenergy crops due to the relatively small current market. Two recent regulatory approvals for GE plants, however, may signal a shift in policy and an opening of a door to a streamlined federal regulatory pathway for commercialization for non-food plants. The change, however, may shift regulatory battles from the federal to the state and local level, as each state has independent authority to regulate plants under respective noxious weed/plant protection statutes. This previously dormant state regulatory power could result in even more complex barriers to commercialization of GE bioenergy crops--replacing the regulatory delays embedded in the federal system with regulatory chaos at the state and local level.', 'en_US'),
(4121, 'Metabolomic plasticity in GM and non-GM potato leaves in response to aphid herbivory and virus infection.', 'An important aspect of ecological safety of genetically modified (GM) plants is the evaluation of unintended effects on plant–insect interactions. These interactions are to a large extent influenced by the chemical composition of plants. This study uses NMR-based metabolomics to establish a baseline of chemical variation to which differences between a GM potato line and its parent cultivar are compared. The effects of leaf age, virus infection, and aphid herbivory on plant metabolomes were studied. The metabolome of the GM line differed from its parent only in young leaves of noninfected plants. This effect was small when compared to the baseline. Consistently, aphid performance on excised leaves was influenced by leaf age, while no difference in performance was found between GM and non-GM plants. The metabolomic baseline approach is concluded to be a useful tool in ecological safety assessment.', 'en_US'),
(4122, 'Increased frequency of pink bollworm resistance to Bt toxin Cry1Ac in China.', 'Transgenic crops producing insecticidal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) kill some key insect pests, but evolution of resistance by pests can reduce their efficacy. The main approach for delaying pest adaptation to Bt crops uses non-Bt host plants as “refuges” to increase survival of susceptible pests. To delay evolution of pest resistance to transgenic cotton producing Bt toxin Cry1Ac, the United States and some other countries have required refuges of non-Bt cotton, while farmers in China have relied on “natural” refuges of non-Bt host plants other than cotton. The “natural” refuge strategy focuses on cotton bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera), the primary target of Bt cotton in China that attacks many crops, but it does not apply to another major pest, pink bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella), which feeds almost entirely on cotton in China. Here we report data showing field-evolved resistance to Cry1Ac by pink bollworm in the Yangtze River Valley of China. Laboratory bioassay data from 51 field-derived strains show that the susceptibility to Cry1Ac was significantly lower during 2008 to 2010 than 2005 to 2007. The percentage of field populations yielding one or more survivors at a diagnostic concentration of Cry1Ac increased from 0% in 2005–2007 to 56% in 2008–2010. However, the median survival at the diagnostic concentration was only 1.6% from 2008 to 2010 and failure of Bt cotton to control pink bollworm has not been reported in China. The early detection of resistance reported here may promote proactive countermeasures, such as a switch to transgenic cotton producing toxins distinct from Cry1A toxins, increased planting of non-Bt cotton, and integration of other management tactics together with Bt cotton.', 'en_US'),
(4123, 'How useful are the concepts of familiarity, biological integrity, and ecosystem health for evaluating damages by GM crops?', 'In the discussion about consequences of the release of genetically modified (GM) crops, the meaning of the term “environmental damage” is difficult to pin down. We discuss some established concepts and criteria for understanding and evaluating such damages. Focusing on the concepts of familiarity, biological integrity, and ecosystem health, we argue that, for the most part, these concepts are highly ambiguous. While environmental damage is mostly understood as significant adverse effects on conservation resources, these concepts may not relate directly to effects on tangible natural resources but rather to parameters of land use or ecological processes (e.g., the concept of biological integrity). We stress the importance of disclosing the normative assumptions underlying damage concepts and procedures for the evaluation of damages by GM crops. A conceptualization of environmental damage should precede its operationalization. We recommend an unambiguous definition for damage developed earlier and recommend that evaluation criteria be based on this. However, a general damage definition cannot replace case-specific operationalization of damage, which remains an important future challenge.', 'en_US');

INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(4154, 'Contamination and management of resistance evolution to high-dose transgenic insecticidal crops.', 'For maize and cotton, transgenic varieties that express toxins derived from Bacillus thuriengensis (Bt) are now planted in several countries. To slow resistance evolution, the “high-dose/refuge” strategy is broadly implemented in which resistance is recessive and some fields (or areas within fields) are planted exclusively with Bt crops and other fields planted exclusively with non-transgenic refuge crops for susceptible insects. This strategy, however, could potentially be undermined by contamination. Here, we investigate general models of resistance evolution for high-dose events in which fields are contaminated due to the inadvertent mixing of seeds, volunteer plants, or pollen flow between Bt and non-Bt varieties coupled with seed-saving by farmers. Contamination of the refuge by Bt plants increases selection for resistance, thereby speeding resistance evolution. Nonetheless, in most situations this effect is small. Contamination of Bt fields by non-transgenic plants might be expected to have the opposite effect and always reduce the rate of resistance evolution. While this is often the case, it is not always so. If larvae move among plants within a field, then high movement rates may reverse the effect of contamination of Bt fields to slow resistance evolution. Furthermore, if the dispersal rates of adult females between Bt and refuge fields are low, then contamination of Bt fields may speed resistance. These results suggest that contamination has the potential to undermine the efficacy of the high-dose/refuge strategy, yet depending upon the particular pest and situation, contamination may not be a concern.', 'en_US'),
(4155, 'Genetically modified Bt maize lines containing cry3Bb1, cry1A105 or cry1Ab2 do not affect the structure and functioning of root-associated endophyte communities.', 'Transgenic maize expressing Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) insecticidal crystal (Cry) proteins may contribute to a decreased need for chemical pesticides, providing benefits for human health and the environment. However, there is public concern regarding the environmental safety of transgenic crops, which relates also to potential adverse effects on plant-microbe interactions by affecting the plant-associated, endophytic microflora. Thus, we compared the endophytic bacterial communities in plants of the three transgenic Bt maize lines MON89034 (cry3Bb1), MON88017 (cry1A.105 and cry2Ab2) and the stacked event MON88017xMON89034 (cry1A.105 and cry2Ab2, cry3Bb1), with those of the respective near-isogenic line, and with those in plants of three additional, conventional maize lines. The maize plants were grown in a containment system on two different soils which were commonly used for maize cultivation in Lower Austria.\r\n\r\nWe obtained 700 bacterial endophytes and characterized them regarding their phylogenetic diversity and specific plant growth promoting functions, including the production of 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) deaminase and indole-3-acetic acid (IAA). Both the soil environment and the plant cultivar had an effect on the phylogenetic diversity of the endophytic communities, but there were no specific effects of the transgenic varieties. Diversity measures of endophytic isolates were not different in Bt- versus non-Bt maize varieties. A variable number of isolates showed ACC deaminase activity irrespective of the soil and plant cultivar. Generally, the number of high IAA producers appeared to be affected by the soil environment but not by the plant cultivar. Cultivation-independent profiling via terminal restriction fragment polymorphism (T-RFLP) analysis of the 16S rRNA gene revealed that maize root endophytes were differentially composed dependent on soil type and plant cultivar, but they were not discriminated with respect to Bt- versus non-Bt varieties. In conclusion, maize endophyte communities studied were highly diverse and showed a high potential for plant growth promotion, emphasizing their importance in modern agricultural systems irrespective of the maize cultivar, including Bt-modifications.', 'en_US'),
(4156, 'Field trials to evaluate effects of continuously planted transgenic insect-resistant cottons on soil invertebrates.', 'Impacts on soil invertebrates are an important aspect of environmental risk assessment and post-release monitoring of transgenic insect-resistant plants. The purpose of this study was to research and survey the effects of transgenic insect-resistant cottons that had been planted over 10 years on the abundance and community structure of soil invertebrates under field conditions. During 3 consecutive years (2006–2008), eight common taxa (orders) of soil invertebrates belonging to the phylum Arthropoda were investigated in two different transgenic cotton fields and one non-transgenic cotton field (control). Each year, soil samples were taken at four different growth stages of cotton (seedling, budding, boll forming and boll opening). Animals were extracted from the samples using the improved Tullgren method, counted and determined to the order level. The diversity of the soil fauna communities in the different fields was compared using the Simpson''s, Shannon''s diversity indices and evenness index. The results showed a significant sampling time variation in the abundance of soil invertebrates monitored in the different fields. However, no difference in soil invertebrate abundance was found between the transgenic cotton fields and the control field. Both sampling time and cotton treatment had a significant effect on the Simpson''s, Shannon''s diversity indices and evenness index. They were higher in the transgenic fields than the control field at the growth stages of cotton. Long-term cultivation of transgenic insect-resistant cottons had no significant effect on the abundance of soil invertebrates. Collembola, Acarina and Araneae could act as the indicators of soil invertebrate in this region to monitor the environmental impacts of transgenic plants in the future.', 'en_US'),
(4157, 'Challenges in the environmental monitoring of genetically modified plants.', 'According to genetic engineering legislation in Switzerland, the cultivation of genetically modified plants (GMPs) must be accompanied by environmental monitoring. This environmental monitoring is intended to identify any negative effects on the environment as early as possible so that necessary remedial measures can be taken. Accordingly, the authorities must be in a position to recognise changes in the environment and classify them as environmental harm. In our opinion, however, environmental monitoring is only partially suitable for reducing uncertainties which might still exist after the risk assessment of GMPs. From a scientific point of view, there are four difficulties with such decisions. The first three difficulties concern methodological limitations in scientific data collection. The fourth difficulty stems from the controversial assessment of the environmental effects of GMPs. Thus, it is nowadays unclear just which environmental changes are effectively to be evaluated as constituting harm. In this article, we analyse the four challenges and suggest possible strategies for countering them. Any remaining uncertainties should ideally be investigated during risk assessment before approval is granted. Regulatory authorities should recognise the limitations of environmental- monitoring programs for decision-making during cultivation of GMPs.', 'en_US'),
