The accumulation and persistence of the insecticidal toxins from Bacillus thuringiensis may result in environmental hazards, such as toxicity to nontarget species and the selection of toxin-resistant target species. Toxins from B. thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki were added to three soils [Kitchawan soil (which contains kaolinite but not montmorillonite) unamended or amended with montmorillonite or kaolinite (as an internal control); Mopala soil, which contains montmorillonite and kaolinite; and San Alejo soil, which does not contain montmorillonite but contains kaolinite], and the persistence of the toxins was determined by insect bioassays using the larvae of the tobacco hornworm (Manduca sexta). Toxicity varied with the type of soil: the Kitchawan soil, either unamended or amended with kaolinite, remained toxic to the larvae for more than 6 months, maintaining a lethal concentration at which 50% of the larvae were killed (LC50) of 61 to 111 ng 100 l-1 of soil suspension throughout 195 d of incubation. The Kitchawan soil amended with montmorillonite and the Mopala and San Alejo soils showed reduced insecticidal activity after only 35 d (LC50 from 104 to 192 ng 100 l-1). The pH of soils in which insecticidal activity was reduced was higher (5.8 to 7.3) than that of soils in which insecticidal activity was retained (4.9 to 5.1). As microbial activity is greater at higher pH values, more of the toxins may have been degraded by microbes in soils with the higher pH values. This hypothesis was confirmed by the greater loss in insecticidal activity during 234 d when the pH of the Kitchawan soil, unamended or amended to 6% (vol vol-1) with kaolinite, was increased from 4.9 to ca. 7.0 by the addition of CaCO3.