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(4014, 63, NULL, 'JOUR', 'Loureiro I, Escorial MC, Gonzalez A, Chueca MC', '2012', '1329', '1339', '21', '6', NULL, '', '', '', '', 'Disabled', NULL, '', 'Enabled', NULL, NULL),
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(4016, 799, 790, 'JOUR', 'Perez-Massot E, Banakar R, Gomez-Galera S, Zorrilla-Lopez U, Sanahuja G, Arjo G, Miralpeix B, Vamvaka E, Farre G, Rivera SM, Dashevskaya S, Berman J, Sabalza M, Yuan DW, Bai C, Bassie L, Twyman RM, Capell T, Christou P, Zhu CF', '2013', '29', '41', '8', '18', NULL, '', '', '', '', 'Disabled', NULL, '', 'Enabled', NULL, NULL),
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(4020, 763, 946, 'JOUR', 'Danielsen L, Thurmer A, Meinicke P, Buee M, Morin E, Martin F, Pilate G, Daniel R, Polle A, Reich M', '2012', '1935', '1948', '2', '8', NULL, '', '', '', '', 'Disabled', NULL, '', 'Enabled', NULL, NULL),
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(4023, 385, 943, 'JOUR', 'Svobodova Z, Habustova O, Sehnal F, Holec M, Hussein HM', '2013', '56', '67', '137', '1/2', NULL, '', '', '', '', 'Disabled', NULL, '', 'Enabled', NULL, NULL),
(4024, 669, 806, 'JOUR', 'Kim JK, Park SY, Lee SM, Lim SH, Kim HJ, Oh SD, Yeo YS, Cho HS, Ha SH', '2013', '121', '128', '7', '1', NULL, '', '', '', '', 'Disabled', NULL, '', 'Enabled', NULL, NULL),
(4025, 833, 556, 'JOUR', 'Wang XJ, Jia SR, Wang ZX', '2012', '19', '22', '146', '6', NULL, '', '', '', '', 'Disabled', NULL, '', 'Enabled', NULL, NULL),
(4026, 20, 381, 'JOUR', 'Bergamasco VB, Mendes DRP, Fernandes OA, Desiderio JA, Lemos MVF', '2013', '152', '158', '112', '2', NULL, '', '', '', '', 'Disabled', NULL, '', 'Enabled', NULL, NULL);

--
-- Дамп данных таблицы `bibliography_bibliography_i18n`
--

INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(1, 'Assessment of insect-protected cotton: the composition of insect-protected cottonseed is equivalent to that of conventional cottonseed', 'Cotton plants have been developed that control the major lepidopteran insect pests of cotton by the stable introduction of a gene encoding an insecticidal protein from Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki. A comparison was made of the nutrient and antinutrient levels in the seed both to the parental variety and to published values for other commercial cotton varieties, as part of the safety and product assessment of these lines. Compositional equivalence confirmed the appropriateness of these cotton lines (531, 757 and 1076) for use in food and feed products. The insect-protected lines and the parental control were shown to contain levels of nutrients comparable to those of other commercial varieties. The levels of the antinutrients gossypol, cyclopropenoid fatty acids and aflatoxin in the seed from the insect-protected lines were similar to or lower than the levels present in the parental variety and reported for other commercial varieties. It is concluded that these analyses demonstrate that seed from the insect-protected cotton lines is compositionally equivalent to and as nutritious as seed from the parental and other commercial cotton varieties.', 'en_US'),
(2, 'Compositional analysis: the key component for the safety assessment of Flavr Savr? tomatoes or why would anyone want to feed a whole food to rats?', '', 'en_US'),
(3, 'Investigation of glycoalkaloids in potatoes as an example for the principle of substantial equivalence.', '', 'en_US'),
(4, 'Characterization of phospholipids from glyphosate-tolerant soybeans.', 'The phospholipids from three control and two glyphosate-tolerant soybean cultivars were isolated by extraction of soy flakes with hexane and characterized after separation by high-pressure liquid chromatography. In addition, several lots of commercial fluid lecithin were analyzed and the results were compared to values published in the literature. Phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidyl-inositol, and phosphatidic acid were identified as major components in these cultivars and in the commercial lecithin samples. The results showed that glyphosate-tolerant soybeans yield lecithin comparable and equivalent to conventional soybean cultivars.', 'en_US'),
(5, 'When does similar mean the same: a case for relaxing standards of substantial equivalence in genetically modified food crops.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(6, 'Beyond ''substantial equivalence''.', 'Whenever official approval for the introduction of genetically modified (GM) foods has been given in Europe or the United States, regulatory committees have invoked the concept of ''substantial equivalence''. This means that if a GM food can be characterized as substantially equivalent to its ''natural'' antecedent, it can be assumed to pose no new health risks and hence to be acceptable for commercial use. At first sight, the approach might seem plausible and attractively simple, but we believe that it is misguided, and should be abandoned in favour of one that includes biological, toxicological and immunological tests rather than merely chemical ones. The concept of substantial equivalence has never been properly defined; the degree of difference between a natural food and its GM alternative before its ''substance'' ceases to be acceptably ''equivalent'' is not defined anywhere, nor has an exact definition been agreed by legislators. It is exactly this vagueness that makes the concept useful to industry but unacceptable to the consumer. Moreover, the reliance by policymakers on the concept of substantial equivalence acts as a barrier to further research into the possible risks of eating GM foods.', 'en_US'),
(7, 'Quality and safety evaluation of genetically engineered rice with soybean glycinin: analyses of the grain composition and digestibility of glycinin in transgenic rice.', 'The composition of nutritionally and physiologically important molecules in transgenic rice with the soybean glycinin gene was determined and compared with that of a non-transgenic control. Except for the levels of protein, amino acids and moisture, no marked differences were found between the two kinds of rice. The protein content of the transgenic rice was about 20'' higher than the control (control, 6.5 g/100 g; transgenic, 8.0 g/100 g) with a concomitantly lower moisture content. This increased protein content mainly resulted from the increased glycinin expressed in the transgenic rice, and the protein was susceptible to gastric and intestinal digestion juices. In parallel with the increased protein content, some important amino acids lacking in quantity in normal rice were replenished.', 'en_US'),
(8, 'Glyphosate-tolerant cotton: the composition of the cottonseed is equivalent to that of conventional cottonseed.', 'An important aspect of the safety assessment of genetically modified crops to be used for human food and animal feed is the product composition, including nutrients and antinutrients. Cotton lines have been developed that are tolerant to glyphosate, and the active ingredient in the herbicide Roundup. The glyphosate-tolerant lines were generated by the stable insertion of a glyphosate tolerance gene in cotton cv. Coker 312. The glyphosate tolerance gene encodes for 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (3-phosphoshikimate 1-carboxyvinyltransferase) (EPSPS) from Agrobacterium strain CP4 (CP4 EPSPS). The composition of the cottonseed and oil from two glyphosate-tolerant lines, 1445 and 1698, was compared to that of the untransformed Coker 312 and to published values for other commercial cotton varieties. The nutrients measured were protein, fat, fibre, carbohydrate, calories, moisture, ash, amino acids, and fatty acids. The antinutrients measured included gossypol, cyclopropenoid fatty acids, and aflatoxins. In addition, the fatty acid profile and alpha -tocopherol levels were measured in the refined oil. These analyses demonstrated that the glyphosate-tolerant cotton lines are compositionally equivalent to the parental and conventional cotton varieties commercially available.', 'en_US'),
(9, 'Detection of transgenic DNA in bovine milk: results for cows receiving a TMR containing maize grain modified for insect protection (MON810)', NULL, 'en_US'),
(10, 'Potential dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes from transgenic plants to microorgansims', 'A review with 81 refs. Horizontal gene transfers among bacteria, such as natural transformation or conjugation, may have played an important role in bacterial evolution. They are thought to have been involved in promoting genome plasticity which permitted bacteria to adapt very efficiently to any change in their environment and to colonize a wide range of ecosystems. Evidence that some genes were transferred from eukaryotes, and in particular, from plants to vacteria, was optained from nucleotide and protein sequence analyses. However, numerous factors, including some which are endogenous to the vacterial cells, tend to limit the extent of transfer particularly among phylogenitically distant orgaisms. The goal of this paper is to give an overview of the potentials and limits of natural interkingdom gene transfers, with particular focus on prokaryote-originating sequences which fit the nuclear genome of transgenic plants.', 'en_US'),
(11, 'DNA stability in plant tissues: implications for the possible transfer of genes from genetically modified food', 'The potential for transfer of antibiotic resistance genes from genetically modified (GM) plant material to microbes through genetic recombination in the human or animal gut is a consideration that has engendered caution in the use of GM foods. This study was aimed at defining the optimal phys. and chem. conditions necessary to ensure sufficient fragmentation of DNA in plant tissues to a size where it would be unlikely to be stably transferred to bacterial gut microflora. The ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase small subunit (Rubisco SS) genes are of similar size (approx. 1.4 kb) to transgenes present in GM plants. DNA anal. and PCR amplification of Rubisco SS genes showed that fresh maize and maize silage contained high mol. wt. DNA and intact Rubisco SS genes. Relatively high temps. and pressurised steam were necessary to degrade fully genomic DNA and Rubisco SS genes in maize and wheat grains, the source of most animal feedstuffs. Furthermore, chem. expulsion and extrusion of oilseeds resulted in residues with completely degraded genomic DNA. These results imply that stringent conditions are needed in the processing of GM plant tissues for feedstuffs to eliminate the possibility of transmission of transgenes.', 'en_US'),
(12, 'Introduction of recombinant DNA-engineered organisms into the environment: key issues', NULL, 'en_US'),
(13, 'Field testing genetically modified organisms: framework for decisions', NULL, 'en_US'),
(14, 'Department of Health and Human Services: Food and Drug Administration statement of policy: foods derived from new plant varieties', 'The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is issuing a policy statement on foods derived from new plant varieties. including plants developed by recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid [DNA] techniques. This policy statement is a clarification of FDA''s interpretation of the Federal Food. Drug. and Cosmetic Act (the act). with respect to new technologies to produce foods, and reflects FDA''s current judgment based on new plant varieties now under development in agricultural research. I-his action is being taken to ensure that relevant scientific. safety. and regulatory issues are resolved prior to the introduction of such products into the marketplace.', 'en_US'),
(15, 'IFT expert report on biotechnology and foods: Human food safety evaluation of rDNA biotechnology-derived foods', NULL, 'en_US'),
(16, 'New weed control opportunities: development of soybeans with a Roundup Ready gene', NULL, 'en_US'),
(17, 'Compositional analysis of tubers from insect and virus resistant potato plants', 'Genetically modified potato plants that are resistant to the Colorado potato beetle, plus either the potato leaf roll virus or potato virus Y, have recently been commercialized. As part of the safety assessment for plants produced by modern biotechnology, the composition of the food/feed must be compared to that of the food/feed produced by an equivalent plant variety from a conventional source. The composition of important nutritional and antinutritional factors in tubers produced by virus-and insect-resistant potato plants were compared to tubers produced by conventional potato plants. Key nutritional, quality, and antinutritional components measured were total solids, vitamin C, dextrose, sucrose, soluble protein, and glycoalkaloids. Proximate analyses included fat, ash, calories, total protein, and crude fiber. Minor nutrients measured were vitamin B6, niacin, copper, magnesium, potassium, and amino acids. The results from these analyses confirm that tubers produced by insect-and virus-protected varieties are substantially equivalent to tubers produced by conventional potato varieties.', 'en_US'),
(18, 'Safety assessment of insect-protected corn', 'The success of the genetic modification of plant species for insect and virus resistance and herbicide tolerance has led to the rapid development of improved commercial varieties for many crops. There are over 40 different genetically modified plant products that have been approved in at least one country, and about 30 million acres of genetically modified plant varieties were planted in 1997 (James 1997). One of these products, the insect-protected corn event MON 810 (YieldGardTM) expresses the Bacillus thuringiensis protein Cry 1Ab. YieldGardTM corn is protected from feeding damage normally caused by the European corn borer (ECB, Ostrinia nubilulis), southwestern corn borer (SWCB, Diutrueu grundiosellu), and pink borer (Sesamiu crericu). A critical step in the commercial development of these products is gaining regulatory approvals for both production and import of the genetically modified plant products. Food, feed, and environmental approvals, and, in some countries, variety registration for new plant varieties, are necessary for genetically modified plants. This chapter is an overview of the information developed and provided to the regulatory agencies to obtain food, feed, and environmental approvals for YieldGardTM corn. Variety registration is the same for varieties developed through traditional breeding or biotechnology and therefore is not discussed in this chapter.The European corn borer (ECB, Ostriniu nubilulis) (Hubner) is an economically important pest of corn that has spread throughout the major corn-growing regions of the United States and Europe (Showers et al. 1989). Yield losses due to ECB damage are estimated to be 3 to 7% per borer per plant (Lynch 1980; Gay 1993), which causes annual losses from $37 to $172/ha of corn (Rice 1994). This insect typically has one to three generations per year. Insect damage to the plant includes leaf feeding by the first generation; stalk tunneling by the first and second generations; and leaf sheath, collar feeding, and ear damage by the second and third generations. Chemical control is ineffective once the borers have tunneled into the plant because the insect pest is then inaccessible to the chemical.', 'en_US'),
(19, 'Glyphosate-tolerant corn: the composition and feeding value of grain from glyphoste-tolerant corn is equivalent to that of conventional corn (Zea mays L.)', 'Glyphosate-tolerant (Roundup Ready) corn line GA21 has been developed by genetic modification to tolerate glyphosate, the active ingredient in Roundup herbicide. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the compositional and nutritional safety of corn line GA21 compared to that of conventional corn. Compositional analyses were conducted to measure proximate, fiber, amino acid, fatty acid, and mineral contents of grain and proximate, fiber, and mineral contents of forage collected from 16 field sites over two growing seasons. The nutritional safety of corn line GA21 was evaluated in a poultry feeding study conducted with 2-day old, rapidly growing broiler chickens, at a dietary concn. of 50-60% wt./wt. Compositional anal. results showed that, except for a few minor differences that are unlikely to be of biol. significance, the grain and forage of GA21 corn were comparable in their compn. to that of the control corn line and to conventional corn. Results from the poultry feeding study showed that there were no differences in growth, feed efficiency, adjusted feed efficiency, and fat pad wts. between chickens fed with GA21 grain or with parental control grain. These data taken together demonstrate that Roundup Ready corn is as safe and nutritious as conventional corn for food and feed use.', 'en_US'),
(20, 'Compositional analysis of glyphosate-tolerant soybeans treated with glyphosate', 'Compositional analyses and safety assessments of glyphosate-tolerant soyabeans (GTS) have been previously described. These analyses were extensive and included addressing the potential effects of the genetic modification on seed composition. Detailed compositional analyses established that GTS which had not been treated with glyphosate were comparable to the parental soyabean line and to other conventional soyabeans. In this study, two GTS lines, 40-3-2 and 61-67-1, were treated with commercial levels of glyphosate, the active ingredient in Roundup herbicide. The composition of the seed from soyabeans sprayed with glyphosate was compared to that from the non-sprayed parental control cultivar, A5403. The nutrients measured in the seed included protein, oil, ash, fibre, carbohydrates and amino acids. The concentration of isoflavones (also referred to as phytoestrogens) was also measured, as these compounds are derived from the same biochemical pathway that was engineered for glyphosate tolerance. The analytical results from these studies demonstrated that the GTS treated with glyphosate were comparable to the parental soyabean cultivar A5403 and other conventional soyabean varieties.', 'en_US'),
(21, 'Safety assessment of insect control Bacillus thuringiensis Cry2 class proteins for use in transgenic crops', NULL, 'en_US'),
(22, 'Safety and advantages of Bacillus thuringiensis-protected plants to control insect pests', 'Plants modified to express insecticidal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (referred to as Bt-protected plants) provide a safe and highly effective method of insect control. Bt-protected corn, cotton, and potato were introduced into the United States in 1995/1996 and grown on a total of approximately 10 million acres in 1997, 20 million acres in 1998, and 29 million acres globally in 1999. The extremely rapid adoption of these Bt-protected crops demonstrates the outstanding grower satisfaction of the performance and value of these products. These crops provide highly effective control of major insect pests such as the European corn borer, southwestern corn borer, tobacco budworm, cotton bollworm, pink bollworm, and Colorado potato beetle and reduce reliance on conventional chemical pesticides. They have provided notably higher yields in cotton and corn. The estimated total net savings to the grower using Bt-protected cotton in the United States was approximately $92 million in 1998. Other benefits of these crops include reduced levels of the fungal toxin fumonisin in corn and the opportunity for supplemental pest control by beneficial insects due to the reduced use of broad-spectrum insecticides. Insect resistance management plans are being implemented to ensure the prolonged effectiveness of these products. Extensive testing of Bt-protected crops has been conducted which establishes the safety of these products to humans, animals, and the environment. Acute, subchronic, and chronic toxicology studies conducted over the past 40 years establish the safety of the microbial Bt products, including their expressed insecticidal (Cry) proteins, which are fully approved for marketing. Mammalian toxicology and digestive fate studies, which have been conducted with the proteins produced in the currently approved Bt-protected plant products, have confirmed that these Cry proteins are nontoxic to humans and pose no significant concern for allergenicity. Food and feed derived from Bt-protected crops which have been fully approved by regulatory agencies have been shown to be substantially equivalent to the food and feed derived from conventional crops. Nontarget organisms exposed to high levels of Cry protein are virtually unaffected, except for certain insects that are closely related to the target pests. Because the Cry protein is contained within the plant (in microgram quantities), the potential for exposure to farm workers and nontarget organisms is extremely low. The Cry proteins produced in Bt-protected crops have been shown to rapidly degrade when crop residue is incorporated into the soil. Thus the environmental impact of these crops is negligible. The human and environmental safety of Bt-protected crops is further supported by the long history of safe use for Bt microbial pesticides around the world.', 'en_US'),
(23, 'Characterization of insect protection Bacillus thuringiensis Cry2aa protein produced in E. coli and cotton plants (abstract)', NULL, 'en_US'),
(24, 'Name of chemical(s): Bacillus thuringiensis subspecies kurstaki CryIA (c) delta endotoxin and the genetic material necessary for its production in corn.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(25, 'Purification and biochemical comparison of 1-aminocyclopropane-1-caboxylic acid deaminase proteins expressed in delayed ripening tomato and Escherichia coli: studies for a food safety assessment', 'Tomato plants with delayed fruit ripening have been developed by introduction of the gene encoding the 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid deaminase (ACCd) protein into the tomato genome. The ACCd enzyme delays fruit ripening by decreasing ethylene synthesis. To facilitate safety assessments of the ACCd protein, the identical coding sequence used for tomato transformation was introduced into Escherichia coli to produce gram quantities of the protein. A method that included hydrophobic interaction and anion exchange chromatography was developed to purify approx equal to 2.5 g of ACCd. The E. coli-produced ACCd protein was demonstrated to be chemically and functionally equivalent to the ACCd protein expressed in and purified from delayed ripening tomato fruit. The proteins from each source had comparable apparent molecular weights, immunoreactivities, primary amino acid sequences and enzymatic activities and both proteins lacked glycosylation. These data validate the use of E. coli-produced ACCd protein to assess the safety of ACCd produced in delayed ripening tomatoes.', 'en_US'),
(26, 'Consequences of classical and biotechnological resistance breeding for food toxicology and allergenicity', 'The first food products derived from transgenic plants that are resistant to diseases, insects or viruses are now reaching the market and there is growing public concern about problems of allergenicity and toxicological changes in such transgenic food plants. This paper reviews the modifications being carried out, or envisaged, in molecular resistance breeding, and specifically considers the allergenic and toxicological potential of the gene products used. Several protein families that contribute to the defence mechanisms of food plants have members which are allergens or putative allergens and some of these proteins are used in molecular approaches to increase resistance. These include alpha -amylase and trypsin inhibitors, lectins and pathogenesis-related proteins. An assessment procedure to avoid the transfer of such allergens is described. The source of the transgene is of great importance for the application of immunological assays. In addition to putative changes in the allergenic potential, the toxicological implications of classical and molecular resistance breeding are discussed. Several ''self defence'' substances made by plants are highly toxic for mammals, including humans. Examples of molecular approaches that could be of toxicological concern are given. The source of the transgene is of no relevance in assessing the toxicological aspects of foods from transgenic plants. Food safety can also be severely influenced by invading pathogens and their metabolic products. This may result in a trade-off situation between ''nature''s pesticides'' produced by transgenic plants or varieties from traditional breeding programmes, synthetic pesticides and mycotoxins or other poisonous products of pests.', 'en_US'),
(27, 'Purification and characterization of microbially expressed neomycin phosphotransferase II (NPTII) protein and its equivalence to the plant expressed protein.', 'The gene encoding neomycin phosphotransferase II (NPTII) has been used routinely as a selectable marker in the production of genetically engineered crops. To facilitate the safety assessment of this protein, the same coding sequence used for plant transformation was introduced into Escherichia coli to produce gram quantities of this protein. A unique, simple, rapid and efficient purification method was developed to purify thirty grams of NPTII protein. The microbially produced NPTII was shown to be chemically and functionally equivalent to the NPTII protein expressed in and purified from genetically engineered cotton seed, potato tubers and tomato fruit. Microbially produced and plant produced NPTII proteins have comparable molecular weights, immuno-reactivities, epitope structures, amino terminal amino acid sequences, biological activities and both lack glycosylation. Demonstrating the equivalence of NPTII protein from these sources establishes the validity of using the microbially produced NPTII to assess the safety of the NPTII protein produced in genetically engineered crops.', 'en_US'),
(28, 'Safety assessment of the neomycin phosphotransferase II (NPTII) protein.', 'Two approaches were used to assess the safety of the NPTII protein for human consumption using purified E. coli produced NPTII protein that was shown to be chemically and functionally equivalent to the NPTII protein produced in genetically engineered cotton seed, potato tubers and tomato fruit.  The NPTII protein was shown, as expected, to degrade rapidly under simulated mammalian digestive conditions.  An acute mouse gavage study confirmed that the NPTII protein caused no deleterious effects when administered by gavage at a cumulative target dosage of up to 5000 mg/kg of body weight.  This dosage correlates to at least a million fold safety factor relative to the average daily consumption of potato or tomato, assuming all the potatoes or tomatoes consumed contained the NPTII protein.  These results, along with previously published information, confirm that ingestion of genetically engineered plants expressing the NPTII protein poses no safety concerns.', 'en_US'),
(29, 'The expressed protein in glyphosate-tolerant soybean, 5-enolypyruvylshikimate -3-phosphate synthase from Agrobacterium sp. strain CP4, is rapidly digested in vitro and is not toxic to acutely gavaged mice', NULL, 'en_US'),
(30, 'Characterization of Bacillus thuringiensis Cry3bb1 protein produced in Bt and insect protected corn plants', NULL, 'en_US'),
(31, 'Characterization of Bacillus thuringiensis Cry2ab2 protein produced in Bt and insect protected corn and cotton plants', NULL, 'en_US'),
(32, 'The effect of ensiling on PCR-based detection of genetically modified Bt maize', 'The detection of the genetic modification in silage obtained from insect-resistant Bt maize by means of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is described. The detectability of the transgene was shown to be dependent on the length of the genomic target sequence chosen for amplication by the PCR. By amplifying a Bt-maize-specific DNA sequence of 211 bp the genetic modification was detected up to 7 months after ensilage. The effect of maize DNA degradation in the course of the ensilage on the detectability of target sequences was demonstrated in model experiments.', 'en_US'),
(33, 'Safety assessment of insect control Bacillus thuringiensis Cry3bb1 protein for use in transgenic crops', 'Corn plants (Zea mays L.) protected from damage by the coleopteran pest, corn rootworm (CRW), are under development by Monsanto. Insect protection was accomplished by the stable insertion of a gene encoding the Cry3Bb1 protein from Bacillus thuringiensis (B.t.). CRW protected corn plants will benefit corn growers and the environment by reducing chemical insecticide usage in corn and provide a more effective method of control of CRW. B.t. insecticidal proteins have over 3 decades of safe usage as biopesticides. They control larval pests, yet are safe to mammals, birds, fish and beneficial insects. Prior to commercialization of CRW protected corn varieties, protein safety data was generated to confirm the safety of the Cry3Bb1 protein. The test material used for safety studies was the Cry3Bb1 protein produced in and isolated from fermentation of Bacillus thuringiensis. Cry3Bb1 protein was shown to be have no toxicity in an acute oral toxicity test in albino mice dosed at approximately 3500 mg/kg based on body weight, food consumption and gross necropsy results. Cry3Bb1 protein was readily digested in 15 seconds in vitro using simulated gastric fluid. The Cry3Bb1 protein shared no significant sequence similarity to known allergens and toxins other than related B.t. insect control proteins. These data confirm the safety of the Cry3Bb1 protein, consistent with the established safety of related B.t. insect control proteins.', 'en_US'),
(34, 'Safety assessment of mEPSPS protein in Roundup Ready® corn plants', NULL, 'en_US'),
(35, 'Assessment of equivalence of insect protected corn and E. coli produced B.T.K. HD-1 protein', 'Corn plants (Zea mays L.) have been genetically engineered for protection from damage by the European Corn Borer (ECB, Ostrinia nubilialis), a major corn pest. Protection was accomplished by insertion of a gene from Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. Kurstaki (B.t.k.) which encodes for the production of a protein(B.t.k. HD-1) which is insecticidal to Lepidoptera larvae. In support of regulatory approval of this ECB protected corn, data and information was obtained to demonstrate that B.t.k. HD-1 protein expressed by the inserted gene causes no adverse effects when consumed by domestic or wild animals or beneficial insects. Because the expressica levels of the B.t.k. HD-1 protein are extremely low in ECB protected corn, it was not feasible to isolate this protein from plants in sufficient quantity to conduct the various safety studies performed for the registration of this product.', 'en_US'),
(36, 'Specificity and efficacy of purified Bacillus thuringiensis proteins against agronomically important insects', 'Three purified proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis were bioassayed in the laboratory at 27 deg C against 17 insect pests from 5 orders and one species of mite. The proteins were single gene products from B. thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki, (HD-1 (CryIA(b)) and HD-73 (CryIA(c))) and B. thuringiensis subsp. tenebrionis (CryIIIA). Of the insects tested, only the chrysomelid Leptinotarsa decemlineata was sensitive to CryIIIA protein with an LC50 of 6.5 micro g/ml. The sphingid Manduca sexta, the noctuids Trichoplusia ni, Heliothis virescens, Agrotis ipsilon, Spodoptera exigua and Heliothis zea (Helicoverpa zea) and the pyralid Ostrinia nubilalis were sensitive to the B. thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki proteins, with LC50s of 0.036, 0.09, 1, 18, 44, 10 and 37 micro g/ml, resp., for HD-73, and 0.04, 0.19, 1.7, >80, 34, 33 and 3.6 micro g/ml for HD-1. Species which were not affected by the proteins included Blattella germanica and Aedes aegypti. No synergism was observed with combinations of proteins. A larval growth inhibition assay was developed to determine the amount of B. thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki protein required to inhibit larval growth by 50% (EC50), enabling the detection of levels of HD-73 as low as 1 ng/ml. The EC50s for M. sexta, T. ni, Heliothis virescens and Helicoverpa zea were 0.008, 0.014, 0.0013 and 0.014 micro g/ml, resp.', 'en_US'),
(37, 'Purification and characterization of Bacillus thuringiensis var. tenebrionis insecticidal proteins produced in E. Coli.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(38, 'Characterization of the coleopteran-specific protein gene of Bacillus thuringiensis var. tenebrionis.', 'The gene encoding the coleopteran-specific insect control protein from Bacillus thuringiensis var. tenebrionis was isolated and characterized.  When expressed in either E. coli or P. fluorescens the gene directs the production of biologically active insect control protein that is lethal to Colorado potato beetle.  The gene contains two functional translational initiation codons in the same reading frame leading to the production of both the full length protein and an N-terminal truncated form.  The gene has been engineered to produce each of these two proteins separately, and each is active against Colorado potato beetle.  Native crystals from B.t. var. tenebrionis were found to contain five distinct proteins derived from this single gene either as primary translation products or the result of proteolysis.  Comparison of this gene to a lepidopteran-specific B.t. gene revealed only limited regions of homology.', 'en_US'),
(39, 'Glyphosate-tolerant cotton: genetic characterization and protein expression.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(40, 'Development, identification, and characterization of a glyphosate-tolerant soybean line', 'Glyphosate (N-phosphonomethyl-glycine) is the active ingredient in the nonselective herbicide Roundup. The sensitivity of crop plants to glyphosate has limited its in-season use as a postemergence herbicide. The extension of the ue of Roundup herbicide to allow in-season application in major crops such as soybeans [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] would provide new weed control options for farmers. A glyphosate-tolerant soybean line, 40-3-2, was obtained through expression of the bacterial 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSP synthase, EPSPS) enzyme from Agrobacterium sp. strain CP4. Line 40-3-2 is highly tolerant to glyphosate, showing no visual injury after application of up to 1.68 kg acid equivalent (a.e.) ha-1 of glyphosate under field conditions. Molecular characterization studies determined that the single genetic insert in line 40-3-2 contains only a portion of the cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter (P-E35S), the Petunia hybrida EPSPS chloroplast transit peptide (CTP), the CP4 EPSPS gene, and a portion of the 3'' nontranslated region of the nopaline synthase gene (NOS3'') terminator. Inheritance studies have shown that the transgene behaves as a single dominant gene and is stable over several generations.', 'en_US'),
(41, 'Delayed ripening tomato plants expressing the enzyme 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid deaminase', 'Tomato plants that are delayed in fruit ripening have been developed by Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transfer of a gene encoding 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate deaminase (ACCd) from the soil bacterium Pseudomonas chloroaphis into the tomato genome. Two delayed ripening (DR) tomato lines are characterized in this paper. Line 8338, transformed by a double border plasmid vector, contains a single copy of the accd gene, and DNA outside the plasmid border sequences was not transferred to the plant genome. Line 5673, transformed by a single border plasmid vector, contains a single copy of the accd gene plus tandem, incomplete copies of the gene. The mean expression levels of ACCd in fruit collected from four field trials were 39.4 and 20.6 mu g/g of fresh weight for lines 8338 and 5673, respectively. Fruit ethylene synthesis was significantly reduced, and time for fruit to ripen was extended for both DR lines compared to the parental line UC82B. Introduction of the accd gene and the delayed ripening trait into appropriate tomato varieties will potentially allow production of tomato fruit with superior flavour quality.', 'en_US'),
(42, 'Safety assessment of 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid deaminase protein expressed in delayed ripening tomatoes', 'Tomato plants with delayed fruit ripening have been produced by stable insertion of the gene encoding the 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid deaminase (ACCd) protein into the tomato chromosome. Two approaches were used to assess the safety of the ACCd protein for human consumption. Purified Escherichia coli-produced ACCd protein, which is chemically and functionally equivalent to the ACCd protein produced in delayed ripening tomato fruit, was used in these studies. First, the ACCd protein was readily degraded under simulated mammalian digestive conditions. Second, the ACCd protein did not have any deleterious effects when administered to mice by acute gavage at a dosage of up to 602 mg/kg of bodyweight. This dosage correlates to greater than a 5000-fold safety factor relative to the average daily consumption of tomatoes, assuming that all tomatoes consumed contain the ACCd protein. These results in conjunction with previously published data, established that ingestion of tomato fruit expressing the ACCd protein does not pose any safety concerns.', 'en_US'),
(43, 'Bacillus thuringiensis toxin inhibits K+ - gradient-dependent amino acid transport across the brush border membrane of Pieris brassicae midgut cells.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(44, 'Re-engineering patatin (Sol t 1) protein to eliminate IgE binding.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(45, 'Allergenic potential of foods from genetically engineered plants', 'Plant biotechnology is beginning to result in new food products. Prior to introduction, transgenic plant varieties must be shown to be safe ecologically and safe to consume. An important consideration is an assessment of potential allergy to foods derived from transgenic plant varieties. The original source of the gene serves as a focal point - if a gene is obtained from an allergenic food source, it should be demonstrated that the gene does not encode an allergen. For non-allergenic gene sources, information should be obtained by comparing the genetic and physicochemical parameters of the encoded protein to common food allergens. The genes introduced into plants by genetic engineering were obtained from non-allergenic sources, do not encode allergens, and express proteins at very low levels. Significantly, the expressed proteins are extremely labile under simulated digestive conditions, whereas food allergens are resistant to digestion. Assessing a combination of these and additional factors provides assurance that transgenic plants will not increase the allergenicity of the food supply.', 'en_US'),
(46, 'Allergenicity assessment of foods derived from genetically modified plants', 'Assessment of the allergenicity of foods derived from genetically modified plants is discussed under the headings: Allergenic source of introduced protein; Nonallergenic source of introduced protein; The host; National and international consensus; and Reducing unwanted proteins.', 'en_US'),
(47, 'Allergenicity of foods derived from transgenic plants', 'Many plants have been genetically engineered to improve a specific property (e.g. delayed ripening and viral resistance) and are termed transgenic plants. Genetic engineering often results in the expression of one or more new proteins in the transgenic plant, and, although the amounts of protein produced are generally small, tests to check that these proteins do not cause allergies are required. In this study, procedures to test for the allergenic potential of food prepared from transgenic plants are discussed. Consideration is given to the source of the gene transferred into the plant (if the gene comes from an allergenic source then tests, such as radioallergosorbent tests, must be performed to check for allergenicity), comparison of physicochemical and biological properties (e.g. amino acid sequence and stability to digestion) of the new protein with those of known allergenic proteins and assessment of any allergens present in the plant prior to genetic engineering (to check that allergenicity does not alter in the transgenic plants).', 'en_US'),
(48, 'Preventing food allergy: emerging technologies', 'Food allergy represents a largely avoidable threat. Technologies are presently available or are under development that better define the molecules (allergens) responsible for food allergy, better detect the presence of allergens, and can reduce or even eliminate specific allergens from the food supply. The incidence of food allergy and fatal anaphylaxis triggered by food allergens is expected to decline as a result of the application of a combination of key technologies such as biotechnology, bioinformatics and immunodiagnostics, and of the Internet, as well as following the development of well-defined science-based public health policies.', 'en_US'),
(49, 'Food biotechnology and genetic engineering', 'The implications of advances in food biotechnology and genetic engineering for food allergy are examined. The development of the Colorado beetle-protected NewLeaf potato is described to illustrate the application of agricultural biotechnology. The food safety assessment of this product is summarized to illustrate the approaches used to ensure the safety of foods derived from genetically engineered food crops. The removal of allergens from foods by genetic engineering, animal models for predicting allergenicity and the development of international and national policies and legislation to assess the safety of food products derived from genetically engineered plants are discussed.', 'en_US'),
(50, 'Food allergens are stable to digestion in a simple model of the gastrointestinal tract', NULL, 'en_US'),
(51, 'Identification and characterization of IgE binding epitopes of patatin, a major food allergen of potato', 'Patatin has recently been identified as the 42 kDa major food allergen of potato (Sol t 1). Although potato allergy is rare, we have identified five potato allergic patients with positive skin prick tests and positive DBPC food challenges. Symptoms ranged from atopic dermatitis to food anaphylaxis in these patients, many of whom have been hospitalized numerous times after eating potato. Serum from these patients selectively identified and verified patatin as a major allergen from potato tubers by immunoblotting patatin pro tein purified from plants or total protein from potato tuber extracts.All patients indentified the 42 kDa patatin protein. The genes for patatins, a large gene family composed of numerous isofonns and which represent 40% of potato tuber protein, have been isolated many years ago. The availability of DNA and protein sequences allowed us to utilize positive IgE binding from each patient to identify the IgE binding epitopes of patatin. By synthesizing 89 over lapping decamer oligopeptides representing the full patatin primary amino acid sequence, we have identified the major and minor IgE binding epitopes of this allergen. Subsequently, we have identified within these epitopes, substitutions in amino acid residues that appear to reduce or abolish IgE binding to these peptides. By identifying amino acid sequences that potentially reduce IgE binding, it may be possible to engineer patatins with reduced allergenicity for use in immunotherapy and other applications.', 'en_US'),
(52, 'Status and safety of biotech crops', 'Significant expansion in the utilization of genetically modified crops has been realized since their introduction in 1996. By the crop year 1999, almost 100 million acres of biotech crops were grown, where soybean, corn, cotton, canola and potato represented 99% of the plantings, although 14 other crops were grown to a lesser but increasing extent (I). In 1999, biotech crops in the U.S. represented an expanding proportion of the total crop acreage: approximately 50% of soybeans, 33% of corn, 55% of cotton and 4% of potatoes had biotech traits - mainly insect protection or herbicide tolerance. Likewise, Canada (55% of canola and 20% of soybeans), China (10% of cotton) and Argentina (greater than 75% of soybeans) were also significant producers of biotech crops. The rapid adoption of biotech crops has been driven by economic and environmental benefits that are highly recognized by farmers, yet remain obscure to the general public where knowledge and information has been low and concerns about safety and consequences may be increasing. More recently, tangible environmental and potential public health benefits are being identified and communicated to consumers. Likewise, biotech crops with nutritional enhancements and direct benefits to consumers have begun to enter the marketplace or are under development.', 'en_US'),
(53, 'Preventing food allergy ? the impact of biotechnology', 'People who suffer from food allergies manage their condition by avoidance strategies such as diet eliminations and careful examination of ingredient labels. Unexpected exposures and resulting adverse reactions to food allergens represent the main challenge in food atopy. Unlike hay fever and respiratory allergies, immunotherapy has achieved only limited success because of the potency of food allergens, i.e., immunotherapy with food allergens can often trigger serious side effects, including anaphylaxis. Biotechnology has had a positive influence on the science of food allergy by facilitating the discovery and characterization of allergens using recombinant DNA methods. Today, it is generally accepted that most major allergens have been identified and described. Subsequently, biotechnology has enabled the development of diagnostics based on recombinant allergens and more recently has been used to engineer potentially safer immunotherapeutic versions of food allergens - the creation of deallergenized variants. This will allow safer immunotherapies since the de-allergenized variants of food allergens should produce fewer, if any, side effects. In addition, DNA vaccines based on these variants are being tested presently, with a view of providing long-lasting immunotherapeutic options for food allergy patients. Biotechnology is also providing prophylactic options through the development of hypoallergenic foods which have either been engineered to contain fewer andogenous allergens, or have been modified by the presence of proteins like theoredoxin, to render endogenous food allergens less potent and less allergenic. Hypoallergenic foods could reduce the incidence of new food allergies on a global basis.', 'en_US'),
(54, 'Neurobiology and allergenicity of plant anti-fungal proteins', 'Anti-fungal proteins (AFPs) of the plant defensin class are known to control Verticillium and Fusarium pathogens when assessed in vitro. Bioinformatics analyses of AFPs demonstrated that these small (~5 kDa) cystein-rich (6-8 residues) endogenous plant proteins may be members of a phylogenetically diverse class of structurally related proteins which share a scorpion-fold motif. AFPs may exert their inhibitory effects on fungal hyphae by utilizing the same strategy as scorpion toxins which perturb neuron function by interacting with gated channel proteins. To investigate this possibility, a series of experiments traditionally used to classify scorpion toxin function, based on interactions with different types of neural channel proteins, was conducted to evaluate whether AFPs act like ''scorpion defensins''. Perturbations of neural viability, steady-state electro-membrane potentials and sodium, potassium and calcium channel function were examined and compared using purified AFP proteins, scorpion toxin proteins, control neuro-toxins, and bovine serum albumin (BSA). AFPs are also homologous to plant ''sweet proteins'' that may interact directly with taste receptors. Further evaluation of AFPs and sweet proteins showed high levels of stability in models of gastro-intestinal digestion. While stability may be important for sweet protein functionality, stability may also correlate with potential food allergenicity or toxicity. To assess potential allergenicity, a structural homologue of our AFPs was purified from wheat (gamma-thionin) and directly tested for allergenicity using IgE from wheat-allergic patients. In addition, acute oral toxicity studies of sweet proteins in mice demonstrated a lack of toxic effect at high doses. Data from these experiments are being used to direct new inquiries into the safety and function of plant AFPs and sweet proteins.', 'en_US'),