(4158, 'Evidence of reduced arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal colonization in multiple lines of Bt maize.', 'Premise of the study: Insect-resistant Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) maize is widely cultivated, yet few studies have examined the interaction of symbiotic arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) with different lines of Bt maize. As obligate symbionts, AMF may be sensitive to genetic changes within a plant host. Previous evaluations of the impact of Bt crops on AMF have been inconsistent, and because most studies were conducted under disparate experimental conditions, the results are difficult to compare.\r\n\r\nMethods: We evaluate AMF colonization in nine Bt maize lines, differing in number and type of engineered trait, and five corresponding near-isogenic parental (P) base hybrids in greenhouse microcosms. Plants were grown in 50% local agricultural soil with low levels of fertilization, and AMF colonization was evaluated at 60 and 100 d. Nontarget effects of Bt cultivation on AMF colonization were tested in a subsequently planted crop, Glycine max, which was seeded into soil that had been preconditioned for 60 d with Bt or P maize.\r\n\r\nKey results: We found that Bt maize had lower levels of AMF colonization in their roots than did the non-Bt parental lines. However, reductions in AMF colonization were not related to the expression of a particular Bt protein. There was no difference in AMF colonization in G. max grown in the Bt- or P-preconditioned soil.\r\n\r\nConclusions: These findings are the first demonstration of a reduction in AMF colonization in multiple Bt maize lines grown under the same experimental conditions and contribute to the growing body of knowledge examining the unanticipated effects of Bt crop cultivation on nontarget soil organisms.', 'en_US'),
(4159, 'Assessing compositional variability through graphical analysis and bayesian statistical approaches: case studies on transgenic crops.', 'New transgenic (GM) crops are subjected to extensive safety assessments that include compositional comparisons with conventional counterparts as a cornerstone of the process. The influence of germplasm, location, environment, and agronomic treatments on compositional variability is, however, often obscured in these pair-wise comparisons. Furthermore, classical statistical significance testing can often provide an incomplete and over-simplified summary of highly responsive variables such as crop composition. In order to more clearly describe the influence of the numerous sources of compositional variation we present an introduction to two alternative but complementary approaches to data analysis and interpretation. These include i) exploratory data analysis (EDA) with its emphasis on visualization and graphics-based approaches and ii) Bayesian statistical methodology that provides easily interpretable and meaningful evaluations of data in terms of probability distributions. The EDA case-studies include analyses of herbicide-tolerant GM soybean and insect-protected GM maize and soybean. Bayesian approaches are presented in an analysis of herbicide-tolerant GM soybean. Advantages of these approaches over classical frequentist significance testing include the more direct interpretation of results in terms of probabilities pertaining to quantities of interest and no confusion over the application of corrections for multiple comparisons. It is concluded that a standardized framework for these methodologies could provide specific advantages through enhanced clarity of presentation and interpretation in comparative assessments of crop composition.', 'en_US'),
(4160, 'Will they stay or will they go? The political influence of GM-averse importing companies on biosafety decision makers in Africa.', 'Presumed but unproven trade risks are considered a significant factor in the reluctance of African countries to use potentially beneficial genetically modified (GM) crops. We model a threat from an importer to a local policy maker announcing an upcoming confined field trial of a GM crop as a dynamic game of incomplete information and illustrate our analysis with a stochastic simulation. The results show that provided the cost of threatening is small, and the cost of going out of the country is significant, the importer will threaten to go out and may effectively lower the probability of commercializing a GM crop.', 'en_US'),
(4161, 'Impact of gene stacking on gene flow: the case of maize.', 'To respect the European labelling threshold for the adventitious presence of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in food and feed, stakeholders mainly rely on real-time PCR analysis, which provides a measurement expressed as a percentage of GM-DNA. However, this measurement veils the complexity of gene flow, especially in the case of gene stacking. We have investigated the impact of gene stacking on adventitious GM presence due to pollen flow and seed admixture as well as its translation in terms of the percentage of GM-DNA in a non-GM maize harvest. In the case of varieties bearing one to four stacked events, we established a set of relationships between the percentage of GM kernels and the percentage of GM-DNA in a non-GM harvest as well as a set of relationships between the rate of seed admixture and the percentages of GM material in a non-GM harvest. Thanks to these relationships, and based on simulations with a gene flow model, we have been able to demonstrate that the number of events and the stacking structure of the emitting fields impact the ability of a non-GM maize producer to comply with given GM kernel or GM-DNA thresholds. We also show that a great variability in the rates of GM kernels, embryos and DNA results from seed admixture. Finally, the choice of a unit of measurement for a GM threshold in seed lots can have opposite effects on the ability of farmers to comply with a given threshold depending on whether they are crop or seed producers.', 'en_US'),
(4162, 'Bt rice expressing Cry1Ab does not stimulate an outbreak of its non-target herbivore, Nilaparvata lugens.', 'In this study, the non-target effects of Bt rice “KMD2” expressing a Cry1Ab protein on the performance of the brown planthopper (BPH), Nilaparvata lugens, over multiple generations were evaluated under laboratory and field conditions. In the laboratory, BPH was reared to observe the impact of the Bt rice as compared to its parental non-Bt cultivar Xiushui 11, while the population dynamics and oviposition performance of BPH were investigated in the field. The survival of BPH nymphs fed Bt and non-Bt rice did not differ significantly. The nymph developmental duration of BPH was significantly delayed by the Bt rice by comparison with the non-Bt rice for the 1st and 2nd but not the 4th generation. Most importantly, the fecundity of BPH on the Bt rice was significantly decreased in every generation when compared with the non-Bt rice. In the field investigations, the population density of BPH nymphs was significantly lower in the Bt rice field. However, the temporal pattern of population dynamics of BPH adults was similar between the Bt and non-Bt rice, presumably due to migratory interference of the adults. In the Bt rice field, the percentage of tillers with eggs and the number of eggs per tiller were also significantly lower from tillering to mature stage. Additionally, Cry1Ab protein could not be detected in guts from single BPH adults. In general, our results suggest that the Bt rice “KMD2” could not stimulate an outbreak of BPH.', 'en_US'),
(4163, 'Assessment of the health impact of GM plant diets in long-term and multigenerational animal feeding trials: a literature review.', 'The aim of this systematic review was to collect data concerning the effects of diets containing GM maize, potato, soybean, rice, or triticale on animal health. We examined 12 long-term studies (of more than 90 days, up to 2 years in duration) and 12 multigenerational studies (from 2 to 5 generations). We referenced the 90-day studies on GM feed for which long-term or multigenerational study data were available. Many parameters have been examined using biochemical analyses, histological examination of specific organs, hematology and the detection of transgenic DNA. The statistical findings and methods have been considered from each study. Results from all the 24 studies do not suggest any health hazards and, in general, there were no statistically significant differences within parameters observed. However, some small differences were observed, though these fell within the normal variation range of the considered parameter and thus had no biological or toxicological significance. If required, a 90-day feeding study performed in rodents, according to the OECD Test Guideline, is generally considered sufficient in order to evaluate the health effects of GM feed. The studies reviewed present evidence to show that GM plants are nutritionally equivalent to their non-GM counterparts and can be safely used in food and feed.', 'en_US'),
(4164, 'The structuring of GMO release and evaluation in EU law.', 'Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and their behavior in the environment are complex and can only be assessed if the different components are distinguished. This article examines, how by EU law the real causation processes from the GMO release to various endpoints are dissected, individually analysed and then again viewed in their entirety. In addition, the articles includes, how the intellectual process of assessment is divided into the steps of tiered generation, shared submission and structured evaluation of relevant knowledge. The framework proposed for such an examination allows to identify strengths and weaknesses of GMO risk assessment in the EU.', 'en_US'),
(4165, 'Changes in the prevalence of weed species in the major agronomic crops of the southern United States: 1994/1995 to 2008/2009.', 'Changes in the weed flora of cropping systems reflect the impacts of factors that create safe sites for weed establishment and facilitate the influx and losses to and from the soil seedbank. This analysis of the annual surveys of the Southern Weed Science Society documents changes in the weed flora of the 14 contiguous southern states since the advent of transgenic, herbicide-resistant crops. In 1994 and 2009, the top five weeds in corn were morningglories, Texas millet, broadleaf signalgrass, johnsongrass, and sicklepod; in this same period Palmer amaranth, smartweeds, and goosegrass had the greatest increases in importance in corn. In cotton, morningglories and nutsedges were among the top five most troublesome weeds in 1995 and 2009. Palmer amaranth, pigweeds, and Florida pusley were also among the five most troublesome species in 2009; the weeds with the largest increases in importance in cotton were common ragweed and two species with tolerance to glyphosate, Benghal dayflower and Florida pusley. In soybean, morningglories, nutsedges, and sicklepod were among the top five weed species in 1995 and 2009. Two species with glyphosate resistance, Palmer amaranth and horseweed, were the second and fourth most troublesome weeds of soybean in 2009. In wheat, the top four weeds in 2008 were the same as those in 1994 and included Italian ryegrass, wild garlic, wild radish, and henbit. Crop production in the southern region is a mosaic of various crop rotations, soil types, and types of tillage. During the interval between the surveys, the predominant change in weed management practices in the region and the nation was the onset and rapid dominance of the use of glyphosate in herbicide-resistant cultivars of corn, cotton, and soybean. Because of the correspondence between the effects of glyphosate on the respective weed species and the observed changes in the weed flora of the crops, it is likely the very broad use of glyphosate was a key component shaping the changes in weed flora. Only eight of the top 15 most troublesome weeds of cotton and soybean, the crops with the greatest use of glyphosate, were the same in 1995 and 2009. In contrast, in corn and wheat where adoption of glyphosate-resistant cultivars lags or is absent, 12 of the 15 most troublesome weeds were the same in 1994 and 2008. These findings show on a regional scale that weeds adapt to recurrent selection from herbicides, currently the predominant weed management tool. Future research should seek methods to hinder the rapid spread of herbicide-tolerant and evolution of herbicide-resistant weed species. As new tools are developed, research should focus on ways to preserve the efficacy of those tools through improved stewardship.', 'en_US'),
(4166, 'Competition of transgenic volunteer corn with soybean and the effect on western corn rootworm emergence.', 'Glyphosate-resistant (GR) volunteer corn has emerged as a problematic weed in cornsoybean rotational systems, partly because of the rapid increase in adoption of corn hybrids that contain traits for both glyphosate and insect resistance. Volunteer GR corn can decrease soybean yields. The objectives of this study were to quantify the impact of volunteer corn on soybean growth and yield and determine how volunteer corn densities affect western corn rootworm (WCR) emergence. Volunteer corn seed was hand-planted at targeted densities of 0.5, 2, 4, 8, 12, and 16 seeds m&amp;#8722;2 at soybean planting and 21 d after planting to evaluate both early- and late-emerging cohorts. WCR emergence was assessed with the use of field emergence traps placed over individual corn plants in the 0.5- and 16-plants-m&amp;#8722;2 plots in 2008 and 2009. In 2010, WCR emergence traps were also placed over individual and clumped volunteer corn plants at densities of two and eight plants m&amp;#8722;2. Soybean yield reductions ranged from 10 to 41% where early-emerging volunteer corn densities ranged from 0.5 to 16 plants m&amp;#8722;2. No soybean yield loss occurred with the late-emerging cohort of volunteer corn. Twice as many adult WCRs emerged from a single volunteer corn plant growing at densities of 8 and 16 plants m&amp;#8722;2, compared with plots containing 0.5 and 2 plants m&amp;#8722;2. These results demonstrate that controlling volunteer corn will not only prevent soybean yield loss, but also may reduce the risk of WCR larval survival after exposure to Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner derived) corn.', 'en_US'),
(4167, 'Two-year field study shows little evidence that PPO-transgenic rice affects the structure of soil microbial communities.', 'There is global concern about the environmental consequences associated with transgenic crops. Their effects on the soil ecosystem are of special interest when assessing ecological safety and integrity. Although many efforts have been made to develop crops genetically modified to have resistance to protoporphyrin oxidase (PPO)-inhibiting herbicides, little is known about their influence on soil microbial communities. We conducted a 2-year field study and an analysis via terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (T-RFLP) to assess the impacts of PPO-transgenic rice on bacterial and fungal communities. In the first year we sampled the rhizosphere and surrounding bulk soil, while in the second year we sampled rhizosphere soil only. No differences were observed in the diversity indices and community composition of microbial communities between transgenic rice and its parental non-transgenic counterpart (cultivar Dongjin). Instead, community variation was strongly dependent on growth stage and year. Therefore, we observed no adverse effects by these crops of modified rice on the microbial community composition in paddy soils.', 'en_US'),
(4168, 'Commercializing genetically modified crops under EU regulations: objectives and barriers.', 'Agriculture faces serious problems in feeding 9 billion people by 2050: production must be increased and ecosystem services maintained under conditions for growing crops that are predicted to worsen in many parts of the world. A proposed solution is sustainable intensification of agriculture, whereby yields are increased on land that is currently cultivated, so sparing land to deliver other ecosystem services. Genetically modified (GM) crops are already contributing to sustainable intensification through higher yields and lower environmental impacts, and have potential to deliver further significant improvements. Despite their widespread successful use elsewhere, the European Union (EU) has been slow to introduce GM crops: decisions on applications to import GM commodities are lengthy, and decision-making on applications to cultivate GM crops has virtually ceased. Delayed import approvals result in economic losses, particularly in the EU itself as a result of higher commodity prices. Failure to grant cultivation approvals costs EU farmers opportunities to reduce inputs, and results in loss of agricultural research and development from the EU to countries such as the United States and China. Delayed decision-making in the EU ostensibly results from scientific uncertainty about the effects of using GM crops; however, scientific uncertainty may be a means to justify a political decision to restrict cultivation of GM crops in the EU. The problems associated with delayed decision-making will not improve until there is clarity about the EU’s agricultural policy objectives, and whether the use of GM crops will be permitted to contribute to achieving those objectives.', 'en_US'),
(4169, 'Gene technology regulation in Australia: a decade of a federal implementation of a statutory legal code in a context of constituent states taking divergent positions.', 'Gene technology is regulated in Australia by the Office of the Gene Technology Regulator (OGTR), a federal government agency with responsibility for managing health and environmental risks of GM organisms under the Gene Technology Act 2000. The OGTR liaises with other national agencies, governments of States and Territories of Australia and local councils. Current national risk management regulation is the result of three decades of experience with oversight of gene technology. A major operational feature of Australian regulation is reliance on Institutional Biosafety Committees (IBCs) located within the regulated institutions. In 2009–2010 the OGTR managed 45 licenses relating to GM crop field trials, and inspected crop trials that included canola, wheat, barley, banana, sugarcane, cotton, Indian mustard and grapevines. States and Territories of Australia make decisions on market related (non-safety) issues, and adopt different political stances with respect to commercialization of GM crops. Some Australian states support environmental release of licensed GM crops (e.g., Queensland), others ban them (Tasmania), while some have re-positioned themselves, after initially opposing commercialization, to currently allowing regulated commercial use (Victoria, Western Australia). Flexibility exhibited by the Australian regulatory system is facilitated by separation of political decision-making in the Gene Technology Ministerial Council away from the OGTR.', 'en_US'),
(4170, 'There\\''s a long, long trail a-winding: the complexities of GM foods regulation, a cautionary tale from the UK.', 'The evolution of the regulatory process for genetically modified (GM) food in the United Kingdom is reviewed from its formal inception in 1988 to the present, drawing out lessons which have been learned from a series of cases brought to the committee for approval. The unexpected but highly professional anti-GM campaign is described, and issues regarding public perceptions of risk are discussed. Recent failures to find a consensus solution in the United Kingdom are described, and a proposal is made for a way forward.', 'en_US'),
(4171, 'European attitudes on the regulation of modern biotechnology and their consequences.', 'Modern biotechnology has gradually attracted ever greater interest over the past four decades, from ever-widening communities across the world—from academic scientists, of course, and then from industrialists, journalists, medical specialists, agricultural practitioners, environmental “experts,” economists, trading companies—and, so far as it concerns regulation, above all from political interests whose product is indeed legislation. As the interests widened, conflicts developed: between departments, between sectors, between countries and between international agencies. The European Community made choices, bitterly contested; the battles on conducting and regulating the field release of GMOs (genetically modified organisms) were usually won—at least in Europe—by the environment ministries, often in conflict with agriculture and/or the research and science ministries. The result has been the construction over the past 30 y of an ever heavier regulatory burden on those who seek to develop and launch products based on the use of modern biotechnology. The pretense is labeled “the precautionary principle.” No lives have been saved, but many jobs have been created in bureaucracies large and small around the world. So far as academia was concerned, their experiments and field trials were repeatedly wrecked by NGOs (non-governmental organizations) claiming thus to have saved mankind and the environment. This is a story of grave political failure in Europe with globally adverse consequences.', 'en_US'),
(4172, 'Coexistence, North American style: regulation and litigation.', 'Globally, biotech crops have left a legacy of success and some notable failures due to regulatory and litigious barriers to entry, with a pipeline of potentially beneficial biotech agricultural products lined up and awaiting approval. Compared with traditional agriculture, these crops provide significant health benefits to environmental and human health benefits, including organic systems. While the rest of the world has increased acreage of biotech crops at a steady annual rate of 10%, North America—the birthplace of most biotech crops—has reached a critical turning point in its regulatory evolution. Biotech crops can play a major role in creating a more sustainable agricultural landscape, which is increasingly well-documented, but future commercial use may be hampered by regulation and litigation that place organic and non-GMO agriculture on a pedestal, which could force many biotech crops into containment. If producers of biotech crops are required to prevent their crops from contaminating these other, high premium specialty crops through migration, innovation in agricultural biotechnology will suffer (as the European experience with agricultural biotechnology clearly demonstrates).', 'en_US'),
(4173, 'Biosafety legislation and biotechnology development gains momentum in Africa.', 'Opinion in Africa over the use of genetically modified crops for food has been divided, honed by more than a decade of arguments in Europe and elsewhere.1 Fortunately, the perceived image of a passive Africa in this game is changing rapidly with clear positions on how to harness modern biotechnology.\r\n\r\nThis article examines the status of biosafety regulation across Africa, pertinent challenges and the extent to which regulation fosters or constrains the development of agricultural biotechnology.', 'en_US'),
(4174, 'The emerging international regulatory framework for biotechnology.', 'Debate about the potential risks of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) to the environment or human health spurred attention to biosafety. Biosafety is associated with the safe use of GMOs and, more generally, with the introduction of non-indigenous species into natural or managed ecosystems. Biosafety regulation—the policies and procedures adopted to ensure the environmentally safe application of modern biotechnology—has been extensively discussed at various national and international forums. Much of the discussion has focused on developing guidelines, appropriate legal frameworks and, at the international level, a legally binding international biosafety protocol—the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. The Protocol is one among various international instruments and treaties that regulate specific aspects relevant to agricultural biotechnology. The present article presents the main international instruments relevant to biosafety regulation, and their key provisions. While international agreements and standards provide important guidance, they leave significant room for interpretation, and flexibility for countries implementing them. Implementation of biosafety at the national level has proven to be a major challenge, particularly in developing countries, and consequently the actual functioning of the international regulatory framework for biotechnology is still in a state of flux.', 'en_US'),
(4175, 'Consumption of Bt rice pollen expressing Cry2Aa does not cause adverse effects on adult Chrysoperla sinica Tjeder (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae).', 'Adults of Chrysoperla sinica Tjeder are prevalent pollen feeders in rice fields in China. They are therefore exposed to insecticidal proteins when foraging insect-resistant genetically engineered rice pollen containing Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) proteins. Laboratory bioassays were conducted to evaluate the potential impacts of Cry2Aa-expressing transgenic rice (T2A-1) pollen on fitness of adult C. sinica. Survival, pre-oviposition period, fecundity and adult dry weight did not differ between lacewings that had consumed Bt or non-Bt rice pollen. To ensure lacewing adults were not sensitive to Cry2Aa protein independent from the plant background and to add certainty to the toxicity assessment, C. sinica adults were fed with an artificial diet containing Cry2Aa protein at an approximately 10 times higher concentration than in rice pollen. Artificial diet containing potassium arsenate (PA) was included as a positive control. No difference was detected for any of the life-table parameters tested between Cry2Aa-containing and pure diet. In contrast, the pre-oviposition, fecundity and dry weight of C. sinica were significantly adversely affected by feeding on PA-containing diet. In both bioassays, the uptake of Cry protein by adult C. sinica and the bioactivity of Cry protein in the food sources were confirmed by ELISA measurements and sensitive insect bioassays, respectively. These results indicate that adults of C. sinica are not affected by Cry2Aa-expressing rice pollen and are not sensitive to Cry2Aa protein at concentrations exceeding the levels in pollen, thus demonstrating that growing Bt rice expressing Cry2Aa protein will pose a negligible risk to adult C. sinica.', 'en_US'),