(55, 'Genetic engineering and the allergy issue', 'Although much has been learned since the field was put on a scientific basis at the turn of the last century, our knowledge of food allergies is far from complete. It is still unclear, for example, why only certain individuals are affected and why, even among them, the problem is often restricted to childhood.It is also not clear why the allergies caused by various nuts and aquatic animals tend to persist and be lifelong. Milk, egg, soy, and wheat are the major food allergies in children, whereas peanut, tree nuts, shellfish, and fish are most prevalent in adults.The field is complicated by the fact that many more people believe they suffer from food allergies than is actually the case. Thus, although up to 20% of Americans have a perceived food allergy, the problem can be medically diagnosed in only about 2% of the population (Altman and Chiaramonte, 1996). The issue is further clouded by confusion with food intolerance and by evidence that allergies are increasing rapidly in developed countries for reasons that are only beginning to be understood. These factors collectively contribute to the lack of understanding that has long been a part of the food allergy field.Aside from limited attention drawn to the increased prevalence, food allergy has historically attracted little notice. However, with the advent of genetic engineering and its application to the production of food, the situation has changed dramatically.The development and commercialization of a variety of food crops with transgenes has thrust the allergy issue onto a public stage and given the field unprecedented exposure worldwide. Although not yet apparent, I believe the allergy and food technology fields will benefit from this attention in the long term, akin to the progress made in understanding the cellular immune system as a result of publicity brought by the acquired immune deficiency syndrome epidemic.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(56, 'Assessment of the endogenous allergens in glyphosate-tolerant and commercial soybean varieties', 'Defatted flakes or flour obtained from 2 glyphosate tolerant soyabean lines, 40-3-2 and 61-67-1, and the parental control variety were ground to a fine powder and then subjected to SDS-PAGE and immunoblotting. The electrophoretic banding patterns obtained for the glyphosate tolerant lines were identical to that of the parental control. Immunoblotting using a serum pool containing soyabean allergen-specific IgE antibody, generated from 5 patients with atopic dermatitis and soyabean hypersensitivity, revealed no differences in IgE-binding protein patterns between the different soyabean genotypes. Immunoblots with IgE antibody pools obtained from groundnut sensitive or non-atopic patients showed that a minimal amount of non-specific binding occurred at approximately 45 and 50 kDa for all the soyabean preparations. The results demonstrated that introduction of a gene for glyphosate tolerance caused no discernible changes, either quantitative or qualitative, in the composition of endogenous allergenic proteins in soyabean.', 'en_US'),
(57, 'Thioredoxin treatment increases digestibility and lowers allergenicity of milk', 'Background: By resisting digestion in the stomach, the major bovine milk allergen, @-lactoglobulin, is believed to act as a transporter of vitamin A and retinol to the intestines. fl-Lac- toglobulin has 2 intramolecular disultide bonds that may be responsible for its allergic effects.Objective: This study was carried out to assess the importance of disultide bonds to the allergenicity and digestibility of p-lac- toglobulin.Methods: P-Lactoglobulin was subjected to reduction by the ubiquitous protein thioredoxin, which was itself reduced by the reduced form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phos- phate by means of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phos- phate-thioredoxin reductase. Digestibility,was measured with a simulated gastric fluid; results were analyzed by SDS-PAGE. Allergenicity was assessed with an inbred colony of high IgE-producing dogs sensitized to milk.Results: As found for other proteins with intramolecular disul- fide bonds, P-lactoglobulin was reduced specifically by the thioredoxin system. After reduction of one or both of its disul- fide bonds, /34actoglobulin became strikingly sensitive to pepsin and lost allergenicity as determined by skin test responses and gastrointestinal symptoms in the dog model. Conclusion: The results provide new evidence that thioredoxin can be applied to enhance digestibility and lower allergenicity of food proteins. ', 'en_US'),
(58, 'Assessment of the allergenic potential of foods derived from genetically engineered plants: glyphosate tolerant soybean as a case study', 'A number of foods derived from genetically engineered plants are entering the marketplace. These products have been subjected to extensive food safety evaluations including addressing any allergy concerns. The allergy assessment should focus on the source of the introduced gene. If the gene is derived from an allergenic soure, the developer should verify that the gene product is not an allergen, For genes derived from non-allergenic sources, amino acid similarity analysis to known allergens provides an initial assessment of allergenic potential. In addition, common food allergens share important physiochemical properties such as resistance to digestive degradation, stability to food processing and prevalence in the diet that can be used as a basis for a scientific evaluation of allergenic potential.An allergenicity assessment of the protein expressed in soybean to confer selectivity to glyphosate, the active ingredient in the herbicide Roundup@, was conducted using these criteria. The protein expressed was shown to be derived from a non-allergenic source, to have no significant amino acid homology to known allergens, to be rapidly degraded in a digestion model and to be present in relative low levels relative to commonly allergenic proteins. Most importantly, the introduced protein is closely related, both structurally and functionally, to the corresponding soybean protein. Based on this information, it was concluded that this introduced protein posed no significant allergenic concern. This approach should be generally applicable to assess allergenic concerns of foods derived from any genetically engineered plant variety.', 'en_US'),
(59, 'Principles and strategies for the assessment of the allergenic potential of foods derived from genetically modified plants', 'IntroductionNumerous genetically modified plant products that provide protection against insect damage or viral disease, tolerance to environmentally preferred herbicides, modified oils, enhanced fruit ripening and other traits are already in the marketplace. As of the end of 1997, approximately 48 different genetically modified plant products had been approved for marketing in at least one country (1). These products and those being developed, undergo rigorous food, feed and environmental safety assessment prior to entry into the marketplace (2). The food safety assessment includes the evaluation of the safety of any newly expressed protein(s), including assessing any concerns relative to the toxicity or allergenicity of the protein(s).Scientific experts from the Allergy and Immunology Institute of the International Life Sciences Institute (ILSI) and the International Food Biotechnology Council (IFBC) recently published an extensive scientific consensus report entitled ''Assessment of the Allergenic Potential of Foods Derived from Genetically Modified Crops'' (3) that specifically addressed allergenicity assessment. This report briefly summarizes the key findings and recommendations of that report, which was the culmination of over two years of extensive work. The joint publication contains eight different articles; the first seven of which provide background information on food allergy and plant biotechnology. Hefle et al. (4) provided a detailed catalogue of the reports of allergenic reactions to food and information on the types of data provided in these reports. Extensive information on the biochemical characterization of major food allergens (5, 6) and tests that are used to detect and diagnose specific food allergens (5) were also described. Peter Day provided a broad background on plant proteins (7) and plant biotechnology (8). The final article in this series (3) provided recommendations for a thorough step-wise process to evaluate the allergenic potential of foods derived from genetically modified plants.', 'en_US'),
(60, 'Products from plant biotechnology', 'Crop plants have been continually modified genetically and improved for centuries, beginning by selecting seed from superior plants and reproducing these through selection and breeding. Traditional breeding methods have significantly increased productivity, with corn and wheat yields approximately doubling over the past 40-50 years. More recently, the ability to introduce DNA directly into crop plants has enabled very specific and selective plant improvement through techniques commonly referred to as plant biotechnology, genetic engineering, or recombinant DNA methodology. Numerous traits are being evaluated for their potential to:1) protect plants against insect damage, and fungal, viral, or bacterial diseases2) provide selectivity to preferred herbicides3) directly enhance crop yields4) increase nutritional value5) reduce naturally occurring toxicants or allergens6) modify the ripening process and provide fruits or vegetables with superior flavor7) use plants as factories to make biodegradable polymers, pharmaceutic products, and many other products', 'en_US'),
(61, 'Relative reaginic and inflammatory responses to extracts of modified and non-transgenic cottonseeds in brown Norway rats fed conventional cottonseed meal diets', NULL, 'en_US'),
(62, 'Toxicology of protein allergenicity: prediction and characterization', 'The ability of exogenous proteins to cause respiratory and gastrointestinal allergy, and sometimes systemic anaphylactic reactions, is well known. What is not clear however, are the properties that confer on proteins the ability to induce allergic sensitization. With an expansion in the use of enzymes for industrial applications and consumer products, and a substantial and growing investment in the development of transgenic crop plants that express novel proteins introduced from other sources, the issue of protein allergenicity has assumed considerable toxicological significance. There is a need now for methods that will allow the accurate identification and characterization of potential protein allergens and for estimation of relative potency as a first step towards risk assessment. To address some of these issues, and to review progress that has been made in the toxicological investigation of respiratory and gastrointestinal allergy induced by proteins, a workshop, entitled the Toxicology of Protein Allergenicity: Prediction and Characterization, was convened at the 37th Annual Conference of the Society of Toxicology in Seattle, Washington (1998). The subject of protein allergenicity is considered here in the context of presentations made at that workshop.', 'en_US'),
(63, 'Food allergens: implications for biotechnology', 'As reviewed in previous chapters, new plant varieties that are potential food sources are being developed with recombinant DNA technologies (Harlander 1991; Kessler et al. 1992; Olempska-Beer et al. 1993). On the basis of these techniques, specific genetic modifications that could not have been accomplished through traditional breeding techniques have been achieved, including the expression of proteins into plants from other species. Several potential foods that have been derived from these new plant varieties by recombinant DNA technologies and are either commercially available or approaching commercial introduction (Table 1). Because genes governing these new traits code for proteins that are ordinarily not present in that plant, there is concern about the effects of the transferred proteins on individuals ingesting them (Harlander 1991; Kessler et al. 1992; Olempska-Beer et al. 1993). A major concern is the potential of these transferred proteins as food allergens (Kessler et al. 1992; Olempska-Beer et al. 1993).', 'en_US'),
(64, 'Potential health risks of genetically modified organisms: how can allergens be assessed and minimized?', 'Allergies to foods are a significant public health concern throughout the world. Nearly 2 percent of adults and 4-6 per-cent of children suffer from food allergies, which are defined as an adverse immunologically me-diated reaction to antigenic molecules present in foods. The allergic response is mediated by the interaction of cell-bound immunoglobulin E (IgE), a class of antibody molecules uniquely in-volved in allergic reactions with allergen (Sampson and Metcalfe 1991; Metcalfe, Sampson, and Simon 1996). Antigenic molecules, or aller-gens, typically are proteins that stimulate aller-gen- specific IgE production in certain individuals through as yet undetermined mechanisms (Lehrer, Horner, and Reese 1996; Taylor and Lehrer 1996). Inheritance and exposure to aller-gens are two factors that contribute to the devel-opment of allergy. The pathophysiological mechanisms of food allergies are distinct from other food intolerances such as gluten sensitive enteropathy (celiac disease) that are due to non-toxic, nonimmune reactions to foods even though symptoms may resemble those of ''true'' food al-lergies. Food allergy symptoms can range from mild discomfort to life-threatening anaphylactic shock (Sampson and Metcalfe 1991; Metcalfe, Sampson, and Simon 1996).More than 90 percent of the allergic reactions observed in children and adults can be attributed to exposure to eight foods or food groups. These include eggs, fish, shellfish, milk, peanuts, soy beans, tree nuts, and wheat (Taylor and Lehrer 1996). Virtually all allergens are proteins; yet of the enormous numbers of proteins occurring in foods, only a very few are allergenic and only in certain people. Most characterized food allergens, with some exceptions, are stable to digestion and processing, and many of the major allergens are generally proteins that are present in large amounts in allergenic foods. The primary struc-ture of food allergens has been determined by molecular cloning and sequencing (Taylor and Lehrer 1996; Bush and Hefle 1996; Lehrer and others 1997; Reese and Lehrer 1998).Usually, food allergy develops as follows. An allergen or an immunologically active fragment of that particular allergen crosses from the lumen of the gut through the mucosal membrane bar-rier; this molecule or its fragment can stimulate different types of lymphocytes that ultimately result in the production of allergen-specific IgE antibodies. These IgE antibodies also have the unique ability to bind to surface receptors on mast cells and basophils; upon a second or subsequent exposure, allergen may bridge cell-bound IgE an-tibodies. The cross-linking of cell-bound IgE an-tibodies will lead to the release of both preformed mediators, such as histamine and newly synthe-sized mediators such as protaglandins, that cause smooth muscle contraction, vasodilation, bron-chial constriction, and cell infiltration, which in effect cause symptoms of allergic reactions (Sampson and Metcalfe 1991).', 'en_US'),
(65, 'The input of molecular biology: transgenic foods', 'An allergenic protein with Mr of about 16 kDa was isolated from rice salt-soluble fraction based on the reactivity with IgE antibodies from patients allergic to rice. A cDNA clone encoding the 16 kDa allergenic protein (1 GK-allergen) was isolated from a cDNA library of maturing rice seeds, and the deduced amino acid sequence of 16K-allergen showed considerable similarity to wheat and barley a-amylase/trypsin inhibitors, which have recently been identified as major allergens associated with baker''s asthma. An antisense RNA strategy was applied to repress the allergen gene expression in maturing rice seeds. Chimerit genes producing antisense RNAs of 16K-allergen under control of some promoters of rice seed specific genes including the 1 GK-allergen gene were introduced into rice with a hygromycin phosphotransferase gene by electroporation, Rice plants were independently regenerated from hygromycin-resistant calli, and their selfed seeds were obtained. Immunoblotting and ELISA analyses of the seeds using a monoclonal antibody to 16K-allergen suggested that allergen content of seeds from several transgenic rice plants was markedly lower than that of the seeds from parental wild type rice.', 'en_US'),
(66, 'Application of transgenic techniques for hypo-allergenic rice', NULL, 'en_US'),
(67, 'Assessment of the allergenic potential of foods derived from genetically engineered crop plants.', 'This article provides a science-based, decision tree approach to assess the allergenic concerns associated with the introduction of gene products into new plant varieties. The assessment focuses on the source from which the transferred gene was derived. Sources fall into 3 general categories: common allergenic food proteins; less common allergenic foods or other known allergen sources; and sources with no allergenicity. Information concerning the amino acid sequence identity to known allergenic proteins, in vitro and/or in vivo immunologic assays, and assessment of key physiological properties are included in reaching a recommendation on whether food derived from the genetically modified plant variety should be labelled as to the source of the transferred gene.', 'en_US'),
(68, 'Transgenic soybeans containing Brazil nut 2S storage protein: issues regarding allergenicity', 'A 2s albumin from Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa L.), which has been expressed in transgenic soybean (Glycine max), binds human IgE from the sera of individuals allergic to Brazil nut. The 2s albumin is likely the major allergen from Brazil nut and should be identified as Ber e1.', 'en_US'),
(69, 'Evaluation of the allergenicity of foods developed through biotechnology', NULL, 'en_US'),
(70, 'Allergenic potential of genetically modified plant foods - how reliable is the proposed assessment strategy?', 'The strategy of allergy assessment proposed by IFBC and ILSI for foods derived from genetically improved crop plants (Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr, Special Supplement (1996), 36: S165S186) is critically evaluated. Criticisms are illustrated by examples taken from results of our own studies and from the scientific literature. Comments are made on some assumptions of this strategy, in particular on the influence of breeding and genetic engineering, the abundance of allergens in foods, the minimal size of cross-reacting epitopes and the potential use of animal models, the application of which is not recommended in the assessment strategy. In conclusion, it is suggested (a) to exclude the expression level of proteins in foods as a criterion of the allergy assessment, (b) to reduce the minimal size of immunological significant sequences to four consecutive, identical amino acid residues and to perform sequence comparisons of known allergens and end-to-end alignments with newly introduced food proteins on the basis of that level. (c) lmmunogenicity testing of such new proteins in animals and rapid validation of established animal models of food allergy for their predictive value to assess the allergenic potential of genetically improved foods before releasing such foods to the market is also recommended.', 'en_US'),
(71, 'Effect of diets containing genetically modified potatoes expressing Galanthus nivalis lectin on rat small intestine', 'Diets containing genetically modified (GM) potatoes expressing the lectin Galanthus nivalis agglutinin (GNA) had variable effects on different parts of the rat gastrointestinal tract. Some effects, such as the proliferation of the gastric mucosa, were mainly due to the expression of the GNA transgene. However, other parts of the construct or the genetic transformation (or both) could also have contributed to the overall biological effects of the GNA-GM potatoes, particularly on the small intestine and caecum.Genetically modified (GM) plant products are becoming increasingly common in the human food-chain, yet in contrast to the general acceptance of the need for the biological testing of novel foods and feedstuffs, few studies have been carried out on the possible effects of GM products on the mammalian ut mucosa. GM potatoes expressing a snowdrop lectin (Galanthus nivalis agglutinin [GNA]) under the CaMV35s promoter have been developed to increase insect and nematode resistance. 1 G N A was selected for insertion into potatoes because the initial effect of this mannose-specific lectin on the rat small bowel has been shown to be minimal, 2 and because its binding to mannose present on the epithelial surface of rat jejunal villi is demonstrable only after feeding for 10 days. We compared the histological indices of the gut of rats fed potato diets containing GM potatoes, non-GM potatoes, or non-GM potatoes supplemented with GNA, to find out whether GNA gene insertion had affected the nutritional and physiological impact of potatoes on the mammalian gut.ELISA analysis confirmed that the expression level of GNA in raw GM potatoes was 25·4 mg/g dry matter; the concentration was decreased to 4·9 mg/g after boiling for 1 h. Six rats were randomly allocated to each group, and were fed diets containing either raw or boiled GNA-GM potatoes, parent potatoes (Desiree), or parent-line potatoes supplemented with 25·4 mg/g GNA for 10 days. All potato diets were isocaloric and contained an average of 6% protein. Histological samples of stomach, jejunum, ileum, caecum, and colon were taken 10 days after the start of feeding. The samples, each 2 cm in length, were opened along the antimesenteric border. The serosal surface was allowed to adhere to card for 3 min and was then fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin for 18 h at 20°C. Paraffin sections (4 mm) were stained with haematoxylin and eosin, and mucosal thickness (stomach) or crypt length (jejunum, ileum, caecum, and colon) was measured by video-image analysis. Intraepithelial lymphocytes are equally distributed in all parts of the small intestine, and are known to increase when non-specific intestinal damage occurs. Thus, to assess potential damage, intraepithelial lymphocytes were counted in eight jejunal villi from each of the six rats fed diets containing GNA-GM potatoes or parent potatoes, both raw and boiled. No such measurements were made for the group fed parent potatoes spiked with GNA because dietary GNA or other lectins do not induce lymphocyte infiltration. GNA binding to the jejunum and ileum was measured by elution with 0·1 mol/L mannose, followed by ELISA.', 'en_US'),
(72, 'Limitations of whole food feeding studies in food safety assessment', 'The utility of feeding complex mixtures to animals as in whole food feeding studies for safety assessment has been addressed by various scientific groups. This issue first arose during the safety assessment of irradiated foods. Initial efforts by FDA and industry to establish safety relied upon the use of traditional feeding studies in animals. Hundreds of animal feeding studies were conducted during the 1960''s and 1970''s with various irradiated foodstuffs. In 1981, FDA established the Irradiated Foods Task Group. This group of scientists reviewed these data and concluded that animal feeding studies have limited sensitivity to detect small changes in food. Based on these experiences, food scientists and nutritionists have recommended against the routine use of whole food feeding studies in safety assessment of foods derived from genetically modified plants. In the monograph published by the International Food Biotechnology Council (IFBC) on assessing the safety of foods produced by genetic modification, whole food feeding studies were not normally recommended. IFBC stated that whole food feeding studies, if undertaken, should be of relatively short duration to avoid the confounding factors such as nutritional imbalances which may develop after prolonged feeding. Similarly, the 1992 FDA Food Policy (published May 29, 1992) cautioned against the routine use of whole feeding studies for safety assessment of genetically modified food, We have conducted a number of short-term animal feeding studies to assess the wholesomeness of different foods/feeds derived from genetically modified and non-modified plants and have concluded that compositional analysis, comparing the levels of nutrients and toxicants, is of more value for assessing potential changes in food wholesomeness.', 'en_US'),
(73, 'Thirteen week feeding study in rats fed grain from Roundup Ready® corn', NULL, 'en_US'),
(74, 'Consuming transgenic food crops: the toxicological and safety aspects of tomato expressing Cry 1Ab and NPTII', NULL, 'en_US'),
(75, 'Comparison of broiler performance when fed diets containing Yieldgard corn, Yieldgard X Roundup Ready corn, parential lines or commerical corn', NULL, 'en_US'),
(76, 'Comparison of broiler performance when fed diets containing Roundup Ready corn event NK603, parental line, or commercial corn.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(77, 'Hazard evaluation of glufosinate tolerant crops', 'Glufosinate tolerant crops contain a transgene encoding the enzyme protein phosphinothricin N-acetyl transferase (PAT), which detoxifies glufosinate ammonium, the active component in the herbicide Liberty®.Diets containing up to 5 % PAT-Protein did not cause adverse effects in a 14-day toxicity study on rats conducted according the OECD Test Guideline 407.PAT has no structural similarity to known food allergens and is not stable at temperatures above 50 ''C or at a pH outside the range 5.5 - 10. PAT is present in glufosinate tolerant crops at minute concentrations up to maximally low3 % of the total protein content. It is rapidly inactivated and degraded in gastric fluid. PAT, being a very specific enzyme, does not acetylate glutamate, the closest structural analogue to glufosinate, or any of the amino acids normally present in animals and plants.Consequently, the likelihood that PAT in glufosinate tolerant crops may involve any toxic or allergic hazards, or biochemical effects to man or animal is deemed negligible.Generally, for adequate health hazard assessment of gene modified crops, health hazards possibly linked to the gene product (PAT-Protein), need first to be examined carefully. The short term toxicity test (14 - 28 days) is best suited for intrinsic systemic types of toxicity. It allows a wide range of endpoints to be tested, using an amount of test sample that can (just) be accommodated. Secondly, various biochemical assays on the gene product are recommended as appropriate to predict how the mammalian organism handles the gene product. Depending on the outcome further testing may be indicated. Thirdly, in the case of herbicide tolerant crops, the herbicide and its plant metabolites need to be examined carefully as defined by various regulatory directives (911414 in EU). Conventional sub-chronic feeding studies with the gene modified crop are deemed insensitive and of low value for hazard assessment. They should not be part of the standard registration requirement.Development of an adequate test method for food allergenicity should be considered. In the absence of such a test method, allergenicity should be estimated on the basis of the results of the above-mentioned biochemical screening assays.', 'en_US'),
(78, 'Biosafety evaluation of transgenic asparagus', 'The field performance of a transgenic asparagus (Asparagus ofikkdis L.) line was evaluated in a small-scale trial from 1989 to 1992. Compared to the parental genotype, this transgenic line had low vigour and poor yield. Careful monitoring of the field trial site detected no dispersal of transgenic pollen during the trial, and the absence of volunteer plants following the completion of the trial. Nutritional analysis of the harvested spears established no significant differences between the transgenic line and the parental genotype with respect to content of ash, crude protein, fat, insoluble dietary fibre, soluble dietary fibre, carbohydrate, and individual amino acids.', 'en_US'),
(79, 'Biosafety assessment of transgenic potatoes, environmental monitoring and food safety evaluation', NULL, 'en_US'),
(80, 'Experience in field testing of transgenic potatoes with an added antifreeze gene in Bolivia.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(81, 'Field performance of transgenic tomato plants expressing the Bacillus thurigiensis var. kurstaki insect control protein', NULL, 'en_US'),
(82, 'Regulatory considerations: the FlavrSavr ? tomato and the regulatory process', NULL, 'en_US'),
(83, 'The biosafety aspects of commercialization: insect resistant cotton as a case study', 'Extensive field tests with insect resistant cotton plants, which express a Bacillus thuringiensis variety kurstaki protein, have established commercially acceptable levels of control of the targeted lepidopteran insects. These plants have the potential to provide the agricultural community with an effective and environmentally friendly method to control the major insect pests of cotton. The insect resistance trait has been backcrossed into commercial germplasms to produce cotton varieties which combine the best agronomic traits with resistance to lepidopteran insects. As these commercial varieties are being developed and extensively field tested, data have been generated to establish the environmental, animal feed and human food safety of this product. This manuscript summarizes our approach to establish the safety of these insect. resistant cotton plants and to gain regulatory approval for commercialization. We have characterized these plants, genetically, molecularly and biochemically, and established the safety of both the introduced proteins and the products generated from these plants. The introduced proteins have been purified and shown not to cause any adverse effects to non-target organisms when exposed to extremely high doses. These proteins are produced at low levels in the plants and were shown to degrade rapidly during mammalian digestion as well as in the soil. No adverse effects were observed in feeding the cottonseed producing these proteins to rodents, birds or fish. The quality of the seed and oil generated from the seed as well as the level of anti-nutritional components were not significantly altered in these insect resistant plants relative to the non-modified parental variety. We are confident that our broad science-based approach to establish the food, feed and environmental safety of these plants and plant products provides the information necessary to gain regulatory approval and consumer acceptance of this product. Likewise, similar information is being generated to establish the safety of other products that will follow insect resistant cotton into the market place.', 'en_US'),
(84, 'Commercialization of soybeans with the Roundup Ready® gene', NULL, 'en_US'),
(85, 'Safety evaluation of glyphosate-tolerant soybeans', 'Introduction Numerous genetically engineered plant products have been extensively field tested and are moving towards market introduction. The first of these products, the FlavrSavr ? tomato, was recently introduced in the United States after lengthy consultations with the United States Food and Drug Administration. Confirming the safety and satisfying the appropriate regulatory agencies are key steps in the development of these products. A case study using soybeans that have been modified to be tolerant to glyphosate (glyphosatetolerant soybeans, GTS) will be used to illustrate the detailed technical assessment employed to establish that these soybeans are substantially equivalent to the soybeans in commerce today.We have carefully followed the guidance provided by both the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD, 1993) and the Food and Drug Administration (US FDA, 1992) in assessing the safety of GTS. This assessment, which focused on the composition and nutrition of soybeans and the safety of the introduced protein that confers glyphosate tolerance, leads to the conclusion that GTS are substantially equivalent to the soybeans currently in commerce. Detailed compositional analysis of several other genetically engineered crops will be presented to verify that many of the genetically engineered crops being developed are substantially equivalent to the corresponding products currently marketed.', 'en_US'),
(86, 'Regulatory considerations for pesticidal plants: insect-resistant cotton as a case study', NULL, 'en_US'),
(87, 'Quantification of Bacillus thuringiensis insect control protein CryIAc over time in Bollgard cotton fruit and terminals', 'A sensitive quantitative bioassay was developed for the measurement of Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner -endotoxin, Cry1Ac, in Bollgard cotton plant tissue. Cotton tissue samples were evaluated in a sensitive Heliothis virescens (F.) growth inhibition bioassay, with Cry1Ac levels being quantified by comparison with concurrently run concentration-response curves using purified Cry1Ac protein. The assay was amenable to large numbers of samples, used small amounts of plant tissue, and avoided some of the concerns associated with immunobased quantitative assays. Field studies were conducted during the 1995 growing season in which Cry1Ac levels were quantified in the Bollgard cotton line 531 (in Coker 312 background). Analyses were conducted to test for the effects of environment (field site differences), plant age, and tissue type on Cry1Ac concentrations. The small foliage of main terminals and the primary, or proximal, fruiting structure from node 9 (9th main stem branch from the bottom of the plant) were sampled at various intervals throughout the growing season at 6 field sites. Mean Cry1Ac levels in terminals and fruiting tissue differed significantly, with terminal foliage levels higher than node 9 fruit. Within each tissue type, significant differences among sites were also seen, suggesting environmental influence on either Cry1Ac production or stability. Mean Cry1Ac values in fruiting structures declined significantly from 57.1 g/g dry weight at 53 d after planting to 6.7 g/g at 116 d after planting. Mean terminal Cry1Ac levels also declined significantly from 163.4 g/g to 34.5 g/g at 53 d after planting and 116 d after planting, respectively. In general, Cry1Ac levels in the fruit and terminals of Bollgard cotton declined steadily as the growing season progressed, with greater activity always occurring in the terminal foliage.', 'en_US'),
(88, 'Survival and growth of bollworm and tobacco budworm on nontransgenic and transgenic cotton expressing a CryIA insecticidal protein (Lepidoptera noctuidae)', NULL, 'en_US'),
(89, 'Safety evaluation for new varieties of food crops developed through biotechnology', NULL, 'en_US'),
(90, 'Evaluation of toxicological studies on FLAVR SAVR tomato', NULL, 'en_US'),
(91, 'Food safety assessment of genetically modified crops', 'Following the production of the first transgenic plants, health issues concerning the safety of using genetically modified (GM) crops in foods and feeds have been discussed, debated, and evaluated. The main concerns regarding GM foods include toxin or allergen production, changes in nutrient levels, and development of antibiotic resistance. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration established extensive guidelines to address the concerns and ensure the safe commercial introduction of GM crops for use in food or feed. The guidelines were developed through evaluation of scientific data from several disciplines related to genetic engineering and food safety, and consultation with experts from around the world. Foods containing GM crops meeting the FDA guidelines are deemed to be as safe and nutritious as their non-GM counterparts already on the market.', 'en_US'),
(92, 'Coat protein and replicase-mediated resistance to plant viruses', NULL, 'en_US'),
(93, 'The safety of foods developed by biotechnology', NULL, 'en_US'),
(94, 'Food safety assessment of transgenic insect resistant Bt tomatoes', NULL, 'en_US'),
(95, 'The economic implications of imported genetically modified soybean and maize livestock feed ingredients in the UK', NULL, 'en_US'),
(96, 'Safety assessment and commercialization of transgenic fresh tomato food products, transgenic cotton products and transgenic rapeseed oil products', NULL, 'en_US'),
(97, 'Aflatoxins in maize: the problem and genetic solutions', NULL, 'en_US'),
(98, 'Investigations of the allergenicity of Brazil nut 2S seed storage protein in transgenic soybean', NULL, 'en_US'),
(99, 'Safety assessment strategies for genetically modified plant products: a case study of Bacillus thuringiensis-toxin tomato', NULL, 'en_US'),
(100, 'Determination of the safety of genetically engineered crops', NULL, 'en_US'),
(101, 'Genetically improved potatoes: protection from damage by Colorado potato beetles', NULL, 'en_US'),
(102, 'Food safety evalutaion of a transgenic squash', NULL, 'en_US'),
(103, 'Glyphosate-tolerant soybeans found safe for use in feed, food', 'Recent compositional studies, in conjunction with animal feeding studies, show soybeans tolerant to glyphosate are equivalent in nutrition, composition and wholesomeness to other soybeans, and are therefore, safe for inclusion in feed and food. The studies also established that CP4 EPSPS, the added protein in glyphosate-tolerant soybeans (GTS), is readily digestible. Finally, the studies found that CP4 EPSPS pose no allergenic concerns.Three peer-reviewed articles on these studies appeared in the March issue of The Journal of Nutrition, the publication of the American Institute of Nutrition.The May 20 Feedstuffs article. ''Plant Biotechnology and The Feed Industry.'' addressed plant biotechnology products that soon will be available commercially and incorporated into feed products. In particular, the article addressed the equivalence of these plant biotechnology products to crops currently on the market. In addition, it discussed U.S. regulatory oversight and the general commitment to safety demonstrated by companies developing the newly commercialized products.This discussion will focus on one of these products - glyphosate-tolerant soybeans (GTS) - and summarize the specific objectives. Methods and results of the three studies that were part of a safety assessment program for this new soybean variety.', 'en_US'),
(104, 'Safety assessment of genetically engineered fruits and vegetables - a case study of the FLAVR SAVR tomato', NULL, 'en_US'),
(105, 'Aminoglycoside 3''-phosphotransferase II [APH(3'')II]: review of its safety and use in the production of genetically engineered plants', NULL, 'en_US'),
(106, 'Regulatory issues for commercialization of tomatoes with an antisense polygalacturonase gene', NULL, 'en_US'),
(107, 'Determination of the safety of genetically engineered crops', NULL, 'en_US'),
(108, 'Immunodiagnostic methods for detection of 5-enolpyruvjlshikimate-3-phosphate synthase in Roundup Ready soybeans', 'We have developed immunological-based detection methods to support labeling of protein-containing food fractions derived from Roundup Ready® soybeans. Western blotting and enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) procedures were developed to measure the 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (CP4 EPSPS) protein derived from the Agrobacterium sp. strain CP4 in the major processed fractions derived from Roundup Ready soybean. Expression of the CP4 EPSPS protein confers tolerance to Roundup® herbicide. The western blotting method utilizes a polyclonal goat anti-CP4 EPSPS antibody which specifically binds to CP4 EPSPS followed by detection of bound goat antibody with biotinylated Protein-G. Detection of this complex is accomplished using horseradish-peroxidase (HRP) labeled NeutrAvidin(TM) and signal development by enhanced chemiluminesence. Data from western blot analyses of these fractions establish that stable epitopes remain after the seed has been subjected to processing conditions typically employed by the food industry, thereby enabling development of an ELISA method. The ELISA for measurement of CP4 EPSPS is a triple antibody sandwich procedure utilizing a monoclonal capture antibody and a polyclonal detection antibody followed by a third biotin labeled monoclonal anti-rabbit antibody. Sandwich formation is detected using HRP labeled NeutrAvidin(TM) with color development using TMB substrate. In the sandwich ELISA, the immunological activity of CP4 EPSPS was reduced by the extraction method required to solubilize CP4 EPSPS protein from processed fractions. Sensitivity of the CP4 EPSPS ELISA was sufficient to detect CP4 EPSPS protein in processed soybean fractions that contained 2% Roundup Ready soybean mixed with conventional processed soybean fractions, thereby making the ELISA an acceptable method to assess CP4 EPSPS protein in processed soybean fractions. Data on sensitivity, accuracy, precision and specificity, established that the western blot and ELISA methods are appropriate for compliance with the EC Novel Foods Regulation.', 'en_US'),
(109, 'Biotechnology and the soybean', 'Glyphosate-tolerant soybeans (GTSs), the first biotechnologically improved soybeans to be marketed, became available commercially in 1996. The safety of GTSs was assessed in 2 ways: study of the introduced protein and of the soybean seed and selected processing fractions. Because soybeans are a major source of protein in most farm animals'' diets, animal feeding studies in wholesomeness were done to complement the analyses. Analysis of the expressed protein in GTSs [3- phosphoshikimate 1-carboxyvinyltransferase (EC 2.5.1.19)] showed it to be readily digestible and to possess no allergenic concerns. In addition, comparison of the composition of seeds and selected processing fractions from 2 GTS lines with the parental line showed that the lines are equivalent. Feeding studies in various animal species confirmed that the feeding value of GTS lines is comparable with that of the parental line. These studies support the conclusion that GTSs are as safe and nutritious as traditional soybeans marketed currently and can be incorporated safely into feed and food products in the near future.', 'en_US'),
(110, 'Transgenic high-protein sweet potatoes: their effects on protein quality and lipid metabolism', NULL, 'en_US'),
(111, 'Crop physiology and metabolism: analysis of expressed proteins in fiber fractions from insect-protected and glyphosate-tolerant cotton varieties', 'The objective of this study was to determine the concentration of introduced proteins in the fibre fractions of transgenic cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) before and after processing. Two novel cotton varieties were developed by genetic transformation technology. One variety expressed the CryIA(c) insecticidal protein derived from Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki. The second variety expressed the CP4 EPSPS (5-enolpyruvyl shikimate-3-phosphate synthase) protein, originally found in Agrobacterium sp., which confers tolerance to glyphosphate herbicide. Levels of the CryIA(c) and CP4 EPSPS proteins in raw lint, combed lint, raw linters, and processed linter brown stock from these cotton varieties were analysed by means of western blot, insect bioassay (for CryIA(c) protein only), or both. The CryIA(c) protein was present in raw linters (0.17 micro g g-1), but it was not detected in either raw or combed lint. The CP4 EPSPS protein was detected at low levels (<0.5 micro g g-1) in combed lint, but not in processed linter brown stock. Inactivation of the CryIA(c) and CP4 EPSPS proteins in the first processing step for linters indicates that these proteins will not be present in cotton linter products. Similarly, the typical heat and chemical processing of cotton lint should also denature any transgenic protein(s) present.', 'en_US'),
(112, 'Consuming transgenic food crops', NULL, 'en_US'),
(113, 'GMO in animal feed: Bt has no influence on nutritional and physiological properties', NULL, 'en_US'),
(114, 'Utilization of Bt corn residue and corn silage for growing beef steers', 'Two trials were completed to evaluate the se of Bt corn hybrids (de- rived from Event Bt11) for growing steers.Trial 1 utilized ?elds of N7333 Bt and N7333 non-Bt post-harvest corn residue to evaluate daily gain and grazing preference.The absence of signicant European corn borer (ECB )pressure resulted in similar grain yields (184 and 182 bu/acre) and residual corn (1.0 and 1.5bu/acre)for the Bt and non-Bt hybrid,re- spectively.Twenty-three acres of Bt and 21 acres of non-Bt corn residue were divided into 3 pastures and stocked with 8 or 9 steers,providing equal stocking rates.Daily gain of 67 steers grazing corn residue for 70 d was similar (avg.0.28 kg/d).Also,16 steers allowed access to either 7 acres of Bt or non-Bt corn residue demonstrated no grazing preference. In Trial 2,128 steers (avg.282 kg)were fed corn silage diets (90% silage and 10% supplement, DM basis)for 101 d.Treatments were arranged as a 2 x 2 factorial:Bt or non-Bt versions of hybrids N7333 or N4242.Dry matter intake was higher (8.61 vs 8.32 kg/d;P <0.05)for steers fed Bt compared with non-Bt hybrids.An interaction (P <0.05)was observed between hybrid genotype and Bt trait for daily gain and feed effciency. Daily gain was higher (1.46 vs 1.36 kg/d;P <0.05)for steers fed N4242 Bt compared with N4242 non-Bt.Daily gain was similar (avg.1.28 kg/d)for steers fed N7333 Bt and non-Bt.Feed effciency was better (P <0.05)for steers fed N7333 non-Bt (6.33)compared with N7333 Bt (6.81).Feed effciency was similar (avg.6.10)for steers fed N4242 Bt and non-Bt.Although an interaction was present,steers fed the N4242 hybrids gained 11%faster (P <0.01)and were 8%more effcient (P < 0.01)than those fed the N7333 hybrids.Presence of the Bt trait in corn hybrids had no consistent effect on performance of growing steers,while hybrid genotype appeared to affect performance.Higher ECB pressure may indirectly influence grazing performance on Bt and non-Bt corn residue.', 'en_US'),
(115, 'Feeding value of whole plant silage and crop residues from Bt or normal corn', NULL, 'en_US'),
(116, 'Feeding value of Bt corn grain compared with its parental hybrid when fed in beef cattle finishing diets', 'The objective as to determine the effect of Bt corn on the performance of steer calves fed whole plant corn silage (WPS)during the growing phase follo ed by a high grain finishing diet. During the 1998 (yr 1) and 1999 (yr 2) cropping seasons, alternating 6.8 ha fields (8 in yr 1 and 6 in yr 2) were planted to either Bt (Yieldgard) or the near isogenic parental hybrid (Pioneer 3489 in yr 1 and Pioneer 34E79 in yr 2). Prior to harvest, perimeter rows were removed to reduce the possibility of feeding cross-pollinated hybrids. Fifty-six Angus and Simmental sired steer calves (300 kg),1 month postweaning, were randomly allotted by eight and breed type into eight pens of seven steers. They were fed the WPS diet for 89 d in yr 1 and 85 d in yr 2. The finishing diet contained 75% dry rolled corn, 15% whole plant corn silage, and 10%suppl. on a DM basis. The finishing phase was 101 d in yr 1 and 84 d in yr 2. During the WPS phase of yr 1, ADG and DMI did not differ (P >.05) between groups while feed/gain averaged 7.08 and 6.40 between Bt and control steers (P <.05). Steer performance during the WPS phase of yr 2 did not di .er (P >.05). There were no significant differences in ADG, DMI, or feed/gain during the finishing phases (P >.05). Combining the yr 1 WPS and finishing phases, ADG averaged 3.18 and 3.30 kg/d (P >.05), DMI averaged 9.80 and 9.71 kg/d (P >.05), and feed/gain averaged 6.78 and 6.47 (P <.05) among Bt and control steers. There were no overall performance differences (P >.05) during yr2 (ADG, 3.14 vs 3.21 kg/d; DMI, 9.52 vs 9.79 kg/d; and feed/gain, 6.66 vs 6.72). Steers were harvested on multiple dates when it was estimated that 75% of a load would grade USDA Choice. There were no differences in carcass characteristics (P >.05). Results indicate that there are no major differences in the feeding value of grain from Bt corn and the near isogenic parental hybrid when fed to beef steers on a high grain finishing diet.', 'en_US'),