(4176, 'Assessment of prey-mediated effects of the coleopteran-specific toxin Cry3Bb1 on the generalist predator Atheta coriaria (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae).', 'A laboratory study was carried out to assess the potential prey-mediated effects of Cry3Bb1-expressing Bt maize on the fitness and predatory ability of Atheta coriaria Kraatz (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae), using Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae) as prey. The concentration of Cry3Bb1 toxin through the trophic chain significantly decreased from Bt maize (21.7 &amp;#956;g g&amp;#8722;1 FW) to mites (5.6 &amp;#956;g g&amp;#8722;1 FW) and then to A. coriaria adults (1.4 &amp;#956;g g&amp;#8722;1 FW), but not from mites to A. coriaria L1–L3 larvae (4.1–4.6 &amp;#956;g g&amp;#8722;1 FW). Interestingly, the toxin levels detected in A. coriaria larvae represent more than 20% of the concentration found in Bt maize, and the toxin was detected up to 48 h after exposure. To our knowledge, this is the highest level of exposure ever reported in a predatory beetle to the Cry3Bb1 protein. When A. coriaria larvae were reared on Bt-fed mites, Bt-free mites or rearing food, no significant differences among treatments were observed in development, morphological measurements of sclerotized structures and body weight. Moreover, no negative effects on reproductive parameters were reported in adults feeding on Bt-fed prey after 30 days of treatment, and survival was not affected after 60 days of exposure. Similarly, predatory ability and prey consumption of A. coriaria larvae and adults were not affected by exposure to the toxin. All together, these results indicate a lack of adverse effects on A. coriaria, a species commonly used as a biological control agent. The use of A. coriaria as a surrogate species for risk assessment of GM crops that express insecticidal proteins is discussed.', 'en_US'),
(4177, 'Gene flow among wild and domesticated almond species: insights from chloroplast and nuclear markers.', 'Hybridization has played a central role in the evolutionary history of domesticated plants. Notably, several breeding programs relying on gene introgression from the wild compartment have been performed in fruit tree species within the genus Prunus but few studies investigated spontaneous gene flow among wild and domesticated Prunus species. Consequently, a comprehensive understanding of genetic relationships and levels of gene flow between domesticated and wild Prunus species is needed. Combining nuclear and chloroplastic microsatellites, we investigated the gene flow and hybridization among two key almond tree species, the cultivated Prunus dulcis and one of the most widespread wild relative Prunus orientalis in the Fertile Crescent. We detected high genetic diversity levels in both species along with substantial and symmetric gene flow between the domesticated P. dulcis and the wild P. orientalis. These results were discussed in light of the cultivated species diversity, by outlining the frequent spontaneous genetic contributions of wild species to the domesticated compartment. In addition, crop-to-wild gene flow suggests that ad hoc transgene containment strategies would be required if genetically modified cultivars were introduced in the northwestern Mediterranean.', 'en_US'),
(4178, 'Reciprocal gene flow between conventional and genetically modified soybean cultivars.', 'The objective of this work was to determine the reciprocal gene flow between two soybean cultivars, one tolerant and the other sensitive to glyphosate, as well as to use estimators to determine the outcrossing rate in the population and the number of hybrid seeds in the progeny. The experiment was composed of four blocks of 40 soybean rows, of which 20 rows of each cultivar (CD217 and CD219RR). At the R8 stage, five rows, distant 0.5, 1, 2, 4 and 8 m from the adjacent cultivar, were harvested, threshed and analyzed as for the occurrence of gene flow. As phenotypical markers, the trait color of flowers, hypocotil and pubescence, as well as the tolerance to glyphosate were used. The cultivars contrast for all the analyzed traits, each one conditioned by a single gene with two alleles, in a complete dominance interaction. In the tolerant cultivar progeny, the largest outcross rate was 0.27%, and in the sensitive cultivar progeny, 0.83% was identified; by the dilution effect hypothesis, the outcross rates in natural populations would be 0.104 and 0.388%, respectively. The reciprocal gene flow between CD217 and CD219RR cultivars is not the same in both directions. The proposed estimators are useful for determining the hybrid rates in seed samples.', 'en_US'),
(4179, 'Impact of Bt cotton on insect biodiversity in cotton ecosystem in India.', 'Biotechnology in general and insect-resistant transgenic crops in particular has played a significant role in reducing crop losses caused by insect pests. The commercialization of Bt transgenic cotton in India has significantly increased the cotton production from about 10 million bales in 2001-2002 to 34 million bales in 2009-2010. The deployment of Bt cotton in India has significantly reduced the numbers and volume of insecticide sprays, bollworms population, production cost and environmental contamination.  However, reduction in insecticide sprays, especially during flowering and boll formation has led to resurgence of some minor pests such as tobacco caterpillar, mealy bugs, thrips, aphids, leafhoppers, green stink bug, and serpentine leaf miner. The reduced insecticide use and personal experience of farmers of not having negative impact of Bt cotton on the population buildup of bee colonies, has encouraged beekeepers to keep their bee hives in Bt cotton in Haryana, Rajasthan and Punjab in India. From the field scale studies it is also apparent that there are no adverse effects of Bt cotton on the arthropod diversity and natural enemy functions in the cotton ecosystem, and if any are much lower than that of use of insecticides, which have little ecological impact. However, Indian  experience  with Bt cotton  cultivation reveals  that  the  development  of resistance  in  target  pests  to  Bt  can''t  be  ignored,  and  the  resistance  monitoring  and management strategies are essential and need greater attention to sustain Bt technology.', 'en_US'),
(4180, 'Economic implications of low-level presence in a zero-tolerance European import market: the case of Canadian triffid flax.', 'Triffid is the name given to a genetically modified (GM) variety of flaxseed that was developed in the late 1980s at the University of Saskatchewan’s Crop Development Centre. The variety was designed to thrive in soil containing residues from sulfonylurea-type herbicides and offered greater weed control options to flax growers. In 1998, Triffid received Canadian and American feed and food regulatory approvals and entered a seed multiplication program. The following year, Europe threatened to stop importing Canadian flax should GM flax enter into commercial production. By April 2001, Triffid was deregistered and all remaining seed was supposedly destroyed. However, in late 2009, Triffid flax was unexpectedly detected in EU food products and in subsequent flax imports into Europe from Canada. In response to this, the EU immediately halted Canadian flax imports.\r\n\r\nThis article documents Canadian costs of the Triffid flax issue as an example of low level presence (LLP) of an unapproved transformation event in a zero-tolerance European market. It explores/evaluates the impacts (economic and social costs) on the Canadian industry—including the development of a stewardship program and testing protocols, the engagement and relationship strategies utilized in negotiations with the EU to resolve market access, and the overall industry response to the issue (from producers to exporters).\r\n\r\nThe article presents survey responses from more than 270 Western Canadian flax farmers. This survey data provides new insights as to how farmers manage LLP on-farm. The production attributes that are examined range from field agronomics to ability to export. Specifically, it examines how farmers have dealt with flax, in terms of production and sale, since the Fall of 2009. Detailed analysis is provided for the following supply chain components: on-farm testing, carryover costs, and opportunity costs. Finally, the article provides some insights as to who farmers trust in terms of communicating information to them on how to best manage this situation.', 'en_US'),
(4181, 'Biological confinement strategies for seed- and pollen-mediated gene flow of GM canola (Brassica napus L.).', 'Canola (Brassica napus) varieties containing inherent restrictions on gene flow may address problems of seed- and pollen-mediated gene flow. The aim of this study was to explore the effectiveness of 1) low-dormancy varieties in avoiding GM soil seedbanks and volunteers, and 2) cleistogamous (clg) genotypes to avoid outcrossing.\r\n\r\nGM and non-GM varieties with altered seed ingredients had a wide dormancy range that turned out to be genetically determined. Quantitative trait locus (QTL) mapping identified four QTLs, which together explained 35% of the phenotypic variance. The fiber content of the seeds appeared to additionally affect seed dormancy. A qualitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay was developed for clg canola by cloning and sequencing of clg1-specific DNA fragments. Detection of characteristic bands in 0.1% clg spiked samples illustrated the sensitivity of this method.\r\n\r\nThe inherent traits of low dormancy and cleistogamy may be feasible tools to minimize gene flow and may be considered for coexistence of GM and non-GM canola.', 'en_US'),
(4182, 'Understanding agricultural species metapopulation biology and ecology and the implications for coexistence in low level of presence scenarios.', 'The intraspecific movement of novel traits in agriculture involves a metapopulation that includes cropped, volunteer, and feral subpopulations as well as a latent population comprised of any viable seed anywhere within the agro-ecosystem and agricultural supply chain. An assessment of novel trait movement risk or containment requirements relies on a good understanding of volunteer and feral populations as well as a deep understanding of supply-chain operations, processes, protocols, and equipment. For coexistence scenarios where threshold levels are low, an assessment of the potential success of trait containment will be overestimated if there is a poor understanding of the species metapopulation. The biology and ecology of cropped species varies with respect to the potential for intraspecific trait movement, and some species, such as alfalfa, may pose a much greater challenge in terms of trait containment than spring wheat, for example, although agronomic practices do mitigate these differences and one should not assume that a species’ nature alone will determine trait containment. We show examples of this for canola, spring wheat, and alfalfa and explain the implications for coexistence in low level of presence scenarios.', 'en_US'),
(4183, 'Biosafety of genetically modified organisms in the Latin American and the Caribbean region: main needs and opportunities for strategic capacity building.', 'Biotechnology has the potential to help improve food production in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC), a continent where agriculture plays a dominant role in peoples’ lives and in trade. It is therefore critical that recombinant DNA (rDNA) biotechnology is regulated in such a manner as to capture its benefits and to minimize any potential risks. In order to best understand biosafety needs in LAC, an email-based stakeholder consultation was carried out, augmented by personal communications with well-informed respondents, and integrated into a desktop study incorporating information from recent peer-reviewed literature. The resultant qualitative study tracked developments in rDNA biotechnology and biosafety in the region and reviewed regulatory capacity as well as the legacies of previous capacity-building projects in these areas to culminate in a snapshot of the present situation. It demonstrated that approximately half of the 31 countries represented in the study are not carrying out any domestic research and development on genetically modified organisms (GMOs); furthermore, the majority have not developed GM products beyond the proof-of-concept stage. Only 58% of the study countries appear to have operational biosafety regulatory systems in place. Acknowledging that methods of delivering capacity building should be tailored to specific demand-driven needs, the study identified possible knowledge and expertise gaps in the region, to be used as a basis for possible training and/or support interventions.', 'en_US'),
(4184, 'Field trials and tribulations-making sense of the regulations for experimental field trials of transgenic crops in Europe.', 'Transgenic plants that are being developed for commercial cultivation must be tested under field conditions to monitor their effects on surrounding wildlife and conventional crops. Developers also use this opportunity to evaluate the performance of transgenic crops in a typical environment, although this is a matter of commercial necessity rather than regulatory compliance. Most countries have adapted existing regulations or developed new ones to deal specifically with transgenic crops and their commodities. The European Union (EU) is renowned, or perhaps notorious, for having the broadest and most stringent regulations governing such field trials in the world. This reflects its nominal adherence to the precautionary approach, which assumes all transgenic crops carry an inherent risk. Therefore, field trials in the EU need to demonstrate that the risk associated with deploying a transgenic crop has been reduced to the level where it is regarded as acceptable within the narrowly defined limits of the regulations developed and enforced (albeit inconsistently) by national and regional governments, that is, that there is no greater risk than growing an equivalent conventional crop. The involvement of national and regional competent authorities in the decision-making process can add multiple layers of bureaucracy to an already-intricate process. In this review, we use country-based case studies to show how the EU, national and regional regulations are implemented, and we propose strategies that could increase the efficiency of regulation without burdening developers with further unnecessary bureaucracy.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(4185, 'Effects of consumption of Bt-maize (MON 810) on the collembolan Folsomia candida, over multiple generations: a laboratory study.', 'The effect of long-term feeding on Bt-maize by collembolans in the laboratory is virtually unestablished. That is why the aim of the present study was to test whether the reproduction, fecal pellet production or food preference of the collembolan F. candida is affected when fed on Bt-maize for several consecutive generations. The collembolans were fed with Bt-maize for 0, 6, 16 and 22 months and the number of eggs and fecal pellets were determined. The experiment was repeated seven months later with the same populations. Food preference tests were additionally performed. Significant differences were found in food consumption, egg production and food preference between populations in some cases, but no time-response effect was observed. In conclusion, several generations feeding of F. candida on Cry1Ab toxin containing Bt-maize seems not to be harmful to this collembolan species.', 'en_US'),
(4186, 'Are adult Crambid Snout Moths (Crambinae) and larval stages of Lepidoptera suitable tools for an environmental monitoring of transgenic crops? -- Implications of a field test.', 'Butterflies and moths (Lepidoptera) have been suggested for the environmental monitoring of genetically modified (GM) crops due to their suitability as ecological indicators, and because of the possible adverse impact of the cultivation of current transgenic crops. The German Association of Engineers (VDI) has developed guidelines for the standardized monitoring of Lepidoptera describing the use of light traps for adult moths, transect counts for adult butterflies, and visual search for larvae. The guidelines suggest recording adults of Crambid Snout Moths during transect counts in addition to butterflies, and present detailed protocols for the visual search of larvae. In a field survey in three regions of Germany, we tested the practicability and effort-benefit ratio of the latter two VDI approaches. Crambid Snout Moths turned out to be suitable and practical indicators, which can easily be recorded during transect counts. They were present in 57% of the studied field margins, contributing a substantial part to the overall Lepidoptera count, thus providing valuable additional information to the monitoring results. Visual search of larvae generated results in an adequate effort-benefit ratio when searching for lepidopteran larvae of common species feeding on nettles. Visual search for larvae living on host plants other than nettles was time-consuming and yielded much lower numbers of recorded larvae. Beating samples of bushes and trees yielded a higher number of species and individuals. This method is especially appropriate when hedgerows are sampled, and was judged to perform intermediate concerning the relationship between invested sampling effort and obtained results for lepidopteran larvae. In conclusion, transect counts of adult Crambid Moths and recording of lepidopteran larvae feeding on nettles are feasible additional modules for an environmental monitoring of GM crops. Monitoring larvae living on host plants other than nettles and beating samples of bushes and trees can be used as a supplementary tool if necessary or desired.', 'en_US'),
(4187, 'Similar genetic basis of resistance to Bt toxin Cry1Ac in boll-selected and diet-selected strains of pink bollworm.', 'Genetically engineered cotton and corn plants producing insecticidal Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxins kill some key insect pests. Yet, evolution of resistance by pests threatens long-term insect control by these transgenic Bt crops. We compared the genetic basis of resistance to Bt toxin Cry1Ac in two independently derived, laboratory-selected strains of a major cotton pest, the pink bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella [Saunders]). The Arizona pooled resistant strain (AZP-R) was started with pink bollworm from 10 field populations and selected with Cry1Ac in diet. The Bt4R resistant strain was started with a long-term susceptible laboratory strain and selected first with Bt cotton bolls and later with Cry1Ac in diet. Previous work showed that AZP-R had three recessive mutations (r1, r2, and r3) in the pink bollworm cadherin gene (PgCad1) linked with resistance to Cry1Ac and Bt cotton producing Cry1Ac. Here we report that inheritance of resistance to a diagnostic concentration of Cry1Ac was recessive in Bt4R. In interstrain complementation tests for allelism, F1 progeny from crosses between AZP-R and Bt4R were resistant to Cry1Ac, indicating a shared resistance locus in the two strains. Molecular analysis of the Bt4R cadherin gene identified a novel 15-bp deletion (r4) predicted to cause the loss of five amino acids upstream of the Cry1Ac-binding region of the cadherin protein. Four recessive mutations in PgCad1 are now implicated in resistance in five different strains, showing that mutations in cadherin are the primary mechanism of resistance to Cry1Ac in laboratory-selected strains of pink bollworm from Arizona.', 'en_US'),
(4188, 'Effect of Cry1Ab protein on rhizobacterial communities of Bt-maize over a four-year cultivation period.', 'Background:  Bt-maize is a transgenic variety of maize expressing the Cry toxin from Bacillus turingiensis. The potential accumulation of the relative effect of the transgenic modification and the cry toxin on the rhizobacterial communities of Bt-maize has been monitored over a period of four years.\r\n\r\nMethodology/Principal Findings:  The accumulative effects of the cultivation of this transgenic plant have been monitored by means of high throughput DNA pyrosequencing of the bacterial DNA coding for the 16S rRNA hypervariable V6 region from rhizobacterial communities. The obtained sequences were subjected to taxonomic, phylogenetic and taxonomic-independent diversity studies. The results obtained were consistent, indicating that variations detected in the rhizobacterial community structure were possibly due to climatic factors rather than to the presence of the Bt-gene. No variations were observed in the diversity estimates between non-Bt and Bt-maize.\r\n\r\nConclusions/Significance:  The cultivation of Bt-maize during the four-year period did not change the maize rhizobacterial communities when compared to those of the non-Bt maize. This is the first study to be conducted with Bt-maize during such a long cultivation period and the first evaluation of rhizobacterial communities to be performed in this transgenic plant using Next Generation Sequencing.', 'en_US'),
(4189, 'Compositional assessment of carotenoid-biofortified rice using substantial equivalence.', 'One important aspect in assessing the safety of genetically modified (GM) crops for human consumption is characterizing their nutrient composition. A &amp;#946;-carotene-biofortified rice was generated by inserting phytoene synthase (Psy) and carotene desaturase (Crtl) genes isolated from Capsicum and Pantoea into the genome of a conventional variety of rice (Nakdongbyeo). Nutrients (proximates, amino acids, fatty acids, minerals, and vitamins), anti-nutritive components (trypsin inhibitors and phytic acid), and ferulic acid in GM rice were compared with those in the parent line Nakdongbyeo. Statistical comparisons to test for equivalence showed that all of the analyzed components in the GM plants were equivalent to those in its non-transgenic counterpart, and most nutritional components fell within the range of values reported for other commercial lines, indicating the safety of the GM plant.', 'en_US'),
(4190, 'Analysis of U.S. genetically engineered crop regulation and litigation.', 'The commercial potential of genetically engineered (GE) crops has not been fully realized in the United States. Over the past decade, environmental litigation dramatically affected the pace of GE crop development, testing, and deregulation. The U.S. Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) regulates GE organisms that may pose a risk to plant or animal health. However, recent litigation initiated by nongovernmental organizations such as the Center for Food Safety and the International Center for Technology Assessment has exposed APHIS''s vulnerability to lawsuits under the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) for failing to assess the environmental risks of novel GE crops. In these cases, APHIS committed two types of mistakes. First, APHIS did not differentiate between traditional GE crops whose risks are well characterized and novel GE crops that may raise unique environmental risks and societal issues based on their distinctive biology. Consequently, it did not adequately evaluate the legally defined environmental risks of these novel crops. Second, APHIS did not fully appreciate NEPA''s sweeping scope and focus on procedural compliance to ensure transparent and thorough environmental decision making. As a result, APHIS impeded the development and commercialization of GE crops and must take a more defensive posture in the future to deter costly and lengthy NEPA litigation in the case of novel GE crops.', 'en_US'),
(4191, 'Morphological variation in the wild-weedy complex of Sorghum bicolor in situ in western Kenya: preliminary evidence of crop-to-wild gene flow?', 'Crop wild relatives are important components of agroecosystems and have over the years been exploited in breeding programs as sources of genes for novel traits. Information on the extent and patterns of variability is important in formulating effective conservation and utilization strategies for existing crop wild relative populations. We conducted surveys and collections of wild and weedy accessions of Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench in Lambwe Valley in western Kenya in order to investigate occurrence, distribution, and morphological variability in the wild-weedy complex of S. bicolor under local agroecological conditions. We also attempted to understand the role, if any, of crop-to-wild gene flow in structuring variability within and among populations. The morphological data presented here showed wide variability within wild-weedy sorghum populations with respect to habitats and morphotypes. True wild sorghum populations in national parks and the sugarcane belt were clearly distinguishable from the putative hybrids or intermediate forms found in sorghum fields, in sorghum field margins, and, to some extent, by the roadside near sorghum fields. The existence of these intermediate forms is empirical evidence of introgression between cultivated sorghum and its wild-weedy relatives. Extensive introgression, especially within in situ conservation areas and/or in areas of high diversity, would lead to genetic erosion and possible depletion of these important wild sorghum genetic resources.', 'en_US'),