(117, 'Performance of beef cattle fed Roundup Ready corn harvested as whole plant silage or grain', NULL, 'en_US'),
(118, 'Effects of grazing crop residues from Bt-corn hybrids on the performance of gestating beef cows', 'One non bt-corn hybrid (Pioneer 3489),two bt-corn hybrids with the Yieldguard event (Pioneer 34RO7 and Novartis NX6236),or one bt-corn hybrid with the Knockout event (Novartis N64-Z4)were seeded in duplicate 2.9-ha fields.On September 4,50 plants were collected from each field and examined for corn borers.', 'en_US'),
(119, 'Nutritive value of the crop residues from Bt-corn hybrids and their effects on performance of grazing beef cows', NULL, 'en_US'),
(120, 'Bt corn and non-Bt corn crop residues equal in grazing value.', 'Preliminary research conducted by Iowa State University and funded by the Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture shows no difference in the performance of cattle that grazed Bt corn crop residues and those which grazed non-Bt corn crop residues. ''The bottom line is that in one year there was no effect of Bt corn on the quality of stalks for winter grazing,'' said Jim Russell, forage grazing specialist at the Iowa Beef Center at ISU. Russell said there was little difference in the amount of hay required to maintain comparable body condition in cows grazing the crop residues from different hybrids.The research was conducted in direct response to cattle producers'' questions about Bt corn stalks as a forage. Russell noted that the grazing research was conducted during the winter of 1998-99 and will continue for another year. The 1998 growing season was a light one for corn borers. The results could be different in a year of heavier corn borer infestation.  Previous research has shown that corn stalks are an under-utilized resource in Iowa, Russell added. ''The amount of corn stalks a producer uses in beef production is strongly related to his or her profitability,'' he said. ''Grazing corn stalks costs 5 cents per day, while feeding hay costs 60 cents to $1.20 per day.'' Russell''s study comparing Bt corn crop residues to non-Bt corn crop residues as a forage was conducted at the Beef Nutrition Farm near Ames. Corn for the research was donated by Pioneer Hi-Bred International, Inc. and Novartis Seeds, Inc.  For more information, contact the Iowa Beef Center at http://www.ibc.iastate.edu/ or (515) 294-BEEF.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(121, 'Effects of grazing crop residues from Bt-corn hybrids on pregnant beef cows', 'To determine the e .ects of grazing crop residues from bt-corn hybrids on performance of pregnant beef cows,one non bt-corn hybrid (Pioneer 3489)and three bt-corn hybrids (Pioneer 34RO7 and Novartis NX6236 with the Yieldgard event and Novartis N64Z4 ith the Knockout event) ere planted in duplicate 2.8-ha .elds in 1998 and 1999.Thirty Angus x Charolais x Simmental cows in midgestation ere allotted amongst t o drylots or the eight crop residue .elds to strip-graze for 126 d.Co body condition scores ere visually estimated biweekly and alfalfa-grass hay as supplemented to maintain a mean body condition score of 5 on a 9-point scale.Crop residue yields and compositions ere determined monthly in one 4-m 2 location in each grazed and ungrazed paddock. On t o consecutive days after 2 wkof grazing,forage selected during 2 hr of feeding by one .stulated steer per .eld or drylot as collected by ruminal evacuation.Simultaneously,DMI as calculated from the digestibility of forage determined with indigestible ADF and the fecal output estimated from the passage kinetics of Cr-mordanted .ber (2% Cr)in t o cows per .eld or drylot.Corn hybrid did not a .ect mean yields of harvested grain,dropped ears or grain,or crop residue DM or OM over the t o years.At grazing initiation,crop residues from Novartis NX6236 and N64Z4 had higher (P <.05)concentrations of IVOMD and lo er (P <.05)concentrations of ADF and ADL than Pioneer 3489 or Pioneer 34RO7.Rates of change in the concentrations of IVOMD,NDF, ADF,ADL and CP over winter did not di .er bet een corn hybrids.Forage selected by .stulated steers did not di .er in IVOMD concentrations bet een winter feeding systems nor NDF,ADF,ADL or ADIN concentrations bet een corn hybrids.Intakes of forage digestible OM,NDF and ADF did not di .er bet een winter feeding systems.Mean amounts of hay required to maintain body condition score of co s maintained in a drylot ere greater than cows grazing crop residues (1454 vs 375 kg DM/co ),but did not di .er bet een corn hybrids.', 'en_US'),
(122, 'Nutritional evaluation of Bt (MON810) and Roundup Ready corn compared with commercial hybrids in broilers', NULL, 'en_US'),
(123, 'Comparison of broiler performance and carcass characteristics when fed Bt, parental control or commercial varieties of dehulled soybean meal', '841', 'en_US'),
(124, 'Detection of GMOs in the broilers that utilized genetically modified soybean meals as a feed ingredient', 'Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) has been the center of debates among the food producer and consumer worldwide. The issue arised in Thailand is not different especially the concern of the safety of food that derived from GMOs and their product. Livestock industry has been subjected as the user of GMOs in the production system. To lessen some of these controversial issue, this study was aimed at detection of the GMOs in broiler that utilized GMOs soybeanmeals (SBM) as a feed ingredient. The broiler were divided into 3 groups which allocated for the 3 diets. All diets formulated to meet the commercial standard were diet1 as non-GMO SBM, diet2 as GMO SBM and diet3 as the commercial diet that was GMOs. Broilers were fed in a commercial management from birth up to 7 week olds. Samples of broilers (meat, skin, duodenum and liver) were taken at 1, 3, 5 and 7 weeks. Real-time PCR (ABI Prism 7700) were used to analyze contamination of GMOs in all samples. PCR results of the broiler samples during 1-7 week were all negative. The results implied that the GMOs content in SBM has been metabolized in the gut of the broiler and show no residue in the meat. Therefore, other aspects of the safety issues are needed to verify scientifically.', 'en_US'),
(125, 'GMO (Bt) corn is similar in composition and nutrition availability to broilers as non-GMO corn', NULL, 'en_US'),
(126, 'Growth performance of broilers fed insect-protected (MON810) or near isogenic control corn', NULL, 'en_US'),
(127, 'Feeding value of silage maize estimated with sheep and dairy cows is not altered by genetic incorporation of Bt 176 resistance to Ostrinia nubilalis', 'A genetically modified Bt176 corn hybrid (Rh208Bt)-providing control of European corn borer damage-and the conventional isogenic hybrid (Rh208)-harvested as whole plant silage-were evaluated in three separate feeding trials to verify that the in vivo feeding value was substantially equivalent among modified and conventional hybrids. In the first trial, after a week of preexperiment, two sets of six Texel sheep, housed in digestibility crates, were fed silage sources of Rh208 and Rh208Bt hybrids, and silage of three additional control varieties of low, intermediate, and high feeding value (Rh289, Adonis, and Adonis bm3) for 1 wk. Feed offered to sheep was adjusted to maintenance requirements based on metabolic body weight. Agronomic and biochemical traits were similar among the Rh208 and Rh208Bt hybrids. Organic matter digestibility (67.1 and 67.6%), crude fiber digestibility (52.9 and 54.2%), and neutral detergent fiber digestibility (50.2 and 49.0%) were not significantly different among Rh208 and Rh208Bt hybrids. In the second trial, two sets of 24 Holstein cows were fed silage from Rh208 and Rh208Bt corn hybrids for 13 wk, 9 wk after calving, and including 2 wk of preexperiment. Fat-corrected milk yield (31.3 and 31.4 kg/d), protein content (31.7 and 31.6 g/kg) and fat content (36.7 and 37.0 g/kg) in milk of dairy cows were unaffected by hybrid source. Body weight gains of cattle were not different. However, intake was significantly higher in cows fed Rh208Bt silage. In the third trial, five midlactation multiparous Holstein cows were successively fed the silage from Rh208 and Rh208Bt corn hybrids 2 or 3 wk. Data were considered only for the last week of each period. There were no significant effects on protein fractions, fatty acid composition, or coagulation properties of milk between Rh208 and Rh208Bt fed cattle. Cattle and sheep can perform equally well with a conventional or a genetically modified Bt176 corn silage.', 'en_US'),
(128, 'Effect of feeding dairy cows with either BollGard , BollGard II, Roundup Ready or control cottonseeds on feed intake, milk yield and milk composition', NULL, 'en_US'),
(129, 'Effect of feeding dairy cows with cottonseeds containing BollGard and Roundup Ready genes or control non-transgenic cottonseeds on feed intake, milk yield and milk composition', NULL, 'en_US'),
(130, 'Effect of feeding Roundup Ready corn silage and grain on feed intake, milk production and milk composition in lactating dairy cattle', NULL, 'en_US'),
(131, 'Determining feeding related characteristics for Bt corn', NULL, 'en_US'),
(132, 'Effect of Bt corn silage on short-term lactational performance and ruminal fermentation in dairy cows', NULL, 'en_US'),
(133, 'Swine digestible energy evaluations of Bt (MON810) and Roundup Ready corn compared with commercial varieties', NULL, 'en_US'),
(134, 'Performance of weaned piglets fed insect-protected (MON810) or near isogenic control corn.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(135, 'Grower-finisher performance and carcass characteristics of pigs fed genetically modified ''Bt'' corn.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(136, 'Grower-finisher growth performance and carcass characteristics including attempts to detect transgenic plant DNA and protein in muscle from pigs fed genetically modified ''Bt'' corn', NULL, 'en_US'),
(137, 'Untersuchungen zum Futterwert von Zuckerueben und Zuckeruebenblattsilage von isogenen und transgenen Pflanzen an Hammeln', NULL, 'en_US'),
(138, 'Comparison of nutrient digestibility between Roundup Ready beets and conventional beets and pulps', 'Roundup Ready'' (RR) sugar and fodder beets have been developed, which can tolerate Roundup'' (glyphosate) herbicide treatment due to production of the 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase protein (CP4 EPSPS) from Agrobacterium sp. strain CP4. The purpose of these experiments was to examine whether RR sugar and fodder beets or pulp derived from RR sugar beets were comparable to conventional (C) beets a& pulps with respect to nutrient digestibility. Six varieties of sugar beets (SC-I-lRR), 5 varieties of fodder beets (IC-+lRR) and 6 varieties of beet pulp (5C+lRR) were tested in 3 digestibility experiments with 7 sheep on each treatment. The daily dry matter intake was approx. 950 g (maintenance level), where hay with known digestibility and urea (assumed to be 100% digestible) was included in the diet in all experiments to obtain sufficient nitrogen and structural fiber. The digestibility was estimated for nutrients analyzed according to the Weende analysis, and for ADF, NDF and energy. The digestibility of organic matter varied between 91.8 and 94.6% for fodder beets, where RR variety showed the lowest value. For the sugar beets the variation was between 94.3 and 96.6%. with the RR variety resulting in a value of 94.4%. No significant difference was obtained between C or RR varieties for the main nutrients or energy in the sugar beet or fodder beet experiment. Organic matter digestibility for beet pulp varied between 84.7 and 89.5%: where the RR variety resulted in a value of 85.5%, and significant differences were found for main nutrients and energy digestibility between the highest and lowest C varieties. Organic matter digestibilities obtained for beets were slightly higher and for pulp slightly lower than tabulated values. From these experiments it is concluded that RR sugar and fodder beets, or pulp derived from RR sugar beets, have a nutrient digestibility which is within the range observed for conventional beets and pulps, indicating that feeding value is not influenced by genetic modification.', 'en_US'),
(139, 'Einsatz von Silomais herkömmlicher sorten und der gentechnisch veränderten Bt-hybriden in der Rinderfütterung: - bei Milchkühen', NULL, 'en_US'),
(140, 'Livestock performance: feeding biotech crops', 'To date, genetically enhanced plants in the marketplace that are used as feeds for livestock are based on producing insecticidal compounds or developing herbicide tolerance. Corn grain, whole plant green chop corn, corn silage, corn residue, soybeans, and soybean meal from the current genetically enhanced plants have been fed to chickens, sheep, beef cattle, and dairy cows and compared with feeds produced from isolines of nongenetically enhanced plants. Results from 23 research trials indicate that genetically enhanced corn and soybeans that are currently available in the marketplace are substantially equivalent in composition, are similar in digestibility, and have a similar feeding value for livestock.', 'en_US'),
(141, 'Indirect reduction of ear molds and associated mycotoxins in Bacillus thuringiensis corn under controlled and open field conditions: utility and limitations', 'In 1995, ears of a experimental inbred (CG59-2) containing a synthetic Bacillus thuringiensis Cry IA(b) gene driven by PEPC, pith and pollen promoters and artificially infested with Ostrinia nubilalis (Hübner) larvae in small plot studies were free from insect damage, whereas 40?50% of the corresponding non-Bt inbred ears were damaged. Bt inbred ears that were inoculated with Aspergillus flavus Link and Fusarium proliferatum T. Matsushima (Nirenberg) or exposed to natural mold inoculum after infestation with O. nubilalis were free of visible signs of mold, as compared with 30?40% of the non-Bt ears similarly treated. Results in 1996 using the same inbred with a single allele dose of the Bt gene showed similar trends. Mean total fumonisin levels for non-Bt versus Bt inbred ears were not significantly different (2.8 versus 0.8 ppm, respectively) in 1996. In paired hybrid studies run in 0.4-ha (1-acre) fields, an event 176 Bt hybrid had significantly lower amounts of damage and signs of Fusarium spp. mold, but not fumonisin, compared with a corresponding non-Bt hybrid from 1996 to 1998. However, two hybrid pairs that contained either MON810 or Bt11 constructs examined in similar fields at the same site had lower levels of fumonisin in both 1997 (30- to 40-fold) and 1998. High intrafield variability in insect infestation and presence of Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) in Bt hybrids was apparently responsible for fewer significant differences in fumonisin levels in 1998. Similar trends for all three hybrid pairs were noted in small plot trials at another site. Incidence of other ear pests or insect predators varied as much among non-Bt hybrids as they did for Bt/non-Bt hybrid pairs.', 'en_US'),
(142, 'Genetically modified feeds (GMO) in animal nutrition', NULL, 'en_US'),
(143, 'GMO in animal nutrition - results of experiments at our institute', NULL, 'en_US'),
(144, 'Nutritive value, mycotoxin contamination and in vitro rumen fermentation of normal and genetically modified corn (Cry1A(B)) grown in northern Italy', NULL, 'en_US'),
(145, 'Reduced fusarium ear rot and symptomless infection in kernels of maize genetically engineered for European corn borer resistance', 'Field experiments were conducted in 1994, 1995 and 1996 to evaluate the incidence and severity of Fusarium ear rot and the incidence of symptomless Fusarium infection in kernels of maize hybrids genetically engineered with Bacillus thuringiensis genes encoding for the delta -endotoxin CryIA(b). Treatments included manual infestation with European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis) larvae and insecticide applications to limit O. nubilalis activity to specific maize growth stages or mimic standard O. nubilalis control practices. Fusarium symptoms and infection were affected by the specific cryIA(b) transformation used in each hybrid that determines tissue-specific expression of CryIA(b). In hybrids expressing CryIA(b) in kernels, incidence and severity of Fusarium ear rot and incidence of symptomless kernel infection were reduced compared with near-isogenic hybrids lacking cryIA(b) genes. In plants that were manually infested with O. nubilalis, ear rot incidence was reduced by 87, 58 and 68%; severity was reduced by 96, 54 and 64%; and incidence of kernel infection by Fusarium species was reduced by 17, 38 and 38% in 1994, 1995 and 1996, respectively. Results were similar in treatments that were not manually infested, but differences between transgenic and nontransgenic hybrids were smaller. Most kernel infection was due to F. moniliforme [Gibberella fujikuroi], F. proliferatum and F. subglutinans [G. fujikuroi var. subglutinans] collectively, and it was within this group that transgenic hybrids exhibited reduced infection. Expression of CryIA(b) in plant tissues other than kernels did not consistently affect Fusarium symptoms or infection. Disease incidence was positively correlated with O. nubilalis damage to kernels. Insecticide applications also reduced Fusarium symptoms and infection when applied to nontransgenic plants.', 'en_US'),
(146, 'Fumonisins in maize: can we reduce their occurrence?', 'The problems of Fusarium moniliforme (Gibberella fujikuroi) and other fumonisin-producing species on maize are reviewed under the following headings: the maize-G. fujikuroi relationship; F. proliferatum; toxicity of fumonisins; naturally occurring toxicoses; human health hazards; toxicity and carcinogenicity in experimental animal systems; toxicity to plants; occurrence of fumonisins; risk assessment of fumonisins in maize; current methods for reducing fumonisins; developing methods for reducing fumonisins and future outlook. The existing and potential strategies for reducing the occurrence and/or impact of fumonisins in maize are discussed.', 'en_US'),
(147, 'Comparison of fumonisin concentrations in kernels of transgenic Bt maize hybrids and nontransgenic hybrids', 'Maize hybrids genetically engineered with genes from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt maize) express CryIA(b) and other Cry proteins that are toxic to certain insects, particularly the European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis). Maize kernel feeding by O. nubilalis often leads to infection by fungi in the genus Fusarium, including the fumonisin-producing species F. verticillioides and F. proliferatum. In field experiments in Iowa, USA, in 1995, 1996 and 1997, transgenic maize hybrids and near-isogenic, nontransgenic hybrids were manually infested with neonatal European corn borer larvae. Manual infestation increased Fusarium ear rot severity and fumonisin concentrations in kernels of nontransgenic hybrids. Transgenic hybrids with kernel expression of CryIA(b) consistently experienced less insect feeding on kernels and less Fusarium ear rot than their nontransgenic counterparts. In manually infested treatments, these hybrids also exhibited lower concentrations of fumonisins in kernels compared with their nontransgenic counterparts. In manually infested treatments in 1995, mean fumonisin B1 concentrations were 8.8 micro g/g in the nontransgenic hybrid and 6.7 or 3.0 micro g/g in transgenic hybrids. In 1996, mean fumonisin B1 concentrations in manually infested treatments were 4.9 micro g/g (range 2.3 to 8.8) for nontransgenic and 1.2 micro g/g (range 1.0 to 1.3) for transgenic hybrids with kernel expression. Mean total fumonisin concentrations (fumonisin B1 + B2 + B3) were 7.0 micro g/g (range 3.0 to 12.2) for nontransgenic and 1.7 micro g/g (range 1.5 to 1.9) for transgenic hybrids with kernel expression. In 1997, mean fumonisin B1 concentrations in manually infested treatments were 11.8 micro g/g (range 7.6 to 17.3) for nontransgenic and 1.3 micro g/g (range 0.8 to 2.2) for transgenic hybrids with kernel expression of CryIA(b) or Cry9C. Mean total fumonisin concentrations were 16.5 micro g/g (range 10.7 to 24.0) for nontransgenic and 2.1 micro g/g (range 1.5 to 3.1) for transgenic hybrids with kernel expression. Transgenic hybrids that do not express CryIA(b) or Cry9C in kernels did not consistently have fumonisin concentrations different from the nontransgenic hybrids. Higher fumonisin concentrations in nontransgenic hybrids were associated with high European corn borer populations during the early reproductive stages of the maize plants. These results indicate that under some conditions, genetic engineering of maize for insect resistance may enhance its safety for animal and human consumption.', 'en_US'),
(148, 'Genetically modified, insect resistant corn: implications for disease management', 'The recent approval and commercial release of genetically modified, insect-resistant corn hybrids represents the culmination of decades of biotechnology research. Many in agriculture felt that the investment in molecular biology research was finally starting to pay off, and the release of Bt corn was met with great enthusiasm. Crop producers and the agricultural industry rapidly accepted the technology and began to incorporate it into their crop production practices. Now, controversy over production and use of genetically modified crop cultivars has focused a great deal of public attention on Bt corn. A number of organizations and individuals have raised questions about the safety and ethics of Bt corn production, despite Environmental Protection Agency approvals that consider environmental impact, food safety, nontarget effects, and pest resistance. The controversy has been fueled largely by the reluctance of European consumers to accept genetically modified crops. Although Bt technology has fairly obvious benefits for corn producers and biotechnology companies, some consumers have found it difficult to perceive any benefit of Bt technology toward the consumer. In the current atmosphere surrounding Bt corn production, the need for investigation into all potential risks and benefits of Bt technology is more critical than ever. Approval by EPA carries with it assurance that these products are safe, but additional data may be needed so consumers can make informed choices and convey their preferences to policymakers. One aspect of risk/benefit analysis is the influence that Bt technology may have on corn diseases and mycotoxin-producing fungi in corn.', 'en_US'),
(149, 'Bt corn enhances safety of grain for feed', NULL, 'en_US'),
(150, 'Occurrence and control of mycotoxins in maize grown in Italy', NULL, 'en_US'),
(151, 'The degradation of nucleic acids in, and the removal of breakdown products from the small intestines of steers', NULL, 'en_US'),
(152, 'The fate of nucleic acids in ruminants', NULL, 'en_US'),
(153, 'Assessment of novel feeds in animal nutrition', 'Apart from feed safety assessment including safety for consumers, animals and environment, nutritional assessment of feeds produced using recombinant DNA techniques (Genetically Modified Organism, GMO) is necessary. In 1997 we started a program to assess GMO''s of the so called first generation (feed plants with changed tolerance or resistance and with minor changes in content of valuable and desirable ingredients) including Bt-corn, Pat-corn, Pat-sugar beets and Bt-soybeans. Apart from main nutrients (crude protein, ether extract, crude fiber, crude ash), amino acids, fatty acids, minerals, fiber components and some mycotoxins were determined in seeds of corn and soybeans, sugar beets rand silages from corn and sugar beet leaves. Digestion and feeding experiments were carried out with broilers (Bt-corn), layers (Bt-corn, Pat-corn), pigs (Bt-corn, Pat-corn, Pat-sugar beets, soybeans), sheep (Bt-corn silage, Pat-corn silage, Pat-sugar beet silage), growing bulls (Ht.-corn silage) and fistulated cows (Bt-corn silage). Digestibility of nutrients, performance of animals and fate of DNA were investigated. Up to now, we did not find significant differences in nutritional assessment and food quality between feeds from isogenic and transgenic plants the first generation, except a lower mycotoxin-content (deoxynivalenol and zearalenon) in Bt-corn. The so-called substantial equivalence could be demonstrated. Fragments of plant DNA could be detected in some nnimal tissues (e.g. muscle from chicken), but fragments of transgenic DNA were not found. It may be assumed that the transfer of DNA fragments in the body is a process, which takes place constantly and consequently, but it is not a specific problem of genetic engineering. However, the subject should be pursued further. From the point of view of animal nutrition, further studies seem to be necessary on the following subjects: - Nutritional assessment of GMO''s with substantial changes in composition (GMO''s of second generation) - Influence of GMO''s upon animal health and product quality.', 'en_US'),
(154, 'Safety issues associated with the DNA in animal feed derived from genetically modified crops: a review of scientific and regulatory procedures', 'The world''s population is expected to increase by a third in the next 30 years, whilst land for crop and livestock production will continue to decline with further urbanisation.  It is thus inevitable that intensive agriculture will continue in order to ensure adequate food supplies to provide a satisfactory diet for an ever-increasing number of people.  This is contrary to the views of those who, with plentiful supplies of food urge the adoption of less intensive systems, where use of fertilisers, herbicides and insecticides are being phased out. But such systems are not likely to become the model for world food production, leaving the majority involved in food provision to strive for intensive systems of livestock and crop production, which are more benign with respect to the environment. It is in this context that the development and use of genetically modified (GM) crops could offer considerable potential.', 'en_US'),
(155, 'Integration of foreign DNA in its consequences in mammalian systems.', 'The insertion of foreign DNA into the genomes of established cells and organisms and the consequences of this integration event are of significance for viral oncology, reverse genetics, transgenic organisms, human somatic gene therapy and evolution. This review summarizes recent experimental findings and focuses on the alteration of cellular DNA methylation at regions remote from the site of insertion. We also discuss experimental data demonstrating that foreign DNA ingested by mice is not completely degraded in their gastrointestinal tracts; fragments of this DNA have been found to be covalently linked to DNA with 70% homology to the mouse IgE receptor gene.', 'en_US'),
(156, 'Consequences of foreign DNA integration and persistence.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(157, 'Uptake of foreign DNA from the environment: the gastrointestinal tract and the placenta as portals of entry.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(158, 'Relevance in applied molecular biology: an overview.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(159, 'Future research.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(160, 'The fate of forage plant DNA in farm animals: a collaborative case-study investigating cattle and chicken fed recombinant plant material', 'The fate of ingested recombinant plant DNA in farm animals (cattle and chicken) being fed a diet containing conventional maize or recombinant Bacillus thuringiensis toxin-maize (Bt-maize) is described. The probability of the detection by polymerase chain reaction of chloroplast-specific gene fragments of different lengths (199 bp and 532 bp) and a Bt-maize-specific fragment [truncated version of CryIA(b)] is shown. First data indicated that only short DNA fragments (<200 bp) derived from plant chloroplasts could be detected in the blood lymphocytes of cows. In all other cattle organs investigated (muscle, liver, spleen, kidney) plant DNAs were not found, except for faint signals in milk. Furthermore, Bt-gene fragments possibly recording the uptake of recombinant maize, were not detected in any sample from cattle. However, in all chicken tissues (muscle, liver, spleen, kidney) the short maize chloroplast gene fragment was amplified. In contrast to this, no foreign plant DNA fragments were found in eggs. Bt-gene specific constructs originating from recombinant Bt-maize were not detectable in any of these poultry samples either.', 'en_US'),
(161, 'Effect of feed processing conditions on DNA fragmentation', NULL, 'en_US'),
(162, 'Is DNA or protein from feed detected in livestock products?', NULL, 'en_US'),
(163, 'Fate of maize DNA during steeping, wet-milling, and processing', 'The fate of DNA during steeping, wet-milling, and subsequent processing of maize was examined using a sensitive polymerase chain reaction (PCR-based) detection system. The system used specific amplification of maize DNA sequences by primers generated toward plant nuclear- and chloroplast-encoded genes. The PCR method facilitated analysis of DNA content in food products, which is an important issue in use of genetically modified organisms. In a conventional laboratory wet-milling countercurrent steep system, DNA was detected in maize kernels throughout the process but was not found in steepwater. After kernels were wet-milled DNA'' was detected in the starch, germ, coarse fiber, and wet gluten fractions but not in the fine fiber fraction. When dried by heating at 135°C for 2 hr, DNA was degraded to undetectable levels in the wet-milled gluten fraction and hydrated kernels. DNA was not detected in feed pellets, starch, dextrose, sorbitol, or high-fructose maize syrup made from industrial wet-milled samples. Although DNA could be detected in laboratory wet-milled fractions, some degree of degradation occurred after extended exposure to steepwater. Countercurrent steepwater samples from the later stages of the steeping process were able to degrade DNA. The level of DNA degradation appeared to correspond to the presence of sulfur dioxide and may represent a physiochemical rather than an enzyme-mediated process. Our results indicate that some steps in the steeping and wet-milling process can degrade maize genomic and plastid DNA.', 'en_US'),
(164, 'On the fate of plant or other foreign genes upon the uptake in food or after intramuscular injection in mice', 'Uptake and persistence of the DNA of bacteriophage M13 and the cloned gene for the green fluorescent protein (GFP) as test genes for food-ingested DNA have previously been traced from the intestinal contents, via the gut wall, Peyer''s patches and peripheral white blood cells to spleen and liver, and via the placenta to fetuses and newborn animals. We have now chosen a natural scenario and fed soybean leaves to mice. The distribution of the plant-specific, nucleus-encoded ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase (Rubisco) gene has been studied in the mouse. The Rubisco gene or fragments of it can be recovered in the intestine from 2 h up to 49 h after feeding, and in the cecum up to 121 h after ingestion. Thus, plant-associated, naturally fed DNA is more stable in the intestinal tract than naked DNA. Rubisco gene-specific PCR products have also been amplified from spleen and liver DNA. There is no evidence for the expression of orally administered genes, as assessed by the RT-PCR method. Moreover, mice have been continuously fed daily with GFP DNA for 8 generations and have been examined for the transgenic state by assaying DNA isolated from tail tips, occasionally from internal organs of the animals, by PCR. The results have been uniformly negative and argue against the germline transfer of orally administered DNA. Upon the intramuscular injection of GFP DNA, authentic GFP DNA fragments have been amplified by PCR from DNA from muscle for up to 17 months post-injection, and from DNA from organs remote from the site of injection up to 24 h post injection. GFP fragments can also be retrieved from the intestinal contents up to 6 h post injection. The organism apparently eliminates injected foreign DNA via the liver-bile-intestinal route.', 'en_US'),
(165, 'On the fate of orally ingested foreign DNA in mice: chromosomal association and placental transmission to the fetus', 'We have previously shown that, when administered orally to mice, bacteriophage M13 DNA, as a paradigm foreign DNA without homology to the mouse genome, can persist in fragmented form in the gastrointestinal tract, penetrate the intestinal wall, and reach the nuclei of leukocytes, spleen and liver cells. Similar results were obtained when a plasmid containing the gene for the green fluorescent protein (pEGFP-C1) was fed to mice. In spleen, the foreign DNA was detected in covalent linkage to DNA with a high degree of homology to mouse genes, perhaps pseudogenes, or to authentic E. coli DNA. We have now extended these studies to the offspring of mice that were fed regularly during pregnancy with a daily dose of 50 g of M13 or pEGFP-C1 DNA. Using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or the fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) method, foreign DNA, orally ingested by pregnant mice, can be discovered in various organs of fetuses and of newborn animals. The M13 DNA fragments have a length of about 830 bp. In various organs of the mouse fetus, clusters of cells contain foreign DNA as revealed by FISH. The foreign DNA is invariably located in the nuclei. We have never found all cells of the fetus to be transgenic for the foreign DNA. This distribution pattern argues for a transplacental pathway rather than for germline transmission which might be expected only after long-time feeding regimens. In rare cells of three different fetuses, whose mothers have been fed with M13 DNA during gestation, the foreign DNA was detected by FISH in association with both chromatids. Is maternally ingested foreign DNA a potential mutagen for the developing fetus?', 'en_US'),
(166, 'Ingested foreign (phage M13) DNA survives transiently in the gastrointestinal tract and enters the bloodstream of mice', NULL, 'en_US'),
(167, 'Foreign (M13) DNA ingested by mice reaches peripheral leukocytes, spleen, and liver via the intestinal wall mucosa and can be covalently linked to mouse DNA', 'Food-ingested foreign DNA is not completely degraded in the gastrointestinal tract of mice. Phage M13mp18 DNA as a test molecule devoid of homology to mouse DNA was pipette-fed to or added to the food supply of mice. The fate of this foreign DNA in the animals was followed by several methods. In 84 animals, fragments of M13mp18 DNA were detected in the contents of the small intestine, the cecum (until 18 h), the large intestine, or the feces. In 254 animals, M13mp18 DNA fragments of up to 976 bp were found in blood 2-8 h after feeding. In buffer-fed control animals, M13mp18 DNA could not be detected. M13mp18 DNA fragments were traced by PCR in peripheral leukocytes and located by fluorescent in situ hybridization in about 1 of 1000 white cells between 2 and 8 h, and in spleen or liver cells up to 24 h after feeding, but not later. M13mp18 DNA could be traced by fluorescent in situ hybridization in the columnar epithelial cells, in the leukocytes in Peyer''s patches of the cecum wall, in liver cells, and in B cells, T cells, and macrophages from spleen. These findings suggest transport of foreign DNA through the intestinal wall and Peyer''s patches to peripheral blood leukocytes and into several organs. Upon extended feeding, M13mp18 DNA could be recloned from total spleen DNA into a vector. Among about 2.5 × 107 plaques, one plaque was isolated that contained a 1299 nucleotide pair fragment (nt 4736-6034) of sequence-identified M13mp18 DNA. This fragment was covalently linked to an 80 nt DNA segment with 70% homology to the mouse IgE receptor gene. The DNA from another plaque also contained mouse DNA, bacterial DNA, and rearranged DNA. Two additional plaques contained M13mp18 DNA fragments of at least 641 (nt 2660-3300) or 794 (nt 4640-5433) nucleotide pairs. The medical and evolutionary implications of these observations may be considerable.', 'en_US'),
(168, 'Secondary direct food additives permitted in food for human consumption; food additives permitted in feed and drinking water of animals; amino glycoside 3''-phosphotransferase II', 'The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is amending the food additive regulations to provide for the safe use of aminoglycoside 3''- phosphotransferase II (APH(3'')II) as a processing aid in the development of new varieties of tomato, oilseed rape, and cotton. APH(3'')II is a protein encoded by the kanamycin resistance (kanr) gene. This action is in response to a petition filed by Calgene, Inc.', 'en_US'),
(169, 'Selectable marker genes: safe for plants?', NULL, 'en_US'),
(170, 'Transformation of Acinetobacter sp. strain BD413 by transgenic sugar beet DNA', 'The ability of Acinetobacter sp. strain BD413(pFG4nptII) to take up and integrate transgenic plant DNA based on homologous recombination was studied under optimized laboratory conditions. Restoration of nptII, resulting in kanamycin-resistant transformants, was observed with plasmid DNA, plant DNA, and homogenates carrying the gene nptII. Molecular analysis showed that some transformants not only restored the 317-bp deletion but also obtained additional DNA.', 'en_US'),
(171, 'Health effects of marker genes in genetically engineered food plants', NULL, 'en_US'),
(172, 'Development and biosafety aspects of transgene excision methods', NULL, 'en_US'),
(173, 'Food safety assessment of marker genes in transgenic crops', NULL, 'en_US'),
(174, 'Marker gene controversy in transgenic plants.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(175, 'Biosafety of kanamycin-resistant transgenic plants', NULL, 'en_US'),
(176, 'Evaluation of possible horizontal gene transfer from trangenic plants to the soil bacterium Acinetobacter canlcoaceticus BD413', 'A possible horizontal gene transfer from transgenic plants by natural transformation to the soil bacterium Acinetobacter calcoaceticus BD413 is investigated through measurement of the transformation frequencies with DNA from two sources of transgenic plant DNA and different forms of plasmid DNA with an inserted kanamycin resistance gene, nptII. Clear effects of homology were seen on transformation frequencies, and no transformants were ever detected after using transgenic plant DNA. This implied a transformation frequency of less than 10-13 (transformants per recipient) under optimised conditions, which is expected to drop even further to a minimum of 10-16 due to soil conditions and a lowered concentration of DNA available to cells. Previous studies have shown that chromosomal DNA released to soil is only available to A. calcoaceticus for limited period of time and that A. calcoaceticus does not maintain detectable competence in soil. Taken together, these results suggest that A. calcoaceticus does not take up non-homologous plant DNA at appreciable frequencies under natural conditions.', 'en_US'),
(177, 'Horizontal gene transfer in plants, a biohazard? Outcome of a literature review', NULL, 'en_US'),
(178, 'Prevalence of nptII and Tn5 in kanamycin resistant bacteria from different environments', 'Kanamycin (Km)-resistant bacterial populations in different soil, river water, sewage and pig manure slurry samples were enumerated and their prevalence in the total populations determined. About 350 Km-resistant Gram-negative colonies grown in the presence of kanamycin were identified using a rapid presumptive identification scheme. They were then screened for the presence of Tn5 and nptII sequences using hybridization of cells in dot blots, of Southern-blotted genomic DNA extracts and of PCR amplification products. Colonies reacting positively with a 2.7 kb probe of the central region of Tn5, or with a 925 bp nptII specific probe were primarily obtained from sewage samples, whereas fewer were obtained from pig manure slurry, river water and soil. However, in soil samples bacteria containing Tn5 or nptII were not found. Transposon Tn5 carrying the nptII gene could be unequivocally demonstrated in 3 isolates from sewage, identified as Aeromonas spp. (2x) and Escherichia coli. HindIII digests of chromosomal DNA obtained from these strains were cloned and shown to confer Km resistance to a sensitive E. coli strain. Further, various strains revealed the presence of nptII homologous sequences in a non-Tn5 background. The occurence of Tn5 and nptII in the samples was also assessed via PCR analysis of total community DNA extracts obtained from the aforementioned environmental samples. Evidence for the occurence of nptII was obtained for sewage, pig manure slurry, for 2 (out of 3) river water (Avon, Rhine) and 3 (out of 6) soil (Flevo silt loam, Westmaas silt loam, Ahlum rhizosphere) samples. Tn5 was not detectable via PCR in any of these environmental DNA extracts but it was found in Ede loamy sand and Flevo silt loam samples taken from a field microplot 2 and 4 weeks after release of a Tn5-containing genetically modified organism.', 'en_US'),
(179, 'Horizontal transfer of antibiotic resistance genes from transgenic plants to bacteria: are there new data to fuel the debate?', NULL, 'en_US'),
(180, 'Antibiotic resistance genes as markers in transgenic plants-risk of horizontal gene transfer', 'Antibiotic resistance genes are still frequently used as markers in genetically modified plants. The likelihood for horizontal gene transfer of antibiotic resistance genes from plant DNA to bacteria to occur and the potential impact of such a putative transfer event is assessed in context with the existing problem of bacterial antibiotic resistance. To introduce the problem to the reader, prevalence and dissemination of bacterial resistance to antibiotics, and most important the selective forces are briefly addressed. If transfer of plant-derived DNA to bacteria were to occur, natural transformation is deemed the most likely mechanism by which transfer would occur. Given the fact that antibiotic resistance genes are already widespread in bacterial populations and of extremely low frequencies of a horizontal gene transfer event from transgenic plants to bacteria which has not yet been detected under field conditions, it is unlikely that antibiotic resistance genes in genetically modified plants will contribute significantly to the spread of antibiotic resistance in bacterial populations. The public debate about antibiotic resistance genes in transgenic plants should not diverge the attention from the real causes of resistance to antibiotics. The control of the antibiotic resistance problem lies in a reduction of the selective pressure by prudent use of antibiotics.', 'en_US'),
(181, 'In search of horizontal gene transfer', 'Critics of agricultural biotechnology have often been dismissed as modern-day Luddites. However, these critics have an understandable concern, based on a detail of the technology that has been nearly unanimously adopted for introducing foreign genes into plants. This method relies on cointroducing, along with the gene to impart a desired characteristic, another gene that confers antibiotic resis-tance. Culturing the transformed cells in antibiotic-containing growth media allows selection and regeneration of only those cells that have incorporated the transgenes. The antibiotic resistance genes used in genetic engineering are, in fact, normal bacterial genes that have been adapted for expression in plants. However, the prospect of releasing these antibiotic resistance genes into the envi-ronment in large quantities has raised fears that they could be taken up by native bacteria, thereby posing a risk to public health. Industry and the FDA have responded to these concerns by asserting that genes that have been transferred into plants cannot be rein-corporated into bacteria 1 .When industry first began making such guarantees in the 1980s, I was exploring the idea (and trying to convince my colleagues) that horizontal gene transfer between king-doms could be a natural process. This idea was based on the numerous demonstrations that bacteria, fungi, and animal cells readily take up and express foreign DNA. I argued that this could reflect natural processes that facilitate horizontal gene transfer. And if this speculation was proven, the debate over the safety of recombinant DNA technology would have to be recast.Since then, research has focused primarily on the question of whether or not the genes in these plants will move to bacteria in the envi-ronment, rather than on whether or not the genes pose any danger if they do move. The FDA assertion that horizontal gene transfer does not occur between transgenic plants and microorganisms has stimulated a number of investigations, centering on two types of experiments, neither of which have provided evidence for such gene transfer. In the first, transgenic plant materials were fed to mice and the coliform bacteria isolated from their feces screened for the presence of antibiotic resis-tance genes originating from the plants. After eight trials, none could be recovered (M. Syvanen, unpublished data). In the second approach, two labs examined bacteria that cause spoilage of vegetables and asked whether, after growth on transgenic plants, the bacteria had been transformed with transgenic DNA. In both cases the bacterium Erwinia chrysan-themum was grown on a variety of vegetables, but no transformants were detected (ref. 2, M. Syvanen, unpublished data).', 'en_US'),
(182, 'Medical consequences of antibiotic use in agriculture', 'Besides hospitals animal husbandry represents a large reservoir of transferable antibiotic resistance genes. Via food products resistant bacteria can easily reach humans. The current debate is above all concerning antibiotic use as growth promoters which can be gradually phased out by better animal performance.', 'en_US'),
(183, 'Introduction of recombinant DNA-engineered organisms into the environment: key issues', NULL, 'en_US'),
(184, 'Single-copy transgenic wheat generated through the resolution of complex integration patterns', 'Genetic transformation of plants often results in multiple copies of the introduced DNA at a single locus.  To ensure that only a single copy of a foreign gene resides in the plant genome, we used a strategy based on site-specific recombination.  The transformation vector consists of a transgene flanked by recombination sites in an inverted orientation.  Regardless of the number of copies integrated between the outermost transgenes, recombination between the outermost sites resolves the integrated molecules into a single copy.  An example of this strategy has been demonstrated with wheat transformation, where four of four multiple-copy loci were resolved successfully into single-copy transgenes.', 'en_US'),
(185, 'Bt-maize - case study no. II', 'This case study examines maize (corn) that was genetically engineered to produce a protein that is toxic to certain insects. A gene from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), which produces the toxin, was modified and added to the corn. Promoters (genetic material that initiates transcription of the gene) and terminators (genetic material which stops transcription of the gene) were also added, from a virus and another bacterium, respectively, which are known plant pathogens. The Bt-maize considered in this case study is referred to as MON810.', 'en_US'),
(186, 'Herbicide-tolerant soybean - case study no. III', 'This case study examines the approved product glufosinate-tolerant soybeans. This variety of soybean was genetically engineered by AgrEvo (now Aventis) to be tolerant to the herbicide glufosinate ammonium (herein referred to as glufosinate), a chemical already in agricultural use. A modified bacterium gene was added to the soybean so that the plant produces an enzyme that breaks down the herbicide before it can harm the soybean plant. Genetic material from other sources was inserted to control the expression of the enzyme. As with many other genetically engineered products, glufosinate tolerant soybeans are regulated by various regulatory agencies as described in the ?Coordinated Framework for Regulation of Biotechnology? (Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP), 1986).', 'en_US'),
(187, 'Evaluation of transgenic rice carrying an antisense glutelin gene in an isolated field', NULL, 'en_US'),
(188, 'Ecological considerations in EPA''s review for field tests of genetically engineered organisms', NULL, 'en_US'),
(189, 'The privatization of food: corporate control of biotechnology', NULL, 'en_US'),
(190, 'Environmental Gene Release. Models, Experiments and Risk Assessment', NULL, 'en_US'),
(191, 'Ecological impacts of transgenic crops', NULL, 'en_US'),
(192, 'Environmental impact of crops transformed with genes from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) for insect resistance', NULL, 'en_US'),
(193, 'The comparative ecology of transgenic and conventional crops', NULL, 'en_US'),
(194, 'Field assessment of risks when using transgenic papayas, cucurbits, and tomatoes expressing viral coat protein genes', NULL, 'en_US'),
(195, 'Field evaluation of transgenic cotton in Australia: environmental considerations and consequences of expanding trial size', 'Conference Dates: 11/13/94 - 11/16/94', 'en_US'),
(196, 'Field evaluation and potential ecological impact of transgenic cottons (Gossypium hirsutum) in Australia', 'The first field trials in Australia of transformed cottons expressing the CryIA(b) insecticidal protein from Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki (Bt) were completed during the 1992-93 season. The trials showed good efficacy of the plants against field populations of Helicoverpa armigera, but there were indications of a declining level of Bt expression once plants began to senesce. Laboratory assays showed that the larger instars could survive on the transgenic tissues although their growth was severely retarded. The introduction of Bt transgenic cottons may have several ecological impacts, apart from their direct impact on target pests. These include the risk of resistance development, effects on beneficial and non-target arthropod species and changes in pest status associated with altered patterns of pesticide usage. Chief among the potential pests are sucking insects (e.g. Miridae) which appear not to be regulated by beneficial agents and are currently suppressed by sprays applied for Helicoverpa. Transgenic Bt plants suffered heavily from mirid attack in unsprayed plots. The potential importance of these ecological changes is discussed. Resistance management for transgenic cotton in Australia is likely to depend on a refuge strategy complemented by high expression of Bt protein in the plants, building in the successful implementation of the Insecticide Resistance Management Strategy to ensure compliance with appropriate refuge options. The development and assessment of these resistance management strategies is a key component of pre-commercialization studies in Australia.', 'en_US'),
(197, 'Ecological risk assessment and European community biotechnology regulation: assessing ecological risks of biotechnology', NULL, 'en_US'),
(198, 'Field release of transgenic plants and microorganisms: the past, the present and the future', NULL, 'en_US'),
(199, 'Biosafety assessment of genetically engineered organisms in the environment', NULL, 'en_US'),
(200, 'Is heterologous encapsidation a problem with plants transgenic for potato leafroll virus coat protein gene?', NULL, 'en_US'),
(201, 'Flax follies: commercialization of a transgenic cultivar', NULL, 'en_US'),
(202, 'Environmental and regulatory aspects of using genetically modified plants in the field', NULL, 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(203, 'Environmental monitoring of genetically modified crops', 'Genetically modified (GM) crops are now approved for commercial use in several world areas. In terms of commercial acreage, the majority of these products possess either herbicide tolerance or insect protection traits. Prior to commercialization, each product underwent a country specific review of environmental safety data by independent regulatory authorities. Registration was granted after review of the data allowed authorities to conclude that the risks were minimal or manageable when balanced with the benefits. As a condition of registration, insect resistance management (IRM) has been imposed for insect protected products in most countries. Other world areas have reviewed similar data packages and have not yet been able to grant registration for commercial release. Post-registration environmental monitoring of GM crops is viewed in some world areas as a means of enabling approvals by addressing uncertainty that exists with this technology Questions such as, who should monitor and who should pay for it, how should monitoring be conducted, what information is necessary to collect and how long should a given product be monitored are yet to be answered. Monitoring methods could be general (surveys and questionaires) or specific (scientific studies to address specific questions). Independent research currently underway in countries where GM crops are commercial involves monitoring the benefits as well as the risks of these products. Experience with other products has shown that monitoring of GM crops will be of value only if the questions are clearly defined, the methods are appropriate and the end points (data collected) are interpretable.', 'en_US'),
(204, 'Ecological monitoring of genetically modified crops', NULL, 'en_US'),
(205, 'Regulation of biotechnology by the Environmental Protection Agency', NULL, 'en_US'),
(206, 'Behavior of engineered vs. non-engineered plants in the environment: is there a difference?', NULL, 'en_US'),
(207, 'On making nature safe for biotechnology', NULL, 'en_US'),
(208, 'Transgenics, pest management, and the environment', NULL, 'en_US'),
(209, 'Ecological risk analysis of biotechnological waste decontamination', NULL, 'en_US'),
(210, 'The ecological risks and benefits of genetically engineered plants', 'Discussions of the environmental risks and benefits of adopting genetically engineered organisms are highly polarized between pro- and anti-biotechnology groups, but the current state of our knowledge is frequently overlooked in this debate. A review of existing scientific literature reveals that key experiments on both the environmental risks and benefits are lacking. The complexity of ecological systems presents considerable challenges for experiments to assess the risks and benefits and inevitable uncertainties of genetically engineered plants. Collectively, existing studies emphasize that these can vary spatially, temporally, and according to the trait and cultivar modified.', 'en_US'),
(211, 'Biosafety results of transgenic rice plants expressing rice stripe virus - coat protein gene', NULL, 'en_US'),
(212, 'Large-scale performance of transgenic tobacco plants resistant to both tobacco mosaic virus and cucumber mosaic virus', NULL, 'en_US'),
(213, 'Potential for persistence of genes escaped from canola: germination cues in crop, wild, and crop-wild hybrid Brassica rapa', NULL, 'en_US'),
(214, 'Field trials of transgenic plants: an overview', NULL, 'en_US'),
(215, 'From plots to plots: genetically modified plants on trial.', 'Industry data from 1986 to 1993 show that maize is challenging potato and oilseed rape as ''top of the crops'' and that Europe lags behind North America.', 'en_US'),
(216, 'Assessing the environmental impact of gene transfer to wild relatives.', 'Analyzing European field trials reveals that companies and regulators alike have been responsive to environmental concerns.', 'en_US'),
(217, 'Field release of transgenic crops in Switzerland: an ecological risk assessment of vertical gene flow', NULL, 'en_US'),
(218, 'Fitness of interspecific hybrids in the genus Sorghum: persistence of crop genes in wild populations', 'Gene flow can be expected to occur in many crop/weed complexes if the crop and the weed have sympatric ranges, are sexually compatible, have flowering times that overlap, and share a common pollinator. These conditions are met in a large number of crop/weed complexes; however, the consequences of gene exchange between crops and wild relatives on a wide scale, and the potential fate of escaped engineered genes, remain generally unknown. It is believed that an examination of the fitness of weed/crop hybrids will provide insight into the potential fate of genetically engineered genes, or transgenes, in the wild. We examined several fitness correlates of weed X crop hybrids between crop sorghum and a related noxious weed, johnsongrass. Comparisons were made with nonhybrid johnsongrass under agricultural conditions. Hybrid weeds did not show any significant increase or decrease in time to flowering, panicle production, seed production, pollen viability, tiller production, or biomass. We conclude that a transgene that is either neutral or beneficial to johnsongrass would likely persist in populations growing in agricultural conditions under continued gene flow from the crop.', 'en_US'),
(219, 'Effect of oilseed rape genotype on the spontaneous hybridization rate with weedy species: an assessment of transgene dispersal', NULL, 'en_US'),
(220, 'Influence of sugar beet breeding on populations of Beta vulgaris ssp. maritima in Italy', 'It is highly probable that transgenic cultivars of sugar beet may influence wild beets in the seed-production-area of northern Italy. For this reason a survey of the local wild beet populations and their habitat characteristics was conducted in 1994/1995, i.e. before transgenic beets and their offspring could have become established. Wild beets (Beta vulgaris ssp. maritima) were found at 21 locations between Trieste and Cesenatico, as part of the natural littoral vegetation classified as Atriplicetum tatarici (Cakiletea maritimae) and Crithmetum (Crithmo-Staticetea). The analysis of phenotypic attributes leads to a division into three different subpopulations. Greenhouse studies on the morphology and life-cycle attributes demonstrated actual gene flow between conventional seed beet and the examined wild beet population.', 'en_US'),
(221, 'Introduction of plants with special regard to cultigens running wild', NULL, 'en_US'),
(222, 'Genetic evidence for the origin of Californian wild beets (genus Beta)', 'The genus Beta L. is a morphologically and genetically variable group composed of wild, weedy, and domesticated forms that are used for sugar production or as vegetables. In this study, we have evaluated genetic variation in 64 germplasm accessions of wild and domesticated beets and examined the origin of wild beet accessions in California using allozyme analysis. UP-GMA analysis showed overall that domesticated and wild beets form genetically coherent groups. Wild beets in California have two different origins, from European Beta vulgaris or from Beta macrocarpa. Population-level patterns of allozyme variation for wild California beets related to B. vulgaris suggest that those populations evolved from naturalized populations of the cultivated B. vulgaris ssp. vulgaris which had hybridized to varying degrees with the sea beets B. vulgaris ssp. maritima. Wild California beets related to B. macrocarpa are essentially genetically identical to European accessions. In addition, we found substantial evidence for hybridization and introgression of B. vulgaris alleles in one B. macrocarpa accession in California. The obligate outcrosser B. vulgaris exhibits more allelic diversity than the self-compatible B. macrocarpa. Beta vulgaris ssp. maritima exhibits more genetic diversity than domesticated B. vulgaris ssp. vulgaris.', 'en_US'),
(223, 'Ecological aspects of transgenic sugarbeet: transfer and expression of herbicide resistance in hybrids with wild beets', NULL, 'en_US'),
(224, 'Biosafety of hybrids between transgenic virus-resistant sugar beet and Swiss chard', 'One important issue of biosafety research is whether gene flow from transgenic crops to nontransgenic relatives causes unwanted effects. We carried out field trials with hybrids between transgenic sugar beets, and a close cultivated relative, Swiss chard. This hybrid also acts as a model for ''weed beet'' hybrids between sugar beet and wild/weed beet (Beta vulgaris ssp. maritima). Transgenic beets with beet necrotic yellow vein virus (BNYVV) coat protein (cp), phosphinothricin-acetyl-transferase (bar), and neomycin-phospho-transferase (nptII) genes were hand-crossed to Swiss chard. The resulting F1 plants and controls were grown at two different BNYVV infestation levels and three different competitive conditions with Chenopodium album. Transgenic hybrids had consistently higher biomass than controls under high background BNYVV infestation, and consistently lower biomass than controls under low background infestation. The transgenic hybrids had a significantly lower rate of bolting than controls at all sites. Competition with Ch. album always had a strong negative influence on the performance of all genotypes. We conclude that ecological implications due to the introduction and spread of virus-resistant transgenic hybrids will be observed only in those feral Swiss chard and wild beet populations where fitness is significantly influenced by high infestations of BNYVV.', 'en_US'),
(225, 'Impact of gene flow from cultivated beet on genetic diversity of wild sea beet populations', 'Gene flow and introgression from cultivated plants may have important consequences for the conservation of wild plant populations. Cultivated beets (sugar beet, red beet and Swiss chard: Beta vulgaris ssp. vulgaris) are of particular concern because they are cross-compatible with the wild taxon, sea beet (B.vs. ssp. maritima). Cultivated beet seed production areas are sometimes adjacent to sea beet populations; the numbers of flowering individuals in the former typically outnumber those in the populations of the latter. In such situations, gene flow from cultivated beets has the potential to alter the genetic composition of the nearby wild populations. In this study we measured isozyme allele frequencies of 11 polymorphic loci in 26 accessions of cultivated beet, in 20 sea beet accessions growing near a cultivated beet seed production region in northeastern Italy, and 19 wild beet accessions growing far from seed production areas. We found one allele that is specific to sugar beet, relative to other cultivated types, and a second that has a much higher frequency in Swiss chard and red beet than in sugar beet. Both alleles are typically rare in sea beet populations that are distant from seed production areas, but both are common in those that are near the Italian cultivated beet seed production region, supporting the contention that gene flow from the crop to the wild species can be substantial when both grow in proximity. Interestingly, the introgressed populations have higher genetic diversity than those that are isolated from the crop. The crop-to-wild gene flow rates are unknown, as are the fitness consequences of such alleles in the wild. Thus, we are unable to assess the long-term impact of such introgression. However, it is clear that gene flow from a crop to a wild taxon does not necessarily result in a decrease in the genetic diversity of the native plant.', 'en_US'),
(226, 'Competitiveness of transgenic sugar beet resistant to beet necrotic yellow vein virus and potential impact on wild beet populations', NULL, 'en_US'),
(227, 'Promiscuity in transgenic plants', 'The ecological risks of genetically modified crops are of greatest concern when there are no inherent barriers to the spread of transgenes through sexual reproduction. This is most likely when transgenes can spread to weedy species through hybridization, or when the crop species itself exists in weedy forms. If the potential recipient of a transgene is a highly selfing species, such as Arabidopsis thaliana, this risk is often considered negligible. Here, however, we report results of a field experiment in which transgenic A. thaliana showed a dramatically increased ability to donate pollen to nearby wild-type mothers compared with A. thaliana mutants expressing the same mutant allele as the transgenic plants.', 'en_US'),
(228, 'Changes in fecundity do not predict invasiveness: a model study of transgenic plants', NULL, 'en_US'),
(229, 'Assessment of transgene escape from Brassica rapa (Brassica campestris) into B. nigra or Sinapis arvensis', NULL, 'en_US'),
(230, 'Hybridization among Brassica napus, Brassica rapa and Brassica juncea and their two weedy relatives B. nigra and Sinapis arvensis under open pollination conditions in the field', NULL, 'en_US'),
(231, 'The origin and evolution of weed beets: consequences for the breeding and release of herbicide-resistant transgenic sugar-beets', NULL, 'en_US'),
(232, 'Gene escape in transgenic sugar beet: what can be learned from molecular studies of weed beet populations', NULL, 'en_US'),
(233, 'Examination of the putative horizontal gene transfer from transgenic plants to Agrobacteria', NULL, 'en_US'),
(234, 'Gene transfer between canola (Brassica napus) and related weed species', NULL, 'en_US'),
(235, 'Competitive and reproductive fitness of transgenic canola x weed species hybrids', NULL, 'en_US'),
(236, 'Transgenic sugar beet in natural habitats', NULL, 'en_US'),
(237, 'Regulation and oversight of biotechnological applications for agriculture and forestry', NULL, 'en_US'),
(238, 'Ecology of transgenic oilseed rape in natural habitats', 'Concerns about genetically engineered crop plants center on three conjectural risks: that transgenic crop plants will become weeds of agriculture or invasive of natural habitats; that their engineered genes will be transferred by pollen to wild relatives whose hybrid offspring will then become more weedy or more invasive; or that the engineered plants will be a direct hazard to humans, domestic animals or beneficial wild organisms (toxic or tocal for assessing the invasiveness of plants. The object is to determine whether genetic engineering for herbicide tolerance affects the likelihood of oilseed rape becoming invasive of natural habitats. By estimating the demographic parameters of transgenic and conventional oilseed rape growing in a variety of habitats and under a range of climatic conditions, we obtain and direct comparison of the ecological performance of three different genetic lines (control, kanamycin tolerant transgenics and herbicide tolerant transgenic lines). Despite substantial variation in seed survival, plant growth and seed production between production between sites and across experimental treatments, there was no indication that genetic engineering for kanomycin tolerance or herbicide tolerance increased the invasive potential of oilseed rape. In those cases in which there were significant differences (such as seed survival on burial), transgenic lines were less invasive and less persistent than their conventional counterparts.', 'en_US'),
(239, 'The ecology of genetically engineered organisms: assessing the environmental risks', NULL, 'en_US'),
(240, 'Transgenic crops in natural habitats', 'Although improved crop yields can be engineered by genetically modifying plants, there is ecological concern over whether these plants are likely to persist in the wild in the event of dispersal from their cultivated habitat. Here we present the results of a long-term study of the performance of transgenic crops in natural habitats. Four different crops (oilseed rape, potato, maize and sugar beet) were grown in 12 different habitats and monitored over a period of 10 years. In no case were the genetically modified plants found to be more invasive or more persistent than their conventional counterparts.', 'en_US'),
(241, 'Safety of genetically engineered crops', NULL, 'en_US'),
(242, 'Gene dispersal from transgenic crops by pollen', NULL, 'en_US'),
(243, 'Dispersal of genes by pollen: the PROSAMO project', NULL, 'en_US'),
(244, 'The impact of hybrids between genetically modified crop plants and their related species: introgression and weediness', NULL, 'en_US'),
(245, 'The impact of transgenic crop releases on biodiversity in developing countries', 'An increasing number of transgenic crops are deliberately released into centres of biodiversity, which are mostly found in developing countries. Since these centres are important for the future of the world''s major food crops, there is great concern about the potential ecological impact of these releases. Information and knowledge about the ecological impact are, however, still marginal. This article focuses on the hypothetical risks, with potato serving as an example.', 'en_US'),
(246, 'Genetic diversity and gene flow between wild, cultivated and weedy forms of Beta Vulgarils L. (Chenopodiaceae), assessed by RFLP and microsatellite markers.', 'Beets belonging to the species Beta vulgaris L. can be found in crop, wild and weedy forms, all of which are interfertile. We studied the intra-specific genetic relationships of about 300 individuals from 54 populations of various French geographic origins using nuclear molecular markers (five single-copy RFLP loci and one microsatellite locus). The patterns of diversity were congruent for both types of markers. Genetic diversity in wild beets appeared to be high, both in term of allele number and observed heterozygosity, whereas the narrowness of the cultivated-beet gene pool was confirmed. Genetic distances between all forms showed that weed beets in northern France are intermediates between sugar beet and inland wild beets in southwestern France. This analysis allowed us to infer the paternal origin of weed beets and furthermore, is in agreement with a previous study which focused on their maternal origin: weed beet infesting sugar-beet fields originated from accidental and recurrent hybridization between cultivated lines and ruderal inland wild beets during the production of commercial seeds in southwestern France. Inland wild beets are genetically close to Mediterranean coastal wild beets, but differ from other coastal forms (from Biscay, Brittany and northern France). The study of gene flow in the beet complex contributes to the risk assessment of transgenic beets.', 'en_US'),
(247, 'Biosafety of transgenic oilseed Brassica species.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(248, 'Gene flow and rape - the Canadian experience', NULL, 'en_US'),
(249, 'Biological containment of potato (Solanum tuberosum): outcrossing to the related wild species black nightshade (Solanum nigrum) and bittersweet (Solanum dulcamara)', NULL, 'en_US'),
(250, 'Gene flow by pollen - implications for plant conservation genetics', 'The absence of gene flow, genetic isolation, is frequently emphasized in conservation genetics. However, the presence of gene flow can play an equally important role in determining the genetic fate of populations. Here, I first review what is known of patterns of gene flow by pollen. Gene flow by pollen is often substantial among plant populations. I next review the expectations for gene flow patterns in the small populations typical of endangered species. Then, I consider what role gene flow can play in plant conservation genetics. Depending on the specific situation, such gene flow could be either beneficial or detrimental. Geographically disjunct populations might not always be as reproductively isolated as previously thought, and thereby less vulnerable to detrimental drift-based processes. On the other hand, conspecific or heterospecific hybridization may lead to extinction by outbreeding depression or genetic assimilation. Also, the field release of transgenic plants may lead to the escape of engineered genes by crop-wild plant hybridization. Such ''genetic pollution'' could have profound effects on the fitness of wild species with the potential for disrupting natural communities. Gene flow can be an important force in plant conservation genetics, and its potential role should be considered in any plant conservation management program.', 'en_US'),
(251, 'Gene flow and introgression from domesticated plants into their wild relatives', 'Domesticated plant taxa cannot be regarded as evolutionarily discrete from their wild relatives. Most domesticated plant taxa mate with wild relatives somewhere in the world, and gene flow from crop taxa may have a substantial impact on the evolution of wild populations. In a literature review of the world''s 13 most important food crops, we show that 12 of these crops hybridize with wild relatives in some part of their agricultural distribution. We use population genetic theory to predict the evolutionary consequences of gene flow from crops to wild plants and discuss two applied consequences of crop-to-wild gene flowthe evolution of aggressive weeds and the extinction of rare species. We suggest ways of assessing the likelihood of hybridization, introgression, and the potential for undesirable gene flow from crops into weeds or rare species.', 'en_US'),
(252, 'Genetiske risikoer for norske villplanter', NULL, 'en_US'),
(253, 'Competitiveness of transgenic oilseed rape', NULL, 'en_US'),
(254, 'Risk assessment of gene flow from virus-resistant transgenic squash into a wild relative', NULL, 'en_US'),
(255, 'Monitoring field releases of genetically modified sugar beets for persistence of transgenic plant DNA and horizontal gene transfer', 'Field releases of transgenic rizomania-resistant sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) plants were accompanied by a study of the persistence of DNA from transgenic sugar beet litter in soil and of horizontal gene transfer of plant DNA to bacteria. The transgenic sugar beets contained the marker genes nptII and bar under the control of the bidirectional TR1/2 promoter conferring kanamycin (Km) and glufosinate ammonium resistance to the plant. Primer systems targeting the construct allowed the specific and sensitive detection of the transgenic DNA in soil. Soil samples were analyzed by cultivation of bacteria on nonselective and Km-selective media to determine the proportion of Km-resistant bacteria and to monitor the culturable fraction for incorporation of transgenic plant DNA. To detect the presence of transgenic DNA independently from cultivation, total soil DNA was extracted and amplified by PCR with three different primer sets specific for the transgenic DNA. Longterm persistence of transgenic DNA could be shown under field conditions (up to 2 years) and also in soil microcosms with introduced transgenic plant DNA. No construct-specific sequences were detected by dot blot hybridizations of bacterial isolates. The experimental limitations of detecting horizontal gene transfer from plants to bacteria under field conditions are discussed.', 'en_US'),
(256, 'The release of genetically modified grasses. Part 1: Pollen dispersal to traps in Lolium perenne', 'As part of a series of experiments on determining the risk of introducing genetically modified wind-pollinated forage grasses an experiment on pollen dispersal was conducted and the use of theoretical descriptions to predict dispersal in model systems investigated. Pollen traps were placed around a central source of Lolium perenne. Traps were exposed with their sticky surfaces towards and away from the pollen source and also facing skywards during four stages of anthesis (early, mid 1, mid 2 and late). There was a great deal of variation in dispersal over time and to traps of different orientations. Twelve datasets were collected and used to comprehensively test Bateman''s equations for the wind dispersal of pollen. The equations were not particularly useful for describing dispersal over distance and clearly need to be modified to take factors such as wind direction into account.', 'en_US'),
(257, 'The release of genetically modified grasses. Part 2: The influence of wind direction on pollen dispersaL', NULL, 'en_US'),
(258, 'Gene flow in selected Swiss crops and related weeds, risk assessment for the field release of GMO''s in Switzerland, case of wheat and oilseed rape', NULL, 'en_US'),
(259, 'Reducing transgene escape routes', 'One of the main concerns about genetically modified crops is the risk of contaminating ''natural'' populations with the introduced genes. A technical development that reduces this risk is now reported, and the principle is simple ? rather than introducing transgenes into the nuclear genome, from which they can be spread in the form of pollen, the genes are introduced into the chloroplast DNA. Chloroplasts are maternally inherited, so wild relatives of transgenic plants cannot be contaminated.', 'en_US'),
(260, 'The opportunity for escape of engineered genes from transgenic crops', NULL, 'en_US'),
(261, 'Risk assessment of the release of genetically modified plants: a review agro-food-industry', NULL, 'en_US'),
(262, 'Direct comparison of pollen-mediated movement of native and engineered genes', 'Despite the commercial approval of twenty-five transgenic crops in the U.S. as of mid-1996, concern is still being expressed regarding the potential risks associated with genetically engineered crops. One recurring issue is the possibility of pollen-mediated escape of engineered genes into populations of crop wild relatives. To address this concern, the scientific community has depended on literature on pollen dispersal generated from non-transgenic organisms. Utilization of this information requires the assumption that the pollen mediated movement of native and transgenes is the same. To test the validity of this assumption, we directly compared the pollen-mediated gene movement of native and engineered marker genes using melon plants (Cucumis melo L.) expressing dominant morphological and transgenic traits. Movement into both contiguous border plots and non-contiguous satellite plots were monitored. Dispersal of the native gene and transgene into the satellite plots was identical. Dispersal of the two traits into the plot borders was nearly identical. Of the nearly 4600 seedlings screened for both morphological (presence of green vs. virescent cotyledons) and transgene movement (presence of NPT II protein by ELISA), in no case was the NPT II gene observed in the absence of green cotyledons. However, 39 seedlings were green but did not express NPT II as measured by ELISA. PCR analysis revealed transgene inactivation as a cause of the NPT II ELISA-seedlings.', 'en_US'),
(263, 'Assessing the risk of pest resistance evolution to Bacillus thuringiensis engineered into crop plants: a case study of oilseed rape', 'Existing and novel Bacillus thuringiensis toxin-coding genes may be utilised in transgenic oilseed rape to control many of the important insect pest species on the crop, worldwide. Location-specific ecological crop assessment must be used to evaluate the need and possibilities for managing resistance evolution in the target pests, and to ensure sustainability of the control strategy. In some cases, at least, it appears that durable control could be attained in oilseed rape by an integrated control approach, including the use of transgenic crop and among it, about 10% of non-transformed seed to provide refugia for susceptible insect genotypes. Seed mixtures or strip intercropping would be easy to handle also in practice.', 'en_US'),
(264, 'Transfer of engineered genes from crop to wild plants', 'The escape of engineered genes - genes inserted using recombinant DNA techniques - from cultivated plants to wild or weedy relatives has raised concern about possible risks to the environment or to health. The media have added considerably to public concern by suggesting that such gene escape is a new and rather unexpected phenomenon. However, transfer of engineered genes between plants is not at all surprising, because it is mediated by exactly the same mechanisms as those responsible for transferring endogenous plant genes: it takes place by sexual crosses, with pollen as the carrier. Such sexual reproduction has been the basis for breeding almost all crops.', 'en_US'),
(265, 'Spontaneous hybridization between oilseed rape (Brassica napes) and weedy B. campestris (Brassicaceae): a risk of growing genetically modified oilseed rape', NULL, 'en_US'),
(266, 'Risk assessment of genetically modified crops: potential of four arable crops to hybridize with the wild flora', NULL, 'en_US'),
(267, 'Using models to integrate data from field trials and estimate risks of gene escape and gene spread: biological monitoring of genetically engineered plants and microbes', NULL, 'en_US'),
(268, 'Can we use experiments and models in predicting the invasiveness of genetically engineered organisms?', NULL, 'en_US'),
(269, 'Movement of crop transgenes into wild plants', NULL, 'en_US'),
(270, 'II. Pollination, gene transfer and population impacts', NULL, 'en_US'),
(271, 'Transgene movement via gene-flow: recommendations for improved biosafety assessment', NULL, 'en_US'),
(272, 'Engineered genes in wild populations: fitness of weed-crop hybrids of Raphanus sativus', 'The transfer of engineered genes (transgenes) from crops to natural populations will depend first on mating between the crop and related weeds and then upon the relative fitness of the weed-crop hybrid. While weed-crop hybridization is known to occur readily under agricultural conditions, almost nothing is known of the fitness of the hybrids produced. Therefore, we measured the relative fitness of weedy radishes and their sibling weed-crop hybrids under field conditions. Specifically, we compared germination success, time to first flowering, fruit production, seed production, and frequency of transmission of the crop allele to seed progeny. Hybrids showed significantly greater fruit and seed production, and equaled weeds in all other measured characters. Thus, in this experiment, the fitness of hybrids exceeded that of their wild siblings. These results suggest that, in at least this system, neutral or advantageous transgenes introduced into natural populations will tend to persist.', 'en_US'),
(273, 'Crop-weed hybridization in radish (Raphanus sativus): effects of distance and population size', NULL, 'en_US'),
(274, 'Radish as a model system for the study of engineered gene escape rates via crop-weed mating', NULL, 'en_US'),
(275, 'Seed germination in weedy Brassica campestris and its hybrids with B. napus: implications for risk assessment of transgenic oilseed rape', 'We studied the germination behaviour of the following types of seeds: weedy Brassica campestris, oilseed rape (Brassica napus), B. campestris ([female]) × B. napus ([male]), B. napus ([female]) × B. campestris ([male]) and, finally, seeds harvested on B. napus ([female]) × B. campestris ([male]) hybrids in open pollination with B. campestris and B. napus. The seeds were germinated in Petri dishes, using three different consecutive treatments and assaying the viability of non-germinated seeds with tetrazolium staining. B. campestris seeds varied in the treatment they required in order to germinate and many seeds were dormant, in contrast to B. napus seeds, which lacked dormancy. B. campestris ([female]) × B. napus ([male]) and B. napus ([female]) × B. campestris ([male]) seeds both resembled B. napus being non-dormant whereas seeds harvested on B. napus ([female]) × B. campestris ([male]) hybrids were more B. campestris-like in germination behaviour. We discuss implications for risk of transgene spread from oilseed rape to weedy B. campestris.', 'en_US'),
(276, 'Potential persistence of transgenes: seed performance of transgenic canola and wild x canola hybrids', 'Because wild, weedy-ephemeral species take advantage of periodic disturbance for growth and reproduction, many have considerable seed dormancy and longevity, coupled with germination cued on environmental changes correlated with disturbance. Brassica napus canola is derived from a weedy ephemeral and has sexually compatible wild relatives that are weedy ephemerals, most notably B. rapa. Hence, if transgenes introduced into B. napus canola alter its seed bank dynamics to be more similar to its wild relatives, the chance of transgene escape and persistence is increased. Further, if introgression of the transgene into a wild relative enhances or does not disrupt the seed bank dynamics of wild plants, the transgene could persist in wild populations. I conducted experiments with transgenic, oil-modified B. napus canola (high-stearate and high-laurate types) and wild B. rapa × B. napus canola hybrids (high-laurate type) to determine whether they possessed seed dormancy and germination cuing characteristics favoring persistence of escaped transgenes. Seeds of high-stearate B. napus canola and its untransformed parental type were germinated in growth chambers in a complete factorial design of light (full light, darkness, simulated foliage shade), nutrient concentration (high, low), and temperature (10°, 20°, 35°C). Most combinations of factors did not alter high-stearate canola''s timing of germination or total proportion of seeds germinated relative to its nonpersistent parental control. Where effects were seen, they were disadvantageous, with high-stearate seeds germinating more slowly than controls (35°C:full light:high nutrient) and in lower proportions (35°C:darkness:high nutrient and 35°C:full light:high nutrient). Ungerminated high-stearate seeds in treatment combinations having reduced germination were primarily dormant rather than dead. Although most of their dormancy was enforced by high temperature, under some conditions (35°C:full light:high nutrients and 35°C:darkness:low nutrients), I detected significantly higher levels of induced dormancy for high-stearate seeds relative to controls. Hence, persistent high-stearate canola seed banks could form under some field conditions. For high-laurate B. napus canola and high-laurate wild B. rapa × B. napus canola hybrids and their controls, I germinated seeds in growth chambers, varying light and nutrients using the same treatments as above in a complete factorial design. Temperature was maintained at 10°C. High-laurate canola germinated later than its parental control, with the difference enhanced by low nutrients. In low nutrients, high-laurate canola also germinated at a lower proportion than its control. Both of these altered germination characteristics do not favor population persistence of high-laurate canola. Under some conditions (darkness:high nutrients), high-laurate canola had higher overall dormancy and induced dormancy than its control, suggesting the possibility of increased seed bank persistence. Finally, in spite of expectations that the high-laurate wild × crop hybrid would show strong maternal effects, this hybrid and the hybrid control always germinated at proportions at or near 1.0, whereas the wild parent had very low germination proportions and high levels of dormancy, especially in simulated foliage shade. These results suggest that high-laurate wild-crop hybrids lack germination cuing mechanisms and will germinate primarily at inappropriate times. However, when they do germinate with wild B. rapa, they are likely to compete well with it because the high-laurate hybrids germinated and grew as fast or faster than their wild parental control. This should provide opportunities for backcrossing to wild B. rapa.', 'en_US'),
(277, 'Potential persistence of escaped transgenes: performance of transgenic oil-modified Brassica seeds and seedlings', 'We performed two experiments designed to assess the risk that seed-oil-modification transgenes will increase the persistence of feral Brassica napus canola and interspecific hybrids of B. napus canola and wild Brassica rapa, a weedy relative. The first experiment, conducted at field sites in California and Georgia where oil-modified canola will be grown commercially, tested whether buried seeds of transgenic high-stearate canola had increased survivorship and dormancy. Performance of the high-stearate type was compared to nontransgenic null segregant and parental lines. In California, no differences in initial proportions of dormant seeds and rates of exit could be detected between high-stearate canola and its controls, suggesting low probability that high-stearate canola will form a larger or more persistent seed bank than its nonpersistent controls. In Georgia, although high-stearate canola initially had as low or lower proportions of dormant seeds than its controls, high-stearate seeds exhibited no detectable exit from the seed bank, whereas both controls had significant rates of exit. Hence, escaped high-stearate seed may persist for a longer period than its controls at this site. Differences between the sites highlight the need to conduct risk assessment over the range where a transgenic crop will be commercialized. The second experiment, a greenhouse study, measured the relative ability of oil-modified canolas and wild × crop hybrids to emerge from four depths in the soil (0, 0.5, 4, and 10 cm) and their subsequent seedling vigor. We tested lines of B. napus canola carrying either the high-stearate gene or a transgene for high-laurate production, using nontransgenic parental types as controls. We also examined the impact of the high-laurate transgene in interspecific wild B. rapa × B. napus canola hybrids. Performance of the high-laurate hybrids was compared to nontransgenic hybrids and the B. rapa wild parent. For all seed types, no seedlings emerged from 10 cm, and all seedlings emerged from 0 and 0.5 cm. A higher proportion of high-stearate canola emerged from 4 cm than its control, but for all depths, high-stearate canola emerged more slowly and had significantly less biomass than its control 2 and 4 wk following emergence. In contrast, high-laurate canola''s total emergence and timing of emergence could not be distinguished from its control. Although high-laurate canola''s 2-wk biomass was less than that of its control, by 4 wk, its biomass was equivalent due to its significantly higher relative growth rate during that period. The different results for the two oil-modification transgenes suggest that even transgenes with similar functions should be considered on a case-by-case basis. From 0 and 0.5 cm, high-laurate wild × canola hybrids'' total emergence, timing of emergence, and biomass accumulation were indistinguishable from their wild parent. High-laurate hybrids emerged more rapidly and had greater biomass at 2 wk than their hybrid controls. Our results indicate that high-laurate hybrids, emerged from shallow depths, may experience performance advantages that will allow them to perform as well as their persistent, wild parent.', 'en_US'),
(278, 'Long-term introgression of crop genes into wild sunflower populations', 'Hybrids between cultivated and wild sunflowers (Helianthus annuus) are frequently reported. As much as 42% of progeny from wild plants near cultivar fields are hybrids, and cultivar genes have been shown to persist in wild populations at least five generations. We report the effects of up to 40 years of persistent cultivar gene flow on the genetic structure of three wild H. annuus populations that are adjacent to cultivated fields. Eighteen cultivar-specific markers were surveyed in a total of 115 individuals. We also developed cultivar-based genetic maps for the markers and used them to see if marker patterns in the wild populations were consistent with introgression and if selection was acting jointly on unlinked loci. High levels of crop specific markers were detected in all three wild populations, ranging from 0.315 to 0.382, on average. All 115 plants had at least 1 cultivar marker. Introgression is the most likely explanation for the presence of crop specific markers in the sympatric populations because (1) the markers were either not present or found at much lower levels in four allopatric populations, (2) markers that were genetically linked in the cultivar invariably showed linkage disequilibrium patterns in the sympatric populations consistent with introgression, and (3) homology tests ruled out convergent evolution as an alternate explanation. Hence, introgression of cultivar loci was widespread, and the sympatric wild populations have been replaced by advanced generation hybrids. Unlinked, introgressed markers did not show significant linkage disequilibria, indicating a lack of epistatic associations among introgressed markers. Hence, transgenes in cultivated sunflowers should readily introgress into sympatric wild populations, and their fate will be determined primarily by their fitness effects on the wild plants.', 'en_US'),
(279, 'Pollen dispersal from two field trials of transgenic cotton in the Namoi Valley, Australia', NULL, 'en_US'),
(280, 'Weed management and impact on ecology of growing glyphosate tolerant sugarbeets', NULL, 'en_US'),
(281, 'An assessment of gene transfer by pollen from field-grown transgenic potatoes to non-transgenic potatoes and related species', NULL, 'en_US'),
(282, 'The impact on biosafety of the phosphinothricin-tolerance transgene in inter-specific B. rapa x B. napus hybrids and their successive backcrosses', 'There is strong evidence indicating that gene flow from transgenic B. napus into weedy wild relatives is inevitable following commercial release. Research should now focus on the transmission, stability, and impact of transgene expression after the initial hybridization event. The present study investigated the transfer of a phosphinothricin-tolerance transgene by inter-specific hybridization between B. rapa and two transgenic B. napus lines. The expression of the transgene was monitored in the F 1 hybrids and in subsequent backcross generations. The transgene was transmitted relatively easily into the F 1 hybrids and retained activity. Large differences in the transmission frequency of the transgene were noted between offspring of the two transgenic lines during backcrossing. The most plausible explanation of these results is that the line showing least transmission during backcrossing contains a transgene integrated into a C-genome chromosome. Approximately 10% of offspring retained the tolerant trait in the BC 3 and BC 4 generations. The implications of these findings for the stable introgression of transgenes carried on one of the chromosomes of the C-genome from B. napus and into B. rapa are briefly discussed.', 'en_US'),
(283, 'The risk of crop transgene spread', NULL, 'en_US'),
(284, 'Do barren zones and pollen traps reduce gene escape from transgenic crops?', 'As genetically engineered crop varieties near widespread cultivation, both agronomic and environmental concerns mandate the development of effective strategies for isolating transgenic varieties from related non-transgenic varieties or cross-fertile weeds. We present the results of the first field experiment designed to test the effectiveness of two containment strategies that are commonly used in field trials of transgenic crops: (1) an isolation zone devoid of vegetation to discourage emigration of insect pollinators from transgenic plots; and (2) trap crops (non-transgenic varieties of the same crop planted adjacent to the transgenic plot that can ''cleanse'' emigrating pollinators of transgenic pollen). In conjunction with field trials of genetically engineered canola (Brassica napus) conducted by Calgene, Inc., in California and Georgia, we varied both the width of the barren zone and the presence or absence of a trap crop, and measured the effects on gene escape. Escape was easily detected since the genetic construct inserted into the transgenic canola contained a gene that rendered seedlings resistant to the normally lethal antibiotic kanamycin. Our results suggest that barren zones 4-8 m in width may actually increase seed contamination over what would be expected if the intervening ground were instead planted entirely with a trap crop. When trap crops occupied a limited portion of the isolation zone separating transgenic and non-transgenic varieties, the effectiveness of the trap depended on the width of the isolation zone: they reduced gene escape when the two varieties were separated by 8 m, but increased escape across a 4-m isolation zone. We conclude that, for the relatively short isolation distances we examined, the most effective strategy for reducing the escape of transgenic pollen is to devote the entire region between transgenic and non-transgenic varieties to a trap crop.', 'en_US'),