(4192, 'Observational science in the environmental risk assessment and management of GMOs.', '', 'en_US'),
(4193, 'Assessment of the influence of field size on maize gene flow using SSR analysis.', 'One of the factors that may influence the rate of cross-fertilization is the relative size of the pollen donor and receptor fields. We designed a spatial distribution with four varieties of genetically-modified (GM) yellow maize to generate different sized fields while maintaining a constant distance to neighbouring fields of conventional white kernel maize. Samples of cross-fertilized, yellow kernels in white cobs were collected from all of the adjacent fields at different distances. A special series of samples was collected at distances of 0, 2, 5, 10, 20, 40, 80 and 120 m following a transect traced in the dominant down-wind direction in order to identify the origin of the pollen through SSR analysis. The size of the receptor fields should be taken into account, especially when they extend in the same direction than the GM pollen flow is coming. From collected data, we then validated a function that takes into account the gene flow found in the field border and that is very useful for estimating the % of GM that can be found in any point of the field. It also serves to predict the total GM content of the field due to cross fertilization. Using SSR analysis to identify the origin of pollen showed that while changes in the size of the donor field clearly influence the percentage of GMO detected, this effect is moderate. This study demonstrates that doubling the donor field size resulted in an approximate increase of GM content in the receptor field of 7%. This indicates that variations in the size of the donor field have a smaller influence on GM content than variations in the size of the receptor field.', 'en_US'),
(4194, 'A 90-day safety study of genetically modified rice expressing rhIGF-1 protein in C57BL/6J rats.', 'Genetically modified plants expressing disease resistance traits offer new treatment strategies for human diseases, but at the same time present a challenge in terms of food safety assessment. The present 90-day feeding study was designed to assess the safety of transgenic rice expressing the recombinant human insulin-like growth factor-1 (rhIGF-1) compared to its parental wild rice. Male and female C57BL/6J rats were given a nutritionally balanced purified diet with 20% transgenic rhIGF-1 rice or 20% parental rice for 90 days. This corresponds to a mean daily rhIGF-1 protein intake of approximately 217.6 mg/kg body weight based on the average feed consumption. In the animal study a range of biological, biochemical, clinical, microbiological and pathological parameters were examined and several significant differences were observed between groups, but none of the effects were considered to be adverse. In conclusion, no adverse or toxic effects on C57BL/6J rats were observed in the design used in this 90-day study. These results will provide valuable information for the safety assessment of genetically modified food crops.', 'en_US'),
(4195, 'Assessing the ecological risks from the persistence and spread of feral populations of insect-resistant transgenic maize.', 'One source of potential harm from the cultivation of transgenic crops is their dispersal, persistence and spread in non-agricultural land. Ecological damage may result from such spread if the abundance of valued species is reduced. The ability of a plant to spread in non-agricultural habitats is called its invasiveness potential. The risks posed by the invasiveness potential of transgenic crops are assessed by comparing in agronomic field trials the phenotypes of the crops with the phenotypes of genetically similar non-transgenic crops known to have low invasiveness potential. If the transgenic and non-transgenic crops are similar in traits believed to control invasiveness potential, it may be concluded that the transgenic crop has low invasiveness potential and poses negligible ecological risk via persistence and spread in non-agricultural habitats. If the phenotype of the transgenic crop is outside the range of the non-transgenic comparators for the traits controlling invasiveness potential, or if the comparative approach is regarded as inadequate for reasons of risk perception or risk communication, experiments that simulate the dispersal of the crop into non-agricultural habitats may be necessary. We describe such an experiment for several commercial insect-resistant transgenic maize events in conditions similar to those found in maize-growing regions of Mexico. As expected from comparative risk assessments, the transgenic maize was found to behave similarly to non-transgenic maize and to be non-invasive. The value of this experiment in assessing and communicating the negligible ecological risk posed by the low invasiveness potential of insect-resistant transgenic maize in Mexico is discussed.', 'en_US'),
(4196, 'Virus infections in wild plant populations are both frequent and often unapparent.', 'Premise of the study: Pathogens are thought to regulate host populations. In agricultural crops, virus infection reduces yield. However, in wild plants little is known about the spatial and temporal patterns of virus prevalence. Thus, pathogen effects on plant population dynamics are unclear. Prevalence data provide necessary background for (1) evaluating the effects of virus infection on plant population size and dynamics and (2) improving risk assessment of virus-resistant transgenic crops.\r\n\r\nMethods: We used ELISA and RT-PCR to survey wild Cucurbita pepo populations over 4 years for five viruses, aphid-transmitted viruses of the genus Potyvirus as a group and PCR to survey for virus-resistance transgenes. In addition, we surveyed the literature for reports of virus prevalence in wild populations.\r\n\r\nKey results: In 21 C. pepo populations, virus prevalence (0–74%) varied greatly among populations, years, and virus species. In samples analyzed by both ELISA and RT-PCR, RT-PCR detected 6–44% more viruses than did ELISA. Eighty percent of these infections did not cause any visually apparent symptoms. In our samples, the virus-resistance transgene was not present. In 30 published studies, 92 of 146 tested species were infected with virus, and infection rates ranged from 0.01–100%. Most published studies used ELISA, suggesting virus prevalence is higher than reported.\r\n\r\nConclusions: In wild C. pepo, the demographic effects of virus are likely highly variable in space and time. Further, our literature survey suggests that such variation is probably common across plant species. Our results indicate that risk assessments for virus-resistant transgenic crops should not rely on visual symptoms or ELISA and should include data from multiple populations over multiple years.', 'en_US'),
(4197, 'Weed control and yield comparisons of glyphosate- and glufosinate-resistant corn grown in rotation.', 'Information on long-term glyphosate- and glufosinate-resistant corn (Zea mays L.) production on weed control and rotation benefits is lacking. A six-year field study was conducted from 2004 to 2009 at Stoneville, MS, to examine the effects of rotating glyphosate-resistant and glufosinate-resistant corn under reduced tillage conditions on weed control, soil weed seedbanks, and yield. The four rotation systems were glyphosate-resistant and glufosinate-resistant corn grown continuously and in rotation with two herbicide programs, post-emergence-only herbicides (POST) and preemergence herbicides followed by POST (PRE + POST). Control of 13 predominant weed species in glyphosate-resistant and glufosinate-resistant corn was &gt;95%, regardless of herbicide program, with the exception of johnsongrass and yellow nutsedge, both perennial weeds. Johnsongrass and yellow nutsedge control was lower in the continuous glufosinate-resistant corn system compared with other rotation systems. Yellow nutsedge control was higher with the PRE + POST (89% to 99%) compared with the POST-only (72% to 86%) treatment. Corn yields were similar regardless of rotation when a corn cultivar stacked with both glyphosate-resistant and glufosinate-resistant traits was used. The PRE + POST program gave 5% to 10% higher yield than the POST-only program in four of six years. The seedbank for yellow nutsedge and predominant grass and broadleaf weeds was not significant among the four rotation systems. Seedbanks for grasses and yellow nutsedge were higher in the POST-only program (20.5 and 1.8 per core of 678 cm3, respectively) compared with the PRE + POST program (9.5 and 0.4 per core, respectively). These results indicate that johnsongrass and yellow nutsedge control could be reduced in continuous glufosinate-resistant corn and could be mitigated by rotating with glyphosate-resistant corn.', 'en_US'),
(4198, 'Scale effect on rice pollen-mediated gene flow: implications in assessing transgene flow from genetically engineered plants.', 'Transgene flow from genetically engineered (GE) crops to non-GE varieties and wild relatives via pollen-mediated gene flow (PMGF) may create food and environmental biosafety concerns. Assessing the level of PMGF from GE crops is required before commercialization. Whether the level of PMGF estimated at relatively small scales can sufficiently represent the actual scenario at large production scales remains unresolved. Here, we estimated average PMGF frequencies from three insect-resistant GE rice lines to their non-GE counterparts at four scales ranging from 9 to 576&amp;#8201;m2, having the number of GE to non-GE plants constantly at the ratio of 8:1. Based on nearly 1.3 million examined seedlings from non-GE rice plots, very low frequencies (&lt;0.1%) of transgene flow were detected. The highest frequencies were found in plots at the smallest scales. Scale had a significantly negative effect on the frequency of PMGF in rice, with decreased gene flow at increased scale. An extended PMGF model could well represent the experimental data. Field experiments at relatively small scales combined with mathematical modelling could provide useful prediction on the level of rice transgene flow at large production scales. This is probably applicable for other crop species with wind- and self-pollination.', 'en_US'),
(4199, 'Maize x teosinte hybrid cobs do not prevent crop gene introgression.', 'Maize x Teosinte Hybrid Cobs Do Not Prevent Crop Gene Introgression. Whether introgression from crops to wild relatives can occur is an important component of transgene risk assessment. In the case of maize, which co-occurs with its wild relative teosinte in Mexico, the possibility of introgression has been controversial. Maize is cross-compatible with teosinte, and spontaneous hybridization is known to occur. Some scientists have hypothesized that the maize x teosinte cob infructescence will prevent progeny dispersal, thus preventing introgression. Motivated by a prior study where we found maize x teosinte hybrid fruits naturally dispersed under field conditions, we tested whether hybrid cobs hold their fruits as tightly as maize cobs. We found the force required to detach hybrid fruits was substantially and significantly less than that for maize. Consequently, we expect that introgression of transgenes from maize into teosinte in Mexico should occur largely unimpeded by the hybrid cob.La mazorca o elote híbrido de maíz x teocintle no impide la introgresión de genes transgénicos provenientes del cultivo. La introgresión entre el maíz cultivado y el maíz silvestre, o teocintle, es un componente importante en la evaluación ambiental relacionada con los riesgos de la introducción de genes transgénicos. La posibilidad de introgresión entre el maíz domesticado y el teocintle ha sido un tema controversial, en particular en México, donde maíz y teocintle coexisten. El maíz es compatible con el teocintle y la hibridización espontánea ocurre entre ellos. Algunos científicos han planteado como hipótesis que al cruzar el maíz con teocintle, la estructura interna de la infrutescencia que sujeta los frutos conocida como la mazorca de maíz o el elote, impide la dispersión de la progenie evitando que la introgresión ocurra. Los resultados de un estudio previo evidencian la dispersión de los frutos híbridos del maíz x teocintle en condiciones naturales. Motivados por estos resultados, hemos decidido investigar si la mazorca o el elote de las infrutescencias del híbrido sujetan los frutos con una fuerza comparable o mayor a la del maíz. Nuestras mediciones implican que la fuerza necesaria para liberar los frutos híbridos son substancial y significativamente menores que aquellas necesarias para desprender los frutos del maíz. Como conclusión sugerimos que en México, la mazorca o el elote no representan una barrera que impida la introgresión de los genes transgénicos del maíz al teocintle.', 'en_US'),