(285, 'Recent advances in ecological biosafety research on the risks of transgenic plants: a trans-continental perspective', NULL, 'en_US'),
(286, 'Assessing the risks of invasion for genetically engineered plants: acceptable evidence and reasonable doubt', 'Agricultural biotechnology has generated concern over the risk of producing new invasive species or exacerbating current weed problems. In this paper, we introduce the regulatory context for assessing invasiveness of genetically engineered organisms in the United States and review the evidence presented by companies arguing the deregulation of particular transgenic crops. The context of invasion ecology is then used to discuss the nature of acceptable evidence for a finding of ''no risk'',: we focus in particular on the role of experimental data. We review recent experiments designed to assess the risk of gentically engineerred crops, including our own work with oil-modified canola Brassica napus, and offer guidelines for the design and interpretation of such experiments.', 'en_US'),
(287, 'Gene dispersal from genetically modified oil seed rape in field', NULL, 'en_US'),
(288, 'Will hybrids of genetically modified crops invade natural communities?', 'In order to assess the risks of hybridization between genetically modified crops and closely related weeds, recent studies of introgression of crops and wild relatives growing nearby, using molecular markers, are discussed. Where introgression has occurred, the products have tended to colonize agricultural or disturbed habitats. However, if genetic modification of crops alters the probability of hybrid formation or the performance of hybrids, then natural and seminatural habitats may be invaded by hybrids carrying the modification. It is hoped that data on the maintenance of disease resistance polymorphisms in natural populations will prove helpful in modelling how transgenes conferring disease resistance might behave in natural populations.', 'en_US'),
(289, 'Genetically modified crops and hybridization with wild relatives: a UK perspective', '1. It has been suggested that genetic modification could lead to crops with enhanced invasiveness and persistence. These new genotypes could Invade natural ecosystems and cause undesirable change. either through spread of the crops themselves or through hybridization with wild relatives.2. We review the progress made in the genetic modification of the major UK crops. and identify those crops and traits in which genetic modification is most advanced.3. Data on the potential for the spread of transgenes through pollen movement and the relative performance of modified and unmodified crops are examined. It is concluded that the spread of modified crops and their hybrids with wild relatives can be modelled in the same manner as for unmodified crops.4. Evidence for hybridization between crop and wild species in the UK is reviewed, We identify three categories of crop according to the likelihood of formation of hybrids with wild relatives.5. The categorization of crops is used to suggest some simplifications to the procedures for permission to release genetically modified crops into the environment.6. We suggest research priorities for ecologists based on the traits that are of most interest to plant breeders using genetic modification and the most likely route of escape of transgenes from a particular crop.', 'en_US'),
(290, 'Modeling the impact of transgenic herbicide-tolerant oilseed rape on weed population dynamics', NULL, 'en_US'),
(291, 'Opportunities for gene transfer from transgenic oilseed rape (Brassica napus) to related species', NULL, 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(292, 'Low probability of chloroplast movement from oilseed rape (Brassica napus) into wild Brassica rapa', 'Pollen-mediated movement of transgenes from transplastomic oilseed rape (Brassica napus) into wild relatives will be avoided if chloroplasts are maternally transmitted. We assess the probability of chloroplast exchange between conventional oilseed rape and wild Brassica rapa to model the future behavior of transplastomic cultivars. Primers specific to cpDNA were used to demonstrate maternal inheritance of chloroplasts in 47 natural hybrids between cultivated B. napus and wild B. rapa. We conclude that there will be no or negligible pollen-mediated chloroplast dispersal from oilseed rape. Transgene introgression could still occur in mixed populations, however, if B. napus acted as the recurrent female parent. Rate of transfer would then depend on the abundance of mixed populations, their persistence as mixtures, and hybridization frequency within stands. A low incidence of sympatry (0.6-0.7%) between wild B. rapa and cultivated B. napus along the river Thames, UK, in 1997 and 1998, suggests mixed stands will form only rarely. Eighteen feral populations of B. napus also showed a strong tendency toward rapid decline in plant number, seed return, and ultimately, extinction within 3 years. Conversely, hybrid production is significant in mixed stands, and the absence of control practices means that oilseed rape will have slightly greater persistence. We infer that some introgression from transplastomic B. napus into B. rapa is inevitable in mixed populations even though such populations will occur infrequently and will tend to lose B. napus plants relatively quickly. Chloroplast exchange will be extremely rare and scattered.', 'en_US'),
(293, 'Increased fitness of transgenic insecticidal rapeseed under insect selection pressure', NULL, 'en_US'),
(294, 'Degree of pollen dispersal by insects from a field test of genetically engineered cotton', NULL, 'en_US'),
(295, 'Sensitive detection of transgenic plant marker gene persistence in soil microcosms', NULL, 'en_US'),
(296, 'Quantification of transgenic plant marker gene persistence in the field', NULL, 'en_US'),
(297, 'An inventory of the key predators of cotton pests on Bt and non-Bt cotton in west Texas', NULL, 'en_US'),
(298, 'Changes in levels, species and DNA fingerprints of soil-microorganisms associated with cotton expressing the Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki endotoxin.', 'An important aspect of the risk assessment of pesticidal transgenic plants is the potential for detrimental effects on the soil ecosystem from residual plant material following harvesting and tillage. We evaluated this concern by placing leaves of three different lines of cotton genetically engineered to produce the Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki (B.t.k.) endotoxin in soil and monitoring numbers and species of indigenous soil bacteria and fungi. Four experiments, lasting 28 or 56 days, were performed using combinations of the following treatments: (1) soil only; (2) soil + purified B.t.k. toxin; (3) soil + parental cotton; (4) soil + purified B.t.k. toxin + parental cotton; (5) soil + B.t.k. toxin-producing cotton. Two of the three transgenic cotton lines caused a transient increase in total bacterial and fungal population levels that was significantly higher on several sample days in the experiments than the levels in the other treatments. In contrast, neither the third transgenic cotton line nor the purified B.t.k. toxins had any significant effects on the total numbers of bacteria and fungi. Transient changes in bacterial species composition, measured by biochemical tests of individual cultures, community substrate utilization and DNA fingerprinting, were also observed in treatments with the two transgenic plant lines. The plant line specificity of the response, and the lack of effects from the purified B.t.k. toxins, suggest that the observed effects of the two transgenic plant lines on soil microorganisms may not have resulted from the plants'' production of B.t.k. toxin. We suggest that genetic manipulation or tissue culturing of the plants may have produced a change in plant characteristics, aside from B.t.k. toxin production, that can influence growth and species composition of soil microorganisms.', 'en_US'),
(299, 'Biological parameters of convergent lady beetle (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) feeding on aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) on transgenic potato.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(300, 'Microbial populations, fungal species diversity and plant pathogen levels in field plots of potato plants expressing the Bacillus thuringiensis var. tenebrionis endotoxin', NULL, 'en_US'),
(301, 'Effects of transgenic plants on soil and plant microorganisms', 'In this paper, several studies using different transgenic plants to evaluate the persistence of their products and their effects on soil and plant microorganisms were considered. These studies used cotton, potato, tobacco and alfalfa engineered for the production of pesticidal products (Bacillus thuringiensis endotoxins and proteinase inhibitors) and industrial compounds ( alpha -amylase and lignin peroxidase). Recommendations are made for the design of risk assessment studies on transgenic plants.', 'en_US'),
(302, 'Decomposition of genetically engineered tobacco under field conditions: persistence of the proteinase inhibitor I product and effects on soil microbial respiration and protozoa, nematode and microarthropod populations', 'To evaluate the potential effects of genetically engineered (transgenic) plants on soil ecosystems, litterbags containing leaves of non-engineered (parental) and transgenic tobacco plants were buried in field plots. The transgenic tobacco plants were genetically engineered to constitutively produce proteinase inhibitor I, a protein with insecticidal activity. The litterbag contents and surrounding soil, as well as soil from control plots without litterbags were sampled over a 5-month period at 2- to 4- week intervals and assayed for proteinase inhibitor concentration, litter decomposition rates, carbon and nitrogen content, microbial respiration rates and population levels of nematodes, protozoa and microarthropods. The proteinase inhibitor concentration in the transgenic plant litter after 57 days was 0.5% of the day 0 value and was not detectable on subsequent sample days. Although the carbon content of the transgenic plant litter was comparable to that of the parental plant litter on day 0, it became significantly lower over the course of the experiment. In addition, nematode population in the soil surrounding the transgenic plant litterbags were greater than those in the soil surrounding parental plant litterbags and had a different trophic group composition, including a significantly higher ratio of fungal feeding nematodes to bacterial feeding nematodes on sample day 57. In contrast, Collembola populations in the soil surrounding the transgenic plant litterbags were significantly lower than in the soil surrounding parental plant litterbags. Our results demonstrated that under field conditions proteinase inhibitor remained immunologically active in buried transgenic plant litter for at least 57 days and that decomposing parental and transgenic plant litter differed in quality (carbon content) and in the response of exposed soil organisms (Collembola and nematodes).', 'en_US'),
(303, 'Impact of beneficial arthropod conservation in Bt and conventional cotton', NULL, 'en_US'),
(304, 'Cry 1Ab protein levels in phytophagous insects feeding on transgenic corn: implications for secondary exposure risk assessment', NULL, 'en_US'),
(305, 'Bt corn and the monarch butterfly: research update', NULL, 'en_US'),
(306, 'Effects of transgenic Bacillus Thuringiensis corn-fed prey on mortality and development time of immature Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae)', NULL, 'en_US'),
(307, 'Toxicity of Bacillus thuringiensis CryIAb toxin to the predator Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae)', NULL, 'en_US'),
(308, 'Monarch Bt-corn paper questioned', 'The May publication in Nature of a peer-reviewed Scientific Correspondence paper indicating that transgenic pollen kills larvae of the monarch butterfly provoked contrasting responses around the world. While environmental interest groups seized on the findings as demonstrating the harmful effects of genetically modified crops on ''non-target'' species in agricultural regions, plant scientists and representatives of life science companies among others criticized the work as premature, incomplete, and unconvincing.In the controversial experiments, monarch larvae fed on milkweed leaves dusted with pollen from N4640 Bt corn (a commercial variety containing a gene for an insecticidal Bacillus thuringiensis protein as a defense against infestation with the European corn borer) ate less, grew more slowly and had higher mortality than those fed plain leaves or leaves dusted with pollen from a non-transgenic corn line. After four days, su-vival of larvae exposed to N4640 Bt corn was 56% compared with 100% for the pollen-plus and pollen-minus controls. The monarch, whose larvae feed exclusively on milkweed leaves, is regarded as a particularly sensitive indicator of environmental disturbance.Critics of the work have particularly highlighted a number of weaknesses of the paper. The first is that it is unsurprising that a lepidopteran species such as the monarch should be affected when fed plant material that contains a protein used precisely because of its lepidopteran-specific killing properties.Willy De Greef, the worldwide head of regulatory and government affairs for Novartis Seeds (Basel, Switzerland), the company that developed the N4640 Bt variety, would have liked to see a greater stringency with respect to the Cornell University (Ithaca, New York) group''s experiments. The forced feeding of a potentially toxic compound to larvae does not really represent the reality in the field. More convincing, he says, would have been the results of ''choice'' experiments where, as in the field, the monarch larvae are exposed simultaneously to milkweed leaves with and without Bt-maize pollen. The preliminary Cornell experiments reported in Nature indicate that the presence of both transformed and untransformed pollen reduces leaf consumption by the larvae, something that might be expected to have a bearing on larval survival. De Greef says that the ''choice'' experiments would explore the monarch''s pollen avoidance strategies.', 'en_US'),
(309, 'Interaction of genetically engineered host plant resistance and natural enemies of Heliothis virescens (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in tobacco', NULL, 'en_US'),
(310, 'Transgenic pollen harms monarch larvae', 'Although plants transformed with genetic material from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt ) are generally thought to have negligible impact on non-target organisms, Bt corn plants might represent a risk because most hybrids express the Bt toxin in pollen, and corn pollen is dispersed over at least 60 metres by wind. Corn pollen is deposited on other plants near corn fields and can be ingested by the non-target organisms that consume these plants. In a laboratory assay we found that larvae of the monarch butterfly, Danaus plexippus, reared on milkweed leaves dusted with pollen from Bt corn, ate less, grew more slowly and suffered higher mortality than larvae reared on leaves dusted with untransformed corn pollen or on leaves without pollen.', 'en_US'),
(311, 'Effects of Bt corn on Rhopalosiphum padi L. (Rhynchota aphididae) and on its predator Chrysoperla carnea Stephen (Neuroptera Chrysopidae)', NULL, 'en_US'),
(312, 'Biodiversity and structure of ground beetle assemblages (Coleoptera carabidae) in Bt corn and its effects on non target insects', NULL, 'en_US'),
(313, 'Oviposition of European corn borer (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) and impact of natural enemy populations in transgenic versus isogenic corn', NULL, 'en_US'),
(314, 'Impact of genetically modified rapeseed on insect pollinators (honeybees)', NULL, 'en_US'),
(315, 'Preimaginal development, survival, and field abundance of insect predators on transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis corn', NULL, 'en_US'),
(316, 'Field and laboratory evaluations of transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis corn on secondary lepidopteran pests (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)', NULL, 'en_US'),
(317, 'Bt corn pollen impacts on nontarget lepidoptera: assessment of effects in nature', 'The demonstrations by Losey et al. (1)and Hansen and Obrycki (www.ent.iastate.eduyentsocynch 99yprogyabsy D81.html) that milkweed leaves dusted with heavy concentrations of Bt corn pollen are toxic to Monarch butterf ly larvae (Danaus plexippus) feeding on them were consistent with the known toxicity of Bt endotoxin to Lepidoptera in general and the expression of Bt endotoxins in the pollen of the strains of corn they studied. Much speculation and some investigations followed, concerning the extent to which the poisoning of Monarch butterf lies and other nontarget Lepidoptera might be sig-nificant contributors to the mortality of these insects in nature. For example, Shel-ton and Roush (2) were critical of the two earlier findings, but did not provide any data from nature, despite the fact that Losey et al. (1), in the original report, stated ''''it would be inappropriate to draw any conclusions about the risk to Monarch populations in the field based solely on these initial results.''''In a recent issue of PNAS, Wraight et al. (3) reported their experiments with pop-ulations of black swallowtail larvae (Pap-ilio polyxenes) under field conditions. The food plants were located at varying dis-tances from plantings of Bt corn; the authors found no effects on the mortality of the larvae. These results demonstrated that Bt corn pollen from this corn strain is not toxic to this species of butterf ly at levels observed in the field no matter how close the larval food plants were to the pollen-shedding corn plants. It has not been demonstrated, however, that Mon-arch butterf lies and black swallowtails are equally susceptible to Bt endotoxins. Further, the pollen of the corn strain 176 used by Hansen and Obrycki (www.ent. iastate.eduyentsocynch 99yprogyabsy D81.html) in their experiments with Mon-arch butterf lies was demonstrated by Wraight et al. (3) to be lethal to black swallowtail larvae in the laboratory, whereas the pollen of the strain they used in their field experiments, with 1y40 of the Bt endotoxin level of strain 176, was not. Studies of the effects of corn strain 176 pollen on both black swallowtails and Monarch butterf lies in the field are un-derway in the summer of 2000. For their original report, Losey et al. (1) used still a different corn strain, N4640. At any event, the level of Bt endotoxin in the pollen of the particular corn strain, as expected, has a direct effect on the survival of black swallowtail larvae in the laboratory and presumably on the larvae of other butter-fly species as well. It has not been demonstrated whether different species of butterflies have varying levels of tolerance to Bt toxin, but they probably do, as demon-strated with other toxins.', 'en_US'),
(318, 'GM crops: environmental risks and non-target effects', 'The debate surrounding the environmental implications of using genetically modified (GM) crops is growing increasingly complex, intense and emotional. This is complicated by the continuing twists and turns as new research is published; the conclusions of which are often misrepresented or even misinterpreted. The extensive media coverage that followed the report on monarch butterflies and transgenic plants expressing Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxins 1, work that has subsequently received considerable scientific criticism 2 is a typical example. There have been several other notable studies addressing the ecological effect of insect-resistant GM crops on important non-target beneficial insects, such as ladybirds3, lacewings 4,5 and parasitic wasps 6. A recent study showed the asynchronous development of Bt-resistant and Bt-susceptible pink bollworm larvae reared in greenhouse bioassays 7. Since this study, several questions have been raised concerning the use of the refugia management strategy as a means of reducing the development of resistance by lepidopteran targets on Bt crops. A central premise to the refugia management strategy is that there will be significant interbreeding between resistant and susceptible moths but that there will be little or no assortative mating within strains of moths. These scientific studies, coupled with disputes over the economic and environmental benefits of using Bt crops 8,9 , have intensified the debate rather than building public confidence in GM technology. The credibility of science is jeopardized when the public is not provided with the perspective and context of experiments. This could lead to science being viewed by the public as incapable of providing the credible information needed to resolve complex issues.', 'en_US'),
(319, 'Immunological analysis of phloem sap of Bacillus thuringiensis corn and of the nontarget herbivore Rhopalosiphum padi (Homoptera: Aphididae) for the presence of Cry 1Ab', 'Phloem sap of transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) corn expressing a truncated form of the B. thuringiensis delta -endotoxin Cry1Ab, sap sucking aphids feeding on Bt corn and their honeydew were analysed for presence of Cry1Ab using ELISA. Phloem sap of Bt and non-Bt corn was collected using a newly developed technique with a microcapillary being directly inserted into the phloem tubes. Using this technique, no Cry1Ab was detected in the phloem sap. In contrast, measurable concentrations of Cry1Ab in the range of 1 ppb were detected when phloem sap of pooled leaf samples was extracted using EDTA buffer. This was probably because of Cry1Ab toxin released from damaged cells. When analysing apterous adults of Rhopalosiphum padi L. and their honeydew, no Cry1Ab could be detected. In contrast, Cry1Ab was clearly detected in both larvae of the leaf chewing herbivore Spodoptera littoralis (Boisduval) and their faeces, showing that Cry1Ab is detectable after ingestion and excretion by herbivores. These results suggest that R. padi ingests or contains no or only very low concentrations of Cry1Ab in the range of the detection limit. In consequence it is hypothesized that R. padi as an important prey for beneficial insects in corn is unlikely to cause any harm to its antagonists due to mediating Bt toxin.', 'en_US'),
(320, 'Transgenetic Bt potato and conventional insecticides for Colorado potato beetle management: comparative efficacy and non-target impacts', NULL, 'en_US'),
(321, 'Potential side effects of insect-resistant transgenic plants on arthropod natural enemies', 'Engineering genes encoding insecticidal proteins into crop plants offers numerous benefits to agriculture. However, like many conventional insecticides, this new technology has the potential to disrupt natural biological control through both direct and indirect side effects of the plants on the fitness or behaviour of arthropod predators and parasitoids. Interactions between transgenic plants and these beneficial insects are being assessed to avoid incompatibility.', 'en_US'),
(322, 'The impact of insect resistant GM crops on population of natural enemies', 'The effect of genetically modified (GM) plants on arthropod natural enemies of pest insects is discussed. The paper primarily concentrates on the potential impact of the insect resistant crops currently grown commercially in several countries, which express delta -endotoxin genes derived from Bacillus thuringiensis. The following factors influencing the impact of GM crops on the population dynamics of natural enemies are considered: the level of plant resistance; promoters and transgene expression; specificity of the transgene product; the presence of susceptible plants; and the plants species, geographical location and crop management. It is concluded that a thorough risk-assessment of every GM plant to be released is essential and, in addition, post-approval monitoring of natural enemies should be employed once insect resistant GM plants are grown on a large commercial scale.', 'en_US'),
(323, 'Preliminary report on the ecological impact of Bt corn pollen on the Monarch butterfly in Ontario', NULL, 'en_US'),
(324, 'Effect of Bacillus thuringiensis insecticidal proteins CryIA(b), CryIA(c), CryIIA, CryIIIA on Folsomia candida and Xenylla grisea (Insecta: Collembola)', 'The dietary toxicity of four Bacillus thuringiensis insecticidal proteins (CrylA(b), @IA(c), CryIIA, and CryIDA) was evaluated against two Gollembola species. Folsomia candida (Willern) (Isotomidae) and Xenylla grisea AxeIsora (Hypogastruridae). Test diets were prepared by adding the respective purified B. thuringiensis proteins to aqueous suspensions of Bakers yeast (Sacchamnyces cerevisiae) and lyophilizing the mixtures to obtain final test concentrations of 200 pg B. thuringienis protein per gram of diet. Collembola were tested inside petri dish microcosms containing a moistened 9: 1 plaster of paris: charcoal mix. The numbers of surviving adults and progeny were recorded following 21 days exposure to the test diets. None of tie B. thuringiensis proteins significantly reduced Collembola survival or reproduction compared to the negative yeast control. The insecticide chlorpyrifos was used as a positive control for assay validation. Chlorpyrifos significantly reduced F. candida adult survival and reproduction at diet concentrations > 20 ug g-l; X. grisea was not significantly affected by chlorpyrifos concentrations up to 200 pg g-1. The test results demonstrate that the relatively low concentrations of B. thuringiensis insecticidal proteins present in the tissues of transgenic crop plants do not pose a toxicological risk to soil Collembola.', 'en_US'),
(325, 'An extension entomologist''s 1996 observations of bollgard (Bt) technology', NULL, 'en_US'),
(326, 'Influence of Bt cotton on beneficial arthropod populations', NULL, 'en_US'),
(327, 'Absence of toxicity of Bacillus thuringiensis pollen to black swallowtails under field conditions', NULL, 'en_US'),
(328, 'The role of transgenic Bt cotton in integrated insect pest management', 'The role of transgenic Bt cotton in integrated insect Pest management ''was studied in 1994-1998 period at laboratory, cage and field from the standpoint of blonomics, population ecology, community ecology and Integrated pest management. Bt cotton was highly resistant to cotton bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera) but the degree of its resistance fluctuated both in time and space; and the effects covered the pest''s survival, development, reproduction and behavior. The bollworm was no longer the key pest of Bt cotton, but the red spider mites (Tetranychus cinnabrinus) aphids (Aphis gossipii) and thrips (Thrips tabaci) became the main ones. The dominant predator species had little change but the number of dominant: parasitoids of the bollworm decreased significantly. The diversity index (2.8023) and evenness (0.5805) in spring planted Bt cotton intercropped with wheat>single spring planted Br cotton (2.6133 and 0.5321, respectively)> short-season Bt cotton (1.8181 and 0.4082, respectively), but the dominant concentration index showed contrary result (0.1085, 0.1291 and 0.3360, respectively), thus the insect community of spring Bt cotton Intercropped with wheat was more stable. There vas no need for chemical control of the second generation of the bollworm. The threshold of third generation was 20-25 of 2nd-3rd instar larvae per 100 being 2-3 told of the conventional cotton. The toxin tolerance of the bollworm was apparently increased due to continuous cultivation of Bt cotton. Compared with the conventional cotton, the usage of insecticide in St car-ton was decreased by 60-80Z, and number of predators increased by 24.OZ, bringing about great economical, social and ecological profits.', 'en_US'),
(329, 'Quantification in soil of Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki delta-endotoxin from transgenic plants', NULL, 'en_US'),
(330, 'Microbial utilization of free and clay-bound insecticidal toxins from Bacillus thuringiensis and their retention of insecticidal activity after incubation with microbes', 'The insecticidal toxins produced by Bacillus thuringiensis subspp. kurstaki and tenebrionis were resistant when bound on clays, but not when free, to utilization by pure and mixed cultures of microbes as sources of carbon and carbon plus nitrogen, and their availability as a nitrogen source was reduced. The bound toxins retained insecticidal activity both before and after exposure to microbes or pronase. The insecticidal activity of the toxins persisted for 40 days (the longest time evaluated) in nonsterile soil continuously maintained at the -33-kPa water tension and room temperature, alternately air dried and rewetted to the -33-kPa water tension, or alternately frozen and thawed, although alternate drying and wetting reduced the activity.', 'en_US'),
(331, 'Persistence in soil of transgenic plant produced Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki delta-endotoxin', 'A model system of transgenic cotton that produces Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki delta -endotoxin (Btk toxin) was used to evaluate the persistence of transgenic pesticides in a sandy loam soil from California, USA. Purified Btk toxin or transgenic cotton leaves containing Btk toxin were added to soil in five different microcosm experiments in concentrations ranging from 1 to 1600 ng Btk toxin/g soil. The concentration of the extractable Btk toxin was measured for up to 140 days. An initial rapid decline in extractable toxin concentration in the first 14 days, followed by a slower decline, was observed in four of the five experiments. At the end of the experiments, Btk toxin from transgenic plant tissue was undetectable (<0.1% of starting concentration) in two of the microcosm experiments and at 3, 16, and 35% of the original amounts in the other experiments. In addition, experiments using gamma -irradiated sterilized soil showed that the observed decline in extractable toxin concentration was due largely to biotic degradation rather than to physical adsorption by the soil.', 'en_US'),
(332, 'Transgenic plant pesticides: fate and persistence in soil', 'Transgenic plants which produce pesticidal proteins have the potential to release these products into the soil environment when the plants are incorporated into the soil by natural or mechanical means. This could result in novel exposure of soil organims to these pesticidal proteins. There is a lack of knowledge about the fate and persistence of the transgenic pesticidal products in the soil. A model system of transgenic cotton which produces Bacillusthuringiensisdelta-endotoxin (Bt toxin) was used to address this issue. Methods were developed to quantify Bt toxin in soil and oil/plant litter by extraction of teh Bt toxin from soil with an acqueous buffer and quantification by ELISA. The highest recovery of Bt toxin from soil was obtained with a high salt, high ph buffer. In addition, for certain soil types, addition of a non-ionic detergent in the buffer were necessary to disrupt the ionic and hydrophobic interactions between the soil particles and the protein thereby allowing high recovery of the toxin. The limit of detection of this method is 0.5 ng toxin/ g soil. In laboratory settings, when transgenic cotton producing Bt toxin was incorporated into soil, the half-life of the extractable Bt toxin was two to 10 days, depending upon the experimental conditions. The method was shown to be useful in tracking over tme the persistence of both purified and transgenic Bt toxin in laboratory experiments.', 'en_US'),
(333, 'In plant distribution and environmental fate of insect resistant proteins', 'Cotton (Gossypium hirsulum) plants have been genetically modified to confer high-level resistance to damage by lepidopeteran insects. Those plants express truncated Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) endotoxins, HD-1 or HD-73, and the antibiotic resistance selection marker protein neomycin phosphotransferase II (NPTII). Studies have been initiated to 1) estimate the amount of these proteins that will enter the environment through field planting of insect resistant cotton plants, and 2) measure their rates of degradation in soil. Levels of HD-1, HD-73 and NPTII were measured by ELISA in all major tissues collected from two lines of mature field-grown cotton plants. The Bt proteins were distributed throughout the major mature cotton plant tissues. Most of the NPTII was found only in stem tissue. A novel bioassay was developed to measure HD-1 and HD-73 degradation in soil. This assay measured tobacco budworm (lleliothia virescens) larvae mortality and/or growth inhibition due to ingestion of diet-incorporated soil samples that had been treated with the Bt proteins. These studies establish the environmental load and fate of proteins resulting from large-scale planting of insect resistant cotton.', 'en_US'),
(334, 'Insecticidal toxin in root exudates from Bt corn', 'Bt corn is corn (Zea mays) that has been genetically modified to express insecticidal toxins derived from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis to kill lepidopteran pests feeding on these plants. Here we show that Bt toxin is released into the rhizosphere soil in root exudates from Bt corn.', 'en_US'),
(335, 'Insect bioassay for determining soil degradation of Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki CryIA(b) protein in corn tissue', NULL, 'en_US'),
(336, 'Dot blot enzyme linked immunosorbent assay for monitoring the fate of insecticidal toxins from Bacillus thuringiensis in soil', 'The release of transgenic plants and microorganisms expressing truncated genes from Bacillus thuringiensis that code for active insecticidal toxins rather than for the inactive protoxins could result in the accumulation of these active proteins in soil, especially when bound on clay minerals and other soil particles. To monitor the fate of these toxins in soil, a dot blot enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) that detects free and particle-bound toxins from B. thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki and subsp. tenebrionis was developed. The lower limit of detection of the toxins, either free or adsorbed or bound on the clay minerals montmorillonite (M) or kaolinite (K) or on the clay-particle-size fraction separated from soil (by sedimentation according to Stokes'' Law), was approximately 3 ng. Antibodies (Ab) to the toxins from B. thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki and from B. thuringiensis subsp. thuringiensis were raised in goats and rabbits, respectively, and each Ab was rendered specific by adsorption onto CNBr-activated Sepharose coupled with the other toxin. The preadsorbed Ab were specific for the toxins from both subspecies, both free and bound on M, K, or the clay-particle-size fraction of soil. The toxins that were added to sterile and nonsterile soil amended with M or K or not amended were detected on the clay-particle-size fraction of the soil after various periods of incubation by the dot blot ELISA. No toxins were detected on the silt- and sand-particle-size fractions. Each dot blot, containing various amounts of toxins and/or clays, was applied to a polyvinylidene difluoride membrane in a dot blot vacuum system. The toxins were still detectable on the clay-particle-size fraction of nonsterile soil after 40 days. This agreed with preliminary results of other studies in this laboratory that when these toxins bind on clay minerals, they become resistant to utilization by microorganisms.', 'en_US'),
(337, 'Persistence of the insecticidal toxin from Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki in soil', 'The accumulation and persistence of the insecticidal toxins from Bacillus thuringiensis may result in environmental hazards, such as toxicity to nontarget species and the selection of toxin-resistant target species. Toxins from B. thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki were added to three soils [Kitchawan soil (which contains kaolinite but not montmorillonite) unamended or amended with montmorillonite or kaolinite (as an internal control); Mopala soil, which contains montmorillonite and kaolinite; and San Alejo soil, which does not contain montmorillonite but contains kaolinite], and the persistence of the toxins was determined by insect bioassays using the larvae of the tobacco hornworm (Manduca sexta). Toxicity varied with the type of soil: the Kitchawan soil, either unamended or amended with kaolinite, remained toxic to the larvae for more than 6 months, maintaining a lethal concentration at which 50% of the larvae were killed (LC50) of 61 to 111 ng 100 l-1 of soil suspension throughout 195 d of incubation. The Kitchawan soil amended with montmorillonite and the Mopala and San Alejo soils showed reduced insecticidal activity after only 35 d (LC50 from 104 to 192 ng 100 l-1). The pH of soils in which insecticidal activity was reduced was higher (5.8 to 7.3) than that of soils in which insecticidal activity was retained (4.9 to 5.1). As microbial activity is greater at higher pH values, more of the toxins may have been degraded by microbes in soils with the higher pH values. This hypothesis was confirmed by the greater loss in insecticidal activity during 234 d when the pH of the Kitchawan soil, unamended or amended to 6% (vol vol-1) with kaolinite, was increased from 4.9 to ca. 7.0 by the addition of CaCO3.', 'en_US'),
(338, 'Binding of the protoxin and toxin proteins of Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki on clay minerals', 'The equilibrium adsorption and binding of the delta-endotoxin proteins (the protoxins and toxins) from Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki were 3-5 times as great on montmorillonite as on kaolinite. Maximum adsorption occurred within 30 min (the shortest interval measured), and adsorption was not significantly affected by temperatures between 7 and 50 deg C. The proteins were more easily desorbed from kaolinite than from montmorillonite; they could not be desorbed from montmorillonite with water or 0.2% sodium carbonate, but they could be removed with Tris- SDS (sodium dodecyl sulfate) buffer. Adsorption was higher at low pH and decreased as the pH increased. Adsorption on kaolinite was also dependent on the ionic nature of the buffers. The molecular mass of the proteins was unaltered after adsorption on montmorillonite; no significant modifications occurred in their structure as the result of binding on the clay, and there was no significant expansion of the clay. The bound proteins appeared to retain their insecticidal activity against 3rd-instar larvae of the noctuid Trichoplusia ni.', 'en_US'),
(339, 'Insect research and control: susceptibility of fall armyworm collected from different plant hosts to selected insecticides and transgenic Bt cotton', 'The fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith), is a destructive pest of many agricultural crops throughout the southern USA. Populations of the fall armyworm that feed on different plant species can be classified as genetically differentiated host-associated strains: a corn (Zea mays L.)-associated strain that feeds primarily on corn and a rice (Oryza sativa L.)- associated strain that feeds primarily on forage grasses and rice. Although details are limited, differences in susceptibility to insecticides have been reported between the two fall armyworm host-associated strains. Our objective was to determine the relative susceptibilities of fall armyworms collected from different hosts to common cotton insecticides and transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner (Bt) cotton.Technical grade insecticides including cypermethrin {(I)-cyano-3-phenoxybenzyl (I)-cis, trans-3-(2,2-dichlorovinyl)-2,2-dimethylcyclopropanecarboxylate},methyl parathion {O,O-dimethyl O-(4-nitrophenyl) phosphorothioate}, and methomyl {S-methyl N-[(methylcarbamoyl)oxy] thioacetimidate} were applied topically to third instars collected from field corn and various forage grasses. Fall armyworms collected from forage grasses were significantly more susceptible to all insecticides tested than any of the collections from field corn. In a separate experiment, neonate larvae originally collected from Bermuda grass and field corn were fed on conventional and transgenic Bt cotton. Fall armyworms collected from Bermuda grass were significantly more susceptible to Bt cotton than larvae collected from field corn. Our data show that differences in larval susceptibility to commonly used cotton insecticides and transgenic Bt cotton appear to be related to the host-associated strains of the fall armyworm. Therefore, future management of this pest on cotton may need to address the susceptibility of fall armyworm host-associated strains before insecticide recommendations on cotton are considered.', 'en_US'),
(340, 'Heritability of tolerance to the Cry1Ab toxin of Bacillus thuringiensis in Chilo suppressalis (Lepidoptera: Crambidae).', 'Heritability of Chilo suppressalis (Walker) tolerance to the Cry1Ab toxin of Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner was estimated using a half-sibling design. Artificial diet with and without Cry1Ab was infested with progenies of 20 males, each mated with 2 females, and mortality was scored 5 d after infestation. The progeny of each female was reared and scored separately. Mean mortality of the 20 families on the Cry1Ab diet was 46.5%. The effects of both male parent and of female parent within male parent were significant. Heritability was estimated to be 0.52, suggesting that a high proportion of phenotypic variation was because of genetic differences. Mortality on the Cry1Ab diet was not correlated with mortality on control diet, indicating that differences among families in tolerance to Cry1Ab were not attributable to differences in general fitness. Our results indicate that ''high dose'' Bt rice plants may be particularly important for Cry1Ab resistance management in C. suppressalis populations.', 'en_US'),
(341, 'Managing the evolution of insect resistance to transgenic plants', 'The evolution of resistance in pests such as the European corn borer will imperil transgenic maize varieties that express insecticidal crystal proteins of Bacillus thuringiensls. Patchworks of treated and untreated fields can delay the evolution of pesticide resistance, but the untreated refuge fields are likely to sustain heavy damage. A strategy that exploits corn borer preferences and movement can eliminate this problem. Computer simulation indicates that this approach can delay the evolution of resistance and reduce insect damage in the untreated fields of a patchwork planting regime.', 'en_US'),
(342, 'Using an F2 screen to search for resistance alleles to Bacillus thuringiensis toxin in European corn borer (Lepidoptera: Crambidae)', NULL, 'en_US'),
(343, 'Frequency of resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis toxin Cry1Ab in an Iowa population of European corn borer (Lepidoptera: Crambidae)', 'The refuge plus high-dose strategy for resistance management assumes that the frequency of resistance alleles is low. We used an F 2 screen to estimate the frequency of resistance to transgenic corn that produces Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner Cry1Ab toxin (Bt corn) in an Iowa population of European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (Hübner). We also proposed a modification to the statistical analysis of the F 2 screen that extends its application for nonuniform prior distributions and for repeated sampling of a single population. Based on a sample of 188 isofemale lines derived from females caught at light traps during the 2nd flight of 1997, we show with 95% confidence that the frequency of resistance to Bt corn was <3.9 × 10-3 in this Iowa population. These results provide weak evidence that the refuge plus high-dose strategy may be effective for managing resistance in O. nubilalis to Bt corn. Partial resistance to Cry1Ab toxin was found commonly. The 95% CI for the frequency of partial resistance were [8.2 × 10-4, 9.4 × 10-3] for the Iowa population. Variable costs of the method were $14.90 per isofemale line, which was a reduction of 25% compared with our initial estimate.', 'en_US'),
(344, 'Lack of cross-resistance to other Bacillus thuringiensis crystal proteins in a population of Plutella xylostella highly resistant to CryIA(b)', 'Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) produces crystal proteins with insecticidal properties (ICPs) specific for certain insect pests, yet it has little or no toxicity to humans, most beneficial insects and other non-target organisms (Hofte and Whiteley, 1989; Lereclus et al. 1989, Adang, 1991). It has been shown that the basis of the specificity of Bt ICP resides mainly in one of the steps in its mode of action - its binding to specific sites in the bursh border membrane of the midgut epithelial cells.', 'en_US'),
(345, 'Gene flow in the European corn borer Ostrinia nubilalis: implications for the sustainability of transgenic insecticidal maize', NULL, 'en_US'),
(346, 'Transgenic broccoli with high levels of Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1C protein control diamondback moth larvae resistant to Cry1A or Cry1C', 'A synthetic Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) cry1C gene was introduced into broccoli (Brassica oleracea ssp. italica) by Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. Twenty-one Cry1C transgenic plants were regenerated from 400 hypocotyl and petiole explants. Variable amounts of stable steady- state cry1C mRNA accumulated in different transgenic plants. Cry1C protein (up to 0.4% of total soluble protein) was produced in correlation with the cry1C mRNA levels. Leaf section and whole-plant bioassays were done using diamondback moth (DBM) larvae from lines susceptible to Bt or resistant to Cry1A or Cry1C proteins (Cry1AR or Cry1CR, respectively). Plants with high levels of Cry1C protein caused rapid and complete mortality of all three types of DBM larvae with no defoliation. Plants with lower levels of Cry1C protein showed an increasing differential between control of susceptible of Cry1AR DBM. This study demonstrated that high production of Cry1C protein can protect transgenic broccoli not only from susceptible or Cry1AR DBM larvae but also from DBM selected for moderate levels of resistance of Cry1C. The Cry1C- transgenic broccoli were also resistant to two other lepidopteran pests of crucifers (cabbage looper and imported cabbage worm). These plants will be useful in studies of resistance management strategies involving multiple transgenes.', 'en_US'),
(347, 'Evaluating resistance management strategies for multiple toxins in the presence of external refuges', NULL, 'en_US'),
(348, 'Seed mixtures as a resistance management strategy for European corn borer (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) infesting transgenic corn expressing Cry1Ab protein', 'Dispersal of neonate European corn borers, Ostrinia nubilalis (Hübner), in seed mixtures of transgenic corn expressing Cry1Ab protein (Bt+) and nontransgenic corn (Bt-) was evaluated in a 2-yr field study. The main objective was to determine if larval dispersal limits the effectiveness of seed mixtures as a resistance management strategy. Mixtures evaluated included (1) all Bt+ plants, (2) every fifth plant Bt- with remaining plants Bt+, (3) every fifth plant Bt+ with remaining plants Bt-, and (4) all Bt- plants. The transformation events MON 802 (B73 BC1F2 × Mo17) and MON 810 (B73 BC1F1 × Mo17), which express the Cry1Ab endotoxin isolated from Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki, were used as the sources of Bt+ seed in 1994 and 1995, respectively (YieldGard, Monsanto, St. Louis, MO). At corn growth stage V6-V8, subplots within each mixture (15?20 plants each) were infested so that every fifth plant in mixtures 1 and 4, every Bt- plant in mixture 2, and every Bt+ plant in mixture 3 received two egg masses. Larval sampling over a 21-d period indicated increased neonate dispersal off of Bt+ plants, reduced survival of larvae that dispersed from Bt+ plants to Bt- plants, and a low incidence of late-instar movement from Bt- plants to Bt+ plants. Computer simulations based on mortality and dispersal estimates from this study indicate that seed mixtures will delay the evolution of resistant European corn borer populations compared with uniform planting of transgenic corn. However, resistant European corn borer populations likely will develop faster in seed mixes compared with separate plantings of Bt and non-Bt corn.', 'en_US'),