(4200, 'Ameliorating risk: culturable and metagenomic monitoring of the 14 year decline of a genetically engineered microorganism at a bioremediation field site.', 'In 1996, the first EPA sanctioned release of a recombinant microbe (Pseudomonas fluorescens HK44) into the subsurface soil environment was initiated in a replicated semi-contained array of soil lysimeters. With an aim to access the survivability/environmental fate of HK44, soil sampling was performed 14 years post release. Although after extensive sampling culturable HK44 cells were not found, qPCR and metagenomic analyses indicated that genetic signatures of HK44 cells still persisted in the soils, with genes diagnostic for the bioluminescent transposon carried by strain HK44 (luxA and tetA) being found at low concentrations (&lt; 5000 copies/g). Additionally, metagenome analysis of lysimeter 2 using amplicon pyrosequencing showed that Burkholderia was more abundant in the sample extracted before storage at 4°C than after storage at 4°C (79% and 5.6% Burkholderia sequences, respectively).', 'en_US'),
(4201, 'Long-term effects of transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis cotton on the non-target Aphis gossypii (Homoptera: Aphididae) maintained for multiple generations.', 'The effects of transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) cotton on non-target Aphis gossypii were assessed by comparing the life-table parameters of aphids that fed on Bt vs. non-Bt cotton cultivars for the first and 37th generations. The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method was used to detect the transmission of the Bt protein from Bt cotton to A. gossypii and their honeydew. We found that the life-table parameters of A. gossypii that fed on Bt cotton for the first and 37th generations did not differ significantly from those of the non-Bt-fed individuals. However, the Bt protein was detected by ELISA in the Bt cotton leaves, and the content varied significantly at different growth stages. Furthermore, trace amounts of the Bt protein were detected in some of the Bt-fed aphids, and the honeydew of the Bt-fed aphids contained over 10 ng/g Bt protein. These results indicate that although trace amounts of the Bt protein were ingested, the Bt cotton had no significant negative impacts on A. gossypii in either the short or long term.', 'en_US'),
(4202, 'Delaying corn rootworm resistance to Bt corn.', 'Transgenic crops producing Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxins for insect control have been successful, but their efficacy is reduced when pests evolve resistance. To delay pest resistance to Bt crops, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has required refuges of host plants that do not produce Bt toxins to promote survival of susceptible pests. Such refuges are expected to be most effective if the Bt plants deliver a dose of toxin high enough to kill nearly all hybrid progeny produced by matings between resistant and susceptible pests. In 2003, the EPA first registered corn, Zea mays L., producing a Bt toxin (Cry3Bb1) that kills western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte, one of the most economically important crop pests in the United States. The EPA requires minimum refuges of 20% for Cry3Bb1 corn and 5% for corn producing two Bt toxins active against corn rootworms. We conclude that the current refuge requirements are not adequate, because Bt corn hybrids active against corn rootworms do not meet the high-dose standard, and western corn rootworm has rapidly evolved resistance to Cry3Bb1 corn in the laboratory, greenhouse, and field. Accordingly, we recommend increasing the minimum refuge for Bt corn targeting corn rootworms to 50% for plants producing one toxin active against these pests and to 20% for plants producing two toxins active against these pests. Increasing the minimum refuge percentage can help to delay pest resistance, encourage integrated pest management, and promote more sustainable crop protection.', 'en_US'),
(4203, 'Effects of entomopathogenic nematodes on evolution of pink bollworm resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis toxin Cry1Ac.', 'The evolution of resistance by pests can reduce the efficacy of transgenic crops that produce insecticidal toxins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). However, fitness costs may act to delay pest resistance to Bt toxins. Meta-analysis of results from four previous studies revealed that the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema riobrave (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae) imposed a 20% fitness cost for larvae of pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), that were homozygous for resistance to Bt toxin Cry1Ac, but no significant fitness cost was detected for heterozygotes. We conducted greenhouse and laboratory selection experiments to determine whether S. riobrave would delay the evolution of pink bollworm resistance to Cry1Ac. We mimicked the high dose/refuge scenario in the greenhouse with Bt cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) plants and refuges of non-Bt cotton plants, and in the laboratory with diet containing Cry1Ac and refuges of untreated diet. In both experiments, half of the replicates were exposed to S. riobrave and half were not. In the greenhouse, S. riobrave did not delay resistance. In the laboratory, S. riobrave delayed resistance after two generations but not after four generations. Simulation modeling showed that an initial resistance allele frequency &gt;0.015 and population bottlenecks can diminish or eliminate the resistance-delaying effects of fitness costs. We hypothesize that these factors may have reduced the resistance-delaying effects of S. riobrave in the selection experiments. The experimental and modeling results suggest that entomopathogenic nematodes could slow the evolution of pest resistance to Bt crops, but only under some conditions.', 'en_US'),
(4204, 'Information tools for environmental risk assessment of low level presence: an introduction to the reviews of the environmental safety of proteins used in genetically engineered plants.', '', 'en_US'),
(4205, 'A review of the environmental safety of the CP4 EPSPS protein.', '', 'en_US'),
(4206, 'Impact of Bt transgenic cotton on population dynamics of aphids and natural enemies.', '', 'en_US'),
(4207, 'The VIRCA project: virus resistant cassava for Africa.', 'The VIRCA (Virus Resistant Cassava for Africa) project is a collaborative program between the Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, USA the National Crops Resources Research Institute, Uganda and the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, Kenya. VIRCA is structured to include all aspects of the intellectual property, technology, regulatory, biosafety, quality control, communication and distribution components required for a GM crop development and delivery process. VIRCA''s goal is to improve cassava for resistance to the viral diseases cassava brown streak disease (CBSD) and cassava mosaic disease (CMD) using pathogen-derived RNAi technology, and to field test, obtain regulatory approval for and deliver these products to small landholder farmers. During Phase I of the project, proof of concept was achieved by production and testing of virus resistant plants under greenhouse and confined field trials in East Africa. In VIRCA Phase II, two farmer-preferred varieties will be modified for resistance to CBSD and CMD, and lead events identified after molecular and field screening. In addition to delivery of royalty-free improved planting materials for farmers, VIRCA capacity building activities are enhancing indigenous capability for crop biotechnology in East Africa.', 'en_US'),
(4208, 'Surveying of pollen-mediated crop-to-crop gene flow from a wheat field trial as a biosafety measure.', 'Outcrosses from genetically modified (GM) to conventional crops by pollen-mediated gene flow (PMGF) are a concern when growing GM crops close to non-GM fields. This also applies to the experimental releases of GM plants in field trials. Therefore, biosafety measures such as isolation distances and surveying of PMGF are required by the regulatory authorities in Switzerland. For two and three years, respectively, we monitored crop-to-crop PMGF from GM wheat field trials in two locations in Switzerland. The pollen donors were two GM spring wheat lines with enhanced fungal resistance and a herbicide tolerance as a selection marker. Seeds from the experimental plots were sampled to test the detection method for outcrosses. Two outcrosses were found adjacent to a transgenic plot within the experimental area. For the survey of PMGF, pollen receptor plots of the conventional wheat variety Frisal used for transformation were planted in the border crop and around the experimental field up to a distance of 200 m. Although the environmental conditions were favorable and the donor and receptor plots flowered at the same time, only three outcrosses were found in approximately 185,000 tested seedlings from seeds collected outside the experimental area. All three hybrids were found in the border crop surrounding the experimental area, but none outside the field. We conclude that a pollen barrier (border crop) and an additional isolation distance of 5 m is a sufficient measure to reduce PMGF from a GM wheat field trial to cleistogamous varieties in commercial fields below a level that can be detected.', 'en_US'),
(4209, 'Global impact of biotech crops: Environmental effects, 1996-2010.', 'This paper updates the assessment of the impact commercialized agricultural biotechnology is having on global agriculture, from some important environmental perspectives. It focuses on the impact of changes in pesticide use and greenhouse gas emissions arising from the use of biotech crops. The technology has reduced pesticide spraying by 443 million kg (-9.1%) and, as a result, decreased the environmental impact associated with herbicide and insecticide use on these crops [as measured by the indicator the Environmental Impact Quotient (EIQ)] by 17.9%. The technology has also significantly reduced the release of greenhouse gas emissions from this cropping area, which, in 2010, was equivalent to removing 8.6 million cars from the roads.', 'en_US'),
(4210, 'Assessment of the high-dose concept and level of control provided by MON 87701 x MON 89788 soybean against Anticarsia gemmatalis and Pseudoplusia includens (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in Brazil.', 'BACKGROUND: Genetically modified MON 87701 × MON 89788 soybean (Glycine max), which expresses the Cry1Ac and EPSP-synthase proteins, has been registered for commercial use in Brazil. To develop an Insect Resistance Management (IRM) program for this event, laboratory and field studies were conducted to assess the high-dose concept and level of control it provides against Anticarsia gemmatalis and Pseudoplusia includens.\r\nRESULTS: The purified Cry1Ac protein was more active against A. gemmatalis [LC50 (FL 95%) = 0.23 (0.15–0.34) µg Cry1Ac mL&amp;#8722;1 diet] than P. includens [LC50 (FL 95%) = 3.72 (2.65–4.86) µg Cry1Ac mL&amp;#8722;1 diet]. In bioassays with freeze-dried MON 87701 × MON 89788 soybean tissue diluted 25 times in an artificial diet, there was 100% mortality of A. gemmatalis and up to 95.79% mortality for P. includens. In leaf-disc bioassays and under conditions of high artificial infestation in the greenhouse and natural infestation in the field, MON 87701 × MON 89788 soybean showed a high level of efficacy against both target pests.\r\nCONCLUSIONS: The MON 87701 × MON 89788 soybean provides a high level of control against A. gemmatalis and P. includes, but a high-dose event only to A. gemmatalis.', 'en_US'),