(349, 'Binding of insecticidal crystal proteins of Bacillus thuringiensis to the midgut brush border of the cabbage looper, Trichoplusia ni (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), and selection for resistance to one of the crystal proteins', 'The susceptibility of Trichoplusia ni larvae to several Bacillus thuringiensis insecticidal crystal proteins (ICPs) was tested. Neonatal larvae proved to be susceptible to solubilized trypsin-treated CryIA(a), CryIA(b), and CryIA(c) (50% lethal concentrations [LC(inf50)s], 570, 480, and 320 ng/cm(sup2), respectively) but showed little susceptibility to CryIB and CryID (LC(inf50)s, 5,640 and 2,530 ng/cm(sup2), respectively). The toxicity of ICPs was correlated to binding to the epithelial brush border of the midgut, as revealed by immunocytochemical staining with monoclonal antibodies. In vitro binding experiments with iodinated ICPs and brush border membrane vesicles indicated that CryIA(b) and CryIA(c) share the same high-affinity binding site, whereas CryIA(a) binds to a different one. The affinities of CryIA(b) and CryIA(c) for the binding site were similar (K(infd) = 3.6 and 4.7 nM, respectively), and the mean binding-site concentration was 0.71 pmol/mg of vesicle protein. Selection of a population with increasing concentrations of CryIA(b) produced 31-fold resistance in seven generations. The realized heritability (h(sup2)) was 0.19. The increase of homozygosity (for resistance factors) as selection proceeded was reflected in the increase in the slopes of the dose-mortality curves. Resistance was specific for CryIA(b) and did not extend to CryIA(a) or even to CryIA(c). This result was not predicted by the binding-site model, in which CryIA(b) and CryIA(c) bind to the same high-affinity binding site. This result may suggest a more complicated relationship between in vitro binding of ICPs to specific sites in the epithelial membrane of the midgut and the in vivo toxic effect.', 'en_US'),
(350, 'Resistance to the Bacillus thuringiensis bioinsecticide in a field population of Plutella xylostella is due to a change in a midgut membrane receptor', 'The biochemical mechanism for resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis crystal proteins was studied in a field population of diamondback moths (Plutella xylostella) with a reduced susceptibility to the bioinsecticidal spray. The toxicity and binding characteristics of three crystal proteins [CryIA(b), CryIB, and CryIC] were compared between the field population and a laboratory strain. The field population proved resistant (>200=fold compared with the laboratory strain) to CryIA(b), one of the crystal proteins in the insecticidal formulation. Binding studies showed that the two strains differ in a membrane receptor that recognizes CryIA(b). This crystal protein did not bind to the brush-border membrane of the midgut epithelial cells of the field population, either because of strongly reduced binding affinity or because of the complete absence of the receptor molecule. Both strains proved fully susceptible to the CryIB and CryIC crystal proteins, which were not present in the B. thuringiensis formulation used in the field. Characteristics of CryIB and CryIC binding to brush-border membranes of midgut epithelial cells were virtually identical in the laboratory and the field population.', 'en_US'),
(351, 'Initial frequency of alleles for resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis toxins in field populations of Heliothis virescens', 'The risk of rapid pest adaptation to an insecticide is highly dependent on the initial frequency of resistance alleles in field populations. Because we have lacked empirical estimates of these frequencies, population-genetic models of resistance evolution have relied on a wide range of theoretical estimates. The recent commercialization of genetically engineered cotton that constitutively produces an insecticidal protein derived from the biocontrol agent, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) has raised concern that we lack data needed to quantify the risk of insect pests such as Heliothis virescens rapidly adapting to this ecologically valuable class of toxins. By individually mating over 2,000 male H. virescens moths collected in four states to females of a Bt toxin-resistant laboratory strain, and screening F1 and F2 offspring for tolerance of the toxic protein, we were able to directly estimate the field frequency of alleles for resistance as 1.5 3 10 23 . This high initial frequency underscores the need for caution in deploying transgenic cotton to control insect pests. Our single-pair mating technique greatly increases the efficiency of detecting recessive resistance alleles. Because alleles that decrease target site sensitivity to Bt toxins and other insecticides are often recessive, this technique could be useful in estimating resistance allele frequencies in other insects exposed to transgenic insecticidal crops or conventional insecticides.', 'en_US'),
(352, 'Evolutionary biology and genetically engineered crops', NULL, 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(353, 'Sustainability of transgenic insecticidal cultivars: integrating pest genetics and ecology', 'This review examines potential impacts of transgenic cultivars on insect population dynamics and evolution. Experience with classically bred, insecticidal cultivars has demonstrated that a solid understanding of both the target insect''s ecology and the cultivar''s performance under varied field conditions will be essential for predicting area-wide effects of transgenic cultivars on pest and natural enemy dynamics. This experience has also demonstrated the evolutionary capacity of pests for adaptive response to insecticidal traits in crops. Biochemical and genetic studies of insect adaptation to the Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxins expressed by currently marketed transgenic cultivars indicate a high risk for rapid adaptation if these cultivars are misused. Theoretical and practical issues involved in implementing strategies to delay pest adaptation to insecticidal cultivars are reviewed. Emphasis is placed on examining the ''high dose''/refuge strategy that has become the goal of industry and regulatory authorities.', 'en_US'),
(354, 'Feeding behavior of bollworm and tobacco budworm (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) larvae in mixed stands of nontransgenic and transgenic cotton expressing and insecticidal protein', 'Feeding behavior of third-instar bollworm, Helicoverpa zea (Boddie), and tobacco budworm, Heliothis virescens (F.), was observed in pure and mixed stands of nontransgenic and transgenic cotton (BTK), Gossypium hirsutum L., expressing an insecticidal protein CryIA(c) from a bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner subsp. kurstaki. Five plant stands composed of BTK and non-BTK plants were evaluated; two pure stands and three mixed stands. Percentage ratios of BTK to non-BTK plants in the stands were 100:0, 75:25, 50:50, 25:75 and 0:100, respectively. In all stands with BTK plants, fewer bollworm and tobacco budworm larvae were found on BTK plants than non-BTK plants 24 h after infestation with third instars. At 48 h, significantly fewer tobacco budworm larvae, but not fewer bollworm larvae, were found on BTK plants. However, the number of larvae of either insect did not increase on non-BTK plants compared with the initial infestation density of three larvae per plant. The number of obacco budworm injured flower buds, and capsules was lower in all plant stands containing BTK plants compared with the pure stand of non-BTK at 48 h after infestation. Higher numbers of larvae on non-BTK plants were possibly the result of larval intoxication, reduced feeding, and increased plant abandonment and death on BTK plants rather than a classical feeding preference. Unexpectedly, the number of flower buds and capsules injured by bollworm and tobacco budworm when averaged per plant for all plants in a stand, differed little among the 75:25, 50:50 and 25:75 plant mixtures. These data suggest that larvae of both species frequently moved among plants, feeding indiscriminately on BTK and non-BTK plants.', 'en_US'),
(355, 'Colorado potato beetle resistance management strategies for transgenic potatoes', 'NewLeaf potatoes could provide substantial ecological and economic benefits to potato growers. A concern with NewLeaf potatoes, however, is that Colorado potato beetle may develop resistance to the Bt endotoxin because of the intense selection pressure imposed by its constant presence in the transgenic crop. Before these cultivars were released, however, entomologists throughout North America conducted biological research needed for a strategy to prevent or delay resistance in Colorado potato beetle. This paper describes the considerations and research behind the proposed strategy. Because NewLeaf potatoes express a relatively constant and high concentration of Bt endotoxin throughout the foliage of each plant, reducing selection for resistance must come from planting standard potatoes as a refuge for susceptible beetles. Avoiding resistance through random mixtures of NewLeaf and standard potatoes was evaluated in laboratory and field studies. The conclusion from this research was that the seed mixture would not provide an effective refuge. The most effective alternative refuge was judged to be a block of standard potatoes planted in the same field as the NewLeaf potatoes. By allowing susceptible beetles to survive in their fields, potato growers might sustain the benefits of very effective controls.', 'en_US'),
(356, 'Experimental evidence that refuges delay insect adaptation to Bacillus thuringiensis', NULL, 'en_US'),
(357, 'Binding of Bacillus thuringiensis proteins to a laboratory-selected line of Heliothis virescens', 'A laboratory-selected colony of Heliothis virescens displaying a 20- to 70-fold level of resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis proteins was evaluated to identify mechanism(s) of resistance. Brush-border membrane vesicles were isolated from larval midgut epithelium from the susceptible and resistant strains of H. virescens. Two B. thuringiensis proteins, CryIA(b) and CryIA(c), were iodinated and shown to specifically bind to brush-border membrane vesicles of both insect strains. Multiple changes in the receptor-binding parameters were seen in the resistant strain as compared with the susceptible strain. A 2- to 4-fold reduction in binding affinity was accompanied by a 4- to 6-fold increase in binding-site concentration for both proteins. Although these two B. thuringiensis proteins competed for the same high-affinity binding site, competition experiments revealed different receptor specificity toward these proteins in the resistant H. virescens line. The H. virescens strains were not sensitive to a coleopteran-active protein, CryIIIA, nor did these proteins compete with the CryIA proteins for binding. Complexity of the mechanism of resistance is consistent with the complex mode of action of B. thuringiensis proteins.', 'en_US'),
(358, 'Preventing insect adaptation to insect-resistant crops: are seed mixtures or refugia the best strategy?', NULL, 'en_US'),
(359, 'Monitoring for tolerance to Cry IA(C) in populations of Heliothis virescens from Mexico', NULL, 'en_US'),
(360, 'Managing insect resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis toxins', NULL, 'en_US'),
(361, 'Resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis in colonies of Indianmeal moth and almond moth (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)', NULL, 'en_US'),
(362, 'Now or never: serious new plans to save a natural pest control', NULL, 'en_US'),
(363, 'Monitoring of the pink boll worm susceptibility to the Bt endotoxin (Cry1ac) in Mexico', NULL, 'en_US'),
(364, 'Bt-corn and European corn borer: long-term success through resistance management', NULL, 'en_US'),
(365, 'Status of pink bollworm susceptibility to Bt in Arizona', NULL, 'en_US'),
(366, 'Managing pests and their resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis: can transgenic crops be better than sprays?', 'Insecticidal toxins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) can now be deployed either in sprays or transgenic plants. Some entomologists and environmentalists have argued that the sprays are preferable to plants because they are less likely to cause resistance. However, Bt sprays are not generally competitive with chemical insecticides and seem unlike1.v to displace them. In contrast, transgenic plants appear to be sufficiently effective to displace chemicals, making such plants attractive from the standpoint of environmental protection. Further, simulation models using data from the diamondback moth and a laboratory experiment using the Indianmeal moth suggest that under at least some circumstances. transgenic plants bearing only one Bt gene may be more effective than sprays for delaying resistance to Bt Resistance in a laboratory-selected strain of the Colorado potato beetle is especially interesting because a strain that can survive Bt sprays and develop to maturity cannot develop successfully on transgenic plants, not even on some showing very low expression. This suggests that more mechanisms are available for resistance to sprays than to transgenic plants, perhaps making resistance to sprays more ''evolutionarily available''. When the use of two toxin genes is considered, simulation models suggest that transgenic plants may be much more durable than sprays of similar efficacy.', 'en_US'),
(367, 'Can we slow adaptation by pests to insect resistant crops?', NULL, 'en_US'),
(368, 'Bt-transgenic crops: just another pretty insecticide or a chance for a new start in resistance management?', 'Transgenic insect-resistant crops carrying genes from Bacillus thuringiensis were grown commercially for the first time in 1996 amid considerable public controversy about resistance management. Several resistance management strategies have been proposed for Bt-transgenic crops. The most promising with currently available technology is the use of refuges of non-transgenic crops, augmented where possible with high toxin expression in the plant and avoiding mosaics of different toxins and pesticides. One problem is that the refuge sizes that are seen as commercially and practically acceptable are generally too small to provide a comfortable margin for the delay of resistance. A promising long-term strategy for delaying resistance, and one which is more forgiving on refuge size, is the pyramiding of two or more insecticidal genes in the same plant. The critical limiting factor to resistance management for transgenic crops will be implementation, which will require cooperation among companies.', 'en_US'),
(369, 'Strategies for management of insect resistance to synthetic and microbial insecticides', NULL, 'en_US'),
(370, 'Field tests on managing resistance to Bt-engineered plants', 'Several important crops have been engineered to express toxins of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) for insect control. In 1999, US farmers planted nearly 8 million hectares (nearly 20 million acres) of transgenic Bt crops approved by the EPA. Bt-transgenic plants can greatly reduce the use of broader spectrum insecticides, but insect resistance may hinder this technology. Present resistance management strategies rely on a ''refuge'' composed of non-Bt plants to conserve susceptible alleles. We have used Bt-transgenic broccoli plants and the diamondback moth as a model system to examine resistance management strategies. The higher number of larvae on refuge plants in our field tests indicate that a ''separate refuge'' will be more effective at conserving susceptible larvae than a ''mixed refuge'' and would thereby reduce the number of homozygous resistant (RR) offspring. Our field tests also examined the strategy of spraying the refuge to prevent economic loss to the crop while maintaining susceptible alleles in the population. Results indicate that great care must be taken to ensure that refuges, particularly those sprayed with efficacious insecticides, produce adequate numbers of susceptible alleles. Each insect/Bt crop system may have unique management requirements because of the biology of the insect, but our studies validate the need for a refuge. As we learn more about how to refine our present resistance management strategies, it is important to also develop the next generation of technology and implementation strategies.', 'en_US'),
(371, 'Baseline susceptibility of the corn earworm (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) to the Cry1ab toxin from Bacillus thuringiensis', 'Susceptibility to Cry1Ab toxin from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) was determined for 12 field populations of neonate corn earworm, Helicoverpa zea (Boddie), from the United States. Earworm larvae were exposed to artificial diet treated with increasing Bt concentrations, and mortality and growth inhibition were evaluated after 7 d. The range of variation in Bt susceptibility indicated by growth inhibition was very similar to that indicated by mortality. Although interpopulation variation in susceptibility to both proteins was observed, the magnitude of the differences was small (less than or equal to fivefold). These results suggest that the observed susceptibility differences reflect natural variation in Bt susceptibility among corn earworm populations rather than variation caused by prior exposure to selection pressures. Therefore, corn earworms apparently are susceptible to Bt toxins across most of their geographic range.', 'en_US'),
(372, 'Status of monitoring for tolerance to CryIAc in populations of Helicoverpa zea and Heliothis virescens: three-year summary', NULL, 'en_US'),
(373, 'Inheritance of resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis in diamondback moth (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae)', NULL, 'en_US'),
(374, 'Delaying insect adaptation to transgenic plants: seed mixtures and refugia reconsidered', NULL, 'en_US'),
(375, 'Evolution of resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis', 'Insecticides derived from the common soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) are becoming increasingly important for pest management. Insecticidal crystal proteins (also called S-endotoxins) from Bt are extremely toxic to certain pests, yet cause little or no harm to humans, most beneficial insects, and other nontarget organisms (19, 40). After proteolytic activation in the insect midgut, Bt toxins bind to the brush border membrane of the midgut epithelium and create pores that cause cells to swell and lyse (55). Technical innovations, including expression of Bt toxin genes in transgenic crop plants and transgenic bacteria, should increase the usefulness of Bt (6, 12, 35, 46, 91, 94, 109, 116). At the same time, mounting concerns about environmental hazards and widespread resistance in pest populations are reducing the value of conventional synthetic insecticides.', 'en_US'),
(376, 'An in-field screen for early detection and monitoring of insect resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis in transgenic crops', 'We present a field-based approach to detect and monitor insects with resistance to insecticidal toxins produced by transgenic plants. Our objective is to estimate the phenotypic frequency of resistance in a population by relating the densities of insects on genetically transformed plants to densities on nontransformed plants. We focus on European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (Hübner), in sweet corn, Zea mays L., expressing Cry1Ab from Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki Berliner to illustrate principles underlying the method. The probability of detecting one or more rare, resistant larvae depends on sample size, the density of larvae on nontransformed plants, and an assumed frequency of resistant phenotypes in a given population. Probability of detection increases with increases in sample size, background density, or the frequency of resistant individuals. Following binomial probability theory, if a frequency of 10-4 is expected, 103-104 samples must be collected from a B. thuringiensis (Bt) crop to have at least a 95% probability of locating one or more resistant larvae. In-field screens using transgenic crops have several advantages over traditional laboratory-based methods, including exposure to a large number of feral insects, discrimination of resistant individuals based on Bt dosages expressed in the field, incorporation of natural and Bt-induced mortality factors, simultaneous monitoring for more than one insect species, and ease of use. The approach is amenable to field survey crews working in research, extension, and within the seed corn industry. Estimates of the phenotypic frequency of resistance from the in-field screen can be useful for estimating initial frequency of resistant alleles. Bayesian statistical methods are outlined to estimate phenotype frequencies, allele frequencies, and associated confidence intervals from field data. Results of the approach are discussed relative to existing complementary methods currently available for O. nubilalis and corn earworm, Helicoverpa zea (Boddie).', 'en_US'),
(377, 'Managing target pest adaption: the case of Bt transgenic plant deployment', 'Pest resistance is the evolutionary process whereby pests and pathogens adapt to the strategies, tactics, and tools used to suppress target pest populations. ''Resistance management'' is the science of ameliorating or preventing resistance from developing. Since genetically engineered plants will deliver high& egective means for reducing pest populations, most pest management experts agree that pests will develop resistance to transgenicplants unless appropriate resistance management strategies are undertaken. This chapter seeks to relate various approaches that research managers and directors of research institutes can use to insure the durability of pest resistance of transgenic plants, In the end, implementing eitherpoiygenic traits or the high-dose, large-area susceptible pest refugia is the most likely strategy to yield long-tern use-l&e of transgenic plants once they are released into the field. No transgenic plants should be commercially released into the field unless the project is implemented in the context of integrated pest management.', 'en_US'),
(378, 'Stage-specific mortality of Colorado potato beetle (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) feeding on transgenic potatoes', NULL, 'en_US'),
(379, 'Recombination in plants expressing viral transgenes', 'When a segment of a specific viral genome is expressed in a transgenic plant, the plant is often resistant to that virus. This promising method of deriving virus resistance appears also to provide an opportunity for RNA recombination. Several reports confirm that the viral transgenic transcript is available to a challenging virus for recombination. Using cowpea chlorotic mottle virus as a model, modifications of the transgene significantly reduced the recovery of viable recombinants from transgenic plants. Several recommendations are made for reducing the involvement of the transgene in RNA recombination events.', 'en_US'),
(380, 'Field testing for virus resistance and agronomic performance in transgenic plants', 'Resistance to specific virus diseases may be added as heritable characteristics to susceptible crop cultivarsby transformation of the cultivars with specific virus-derived genes. In practice, however, resistance tothe virus varies among transformed plants and transformation often changes cultivar yield and quality characteristicsthat are agronomically important. Therefore, rigorous selection among hundreds of different transformedplant lines is required to identify lines that are both virus resistant and also conform to or exceedstandard characteristics of the original, susceptible cultivar. This paper describes methods we have developedfor rapid selection of virus resistance, yield, and quality characteristics among transformed populationsof plants.', 'en_US'),
(381, 'Engineering resistance to mixed virus infection in a commercial potato cultivar: resistance to potato virus X and potato virus Y in transgenic Russet Burbank.', 'Potato virus X (PVX) and potato virus Y (PVY) infection in potato may result in the loss of certification of seed potatoes and affect quality and yield of potatoes in commercial production.  We transformed a major commercial cultivar of potato, Russet Burbank, with the coat protein genes of PVX and PVY.  Transgenic plants that expressed both CP genes were resistant to infection by PVX and PVY by mechanical inoculation.  One line was also resistant when PVY was inoculated with viruliferous green peach aphids.  These experiments demonstrate that CP protection is effective against mixed infection by two different viruses and against mechanical and aphid transmission of PVY.', 'en_US'),
(382, 'NewLeaf Plus® Russet Burbank potatoes: replicase-mediated resistance to potato leafroll virus', 'Potato leafroll poleovirus and the Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say)) are major pests of potato in the USA. The US Department of Agriculture estimates that over 50% of annual insecticide use on potato is applied to control the Colorado potato beetle and aphids that transmit potato leafroll virus (PLRV). To address this issue, Russet Burbank potatoes have been genetically modified for a high level of resistance to infection and the resulting disease symptoms caused by PLRV and to feeding damage caused by the Colorado potato beetle. This resistance was achieved by the expression of the unmodified full-length replicase gene of PLRV and the cry3A insect control protein gene from Bacillus thuringiensis var. tenebrionis. Plant expression constructs containing various modifications of the PLRV replicase gene were produced during the development of this product. The genes in these constructs were a full-length unmodified replicase (open reading frame 2a/2b), an antisense orientation of the full-length cDNA, an open reading frame 1 translation of the full-length gene, and a gene truncation containing the 3'' sense coding portion of the replicase gene. Growth chamber experiments demonstrated that transformation of plants with the full-length and 3'' sense coding constructs substantially protected these potato plants from infection and disease symptoms caused by PLRV. The Russet Burbank potato expressing the full-length PLV replicase gene and the cry3A gene is a new potato product from NatureMark called NewLeaf Plus®.', 'en_US'),
(383, 'Heterologous encapsidation of viruses in transgenic pants and in mixed infections', NULL, 'en_US'),
(384, 'Agronomic performance of transgenic plants', NULL, 'en_US'),
(385, 'A search for evidence of virus/transgene interactions in potatoes transformed with the potato leafroll virus replicase and coat protein genes', 'A search was conducted to detect evidence for interactions between potato leafroll virus (PLRV)-derived transgenes expressed in Russet Burbank potato and viruses to which the transgenic plants were exposed and by which they were infected. More than 25000 plants in 442 lines transformed with 16 different coat protein gene (CP) constructs and nearly 40000 plants in 512 lines transformed with seven different replicase gene (Rep) constructs of PLRV were exposed to field infection over a 6-year period. These plants were individually inspected for type and severity of virus symptoms. Heterologous viruses found infecting the plants were identified and examined for alterations in transmission characteristics, serological affinity, host range, and symptoms. Selected isolates of PLRV from field-infected plants were examined for unusual symptoms produced in diagnostic hosts and for alteration in sedimentation properties in density gradient tubes. Viruses that were propagated in selected transgenic lines in a greenhouse were examined for similar alterations. Transmission characteristics and serological properties were not altered when they replicated in potatoes containing CP constructs in the field or greenhouse. Potato plants expressing CP or Rep constructs of PLRV were not infected in the field or in the greenhouse with viruses that do not normally infect potato. New viruses or viruses with altered sedimentation characteristics, symptoms, or host range were not detected in field-exposed or greenhouse-inoculated potato plants expressing CP or Rep gene constructs of PLRV.', 'en_US'),
(386, 'Extreme field resistance in potato leafroll virus in Russet Burbank mediated by the viral replicase gene', 'High levels of field resistance to Potato leafroll virus (PLRV; Genus: Polero6irus; Family: Luteo6iridae) were achieved by expression of the unmodified, full length PLRV replicase gene in potato plants cv. Russet Burbank. A high degree of resistance was also achieved, but less frequently, by expression of a truncated construct of the replicase gene. In limited testing, neither missframe nor antisense constructs of the replicase gene conferred resistance. The degree of resistance expressed among different transformant lines ranged from near immunity to full susceptibility. Resistance to the Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata Say) was combined with resistance to PLRV by expression of the cry 3A insect control protein gene from Bacillus thuringiensis var. tenebrionis in combination with the unmodified, full length, viral replicase gene. Resistance was expressed as a reduced incidence of infection detectable by foliage symptoms or serological tests. Reduced incidence of infection was not associated with a decrease in virus antigen concentration in the few plants of resistant lines that became infected. Virus was not detected in the foliage of symptomless plants but was detected in progeny plants produced from the tubers of inoculated but symptomless test plants of some resistant lines. The resistance was effective under natural exposure and against plant-to-plant spread of PLRV by the aphid vector, Myzus persicae Sulzer. Three of the resistant lines selected in these studies were released and are now in commercial production.', 'en_US'),
(387, 'Evaluation of the potential for recombination in transgenic plants expressing fragments of the cucumber mosaic virus genome', NULL, 'en_US'),
(388, 'Strategies for assessing the safety of foods produced by biotechnology', 'A Joint FAO/WHO Consultation on the Assessment of Hiotechnol- ogy in Food Production and Processing as Related to Food Safety was held in Geneva from 5 to 10 November 1990; the participants are listed in Annex 1. The Consultation was opened by Dr J. .Rochon, Director, Division of Health Protection and Promotion, WHO, on behalf of the Directors-General of FAO and WHO. In welcoming the participants, Dr Rochon drew attention to the long history of the application of biotechnology to food production and processing. This went back more than 8000 years, so that the food industry was one of the oldest users of biotechnological products and processes.Since the nineteenth century, the science of biotechnology had developed more rapidly than ever before and particularly so over the past decade. While there were many applications of biotechnology in areas such as drugs, the new technologies were also potentially capable of revolutionizing the world''s food supply. Enormous improvements were possible in both the quantity and quality of food available. Contemporary techniques of genetic modification made it possible both to speed up the classical processes of plant and animal breeding and to effect interspecies gene transfers not possible by classical methods.', 'en_US'),
(389, 'Safety evaluation of foods derived by modern biotechnology: Concepts and principles', NULL, 'en_US'),
(390, 'Health aspects of marker genes in genetically modified plants', NULL, 'en_US'),
(391, 'Application of the principles of substantial equivalence to the safety evaluation of foods or food components from plants derived by modern biotechnology', NULL, 'en_US'),
(392, 'Biotechnology and food safety', 'The proceedings of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Consultation on Biotechnology and Food Safety held in Rome, Italy on September 30 to October 4 1996 are outlined. The concept of substantial equivalence and safety in relation to allergenicity, gene transfer from genetically modified plants, gene transfer from genetically modified microorganisms, pathogenicity of microorganisms, genetically modified animals, and food organisms expressing pharmaceuticals or industrial chemicals are discussed. The application of rDNA technology in developing countries is considered.', 'en_US'),
(393, 'Food safety evaluation', NULL, 'en_US'),
(394, 'Report of the FAO technical consultation of food allergies.', 'On 13 and 14 November 1995, a FAO Technical Consultation on Food Allergies was convened at an Italian Government Ministry of Health facility in Rome, Italy. The consultation comprised thirteen experts on food allergies and was international in scope as the participants came from nine different countries, both developed and developing.The Consultation was asked to provide their scientific opinion and recommendations in three areas of concern to FAO:1. Provide guidance on the development of science-based criteria to determine which foods or food products should be placed on a list of those foods or food products whose presence should always be declared in the list of ingredients on a food label, because of their allergenic properties.2. Propose an approach to the problem of class naming conventions for those products of allergenic foods, which are themselves also allergenic and which may be used as food ingredients. (Current label names of some products of allergenic foods do not clearly indicate their food origin and in some cases only state theirtechnological function - e.g. an emulsifier).', 'en_US'),
(395, 'Guidance for industry: use of antibiotic resistance marker genes in transgenic plants', 'The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is announcing the availability of a draft guidance entitled ''''Use of Antibiotic Resistance Marker Genes in Transgenic Plants: Guidance for Industry'''' (the draft guidance) and report entitled ''''Report on Consultations Regarding Use of Antibiotic Resistance Marker Genes In Transgenic Plants.''''  The report summarizes FDA''s recent consultations with outside experts on the use of antibiotic resistance marker genes in transgenic plants. The draft guidance is intended to provide information to crop developers that will assist them on the use of antibiotic resistance marker genes in the development of transgenic plants. In accordance with FDA''s good guidance practices (GGP''s) for Level 1 guidance, the agency is making the draft guidance available for public comment. The agency is also making the report available for public comment.', 'en_US'),
(396, 'Report of the OECD workshop on the toxicological and nutritional testing of novel foods', NULL, 'en_US'),
(397, 'EPA and USDA position paper on insect resistance management in Bt crops', NULL, 'en_US'),
(398, 'Safety aspects of genetically modified foods of plant origin', '1. IntroductionA Joint FAO/WHO Expert Consultation on Foods Derived from Biotechnology was held at the Headquarters of the World Health Organization (WHO) in Geneva from 29 May to 2 June 2000. A total of 27 experts, including authors of discussion papers, participated in the Consultation. The complete list of participants is given in Annex 1.Ms Poonam Khetrapal Singh, Executive Director, Cluster of Sustainable Development and Healthy Environments, opened the Consultation on behalf of Directors-General of WHO and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). In her statement, Ms Singh indicated that biotechnology would provide powerful tools for the sustainable development of agriculture and food production. When appropriately integrated with other technologies for the food production, biotechnology can be of significant assistance in meeting the needs of an expanding and increasingly urbanized population in the new millennium. Ms Singh drew attention to the concern expressed by the public at large over the safety and nutritional aspects of foods derived from biotechnology. She stressed the need for the constant review of methodologies for risk assessment and expected the Consultation to provide Member States of FAO and WHO with useful guidance in this respect.The Consultation elected Dr Harry Kuiper as Chairperson and Dr Marília Regini Nutti as Vice-Chairperson. Dr James Maryanski was elected as Rapporteur and Dr Jennifer Thomson as Vice-Rapporteur. The Consultation decided to nominate Co-Rapporteurs for each of the sections of the programme to assist in the drafting of the report of the Consultation. Dr Ronald Walker was nominated Co-Rapporteur for Section A (Approaches to the Nutritional and Food Safety Evaluations), Dr Keith Downey for Section B (Nutrition-Related Issues) and Dr Ian Munro for Section C (Specific Food Safety Issues)1 .', 'en_US'),
(399, 'Report of the task force for the safety of novel foods and feeds', NULL, 'en_US'),
(400, 'Regulation of genetically modified plants in animal feed', 'Adapted from a January 26 presentation made at the Association of American Feed Control Officials Midyear Meeting in Phoenix, Arizona.The Office of Surveillance and Compliance in the Center for Veterinary Medicine (CVM) is responsible for reviewing data on genetically modified plants intended for use in animal feed. The Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, which delineates FDA''s regulatory authority for foods, defines food as articles used for food or drink for man and other animals. The Act, however, does not require pre-market clearance of food and thus, many genetically modified plants do not require formal pre-market review by the FDA as they are food. The first modified plant evaluated by the Agency was the Calgene FlavrSavrTM tomato which has improved ripening qualities. Calgene requested FDA regulation of the inserted marker gene product, aminoglycoside 3''-phosphotransferase II, an enzyme, as a food additive due to the novelty of the technology. This enzyme is encoded for by the kanr or APHII gene. FDA actually regulates the gene product or its intended effect, not the inserted DNA itself. Thus, it is the gene product, aminoglycoside 3''-phosphotransferase, that was approved in 1994 as a food additive for food and feed usages in tomato, oilseed rape, and cotton (21 CFR 173.170 and 573.130). In 1992 the FDA published a Statement of Policy in the Federal Register for Foods derived from New Plant Varieties. This policy applies to both genetically modified plants and those derived through other means. The 1992 policy sets out how the developers of new plant varieties should evaluate the safety and nutritional value of these foods. This science-based evaluation process is determined by the characteristics of the food, not its method of development. One primary focus is to determine if there are any unexpected effects in the new variety due to the genetic modification. These effects could include: 1) changes in toxicant or anti-nutrient levels; 2) changes in nutrient concentrations; and 3) alterations in allergenicity, i.e., the unintended movement of an allergenic protein from one food to another. The policy also addresses how the developers assess the safety of introduced proteins and other novel substances, the safety of any modified carbohydrates, fats, or oils, and also the products coded for by marker genes. The use of antibiotic resistance marker genes is also addressed in an Agency draft guidance document, which published in 1998. Plant developers can continue to use antibiotic resistance marker genes, but the guidance urges them to consider current medical practices and whether usage of the marker gene could compromise antibiotic effectiveness.', 'en_US'),
(401, 'Evaluation of allergenicity of genetically modified foods', NULL, 'en_US'),
(402, 'Trade regulated environmental measures in the field of safety in biotechnology', NULL, 'en_US'),
(403, 'The safety assessment of novel foods: guidelines prepared by ILSI Europe novel food task force.', 'This document contains guidelines prepared by International Life Sciences Institute (ILSI) Europe novel food task force that are intended to assist industry in the preparation of adequate documentation and data when seeking approval for a novel food product. Similarly, these guidelines should provide guidance to government authorities on what may reasonably be required in terms of safety assessment of novel foods. It contains the criteria for the background information on the presentation and use of a novel food or food ingredient, which is necessary to establish the food''s safety and help identify the need, if any, for additional studies to facilitate the assessment of toxicological and nutritional safety. It describes the safety assessment of food by equivalence and similarity targeting (SAFEST) and the application of the SAFEST concept to novel foods. Also the nutritional and toxicological information is described that may be required if novel foods or ingredients are not shown to be substantially equivalent to their traditional counterparts.', 'en_US'),
(404, 'Applications of biotechnology to crops: benefits and risks', NULL, 'en_US'),
(405, 'Biosafety management: key to the environmentally responsible use of biotechnology', 'Agricultural crops improved through genetic engineering raise expectations of enhanced agronomic, nutritional, and marketing qualities, as well as numerous other benefits. These samecrops also raise concerns about their potential long-term effects on human health and the environment. Such concerns have prompted developed and developing countries alike toimplement guidelines for the safe use and handling of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in the environment. Appropriate oversight of GMO releases in the environment is achieved through the establishment of a biosafety system in which guidelines are the most visible part. Equally important in a biosafety system, however, are three other elements ñ the people involved, the biosafety review procedure, and mechanisms for feedback. These four elements function together to produce environmentally responsible decisions. Establishing and maintaining a functional, effective biosafety system presents management challenges at every step. It requires education and coordination across government ministries, universities and research institutes, private-sector interests, individual scientists, and the public. Significant investments may be needed in training and human resource development, information and communications systems, facilities, and follow-on activities. In facing this task, it is worth bearing in mind that the elements in a biosafety system, and the challenges they present, are interrelated and interdependent. Therefore efforts to strengthen any one part will ultimately strengthen the entire system and the biosafety decisions coming from it.', 'en_US'),
(406, 'Fine structural changes in the ileum of mice fed on delta-endotoxin-treated potatoes and transgenic potatoes', NULL, 'en_US'),
(407, 'Safety assessment of new foods: results of an OECD survey of serum banks for allergenicity testing, and use of databases', NULL, 'en_US'),
(408, 'Modern biotechnology and agricultural markets: a discussion of selected issues', NULL, 'en_US'),
(409, 'Assessment of potential protein toxicity', NULL, 'en_US'),
(410, 'Digestibility and allergenicity of gamma-thionin from wheat flour', NULL, 'en_US'),
(411, 'Cytokine fingerprinting and hazard assessment of chemical respiratory allergy', 'Allergic sensitization of the respiratory tract resulting in occupational asthma and other symptoms can be caused by a variety of chemicals and represents an important occupational health problem. Although there is a need to identify and characterize those chemicals that are able to cause respiratory allergy, there are currently no well validated or widely accepted predictive test methods. Some progress has been made with guinea pig assays, but our attention in this laboratory has focused instead on the development of novel approaches based on an understanding of the nature of immune responses induced in mice by chemical allergens. We have shown that whereas contact allergens provoke in mice selective type 1 immune responses, characterized by the secretion by draining lymph node cells (LNC) of high levels of the cytokine interferon  Y(IFN-Y), chemical respiratory allergens stimulate instead preferential type 2 responses associated with comparatively high levels of interleukins 4 and 10 (IL-4 and IL-10). The divergent immune responses provoked by different classes of chemical allergens, and the phenotypes of selective cytokine secretion that characterize such responses, form the basis of a novel method - cytokine fingerprinting - that permits chemicals that have the potential to cause respiratory allergy to be identified and distinguished from those that are associated primarily with contact sensitization. In this article the immunobiological basis for cytokine fingerprinting is considered and the development, evaluation and practical application of the assay are reviewed.', 'en_US'),
(412, 'Sequence databases for assessing the potential allergenicity of proteins used in transgenic foods', NULL, 'en_US'),
(413, 'Allergenic foods', 'This review provides a comprehensive listing of common and less common allergenic foods in a tabular form. Where available, information from double-blind, placebo-controlled food challenge trials are presented for the less common allergenic foods, as these studies represent the most objective diagnostic approach to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between ingestion of a food and an allergic reaction. Also, information relating to results of skin tests, immunoassays and histamine release tests are presented for the less common allergenic foods.', 'en_US'),
(414, 'Allergens in major crops', 'A great number of allergens have been found in foodstuffs. Many allergens in plant foods seem to be classified into a restricted number of groups such as storage proteins, structure proteins and defense-related proteins. This paper will review the present status of characterization of allergens in major crops (soybean, wheat, barley, rice and maize), and indicates attempts to develop hypoallergenic foodstuffs for the benefit of sensitive patients.', 'en_US'),
(415, 'Allergenicity and tolerance to proteins from Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa H.B.K.)', NULL, 'en_US'),
(416, 'Determination of protein allergenicity: studies in rats', 'For the safety evaluation of genetically engineered crops the potential allergenicity of the newly introduced protein(s) has become an important issue. There is, however, no universal and reliable test system for the evaluation of the allergenic potency of food products. The best known allergy assessment proposal is the careful stepwise process using the IFBC/ILSI decision tree. Unfortunately, the described tests are not always conclusive, especially if the gene source coding for the protein has no history of dietary use and/or an unknown history in terms of allergenicity. The further testing warranted should in particular be focused on the prediction of the sensitizing potential of the novel protein, for which animal models are considered to be needed. In this paper the results are summarized of a promising food allergy model developed in Brown Norway (BN) rats. The results demonstrate that BN rats can be sensitized orally to the various allergenic food proteins tested, resulting in significant antigen-specific IgE responses, without the use of adjuvants. Upon oral challenge of previously sensitized animals, local and systemic immune-mediated effects, such as increased gastrointestinal permeability and decreased breathing frequency and blood pressure, could also be observed.', 'en_US'),