(4211, 'Approval of GM crops: socio-economic considerations in developing countries.', 'Socio-economic considerations associated with the application of gene technologies have been a major concern, especially in developing countries, which are caught between the potentials of biotechnology for development, on the one hand, and their adverse socio-economic impacts, on the other. Globally, the experience of countries even with the most advanced regimes for incorporating these issues shows that addressing them effectively remains a challenge. The Cartagena Biosafety Protocol, the only global instrument for governance of genetically modified crops, does not address these considerations. Thus policy frameworks depend primarily on domestic concerns and priorities. Recent attempts to separate socio-economic assessment from biosafety assessment processes and conduct the two in parallel appear to embody a more pragmatic approach. The proposed Biotechnology Regulatory Authority of India Bill must draw upon this international experience and associated insight.', 'en_US'),
(4212, 'DNA barcoding simplifies environmental risk assessment of genetically modified crops in biodiverse regions.', 'Transgenes encoding for insecticidal crystal (Cry) proteins from the soil-dwelling bacterium Bacillus Thuringiensis have been widely introduced into Genetically Modified (GM) crops to confer protection against insect pests. Concern that these transgenes may also harm beneficial or otherwise valued insects (so-called Non Target Organisms, NTOs) represents a major element of the Environmental Risk Assessments (ERAs) used by all countries prior to commercial release. Compiling a comprehensive list of potentially susceptible NTOs is therefore a necessary part of an ERA for any Cry toxin-containing GM crop. In partly-characterised and biodiverse countries, NTO identification is slowed by the need for taxonomic expertise and time to enable morphological identifications. This limitation represents a potentially serious barrier to timely adoption of GM technology in some developing countries. We consider Bt Cry1A cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) in Nigeria as an exemplar to demonstrate how COI barcoding can provide a simple and cost-effective means of addressing this problem. Over a period of eight weeks, we collected 163 insects from cowpea flowers across the agroecological and geographic range of the crop in Nigeria. These individuals included 32 Operational Taxonomic Units (OTUs) spanning four Orders and that could mostly be assigned to genus or species level. They included 12 Lepidopterans and two Coleopterans (both potentially sensitive to different groups of Cry proteins). Thus, barcode-assisted diagnoses were highly harmonised across groups (typically to genus or species level) and so were insensitive to expertise or knowledge gaps. Decisively, the entire study was completed within four months at a cost of less than 10,000 US$. The broader implications of the findings for food security and the capacity for safe adoption of GM technology are briefly explored.', 'en_US'),
(4213, 'Effects of feeding Bt MON810 maize to pigs for 110 days on peripheral immune response and digestive fate of the cry1Ab gene and truncated Bt toxin.', 'Background:  The objective of this study was to evaluate potential long-term (110 days) and age-specific effects of feeding genetically modified Bt maize on peripheral immune response in pigs and to determine the digestive fate of the cry1Ab gene and truncated Bt toxin.\r\nMethodology/Principal Findings:  Forty day old pigs (n = 40) were fed one of the following treatments: 1) isogenic maize-based diet for 110 days (isogenic); 2) Bt maize-based diet (MON810) for 110 days (Bt); 3) Isogenic maize-based diet for 30 days followed by Bt maize-based diet for 80 days (isogenic/Bt); and 4) Bt maize-based diet (MON810) for 30 days followed by isogenic maize-based diet for 80 days (Bt/isogenic). Blood samples were collected during the study for haematological analysis, measurement of cytokine and Cry1Ab-specific antibody production, immune cell phenotyping and cry1Ab gene and truncated Bt toxin detection. Pigs were sacrificed on day 110 and digesta and organ samples were taken for detection of the cry1Ab gene and the truncated Bt toxin. On day 100, lymphocyte counts were higher (P&lt;0.05) in pigs fed Bt/isogenic than pigs fed Bt or isogenic. Erythrocyte counts on day 100 were lower in pigs fed Bt or isogenic/Bt than pigs fed Bt/isogenic (P&lt;0.05). Neither the truncated Bt toxin nor the cry1Ab gene were detected in the organs or blood of pigs fed Bt maize. The cry1Ab gene was detected in stomach digesta and at low frequency in the ileum but not in the distal gastrointestinal tract (GIT), while the Bt toxin fragments were detected at all sites in the GIT.\r\nConclusions/Significance:  Perturbations in peripheral immune response were thought not to be age-specific and were not indicative of Th 2 type allergenic or Th 1 type inflammatory responses. There was no evidence of cry1Ab gene or Bt toxin translocation to organs or blood following long-term feeding.', 'en_US'),
(4214, 'Characterization of digestive enzymes of bruchid parasitoids-initial steps for environmental risk assessment of genetically modified legumes.', 'Genetically modified (GM) legumes expressing the &amp;#945;-amylase inhibitor 1 (&amp;#945;AI-1) from Phaseolus vulgaris L. or cysteine protease inhibitors are resistant to several bruchid pests (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). In addition, the combination of plant resistance factors together with hymenopteran parasitoids can substantially increase the bruchid control provided by the resistance alone. If the strategy of combining a bruchid-resistant GM legume and biological control is to be effective, the insecticidal trait must not adversely affect bruchid antagonists. The environmental risk assessment of such GM legumes includes the characterization of the targeted enzymes in the beneficial species and the assessment of the in vitro susceptibility to the resistance factor. The digestive physiology of bruchid parasitoids remain relatively unknown, and their susceptibility to &amp;#945;AI-1 has never been investigated. We have detected &amp;#945;-amylase and serine protease activities in all five bruchid parasitoid species tested. Thus, the deployment of GM legumes expressing cysteine protease inhibitors to control bruchids should be compatible with the use of parasitoids. In vitro inhibition studies showed that sensitivity of &amp;#945;-amylase activity to &amp;#945;AI-1 in the parasitoids was comparable to that in the target species. Direct feeding assays revealed that harmful effects of &amp;#945;-amylase inhibitors on bruchid parasitoids cannot be discounted and need further evaluation.', 'en_US'),
(4215, 'Recent and projected increases in atmospheric CO2 concentration can enhance gene flow between wild and genetically altered rice (Oryza sativa).', 'Although recent and projected increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide can alter plant phenological development, these changes have not been quantified in terms of floral outcrossing rates or gene transfer. Could differential phenological development in response to rising CO2 between genetically modified crops and wild, weedy relatives increase the spread of novel genes, potentially altering evolutionary fitness? Here we show that increasing CO2 from an early 20th century concentration (300 µmol mol&amp;#8722;1) to current (400 µmol mol&amp;#8722;1) and projected, mid-21st century (600 µmol mol&amp;#8722;1) values, enhanced the flow of genes from wild, weedy rice to the genetically altered, herbicide resistant, cultivated population, with outcrossing increasing from 0.22% to 0.71% from 300 to 600 µmol mol&amp;#8722;1. The increase in outcrossing and gene transfer was associated with differential increases in plant height, as well as greater tiller and panicle production in the wild, relative to the cultivated population. In addition, increasing CO2 also resulted in a greater synchronicity in flowering times between the two populations. The observed changes reported here resulted in a subsequent increase in rice dedomestication and a greater number of weedy, herbicide-resistant hybrid progeny. Overall, these data suggest that differential phenological responses to rising atmospheric CO2 could result in enhanced flow of novel genes and greater success of feral plant species in agroecosystems.', 'en_US'),
(4216, 'The green fence of Chinese hibiscus (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L.) prevents pollen dispersal of transgenic rice (Oryza sativa).', 'Transgene escape mediated by pollen dispersal is one of the preeminent concerns about genetically modified crops, including rice. In this study, the rice pollen donor of non-glutinous Oryza sativa ssp. japonica cv. ‘Tainung 67’ [TNG 67] had a greater potential of pollen flow, which was shown by the greater quantity, germination rate, and viability of pollen, than the other rice pollen donor of transgenic AAN. The pollen-mediated gene flow was detected by the frequency of outcrossed seeds in a “checker-board pattern” and alternating row arrangement of rice pollen donor (TNG 67 or AAN) and pollen recipient (glutinous rice ‘TNG 73’) in the fields. We conducted field experiments to assess rice pollen dispersal with or without a “green” fence of Chinese hibiscus, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L., of approximately 2 m in height and 0.6 m in thickness. Without a green fence, the outcrossing rate of TNG 73 seeds decreased with increasing distance from the pollen donor, from 1.68% at 1 m to 0.01% at 35 m, with no outcrossing beyond 40 m. The outcrossing rate varied with the direction of pollen donor, from 0.05% in the northeastern direction to 0.78% in the southern direction, which was caused by prevailing wind direction. With the green fence, no seeds of TNG 73 were outcrossed. Since a buffer zone of at least 40 m is needed to prevent outcrossing of rice by pollen dispersal in an open field, planting of Chinese hibiscus around the rice field as a green fence would be an effective measure for preventing transgene escape mediated by pollen flow.', 'en_US'),
(4217, 'The current state of the environmental impact assessment of abiotic stress-tolerant genetically modified plants in the U.S., Canada, Australia, EU and Japan.', 'Abiotic stress–tolerant genetically modified (GM) plants are expected to be next-generation plants that will bring stable yields to cope with future population growth and climate changes due to global warming. However, tolerance to abiotic stress may affect the fitness and possibilities to invade natural environments more than herbicide-tolerance and insect resistance, which have already been approved; therefore, it has been pointed out that the modified plants may have a larger niche than the host plants. Although methods of environmental impact assessments for abiotic stress–tolerant GM plants have been discussed in international meetings, a clear answer has not been reached. These new GM crops have been experimentally grown in fields in the U.S., Canada, Australia, EU and Japan. Our study on the legal framework used when these countries assessed the safety of the plants, together with information about the agricultural background, showed that the countries used the current assessment system without any changes, or expanded the interpretation of the current assessment system or added new methods to the system for the environmental impact assessments of abiotic stress-tolerant GM plants. A new method of assessment involving population dynamic models has been proposed. It may be possible to construct a uniform world standard method based on this proposal by using true abiotic stress&amp;#8722;tolerant GM plants.', 'en_US'),
(4218, 'Field trials with lignin-modified transgenic trees.', 'For the last 20 years, as a complement to biochemical approaches, lignin-modified transgenic trees have proven to be invaluable tools for deciphering the lignin biosynthetic pathway and increasing our knowledge about the role of lignins in wood-specific properties important for tree physiology. In addition, their evaluation in the field has been very useful for the identification of possible routes to improve wood properties for specific industrial uses, initially pulp and paper making and now biofuel production. In this chapter, we review our present knowledge gained through numerous studies analysing transgenic trees, with emphasis on field trial evaluations, for assessing the effects of lignin modification on wood properties and tree physiology. All the data presented here led to the conclusion that, prior to use in forestry for pulp and paper or bioenergy production, the fitness of lignin-modified transgenic trees required careful evaluation in a variety of field environments. Although limited in number, environmental studies failed to indicate any strong effects of lignin-modified transgenic trees on the ecosystem. Finally, this review helps to identify some promising options where biotech trees could be used to further optimize the production of wood for human uses.', 'en_US');