(417, 'Biotechnologies and food: assuring the safety of foods produced by genetic modification', NULL, 'en_US'),
(418, 'Limitations of whole food feeding studies in food safety assessment', NULL, 'en_US'),
(419, 'Safety assessment of genetically engineered potatoes with designed soybean glycinin: compositional analyses of the potato tubers and digestibility of the newly expressed protein in transgenic potatoes', 'The compositions of transgenic potatoes with intact and modified genes for soybean glycinin were compared with those of control potatoes; non-transgenic or transgenic ones with a vector. The expression levels of glycinin proteins in the transgenic potato tubers were approximately 12-31 mg g-1-total soluble protein. With reference to six major components, moisture, protein, lipid, fiber, ash and carbohydrate, there were no significant differences between transgenic and control potatoes. The levels of glycoalkaloids in transgenic potato tubers, as well as in transgenic controls, increased in comparison with those in non-transgenic ones, though the level was within the permitted limit. The modified glycinin expressed in the transgenic potato tuber was digested under the simulated gastric conditions. From these results, the transgenic potatoes with intact and modified glycinin genes are considered to be as safety utilization for food as non-transgenic potatoes.', 'en_US'),
(420, 'Safety assessment of transgenic potatoes with soybean glycinin by feeding studies in rats', 'Feeding studies of transgenic potatoes with native and designed soybean glycinins in rats were done for four weeks. The designed glycinin has four additional methioninyl residues in the middle of the glycinin molecule. Rats were divided into four groups fed (I) only a commercial diet, (II) the diet plus non-transgenic potatoes, (III) the diet plus transgenic potatoes with native glycinin, and (IV) the diet plus transgenic potatoes with designed glycinin. Rats were fed 2,000 mg/kg-weight potatoes every day by oral administration. During the period tested, rats in each group (groups II, III, and IV) grew well without marked differences in appearance, food intake, body weight, or in cumulative body weight gain. No significant differences were also found in blood count, blood composition, and in internal organ weights among the rats after feeding potatoes (groups II, III, and IV) for four weeks. Necropsy at the end of experiment indicated neither pathologic symptoms in all rats tested nor histopathological abnormalities in liver and kidney. Judging from these results, the transgenic potatoes with glycinins are confirmed to have nearly the same nutritional and biochemical characteristics as non-transgenic one.', 'en_US'),
(421, 'Alterations in clinically important phytoestrogens in genetically modified herbicide-tolerant soybeans', NULL, 'en_US'),
(422, 'Phosphorus bioavailability and digestibility of normal and genetically low phytate corn for pigs', 'We conducted two studies to determine the bioavailability and apparent digestibility of P in a low-phytate corn hybrid (.28% total P, .10% phytate P) genetically modified to be homozygous for the 1pa1-1 allele and a nearly isogenic corn hybrid (normal) (.25% total P, .20% phytate P). Additionally, we conducted an in vitro assay involving a peptic and pancreatin digestion to estimate P availability. The first study used 50 individually penned pigs (initial body weight 9 kg) and 10 treatments in a randomized complete block design. A cornstarch-soybean meal basal diet (.6% Ca, .2% P) was used. Treatments consisted of the basal diet and the basal diet plus .05, .10, or .15% P from monosodium phosphate (MSP), low-phytate corn, or normal corn. After a 35-d feeding period, pigs were killed to collect the fourth metacarpal for measurements of ash and breaking load. Breaking load was regressed on added P intake, and the bioavailability of P was determined by the slope ratio method. The bioavailabilities of P (relative to MSP) for low-phytate and normal corn were 62 and 9%, respectively. These were similar to the determined in vitro values of 57 and 11% for low-phytate and normal corn, respectively. In the second study, 20 pigs (initial BW 20 kg) were used in a randomized complete block design with a 2 x 2 factorial arrangement of treatments. Two corn lines (low-phytate and normal) and two levels of supplemental P (0 and .2%) from dicalcium phosphate were used. Diets with no added P were formulated to contain .9% lysine, .6% Ca, and .34% P. Apparent nutrient digestibilities were calculated from total collection of urine and feces for 5 d. There were no differences among treatments for energy and nitrogen digestibility. Pigs fed low-phytate corn with no added P had increased digestibility and retention of P and reduced total P excretion (P < .05). We conclude that low-phytate corn contains at least five times as much available P as normal corn. The use oflow-phytate corn greatly reduced the amount of P excreted by the pig and increased the N:P ratio in the manure.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(423, 'Growing-finishing performance and carcass characteristics of pigs fed normal or genetically modified low-phytate corn', 'A genetically modified corn hybrid homozygous for the lpa1 allele, containing low phytate (LP), and its nearly isogenic equivalent hybrid (normal) were compared in two experiments with growing-finishing swine. In Exp. 1, 210 barrows (27 kg) were allotted to one of six dietary treatments with two corn hybrids (LP and normal) and three P feeding regimens. There were five replicate pens (seven pigs/pen) per treatment. Treatments consisted of diets that were supplemented with P throughout the growing-finishing period (.2% P and .15% supplemental P during growing and finishing phases, respectively) or only during the growing phase (.2% supplemental P) or that were not supplemented with P throughout the growing-finishing period. Performance at the end of the growing phase was based on a 2 x 2 factorial arrangement of treatments with two corn hybrids and two levels of added P (0 and .2%). This resulted in 10 replicates for the treatments supplemented with .2% P. The finishing phase (73 to 112 kg) was a 2 x 3 factorial arrangement of treatments with the two types of corn and three regimens of added P during the finishing period. Breaking load (BL) and ash of the fourth metacarpal were evaluated from one pig/pen at the end of the growing phase and from all pigs after slaughter. Pigs fed the LP corn diet without added P had greater body weight gain, feed efficiency, BL, and ash content of the fourth metacarpal than pigs fed the normal corn diet without added P. Performance was similar between pigs fed the LP diet without added P and pigs fed LP and normal corn with added P. In Exp. 2, 1,092 gilts (34 kg body weight) were allotted by weight in a commercial facility to one of three treatments: 1) normal corn/soybean meal diet containing .29% and .22% available P during the growing and finishing phases, respectively; 2) LP corn/soybean meal diet with the same available P level as Treatment 1; and 3) same as Treatment 2 for 8 wk, then no inorganic P supplementation during the finishing phase. All pigs were slaughtered at approximately 122 kg. There were no significant differences in growing-finishing performance or BL among treatments. However, pigs fed diets containing LP corn possessed carcasses with less backfat and a higher percentage of lean (P < .01). These results confirm that the P in LP corn is available to the pig and suggest that pigs fed diets containing this genetically modified corn will have more desirable carcasses.', 'en_US'),
(424, 'Protein and energy evaluation of soy bean meals processed from genetically modified high-protein soybeans', 'A conventional and two genetically modified soybean samples were processed to dehulled soybean meal (SBM) at a pilot plant and were compared with SBM from a commercial processing plant. Crude protein levels (%) of the experimental SBM samples were M700, 52.5; M702, 53.4; and M703, 62.7. The commercial SBM sample (UI) contained 47.5% protein. Amino acid, gross energy, lipid, and fiber analyses were carried out, and true metabolizable energy and true amino acid digestibility were determined with adult cecectomized cockerels. Digestible Lys, Met, Cys, Thr, and Val, and also TMEn, were higher (P < 0.05) and NDF, fat, and phospholipids were lower in M703 than in the other SBM samples. The results of this study indicate that M703 has considerable advantages over conventional SBM as a feed ingredient for broiler chickens.', 'en_US'),
(425, 'Risk assessment of virus-resistant transgenic plants', NULL, 'en_US'),
(426, 'Allergic reactions to foods', 'This paper reviews adverse reactions to foods, which are defined as toxic (due to food contaminants that cause a reaction in any individual if the dose is high enough) and nontoxic reactions (immune-mediated (food allergies) and non-immune mediated (food intolerance)). The clinical manifestations of food allergy are described and examples of food intolerance, adverse reactions to food additives and other reactions that may be influence by dietary factors are given. Methods used to diagnose food allergy and the management of food allergy are also described.', 'en_US'),
(427, 'Acceptability of the use of antibiotic resistance genes as marker genes in transgenic plants', NULL, 'en_US'),
(428, 'Food allergies in children', NULL, 'en_US'),
(429, 'Insect resistance management of Bt corn in Canada', NULL, 'en_US'),
(430, 'Bt rice: practical steps to sustainable use', 'In 1996, maize, cotton, and potato farmers in the USA became the first farmers in the world to grow transgenic insect-resistant cultivars. These cultivars contain genes from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) that encode insecticidal proteins known as delta-endotoxins. Delta-endotoxins have two properties that are essential for toxins used in transgenic crops: they are highly toxic to certain insect pests, and they are generally safe for human consumption (NRC 2000). Bt crops have been a large commercial success. In 1999, 11.7 million ha of Bt crops were grown by farmers in 10 countries, including Australia, Canada, China, South Africa, Spain, and the USA (James 1999). Many laboratories around the world have transformed rice with Bt genes and have evaluated their effectiveness under greenhouse conditions (e.g., Cheng et al 1998, Datta et al 1998, Maqbool et al 1998). No Bt rice varieties have yet been released to farmers, but field testing began at two sites in China in 1998 (Datta 1999, Ye et al 2000). The target pests for control by Bt rice are caterpillars, most importantly the yellow stem borer (YSB, Scirpophaga incertulas), the striped stem borer (SSB, Chilo suppressalis), and leaffolders such as Cnaphalocrocis medinalis. It has not been possible to produce rice with high resistance to these pests through conventional breeding, although short-duration semidwarf varieties are generally less damaged by stem borers than are traditional varieties (Khan et al 1991).Genetic engineering with Bt genes is a powerful technology for protecting crops against some kinds of insects. Bt cultivars, however, have the same weakness as many other insect control technologies: insects can evolve resistance to them, thereby eliminating their effectiveness.1 Insects have evolved resistance to all classes of widely used insecticides, including Bt products that are applied as sprays (Frutos et al 1999). Insects have also adapted to numerous resistant crop varieties produced through conventional breeding. Notable examples in rice include the brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens (Heinrichs 1986), and the Asian rice gall midge, Orseolia oryzae (Bennett et al 2000).The problem of insect adaptation to insecticides and resistant cultivars results in substantial costs to society, as crop failures, environmental damage, and loss of useful products. This has stimulated extensive research on the genetic and biochemical basis of resistance, and the development of ''resistance management'' strategies that can extend the effectiveness of insecticides and cultivars. In this review, we describe some practical steps that can be taken to delay the evolution of pest resistance to Bt rice.', 'en_US'),
(431, 'Containment of herbicide resistance through genetic engineering of the chloroplast genome', 'Glyphosate is a potent herbicide. It works by competitive inhibition of the enzyme 5-enol-pyruvyl shikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS), which catalyzes an essential step in the aromatic amino acid biosynthetic pathway. We report the genetic engineering of herbicide resistance by stable integration of the petunia EPSPS gene into the tobacco chloroplast genome using the tobacco or universal vector. Southern blot analysis confirms stable integration of the EPSPS gene into all of the chloroplast genomes (500010,000 copies per cell) of transgenic plants. Seeds obtained after the first self-cross of transgenic plants germinated and grew normally in the presence of the selectable marker, whereas the control seedlings were bleached. While control plants were extremely sensitive to glyphosate, transgenic plants survived sprays of high concentrations of glyphosate. Chloroplast transformation provides containment of foreign genes because plastid transgenes are not transmitted by pollen. The escape of foreign genes via pollen is a serious environmental concern in nuclear transgenic plants because of the high rates of gene flow from crops to wild weedy relatives.', 'en_US'),
(432, 'Molecular evidence for gene flow among Zea species.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(433, 'FIFRA scientific advisory panel, subpanel on Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) plant-pesticides and resistance management', NULL, 'en_US'),
(434, 'Will transgenic crops generate new viruses and new diseases', NULL, 'en_US'),
(435, 'Pre-market notice concerning bioengineered foods', NULL, 'en_US'),
(436, 'Insect tolerant transgenic tomato plants.', 'The structure of an insect control protein gene from Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki HD-1 was determined, and truncated forms of the gene that express a functional insecticidal protein were generated.  Two of these truncated genes were incorporated into a plant expression vector for Agrobacterium-mediated transformation.  Transgenic tomato plants containing the chimeric genes express the insect control protein gene.  Such expression confers tolerance to lepidopteran larvae on the transgenic tomato plants and their progeny.  These engineered tomato plants represent a significant step to increased selectivity, specificity and efficiency in insect control.', 'en_US'),
(437, 'Bacillus thuringiensis, an environmental biopesticide', NULL, 'en_US'),
(438, 'Gastrointestinal absorption of intact proteins', NULL, 'en_US'),
(439, 'The magnitude of the resistance problem', NULL, 'en_US'),
(440, 'Resistance management strategies for transgenic potato plants', NULL, 'en_US'),
(441, 'An evaluation of insect resistance management in Bt field corn: a science-based framework for risk assessment and risk management', NULL, 'en_US'),
(442, 'Horizontal gene transfer among genomes: the complexity hypothesis', 'Increasingly, studies of genes and genomes are indicating that considerable horizontal transfer has occurred between prokaryotes. Extensive horizontal transfer has occurred for operational genes (those involved in housekeeping), whereas informational genes (those involved in transcription, translation, and related processes) are seldomly horizontally transferred. Through phylogenetic analysis of six complete prokaryotic genomes and the identification of 312 sets of orthologous genes present in all six genomes, we tested two theories describing the temporal flow of horizontal transfer. We show that operational genes have been horizontally transferred continuously since the divergence of the prokaryotes, rather than having been exchanged in one, or a few, massive events that occurred early in the evolution of prokaryotes. In agreement with earlier studies, we found that differences in rates of evolution between operational and informational genes are minimal, suggesting that factors other than rate of evolution are responsible for the observed differences in horizontal transfer. We propose that a major factor in the more frequent horizontal transfer of operational genes is that informational genes are typically members of large, complex systems, whereas operational genes are not, thereby making horizontal transfer of informational gene products less probable (the complexity hypothesis).', 'en_US'),
(443, 'Test systems to determine the ecological risks posed by toxin release from Bacillus thuringiensis genes in crop plants', NULL, 'en_US'),
(444, 'Insect resistance to crops: a case study of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) and its transfer to developing countries', 'Despite significant increases in per capita agricultural production worldwide over the last decades, the challenge of producing sufficient food supply remains daunting given increasing population growth, reduced availability of water, and limits to agricultural land expansion. Biotechnology applications, if properly integrated into production systems, offer new opportunities to increase production and productivity by using a more sustainable and ecologically friendly agricultural system.', 'en_US'),
(445, 'Introduction of recombinant DNA-engineered organisms into the environment: key issues', NULL, 'en_US'),
(446, 'A comparative review of the mammalian toxicity of Bacillus thuringiensis - based pesticides', NULL, 'en_US'),
(447, 'Antibiotic resistance spread in food', 'Nutritive and therapeutic treatment of farm animals with antibiotics, amounting to half of the world''s antibiotic output, has selected for resistant bacteria that may contaminate the food produced. Antibiotic-resistant enterococci and staphylococci from animals are found in food when they survive the production processes, as in raw cured sausages and raw milk cheeses. The broad host ranges of some plasmids and the action of transposons in many bacteria allow antibiotic-resistance genes to be communicated by conjugation between different species and genera,. A multi-antibiotic resistance plasmid from a lactococcus found in cheese provides a historical record of such events.', 'en_US'),
(448, 'Early events in plant virus infections: relationships with genetically engineered protection and host gene resistance', NULL, 'en_US'),
(449, 'Environmental risk assessment of releases of transgenic plants containing virus-derived inserts', NULL, 'en_US'),
(450, 'Genetically engineered foods: safety issues associated with antibiotic resistance genes', NULL, 'en_US'),
(451, 'Immunologic mechanisms in adverse reactions to foods', NULL, 'en_US'),
(452, 'Mechanisms of food allergy', 'Our understanding of food allergy has made tremendous strides recently. With now-relatively uniform definitions of the clinical presentations of food allergy, the scientific literature is more discernible. In this progress, we have come to understand that the prevalence of food allergy is up to 8% in children and 2% in adults. Additionally, these studies have shown the role of specific allergens and mediators in the immunopathogenesis of food allergy. Much of the information available still relates to immunoglobulin E-mediated food reactions, although other immunologic mechanisms are being studied extensively. The diagnosis and treatment of food allergy is now much more standardized. Long-term studies have shown the natural history of many of these reactions.', 'en_US'),
(453, 'Some observations on the safety evaluation of nonviral microbial pesticides', NULL, 'en_US'),
(454, 'Safety of microbial insecticides to vertebrates - humans', NULL, 'en_US'),
(455, 'Toxicological considerations for protein components of biological pesticide products', NULL, 'en_US'),
(456, 'Who''s competent and when: regulation of natural genetic competence in bacteria', 'Natural genetic competence, the ability of cells to bind to and to take up exogenous DNA, is widespread among bacteria and might be an important mechanism for the horizontal transfer of genes. Competent cells express specialized proteins that assemble into a DNA-uptake complex. In many organisms, the development of competence and expression of the uptake machinery is regulated in response to cell-cell signaling and/or nutritional conditions. Exciting new progress has been made in characterizing the signals and pathways that regulate the development of competence.', 'en_US'),
(457, 'Chemistry and detection of food allergens', NULL, 'en_US'),
(458, 'Viral genes and transgenic plants: what are the potential environmental risks?', 'What are the potential environmental risks?', 'en_US'),
(459, 'Standard evaluation procedure for ecological risk assessment', NULL, 'en_US'),
(460, 'Hybridization of maize and teosinte in Mexico and Guatemala and the improvement of maize', NULL, 'en_US'),
(461, 'Community response to transgenic plant release: prediction from British experience of invasive plants and feral crop plants', NULL, 'en_US'),
(462, 'Report of the working group on harmonisation of regulatory oversight in biotechnology', NULL, 'en_US'),
(463, 'International comparison of regulatory frameworks for food products of biotechnology', NULL, 'en_US'),
(464, 'Transgenic plants and world agriculture: joint report of science academies from Brazil, China, India, Mexico, United States, the Third World Academy of Sciences and the UK Royal Society', NULL, 'en_US'),
(465, 'Gene flow in the environment - genetic pollution?', NULL, 'en_US'),
(466, 'Elements of precaution: Recommendations for the regulation of food biotechnology in Canada', NULL, 'en_US'),
(467, 'Transgenic crops: a view from the US extension service', 'This communication discusses the current situation in the USA with regard to the growing of transgenic crops, with particular reference to soybeans, corn, cotton and rice. High costs of production and low prices require and greater production efficiency and transgenic crops help to achieve this goal, particularly with soybeans, cotton and rice.', 'en_US'),
(468, 'Economic evaluation of Bollgard cotton in Arkansas', NULL, 'en_US'),
(469, 'Yield, insecticide use, and profit changes from adoption of Bt cotton in the Southeast', NULL, 'en_US'),
(470, 'Value of Bt and herbicide-resistant cottons', NULL, 'en_US'),
(471, 'Rent creation and distribution from biotechnology innovations: the case of Bt cotton and herbicide-tolerant soybeans in 1997', 'We examine the distribution of welfare from the second-year planting of Bt cotton in the United States in 1997. We also provide preliminary estimates of the planting of herbicide-tolerant soybeans in 1997. For Bt cotton, total increase in world surplus was $190.1 million and US farmer share of total surplus was 42%. The gene developer, Monsanto, received 35% and the rest of the world 6% of the total world surplus. Delta and Pine Land received 9%, whereas US consumers received 7%. For herbicide-tolerant soybeans, total world surplus was $1,061.7 million. US farmers'' surplus was 76%, Monsanto''s was 7%, US consumers received 4%, and seed companies captured 3% of total surplus.', 'en_US'),
(472, 'Surplus distribution from the introduction of a biotechnology innovation', 'We examine the distribution of welfare from the introduction of Bt cotton in the United States in 1996. The welfare framework explicitly recognizes that research protected by intellectual property rights generates monopoly profits, and makes it possible to partition these rents among consumers, farmers, and the innovating input firms. We calculate a total increase in world surplus of $240.3 million for 1996. Of this total, the largest share (59%) went to U.S. farmers. The gene developer, Monsanto, received the next largest share (21%), followed by U.S. consumers (9%), the rest of the world (6%), and the germplasm supplier, Delta and Pine Land Company (5%).', 'en_US'),
(473, 'Genetically engineered crops for pest management in U.S. agriculture: farm-level effects', NULL, 'en_US'),
(474, 'Genetically engineered crops: has adoption reduced pesticide use', NULL, 'en_US'),
(475, 'Farm-level production effects related to the adoption of genetically modified cotton for pest management', 'Herbicide-tolerant and Bt cotton varieties may offer farmers many benefits, including decreased pesticide use,increased yields, and greater planting flexibility. Farmer benefits appear to outweigh costs, translating intorapid adoption of these cotton varieties. USDA survey data was used to estimate the effect of GM cotton oncrop yields, profits, and pesticide applications.', 'en_US'),
(476, 'Performance of Bt cotton in Mississippi', NULL, 'en_US'),
(477, 'Performance of transgenic cotton varieties in Arizona', 'In order to evaluate the performance of transgenic cotton (Gossypium) varieties under Arizona conditions, 4 field tests were conducted at 3 Arizona locations in 1999 using a total of 34 varieties in one or more of the tests. Across locations and varieties, Bollgard (BG) [transgenic for Bacillus thuringiensis insecticidal endotoxins] and stacked (BG/RR) varieties produced about 7 to 8% greater lint yields than the conventional varieties. Roundup Ready (RR) [transgenic for glyphosate resistance] varieties produced similar lint yields to conventional varieties. A few transgenic varieties were lower yielding than the conventional parent in these tests. RR varieties tended to be taller and more vigorous than the conventional parent. Transgenic varieties were sometimes different from the conventional parent in other traits, such as lint percentage, boll weight or maturity, but the variation was not associated with a particular transgene.', 'en_US'),
(478, 'Economics of Bollgard versus non-bollgard cotton in 1998', NULL, 'en_US'),
(479, 'Bt and conventional cotton in the hills and delta of Mississippi: 5 years of comparison', NULL, 'en_US'),
(480, 'Economic analysis of insect management strategies for transgenic Bt cotton production in South Carolina', 'An economic evaluation of Bt cotton technology was undertaken using data from two on-farm experiments in South Carolina. Spraying for tobacco budworm (Heliothis virescens) and cotton bollworm (Helicoverpa zea) were not required in Bt cotton as the thresholds were not exceeded, but methyl parathion was applied at least once to control for stinkbugs. In both sites, cost savings from reduced insecticide application were evident. Actual experimental yield for Bt cotton was higher than non-Bt cotton in the Barnwell county site, while Bt yield was lower than non-Bt yield in the Lee county site. These results made Bt cotton very profitable in Barnwell county but unprofitable in Lee County. Further statistical analysis revealed that there was no significant difference between the yields of Bt and non-Bt cotton in both sites. Economic analysis that assumes constant yield levels showed that Bt cotton was profitable in both sites. Using Bt cotton technology was also found to be more efficient than non-Bt cotton. However, Bt cotton was riskier than non-Bt cotton in both sites. Although it seems advisable to adopt Bt cotton over non-Bt cotton based on the exprimental results for one year, the risk factor plus several implicit factors must also be considered before a definitive decision on the Bt cotton technology is made.', 'en_US'),
(481, 'Field comparison of genetically-modified cottons containing one strain (Bollgard) and two strains (Bollgard II) of Bacillus thuringiensis kurstaki', NULL, 'en_US'),
(482, 'Cotton carrying the recombinant insect poison Bt toxin: no case to doubt the benefits of plant biotechnology', 'During 1996, transgenic cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) expressing the Bt toxin of Bacillus thuringiensis was planted in the USA for the first time. Despite the new inbuilt insect resistance, the transgenic cotton in Texas and Georgia was infested by bollworms (Helicoverpa armigera). This commentary argues that if the cotton had been sprayed with an insecticide, it would have been 100% protected. It is suggested that the advantage of the transgenic cotton over conventional varieties lies in the reduction of the numbers of sprayings necessary for total protection.', 'en_US'),
(483, 'Performance and insect control cost of Bollgard vs conventional varieties in Tennessee', 'The performance of Bollgard and non-Bollgard (conventional) varieties, based on lint yields/acre, were examined in 9 and 8 county variety trials in 1998 and 1999 respectively. These were planted and managed as on-farm, large plots for weed and insect control. Bollgard varieties produced an 85 lb and 17 lb lint yield/acre increase averaged across all locations in 1998 and 1999, respectively. Yield differences for Bollgard vs non-Bollgard at individual field sites ranged from -29 lbs to +339 lbs in 1998 and -77 lbs to +132 lbs in 1999. Average insect control cost per acre for Bollgard was $65 and $62 versus non-Bollgard at $62 and $46 for 1998 and 1999, respectively. Bollgard varieties performed equal to or better than non-Bollgard varieties in the presence of higher bollworm, tobacco budworm, and European corn borer infestations. In the absence of these insects or when insecticide treatments were effective, conventional varieties performed equal to or better than Bollgard varieties. There were numerical lint yield/acre differences among varieties within a location and among locations in both 1998 and 1999.', 'en_US'),
(484, 'Economics of transgenic cotton: some indications based on Georgia producers', 'The producer choice between Bt and non-Bt cotton varieties should be based on the expected economic returns generated when using a variety rather than agronomic results alone. Producer concerns about the economic costs and returns associated with Bt cotton varieties led to a state-wide project in Georgia. The objective was to obtain independent, field-level research results from producer fields of Bt and non-Bt cotton varieties grown in close proximity and under similar production systems. Bt cotton varieties were found to produce an average yield of 104 pounds lint per acre more than the same producer''s non-Bt variety grown in a similar production system. The number of spray applications for insect and plant growth control were reduced an average of 2.5 applications per acre on the Bt variety versus the non-Bt. For a cotton market price of $0.70 per pound of lint, the yield advantage would mean $72.80 of added gross returns per acre. Cost savings from the 2.5 fewer insect control applications would total $27.50 per acre, assuming an $11 cost per acre for materials and spraying. Average gross economic advantage in favor of Bt cotton would thus total about $100 per acre. Subtracting the $32 technical charge, Bt cotton varieties were still found, on average, to have a sizeable economic advantage over the non-Bt varieties selected.', 'en_US'),
(485, 'The distribution of benefits from the introduction of transgenic cotton varieties', 'Some concern has been expressed about the potential for abuse of monopoly power in the marketing of genetically modified (GM) seeds in the United States (U.S.). Are the firms marketing GM seeds extracting all of the benefits generated by their products? We attempt to partition the benefits from the introduction of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) cotton in the United States among United States domestic and rest of the world consumers of cotton lint, the gene-supplying firm, the germplasm-supplier, and U.S. cotton farmers. The benefit calculations were based on comparisons of pest control costs and yields for Bt and conventional cotton varieties. We estimate that an average of more than $200 million per year in benefits were generated by the use of Bt cotton. In each year, U.S. farmers received the largest single share of benefits, ranging from 42% to 59% of total surplus generated. The combined share of Monsanto and the seed firms ranged from 26% to 44%.', 'en_US'),
(486, 'Bollgard cotton-update and economic comparisons including new varieties', 'Three years of on-farm comparison of Bollgard cotton have been conducted in several U.S. cotton production regions. These comparisons involved 5-10 acre plots of Bollgard compared to a grower selected standard. Bollgard varieties examined included NuCotn 33B, NuCotn 35B, and limited locations comparing newer Delta Pine and Paymaster Bollgard varieties.In Mississippi, Bollgard out-yielded non-Bollgard cotton varieties examined by 92, 46, and 84 lbs. lint per acre on average in 1995, 1996, and 1997, respectively. After yields values and net returns were evaluated, Bollgard demonstrated a cost advantage of $82.50, $24.71, and $53.73 greater than in the non-Bollgard cotton in 1995, 1996, and 1997, respectively. Bollgard net return 3 year average for MS was $53.76 greater than for non-Bollgard.Summaries of comparisons averaged over the 3 year period from 1995 through 1997 (1996 through 1997 for East Texas) demonstrate Bollgard yield advantages of 114, 45, and 54 lbs. lint per acre on average for the Southeast, Delta, and East Texas regions, respectively. Higher net returns also occurred in Bollgard cotton resulting in Bollgard advantages ranging from approximately $11 to $54 depending on the region evaluated.', 'en_US'),
(487, 'Cotton insect losses 1979-1996', NULL, 'en_US'),
(488, 'Transgenic plants as protein factories', 'Transgenic plants are showing considerable potential for the economic production of proteins, with a few already being marketed. Recent clinical trials of pharmaceuticals produced from transgenic plants are encouraging, with plant glycans showing reassuringly poor immunogenicity. Our increasing understanding of protein targeting and accumulation should further improve the potential of this new technology.', 'en_US'),
(489, 'Genetically engineered crops: has adoption reduced pesticide use?', 'Development of new crop varieties through genetic engineering offers a broad spectrum of potential benefits, including reduced production costs, enhanced yields, and enhanced nutritional or other characteristics that add to value. Among the first developments on the market were changes in the genetic makeup of common field crops that made them tolerant to commonly used glyphosate herbicides, or that incorporated genes of the natural pesticide Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), so that plants produce a protein toxic to specific insect pests.These varieties appealed to producers because they promised to simplify pest management and reduce pesticide use, while helping to control costs, enhance effectiveness of pesticides (both herbicides and insecticides), and increase flexibility in field operations. Evidence of that appeal lies in the rapid adoption of genetically engineered crops, beginning with very little U.S. acreage in 1996 and reaching 41 percent of major crop acreage in 2000, down from 49 percent in 1999.The potential to reduce pesticide use through genetic engineering, or biotechnology, could also appeal to consumers. A Farm Bureau/Phillip Morris poll of farmers and consumers in August 1999, for example, indicates that 73 percent of consumers were willing to accept genetic engineering as a means of reducing chemical pesticides used in food production. The poll also found that 68 percent considered farm chemicals entering ground and surface water to be a major problem.', 'en_US'),
(490, 'Transgenic plants: an emerging approach to pest control', 'Insect pests are a major cause of damage to the world''s commercially important agricultural crops. Current strategies aimed at reducing crop losses rely primarily on chemical pesticides. Alternatively transgenic crops with intrinsic pest resistance offer a promising alternative and continue to be developed. The first generation of insect-resistant transgenic plants are based on insecticidal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (St). A second generation of insect-resistant plants under development include both Bt and non-Bt proteins with novel modes of action and different spectra of activity against insect pests.', 'en_US'),
(491, 'Transgenic potatoes for small-scale farmers: a case study in Mexico', 'To evaluate the possible benefits of biotechnology for small-scale potato farmers, a field study based on interviewing these farmers in the mountainous areas of Mexico was undertaken during 1996-99. The objective was to inquire into several aspects of potato agriculture: origin of seed; inputs, costs and yields; production and seed commercialization; agricultural prices; farmers'' general agronomic and socioeconomic situation (crop diseases, level of organization with other farmers and possible contacts with public or private institutions); and assessing the possible relevance of new biotechnologically produced varieties. The results of this case study are discussed. In addition, the paper provides information on potato production in Mexico, the CINVESTAV (Centro de Investigacion y Estudios Avanzados, Unidad Irapuato)/Monsanto programme on transgenic potatoes and assumptions from an economic model on transgenic virus resistant potatoes in Mexico.', 'en_US'),
(492, 'Weed management in ultra narrow row cotton (Gossypium hirsutum)', 'New weed management tools and growth regulators make production of ultra narrow row (UNR) cotton possible. Weed control, cotton yield, fiber quality, and net returns were compared in UNR bromoxynil-resistant, glyphosate-resistant, and nontransgenic cotton. Weeds included broadleaf signalgrass, carpetweed, common cocklebur, common lambsquarters, common ragweed, goosegrass, jimsonweed, large crabgrass, Palmer amaranth, pitted morningglory, prickly sida, sicklepod, smooth pigweed, and tall morningglory. Pendimethalin preplant incorporated (PPI) in conventional-tillage or preemergence (PRE) in no-till systems plus fluometuron PRE did not adequately control many of these weeds. Pyrithiobac plus MSMA early postemergence (POST) often was more effective than pyrithiobac alone. Pendimethalin plus fluometuron at planting followed by pyrithiobac plus MSMA early POST controlled sicklepod 82%, goosegrass 89%, Palmer amaranth 92%, and the other species at least 95% late season. Pyrithiobac at mid-POST did not improve control. Bromoxynil plus MSMA early POST was more effective than bromoxynil alone only on sicklepod. Pendimethalin plus fluometuron at planting followed by bromoxynil plus MSMA early POST controlled sicklepod 62%, Palmer amaranth 81%, goosegrass 83%, and all other species at least 95%. Glyphosate early POST did not adequately control many species due to sustained weed emergence. Glyphosate early POST followed by glyphosate late POST (after last effective bloom date) controlled all species except pitted morningglory and tall morningglory at least 93%. Pendimethalin plus fluometuron followed by glyphosate early POST was the most effective glyphosate system overall, and it controlled sicklepod 88%, pitted morningglory 90%, and other species at least 93%. Glyphosate late POST did not increase control in systems with pendimethalin plus fluometuron at planting followed by glyphosate early POST. Yields and net returns were similar with all herbicide/cultivar systems at two of five locations. At other locations, yields and net returns were similar with systems of pendimethalin plus fluometuron at planting followed by pyrithiobac plus MSMA early POST, pendimethalin plus fluometuron followed by bromoxynil plus MSMA early POST, and glyphosate early POST. Greatest yields and net returns were obtained with pendimethalin plus fluometuron at planting followed by glyphosate early POST. Herbicide systems did not affect fiber quality.', 'en_US'),
(493, 'Why the American Soybean Association supports transgenic soybeans', 'This paper discusses the situation in the USA with respect to the use by farmers of soybean varieties produced by transgenic techniques. Unlike his European counterpart, the US farmer has generally welcomed the advantages of lower inputs and enhanced pest and disease control associated with these crops. Further developments with transgenic soybeans and some other crops are discussed briefly. (C) 2000 Society of Chemical Industry.', 'en_US'),
(494, 'Why U.S. farmers are adopting genetically modified crops', NULL, 'en_US'),
(495, 'Case studies in benefits and risk of agricultural biotechnology: Roundup Ready soybeans and Bt field corn', NULL, 'en_US'),
(496, 'Farm-level effects of adoption herbicide-tolerant soybeans in the U.S.A.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(497, 'Agricultural biotechnology: benefits of transgenic soybeans', 'Soybeans and other crops have been improved genetically for many decades throughtraditional crop breeding ? a technique that requires that species be sexually compatible.With the development of biotechnology methods, scientists have the ability to transfersingle genes from one living organism into another, regardless of species or sexualcompatibility. Varieties that are developed through the transfer of genes between speciesthat are not sexually compatible are referred to as ''transgenic.''Transgenic soybean plants have been developed with a gene from a soil bacteria thatallows the use of an herbicide that would normally kill soybeans. Transgenic soybeanvarieties have been adopted rapidly by U.S. growers (Table 1). Transgenic soybeanacreage represents approximately 60 % of the total acreage planted to transgenic cropsgrown in the U.S. (Corn and cotton are the other major crops with transgenic varietyplantings in the U.S.)Farmers are planting transgenic soybeans in the U.S. because of the weed control benefitsthat result from the use of an herbicide that damages conventional varieties. Thisherbicide, glyphosate (trade name ''Roundup'') is a cost effective solution to many of theweed problems that U.S. soybean growers must overcome every year. The herbicidetolerant transgenic soybean is referred to as ''Roundup Ready.'' The purpose of thisreport is to describe and quantify the weed control benefits provided on soybean acreageplanted with the transgenic varieties in 1998.', 'en_US'),
(498, 'Roundup Ready® soybeans and welfare effects in the soybean complex', 'A three-region world model for the soybean complex is developed to evaluate the welfare effects of Roundup Ready (RR) soybean adoption. The structural modeling of the innovation accounts for farmers'' adoption incentives and for the observed pricing of RR soybean seeds as a proprietary technology. The calibrated model is solved for various scenarios to evaluate the production, price, and welfare impacts of RR soybean adoption. The United States gains substantially from the innovation, with the innovator capturing the larger share of the welfare gains. US farmers benefit in the base scenario, but would be adversely affected if the RR innovation were to increase yields. Spillover of the new technology to foreign competitors erodes the competitive position of domestic soybean producers, and export of the technology per se may not improve the welfare position of the innovating country. Consumers in every region gain from the adoption of RR soybeans.', 'en_US'),
(499, 'Economic analysis of alternative herbicide regimes on Roundup Ready soybeans', 'Roundup (glyphosate) is a nonresidual herbicide that controls grasses and dicot weeds but is injurious to soybeans. The development of Roundup-resistant soybeans [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] (Roundup Ready soybeans) by Monsanto could allow farmers to substitute Roundup for a!! other herbicides to reduce production costs and weed control risk. Field trials at the University of Tennessee Milan Experiment Station from 1995 through 1997 were used to compare 1997 returns above variable costs for Roundup and 11 other herbicide systems on conventionally tilled, Roundup Ready soybeans. Although yields of only four herbicide systems on Roundup Ready soybeans were significantly lower than the yield of Roundup on Roundup Ready soybeans, net returns of nine systems were significantly lower. The significantly lower net returns resulted mostly from higher herbicide costs. Chemical companies would have to reduce the costs of most non-Roundup herbicide systems to unreasonably low levels (close to or less than zero) before farmers would have an economic incentive to use them instead of Roundup on Roundup Ready soybeans. Budgeted production costs for Roundup on Roundup Ready soybeans (Roundup Ready seed at S26/50 lb bag) were also compared with budgeted production costs for the non-Roundup herbicide systems on conventional soybean varieties (public-domain seed at $10.50/50 lb bag). Seven of the 11 non-Roundup herbicide systems on conventional varieties had costs that were greater than Roundup on Roundup Ready soybeans, suggesting that lower seed costs for the non-Roundup systems were more than offset by higher herbicide costs. Yields required to cover the cost differences between the non-Roundup herbicide systems and Roundup on Roundup Ready soybeans were calculated. These yield differences were added to the experimental yield obtained with Roundup on Roundup Ready soybeans to arrive at a break-even yield. A decision criterion for profit-maximizing farmers was developed from these break-even yields; if a profit-maximizing farmer expects to receive a yield from his/her highest-yielding conventional variety that is less than the break-even yield, the farmer should consider planting Roundup Ready soybeans to obtain a higher expected profit. If the decision criterion suggests staying with the conventional variety, the farmer should consider the nonbudgeted benefits of Roundup Ready soybeans, such as improved timeliness of planting and reduced weed control risk, before making the decision. To obtain more conclusive evidence about the relative profitability of Roundup Ready soybeans, future research should include side-by-side variety trials, more years of data, and no-tillage production methods.', 'en_US'),
(500, 'The producer benefits of herbicide-resistant canola', 'The commercial sale of herbicide resistant (HR) canola has raised questions about the benefits of this new technology for seed and chemical companies, farmers, consumers, and other players in the supply chain. In this paper, we argue that the pricing and adoption of HR canola in Canada can not be understood if producers are seen as being homogeneous. We develop a conceptual model of producer heterogeneity that represents the distribution of benefits among producers. In this context, some farmers benefit from the new technology leading to adoption, while others do not. Empirical evidence supports this argument. In addition, the new technology co-exists with the traditional technology.', 'en_US'),
(501, 'Delayed control of weeds in glyphosate-tolerant sugar beet and the consequences on aphid infestation and yield.', 'An experiment was set up in 1998 to study the effect of glyphosate on the weed and pests in glyphosatc-tolerant sugar beet, in comparison with a conventional herbicide regime. Glyphosate at l.OSkg ha-'' was first applied at the two- to four-leaf, S- to lo-leaf and 12- to 14-leaf stage of the crop, followed by a second application at the same rate two to four weeks later. Weed growth did not affect sugar beet emergence or establishment, but, in untreated controls and the two later glyphosate treatments, weeds almost completely covered the ground, leading to reduction of root weight, sugar concentration and yield at harvest. The number of aphids (mostly~v#er.ticae Sulzer) in the beet in June was significantly higher on plots treated with glyphosate at the two- to four-leaf etage than on untreated plots or plots treated later with glyphosate. Large numbers of the leaf curling plum aphid (Brachyctwdus hdichrysi Kaltenbacb) colonised the weeds within untreated or later-treated plots. These were accompanied by predators and parasites which eventually caused substantial mortalie in the aphid populations. There was evidence that glyphosate-treated weeds, although not in competition with the crop, were still able to provide sustenance for aphids. Very low levels of virus yellows were observed in the eial, and there were no significant differences bctwew treatments. The results suggest that the latest application of the first glyphosate spray in a two-spray programme should be before theeight-leaf stage of the sugar beet to prevent weed competition reducing yield. Further studies on late control of weeds and insect diversity are being carried out.', 'en_US'),
(502, 'Glyphosate applied to genetically modified herbicide-tolerant sugar beet and ''volunteer'' potatoes reduces populations of potato cyst nematodes and the number and size of daughter tubers', 'Glyphosate, applied early or later or twice to genetically modified glyphosate-tolerant sugar beet, gave excellent control of planted ''volunteer'' potatoes growing within the crop compared to conventional herbicide programmes with or without clopyralid. In three out of four trials, this resulted in significant reductions in the numbers of eggs and cysts of potato cyst nematodes (Globodera rostochiensis and G: pallida) where infestations were moderate (23-89 eggs g(-1) soil). In the fourth trial, which had very high initial populations (130 eggs g(-1) soil), none of the herbicide treatments had any significant effect on numbers of nematode eggs or cysts. This was probably due to competition for feeding sites, and the early death of the potatoes in all treatments caused by feeding damage by the nematodes and infection by blight, which prevented the nematodes from completing their life cycle. Glyphosate also significantly reduced the number and size of daughter tubers produced, thus helping to prevent a further volunteer problem in the next crop in the rotation. This was achieved by one or two applications of one chemical compared to 2-5 applications of cocktails of conventional herbicides.', 'en_US'),
(503, 'GM sugar beet: the present situation.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(504, 'Flora and fauna in Roundup tolerant fodder beet fields', 'Weed flora and arthropod fauna were investigated in fodder beet plots located on six sites in Jutland, Denmark in June 2000. On each site three treatments were represented viz. traditional beets (T), glyphosate tolerant beets (RR) treated with full Roundup Ready dosage RR100), RR beets treated with half the dosage applied in RR100 (RR50). Roundup Ready were applied later than the traditional herbicides and for a period of time the weed density were higher in RR plots until some time after the second Roundup Ready was applied, then the RR plots became very clean. The arthropod fauna responded to the change in the amount of weed present in the RR plots. It is believed that the faunal response is mainly governed by three mechanisms: 1) the herbivorous fauna component experience more host plants and more flowers in weedy plots, 2) a number of non-herbivorous arthropods prefer the more gentle microclimate in weedy plots and the more complex vegetation structure (web building spiders), 3) predators are attracted by the high prey density in weedy plots including birds.', 'en_US'),
(505, 'World food and agriculture: outlook for the medium and longer term', 'The relationship between food supply and food security is described. The role of food trade in alleviating food insecurity is discussed. The slow-down in the growth of world agricultural production in the 1990s is noted. The widely-held view that the persistence of food insecurity and undernutrition is not a problem of production but one of distribution (or access or entitlements) is assessed and agreed with. The prospects for progress in food and agricultural product availability over the next 15-30 years are reviewed against trends in demography, incomes and poverty.', 'en_US'),
(506, 'Ending world hunger: the promise of biotechnology and the threat of antiscience zealotry', 'During the 20th century, conventional breeding produced a vast number of varieties and hybrids that contributed immensely to higher grain yield, stability of harvests, and farm income. Despite the successes of the Green Revolution, the battle to ensure food security for hundreds of millions miserably poor people is far from won. Mushrooming populations, changing demographics, and inadequate poverty intervention programs have eroded many of the gains of the Green Revolution. This is not to say that the Green Revolution is over. Increases in crop management productivity can be made all along the line: in tillage, water use, fertilization, weed and pest control, and harvesting. However, for the genetic improvement of food crops to continue at a pace sufficient to meet the needs of the 8.3 billion people projected to be on this planet at the end of the quarter century, both conventional technology and biotechnology are needed.', 'en_US'),
(507, 'The growth of demand will limit output growth for food over the next quarter century', 'The rate of growth of world food demand will be much slower for 1990-2010 than it was for the prior three decades. The major factor determining the increase in food demand is population growth. Income growth has a much smaller effect. From 1960 to 1990, population growth accounted for approximately three fourths of the growth in demand or use of grain. For 1990-2010, it is anticipated that population growth will account for nearly all of the increase in world demand for grain. The rate of population growth from1990 to 2020 is projected to be at an annual rate of 1.3% compared with 1.9% for 1960 to 1990-a decline of more than 30%. World per capita use of grain will increase very little-perhaps by 4%. The increase in grain use is projected to be 40% less than in 1960-1990. It is anticipated that real grain prices will decline during the period, although not nearly as much as the 40% decline in the previous three decades. Concern has been expressed concerning the dete-rioration of the quality and productivity of the world''s farmland. A study for China and Indonesia indicates that there has been no significant change in the productive capacity of the land over the past 50 years. Contrary to numerous claims, the depth of the topsoil has not changed, indicating that erosion has had little or no impact.', 'en_US'),
(508, 'Genetic enhancement of crops: the major way remaining to ensure global food security', 'The author discusses the dynamics challenging the potential of global food production and distribution (the impacts of changes in global demography and the growth in per capita domestic income, leading to an increase in demand for meat rather than grain-based food) and argues that the only means of realising world food security is to embrace crop genetic enhancement, especially through biotechnology. The need for an international public policy debate on this issue is emphasised.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(509, 'An interspecies hybrid RNA virus is significantly more virulent than either parental virus.', 'Cucumber mosaic cucumovirus (CMV) infects a very wide range of plant species (>1000 species). We recently demonstrated that a previously undescribed gene (2b) encoded by RNA 2 of the tripartite RNA genome of CMV is required for systemic virus spread and disease induction in its hosts. Herein we report that when this CMV gene is replaced by its homologue from tomato aspermy cucumovirus (TAV), the resultant hybrid virus is significantly more virulent, induces earlier onset of systemic symptoms, and accumulates to a higher level in seven host species from three families than either of the parents. Our results indicate that CMV and the TAV 2b protein interact synergistically despite the fact that no synergism occurs in double infections with the two parental viruses. To our knowledge, this is the first example of an interspecific hybrid made from plant or animal RNA viruses that is more efficient in systemic infection of a number of hosts than the naturally occurring parents. As CMV and the hybrid virus accumulated to a similar level in the infected tobacco protoplasts, the observed synergistic responses most likely resulted from an increased efficacy of the hybrid virus in systemic spread in host plants provided by the TAV 2b protein. The relevance of our finding to the application of pathogen-derived resistance is discussed.', 'en_US'),
(510, 'Why safe and effective food biotechnology is in the public interest', NULL, 'en_US'),
(511, 'Biotechnology and food security in the 21st century', NULL, 'en_US'),
(512, 'IFT expert report on biotechnology and foods: Introduction', 'The use of modern biotechnology to produce foods and food ingredients is a subject of significant public interest today, at the consumer, public policy, and scientific levels. The popular press and media have reported a wide range of views on these foods and food ingredients.To promote a meaningful public discussion of these foods and food ingredients, IFT has commissioned three expert panels to review the available scientific literature on three different, but related aspects, of these foods and food ingredients: human food safety, benefits and concerns, and labeling. The panels'' report will also discuss some of the public policy implications of the underlying science.In keeping with the widespread usage in the popular press and media, the report uses the terms ''rDNA biotechnology'' and ''rDNA bio-technology- derived foods'' to describe the application of recombinant DNA, or rDNA, technology to the genetic alteration of plants and micro-organisms, and foods made therefrom. This technology, commonly known as genetic modification or gene splicing, allows for the effective and efficient transfer of genetic material from one organism to another. Instead of cross-breeding plants for many generations or introducing mutations to introduce a desired trait?processes that are imprecise and that sometimes introduce unwanted changes?scientists can identify and insert one or more genes responsible for a particular trait into a plant or microorganism with greater precision and speed, although the current technology produces gene insertions at random locations. These transferred genes, or transgenes, do not have to come from a related species in order to be functional, and can be moved virtually at will among different living organisms.', 'en_US'),
(513, 'Efficacy of a food plant-based oral cholera toxin B subunit vaccine', 'Transgenic potatoes were engineered to synthesize a cholera toxin B subunit (CTB) pentamer with affinity for G,ganglioside. Both serum and intestinal CTBspecific antibodies were induced in orally immunized mice. Mucosal antibody titers declined gradually after the last immunization but were restored following an oral booster of transgenic potato. The cytopathic effect of cholera holotoxin (CT) on Vero celis was neutralized by serum from mice immunized with transgenic potato tissues. Following intraileal injection with CT, the plantimmunized mice showed up to a 60% reduction in diarrhea1 fluid accumulation in the small intestine. Protection against CT was based on inhibition of enterotoxin binding to the cellsur face receptor G,,,,ganglioside. These results demonstrate the abilii of transgenic food plants to generate protective immunity in mice against a bacterial enterotoxin.', 'en_US'),
(514, 'A plant-based cholera toxin B subunit-insulin fusion protein protects against the development of autoimmune diabetes', 'Oral administration of disease-specific autoantigens can prevent or delay the onset of autoimmune disease symptoms. We have generated transgenic potato plants that synthesize human insulin, a major insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus autoantigen, at levels up to 0.05% of total soluble protein. To direct delivery of plant-synthesized insulin to the gut-associated lymphoid tissues, insulin was linked to the C-terminus of the cholera toxin B subunit (CTB). Transgenic potato tubers produced 0.1% of total soluble protein as the pentameric CTB-insulin fusion, which retained GM1-ganglioside binding affinity and native antigenicity of both CTB and insulin. Nonobese diabetic mice fed transformed potato tuber tissues containing microgram amounts of the CTB-insulin fusion protein showed a substantial reduction in pancreatic islet inflammation (insulitis), and a delay in the progression of clinical diabetes. Feeding transgenic potato tissues producing insulin or CTB protein alone did not provide a significant reduction in insulitis or diabetic symptoms. The experimental results indicate that food plants are feasible production and delivery systems for immunotolerization against this T cell-mediated autoimmune disease.', 'en_US'),
(515, 'Oral immunization with a recombinant bacterial antigen produced in transgenic plants', NULL, 'en_US'),
(516, 'Thioredoxin-linked mitigation of allergic responses to wheat', 'Thioredoxin, a ubiquitous 12-kDa regulatory disulfide protein, was found to reduce disulfide bonds of allergens (convert SOS to 2 SH) and thereby mitigate the allergenicity of commercial wheat preparations. Allergenic strength was determined by skin tests with a canine model for food allergy. Statistically significant mitigation was observed with 15 of 16 wheat-sensitive animals. The allergenicity of the protein fractions extracted from wheat f lour with the indicated solvent was also assessed: the gliadins (ethanol) were the strongest allergens, followed by glutenins (acetic acid), albumins (water), and globulins (salt water). Of the gliadins, the a and b fractions were most potent, followed by the g and v types. Thioredoxin mitigated the allergenicity associated with the major protein fractions-i.e, the gliadins (including the a, b, and g types) and the glutenins-but gave less consistent results with the minor fractions, the albumins and globulins. In all cases, mitigation was specific to thioredoxin that had been reduced either enzymically by NADPH and NADP- thioredoxin reductase or chemically by dithiothreitol; reduced glutathione was without significant effect. As in previous studies, thioredoxin was particularly effective in the reduction of intramolecular (intrachain) disulfide bonds. The present results demonstrate that the reduction of these disulfide bonds is accompanied by a statistically significant decrease in allergenicity of the active proteins. This decrease occurs alongside the changes identified previously-i.e., increased susceptibility to proteolysis and heat, and altered biochemical activity. The findings open the door to the testing of the thioredoxin system in the production of hypoallergenic, more-digestible foods.', 'en_US'),
(517, 'Uses of biotechnology in modifying plant lipids', 'This review discusses fatty acid modification of oilseeds with additionai emphasis on production of oxygenated deriva?ives. In a relatively short periud, iess lhan a decade, our understanding of the enzymes involved in plant fatty acid syn thesis has increased to the point where we understand how they might be used in oilseed modification. Further, through modern molecular biological techniques, the actual genes for many of these important enzymes have been cloned. Use of genetic transformation systems has allowed us to fundamentally alter the normal biosynthetic pathways in highly specific ways, in manners that would be either difficult or impossible using traditional breeding techniques. A!teration of plant lipid biosynthesis is not restricted to using genes from the plants themselves, but interspecitis transfer is possible, either from completely unrelated plant species (often of no commercial va!ue but possessing unusual biochemical properties) or from animals, fungi, and prokaryotic organisms. In this way ''designer'' piants possessing altered metabolism, tailored to the interests or needs of certain industries, nutritionists, and the consumer can be created.', 'en_US'),
(518, 'Increased nutritive value of transgenic potato by expressing a non-allergenic seed albumin gene from Amaranthus hypochondriacus', 'Improvement of nutritive value of crop plants, in particular the amino acid composition, has been a major long-term goal of plant breeding programs. Toward this end, we reported earlier the cloning of the seed albumin gene AmA1 from Amaranthus hypochondriacus. The AmA1 protein is nonallergenic in nature and is rich in all essential amino acids, and the composition corresponds well with the World Health Organization standards for optimal human nutrition. In an attempt to improve the nutritional value of potato, the AmA1 coding sequence was successfully introduced and expressed in tuber-specific and constitutive manner. There was a striking increase in the growth and production of tubers in transgenic populations and also of the total protein content with an increase in most essential amino acids. The expressed protein was localized in the cytoplasm as well as in the vacuole of transgenic tubers. Thus we have been able to use a seed albumin gene with a well-balanced amino acid composition as a donor protein to develop a transgenic crop plant. The results document, in addition to successful nutritional improvement of potato tubers, the feasibility of genetically modifying other crop plants with novel seed protein composition.', 'en_US'),
(519, 'Nutritional genomics: manipulating plant micronutrients to improve human health.', 'The nutritional health and well-being of humans are entirely dependent on plant foods either directly or indirectly when plants are consumed by animals. Plant foods provide almost all essential vitamins and minerals and a number of other health-promoting phytochemicals. Because micronutrient concentrations are often low in staple crops, research is under way to understand and manipulate synthesis of micronutrients in order to improve crop nutritional quality. Genome sequencing projects are providing novel approaches for identifying plant biosynthetic genes of nutritional importance. The term ''nutritional genomics'' is used to describe work at the interface of plant biochemistry, genomics, and human nutrition.', 'en_US'),
(520, 'Improved stearate phenotype in transgenic canola expressing a modified acyl-acyl carrier protein thioesterase', 'The engineering of crops for selected fatty acid production is one of the major goals of plant biotechnology. The Garm FatA1, an acyl-acyl carrier protein (ACP) thioesterase isolated from Garcinia mangostana, generates an elevated stearate (18:0) phenotype in transgenic Brassica plants. By site-directed mutagenesis, we generated seven mutants that showed up to a 13-fold increase in specific enzyme activity toward 18:0-ACP in vitro. The seed-specific expression of mutant S111A/V193A in Brassica plants results in transgenic plants that accumulate 55-68% more stearate than plants expressing the wild-type enzyme. Our results demonstrate that a thioesterase can be engineered to increase specific activity and that its improved function demonstrated in vitro is retained in vivo.', 'en_US'),
(521, 'Improved phytonutrient content through plant genetic improvement', 'During the twentieth century, plant breeding and genetics improved the nutritive value of horticultural and agronomic crops, particularly of macro-nutrients and fiber. Current research focuses more on micronutrients. Successful development of phytonutrient-enriched crop plants will be bolstered by interdisciplinary collaborative research, analytical and biotechnology advances, and public education. Although the melding of plant and nutrition research holds great promise, the genetic enhancement of crop plants for improved phytonutrient content will be challenging. This paper reviews the knowledge base on which genetic enhancement may be based, identifies gaps in scientific knowledge and technical capacities, and suggests a role for the federal government in research.', 'en_US'),
(522, 'Efficient animal nutrition to feed tommorrow''s world', NULL, 'en_US'),
(523, 'Potential for increasing the content and bioavailability of Fe, Zn and Ca in plants for human nutrition', 'This paper reviews the possibility and limits for increasing the content and bioavailability of iron (Fe), zinc (Zn) and calcium (Ca) in edible parts of staple crops, such as cereals, pulses, roots and tubers as a way to combat mineral deficiencies in human populations. Theoretically, this could be achieved by increasing the total level of Fe, Zn and Ca in the plant foods, while at the same time increasing the concentration of compounds which promote their uptake (ascorbic acid), and/or by decreasing the concentration of compounds which inhibit their absorption (phytic acid or phenolic compounds). The content of Zn and Ca in grains and fruits can in some cases be increased through soil and/or foliar applications of Zn and Ca fertilisers. Plant breeding and genetic engineering techniques, however, have the greatest potential to increase Fe and Zn content in grains, roots and tubers. The possibility of enhancing Ca and ascorbic acid content in plant foods by plant breeding and genetic engineering remained to be explored. The critical factor is to ensure that the extra minerals have an adequate bioavailability for man. Given the important role of phytic acid and polyphenols in plant physiology, reducing the levels of these compounds in the edible parts of plants does not appear to be wise although introduction of phytases which are active during digestion is an exciting possibility. (C) 2000 Society of Chemical Industry.', 'en_US'),
(524, 'Transgenic plants as factories for biopharmaceuticals', 'Plants have considerable potential for the production of biopharmaceutical proteins and peptides because they are easily transformed and provide a cheap source of protein. Several biotechnology companies are now actively developing, field testing, and patenting plant expression systems, while clinical trials are proceeding on the first biopharmaceuticals derived from them. One transgenic plant-derived biopharmaceutical, hirudin, is now being commercially produced in Canada for the first time. Product purification is potentially an expensive process, and various methods are currently being developed to overcome this problem, including oleosin-fusion technology, which allows extraction with oil bodies. In some cases, delivery of a biopharmaceutical product by direct ingestion of the modified plant potentially removes the need for purification. Such biopharmaceuticals and edible vaccines can be stored and distributed as seeds, tubers, or fruits, making immunization programs in developing countries cheaper and potentially easier to administer. Some of the most expensive biopharmaceuticals of restricted availability, such as glucocerebrosidase, could become much cheaper and more plentiful through production in transgenic plants.', 'en_US'),
(525, 'Iron fortification of rice seed by the soybean ferritin gene', 'To improve the iron content of rice, we have transferred the entire coding sequence of the soybean ferritin gene into Oryza sativa (L. cv. Kita-ake) by Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. The rice seed-storage protein glutelin promoter, GluB-1, was used to drive expression of the soybean gene specifically in developing, self-pollinated seeds (T1 seeds) of transgenic plants, as confirmed by reverse transcription PCR analysis. Stable accumulation of the ferritin subunit in the rice seed was demonstrated by western blot analysis, and its specific accumulation in the endosperm by immunologic tissue printing. The iron content of T1 seeds was as much as threefold greater than that of their untransformed counterparts.', 'en_US'),
(526, 'Fortified foods and phytoremediation. two sides of the same coin', 'The global population is expected to reach 7 billion by the year 2013. How are we going to feed the world, prevent further degradation of our environment, and begin to reverse the damage that our increasingly industrialized society has already caused to the biosphere? We argue that plants with enhanced mineral acquisition and storage strategies can help us to achieve these goals. For example, we can use crop plants with an augmented capacity to accumulate minerals to aid sustainable agriculture and to improve human health through balanced mineral nutrition. We can also use plants to accumulate toxic metals from polluted soils and waters for cleanup purposes. Each of these goals requires understanding how plants accumulate and store minerals. This includes understanding mineral element bioavailability in the rhizosphere and root uptake, as well as translocation to and processing in the above ground parts of the plant.', 'en_US'),
(527, 'Comparison of the effects of plant sterol ester and plant stanol ester-enriched margarines in lowering serum cholesterol concentrations in hypercholesterolaemic subjects on a low-fat diet', 'Objective: To investigate cholesterollowering effects of stauol ester (STAEST) and sterol ester (STEEST) enriched margarines as part of a lowfat diet.Design: According to a Latin square model randomized doubleblind repeated measures design with three test margarines and three periods.Setting: Outpatient clinical trial with freeliving subjects.Subjects: Thirty-four hypercholesterolaemic subjects completed the study.Interventions: Subjects consumed three rapeseed oil-based test margarines (STAEST, STEEST and control (no added stauols or sterols)) as part of a low-fat diet each for 4 weeks.Results: Mean daily intake of total plant sterols plus stauols was 2.012.04g during the two test margarine periods. In reference to control, serum total cholesterol was reduced by 9.2 and 7.3% with the STAEST and STEEST margarine, respectively (Pt0.001 for both). The respective reductions for low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol were 12.7 and 10.4% (Pt0.001). The cholesterollowering effects of the test margarines did not differ significantly. The presence of apolipoprotein E4 allele had a significant effect on LDL cholesterol response during the STAEST margarine only. Serum sitosterol and campesterol increased by 0.83 and 2.77mg/l with the STEEST (P<O.OOl), respectively and decreased by 1.18 and 2.60mg/l with the STAEST margarine (Pt0.001). Increases of serum sitostanol and campestauol were 0.11 and O.l9mg/l with the STAEST margarine (P<O.OOl), respectively. No significant changes were found in serum fatsoluble vitamin and carotenoid concentrations when related to serum total cholesterol.Conclusions: STAEST and STEEST margarines reduced significantly and equally serum total and LDL cholesterol concentrations as part of a lowfat diet.Sponsorship: Grant to the University of Kuopio by Raisio Benecol Ltd, Raisio, Finland.Descriptors: cholesterollowering diet; hypercholesterolaemic; plant sterols; plant stanols; carotenoids; vitamins; apolipoprotein E European Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2000) 54, 7157', 'en_US'),
(528, 'Delivery of immunoprophylactics in transgenic plants - current status', 'The search for economic alternatives for the production of recombinant immunoprophylactics has resulted in the concept of generating them in plants at relatively low cost. Two basic strategies are employed: the expression of recombinant antigens or antibodies in transgenic plants, or the presentation of small antigen epitopes on the surface of genetically modified plant viruses. Both approaches have resulted in the production of biologically active immunoprophylactics that have been shown in animal studies to protect from the development of disease symptoms. An especially interesting feature of producing vaccines in edible plant parts is the potential to use the transgenic plant as a vehicle for oral delivery. Substantial progress has been made over the past few years, and the first clinical trials have demonstrated the potential of this new technology. Future challenges are to express the immunoprophylactics at controlled, high concentrations in plants that could be grown locally where they are needed, and to develop easy and standardised administration procedures.', 'en_US'),
(529, 'Biotechnology - a means for improving our food supply: use of genetic manipulation techniques can benefit plant and animal agriculture, food processing, and waste management', NULL, 'en_US'),
(530, 'Production of high-value compounds: carotenoids and vitamin E.', 'The unraveling in recent years of the pathways and genes that are responsible for biosynthesis of vitamins and carotenoids in plants has provided new molecular tools that can be utilized to genetically modify the content and composition of these compounds in vivo. There have been recent examples of successful manipulation of carotenoid composition and vitamin E activity in plants using gene-transfer technology.', 'en_US'),
(531, 'A plant-derived edible vaccine against hepatitis B virus [Erratum: 13: 2339-2340]', 'The infectious hepatitis B virus represents 42 nm spherical double-shelled particles. However, analysis of blood from hepatitis B virus carriers revealed the presence of smaller 22 nm particles consisting of a viral envelope surface protein. These particles are highly immunogenic and have been used in the design of hepatitis B virus vaccine produced in yeast. Upon expression in yeast, these proteins form virus-like particles that are used for parenteral immunization. Therefore, the DNA fragment encoding hepatitis B virus surface antigen was introduced into Agrobacterium tumerifacience LBA4404 and used to obtain transgenic lupin (Lupinus luteus L.) and lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) cv. Burpee Bibb expressing envelope surface protein. Mice that were fed the transgenic lupin tissue developed significant levels of hepatitis B virus-specific antibodies. Human volunteers, fed with transgenic lettuce plants expressing hepatitis B virus surface antigen, developed specific serum-IgG response to plant produced protein.', 'en_US'),
(532, 'Agricultural approaches to improving phytonnutrient content in plants: an overview', 'Recent advances in plant molecular biology, functional genomics, and biochemistry have opened up a number of new avenues of research that will enable plant biologists to characterize, increase and modify plant content of a wide range of essential minerals and vitamins, as well as a number of secondary plant compounds that appear to play a role in improving human health and nutrition. In this review, several examples of exciting new research applying plant genomic and molecular genetic approaches to the improvement of phytonutrient content and composition in plants are presented. Research focusing on the elucidation of many of these complex biosynthetic and transport pathways in plants will require considerable resources in terms of funding, time, and personnel. As plant biologists move into interdisciplinary collaborations with nutritionists and food scientists, attention must be paid to a more complete identification and characterization of specific bioactive phytonutrients. Also, a more detailed assessment of the health-promoting properties of these compounds is needed, particularly for many of the secondary plant compounds for which clear epidemiologic and clinical data are still lacking. Finally, in order for significant progress to be made in modifying the nutrient composition of crops, a major investment must be made by funding agencies.', 'en_US'),
(533, 'Edible vaccines', 'Vaccines have accomplished near miracles in the fight against infectious disease. They have consigned smallpox to history and should soon do the same for polio. By the late 1990s an international campaign to immunize all the world''s children against six devastating diseases was reportedly reaching 80 percent of infants (up from about 5 percent in the mid-1970s) and was reducing the animal death toll from those infections by roughly three million.Yet these victories mask tragic gaps in delivery. The 20 percent of infants still missed by the six vaccines - against diphtheria, pertussis (whooping cough), polio, measles, tetanus and tuberculosis - account for about two million unnecessary deaths each year, especially in the most remote and impoverished parts of the globe. Upheavals in many developing nations now threaten to erode the advances of the recent past, and millions still die from infectious diseases for which immunizations are nonexistent, unreliable or too costly.This situation is worrisome not only for the places that lack health care but for the entire world. Regions harboring infections that have faded from other areas are like bombs ready to explode. When environmental or social disasters undermine sanitation systems or displace communities - bringing people with little immunity into contact with carriers - infections that have been long gone from a population can come roaring back. Further, as international travel and trade make the earth a smaller place, diseases that arise in one locale are increasingly popping up continents away. Until everyone has routine access to vaccines, no one will be entirely safe.', 'en_US'),
(534, 'Enhancing vegetable oil quality through plant breeding and genetic engineering', 'Vegetable oils continue to be one of the world''s most important plant commodities, with current annual production in the region of 65 million metric tons. About two-thirds of this production is used in food products, and the rest is used in a variety of industrial applications (Ohlrogge, 1994). Vegetable oils constituted more than 99% of total U.S. consumption of edible fats and oils in 1993 (USDA, 19941.Like protein, carbohydrate and water, fats and oils are a major nutrient. Yet, over the years, they have become the number one concern for consumers. As a result, food technologists and plant breeders are forced to do something about them. A common goal has been to modify their fatty acid composition. However, there is a fundamental difference in approaches used between food technologists and plant breeders. While food technologists are busy searching new processing methods to enhance quality of the existing fats and oils, plant breeders are working hard to produce new vegetable oils with altered fatty acid composition.Hydrogenation, interesterification, and fractionation are among the tools used by food technologists to give fats and oils desired functionality for specific products (Haumann, 1994. The tools used by plant breeders have been selections, crossing, and mutation. However, the current trend is to combine these conventional methods with the newly emerging biotechnological approach. In this article, we will 6rst discuss the need for fatty acid modification, then review conventional breeding, including mutagenesis; focus on how biotechnological approaches can be used to facilitate plant breeding; and point out trends in oilseed breeding.', 'en_US'),
(535, 'Biotechnology and our food supply', NULL, 'en_US'),
(536, 'Edible vaccine protects mice against Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin (LT): potatoes expressing a synthetic LT-B gene', 'The authors have designed and constructed a plantoptimized synthetic gene encoding the Escherichia coli heatlabile enterotoxin B subunit (LTB), for use in transgenic plants as a edible vaccine against enterotaxigenic E. coli. Expression of the synthetic LTB gene in potato plants under the control of a constitutive promoter yielded increased accumulation of LTB in leaves and tubers, as compared to the bacterial LTB gene. The plantderived LTB assembled into native pentameric structures as evidenced by its ability to bind gangliaside. The authors demonstrated immunogenicity by feeding mice the raw tubers and comparing the antiLTB serum IgG and faecal IgA to that produced in mice gavaged with bacterial LTB. Mice were fed three weekly doses of 5 g tuber tissue containing either 20 or 50 ug LTB, or gavaged weekly with 5 ug of LTB from recombinant E. coli. One week after the third dose, mice immunized with potato LTB had higher levels of serum and mucosal antiLTB than those gavaged with bacterial LTB had higher levels of serum and mucosal antiLTB than those gavaged with bacterial LTB. Mice were challenged by oral administration of 25 ug LT, and protection assessed by comparing the gutlacreass mass ratios. Although none of the mice were completely protected, the higher does potato vaccine compared favourably with the bacterial vaccine. These findings show that an edible vaccine against E. coli LTB is feasible © 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.', 'en_US'),
(537, 'Overexpression of petunia chalcone isomerase in tomato results in fruit containing increased levels of flavonols', 'Tomatoes are an excellent source of the carotenoid lycopene, a compound that is thought to be protective against prostate cancer. They also contain small amounts of flavonoids in their peel (5-10 mg/kg fresh weight), mainly naringenin chalcone and the flavonol rutin, a quercetin glycoside. Flavonols are very potent antioxidants, and an increasing body of epidemiological data suggests that high flavonoid intake is correlated with a decreased risk for cardiovascular disease. We have upregulated flavonol biosynthesis in the tomato in order to generate fruit with increased antioxidant capacity and a wider range of potential health benefit properties. This involved transformation of tomato with the Petunia chi-a gene encoding chalcone isomerase. Resulting transgenic tomato lines produced an increase of up to 78 fold in fruit peel flavonols, mainly due to an accumulation of rutin. No gross phenotypical differences were observed between high-flavonol transgenic and control lines. The phenotype segregated with the transgene and demonstrated a stable inheritance pattern over four subsequent generations tested thus far. Whole-fruit flavonol levels in the best of these lines are similar to those found in onions, a crop with naturally high levels of flavonol compounds. Processing of high-flavonol tomatoes demonstrated that 65% of flavonols present in the fresh fruit were retained in the processed paste, supporting their potential as raw materials for tomato-based functional food products.', 'en_US'),
(538, 'Production of novel oils in plants', 'We have now isolated the great majority of genes encoding enzymes of storage oil biosynthesis in plants. In the past two years, particular progress has been made with acyltransferases, ketoacylacyl carrier protein synthetases and with desaturases and their relatives. In some cases, these enzymes have been re engineered to create novel products. Nevertheless, the single or multiple insertion of such transgenes into oil crops has not always led to the desired phenotype. We are only now beginning to appreciate some of the complexities of storage and membrane lipid formation, such as acyl group remodelling and the turnover of unusual fatty acids. This understanding will be vital for future attempts at the rational engineering of transgenic oil crops. In parallel with this, the domestication of plants already synthesising useful fatty acids should be considered as a real alternative to the transgenic approach to producing novel oil crops.', 'en_US'),
(539, 'Engineering oil production in rapeseed and other oil crops', 'The first transgenic crop with a modified seed composition a lauricoil rapeseed was cultivated for commercial use in 1995, and many additional transgenic rapeseed varieties, expressing a variety of novel seed&s or grateins, are under development. Research advances in Arabidopsis molecular genetics, and the emerging Brass&Arabidopsis genome relatedness, will enable the radical manipulation of many key agronomic traits in rapeseed, ranging from greatly improved seedoil yield and quality, to improwed disease resistance, pod shattering and canopy architecture. Many of these advances will be directly applicable to other oil crops, including highyielding tropical perennials such as oil palm.', 'en_US'),
(540, 'Rice allergenic protein and molecular-genetic approach for hypoallergenic rice', 'Allergenic proteins with a molecular mass of about 14 to 16 kDa were isolated from a rice salt-soluble fraction based on the reactivity with IgE antibodies from patients allergic to rice. cDNA clones encoding these allergenic proteins were isolated from a cDNA library of maturing ricre seeds, and the deduced amino acid sequences showed considerable similarity to wheat and barley x-amylase/trypsin inhibitors, which have recently been identified as major allergens associated with baker''s asthma. An antisense RNA strategy was applied to repress the allergen gene expression in maturing rice seeds. Immunoblotting and ELISA analyses of the seeds using a monoclonal antibody to a 16-kDa allergen showed that allergen content of seeds from several transgenic rice plants was markedly lower than that of the seeds from parental wild type rice.', 'en_US'),
(541, 'Biotechnological production of phyto-pharmaceuticals', 'This review deals with prodn. of pharmaceutically important compds. through plant cell cultures, organ cultures, genetically transformed root cultures and transgenic plants. A scale-up of in vitro systems and biotransformation of low value substrates to high value products has also been dealt with. Recent developments in transgenic research has opened up the possibility of the metabolic engineering of biosynthetic pathways to produce phyto-pharmaceuticals. Prodn. of novel mols. such as antibodies, vaccines, ribosome inactivating proteins, anti-tumor agents and other biol. active compds. from transgenic plants will be the area of major thrust in the years to come.', 'en_US'),
(542, 'Production of hepatitis B surface antigen in transgenic plants for oral immunization', 'Here we present data showing oral immunogenicity of recombinant hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) in preclinical animal trials. Mice fed transgenic HBsAg potato tubers showed a primary immune response (increases in HBsAg-specific serum antibody) that could be greatly boosted by intraperitoneal delivery of a single subimmunogenic dose of commercial HBsAg vaccine, indicating that plants expressing HBsAg in edible tissues may be a new means for oral hepatitis B immunization. However, attainment of such a goal will require higher HBsAg expression than was observed for the potatoes used in this study. We conducted a systematic analysis of factors influencing the accumulation of HBsAg in transgenic potato, including 5'' and 3'' flanking elements and protein targeting within plant cells. The most striking improvements resulted from (1) alternative polyadenylation signals, and (2) fusion proteins containing targeting signals designed to enhance integration or retention of HBsAg in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of plant cells.', 'en_US'),
(543, 'Elevation of the provitamin A content of transgenic tomato plants', 'Tomato products are the principal dietary sources of lycopene and major source of -carotene, both of which have been shown to benefit human health. To enhance the carotenoid content and profile of tomato fruit, we have produced transgenic lines containing a bacterial carotenoid gene (crtI) encoding the enzyme phytoene desaturase, which converts phytoene into lycopene. Expression of this gene in transgenic tomatoes did not elevate total carotenoid levels. However, the -carotene content increased about threefold, up to 45% of the total carotenoid content. Endogenous carotenoid genes were concurrently upregulated, except for phytoene synthase, which was repressed. The alteration in carotenoid content of these plants did not affect growth and development. Levels of noncarotenoid isoprenoids were unchanged in the transformants. The phenotype has been found to be stable and reproducible over at least four generations.', 'en_US'),
(544, 'Seed-specific overexpression of phytoene synthase: increase in carotenoids and other metabolic effects', 'A bacterial phytoene synthase (crtB) gene was overexpressed in a seed-specific manner and the protein product targeted to the plastid in Brassica napus. The resultant embryos from these transgenic plants were visibly orange and the mature seed contained up to a 50-fold increase in carotenoids. The predominant carotenoids accumulating in the seeds of the transgenic plants were alpha and beta -carotene. Other precursors such as phytoene were also detected. Lutein, the predominant carotenoid in control seeds, was not substantially increased in the transgenics. The total amount of carotenoids in these seeds is now equivalent to or greater than that seen in the mesocarp of oil palm. Other metabolites in the isoprenoid pathway were examined in these seeds. Sterol levels remained essentially the same, while tocopherol levels decreased significantly as compared to non-transgenic controls. Chlorophyll levels were also reduced in developing transgenic seed. Additionally, the fatty acyl composition was altered, with the transgenic seeds having a relatively higher percentage of the 18:1 (oleic acid) component and a decreased percentage of the 18:2 (linoleic acid) and 18:3 (linolenic acid) components. This dramatic increase in flux through the carotenoid pathway and other metabolic effects are discussed.', 'en_US'),
(545, 'Elevating the vitamin E content of plants through metabolic engineering', 'Alpha-Tocopherol (vitamin E) is a lipid-soluble antioxidant synthesized only by photosynthetic organisms. alpha-Tocopherol is an essential component of mammalian diets, and intakes in excess of the U.S. recommended daily allowance are correlated with decreased incidence of a number of degenerative human diseases. Plant oils, the main dietary source of tocopherols, typically contain alpha-tocopherol as a minor component and high levels of its biosynthetic precursor, gamma-tocopherol. A genomics-based approach was used to clone the final enzyme in alpha-tocopherol synthesis, gamma-tocopherol methyltransferase. Overexpression of gamma-tocopherol methyltransferase in Arabidopsis seeds shifted oil compositions in favor of alpha-tocopherol. Similar increases in agricultural oil crops would increase vitamin E levels in the average U.S. diet.', 'en_US'),
(546, 'The production of antibodies in plants: an idea whose time has come?', 'Use of transgenic plants for the production of monoclonal antibodies is discussed. Possible applications include immunomodulation of plant metabolism, bioreactors and human immunotherapy. Issues concerning the cost of these ''plantibodies'' are also considered.', 'en_US'),
(547, 'High-yield production of a human therapeutic protein in tobacco chloroplasts', 'Transgenic plants have become attractive systems for production of human therapeutic proteins because of the reduced risk of mammalian viral contaminants, the ability to do large scale-up at low cost, and the low maintenance requirements. Here we report a feasibility study for production of a human therapeutic protein through transplastomic transformation technology, which has the additional advantage of increased biological containment by apparent elimination of the transmission of transgenes through pollen. We show that chloroplasts can express a secretory protein, human somatotropin, in a soluble, biologically active, disulfide-bonded form. High concentrations of recombinant protein accumulation are observed (>7% total soluble protein), more than 300-fold higher than a similar gene expressed using a nuclear transgenic approach. The plastid-expressed somatotropin is nearly devoid of complex post-translational modifications, effectively increasing the amount of usable recombinant protein. We also describe approaches to obtain a somatotropin with a non-methionine N terminus, similar to the native human protein. The results indicate that chloroplasts are a highly efficient vehicle for the potential production of pharmaceutical proteins in plants.', 'en_US'),
(548, 'Cereal crops as viable production and storage systems for pharmaceutical scFv antibodies', 'This report describes the stable expression of a medically important antibody in the staple cereal crops rice and wheat. We successfully expressed a single-chain Fv antibody (ScFvT84.66) against carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA), a well characterized tumor-associated marker antigen. scFv constructs were engineered for recombinant antibody targeting to the plant cell apoplast and ER. Up to 30 mu g/g of functional recombinant antibody was detected in the leaves and seeds of wheat and rice. We confirmed that transgenic dry seeds could be stored for at least five months at room temperature, without significant loss of the amount or activity of scFvT84.66. Our results represent the first transition from model plant expression systems, such as tobacco and Arabidopsis, to widely cultivated cereal crops, such as rice and wheat, for expression of an antibody molecule that has already shown efficacy in clinical applications. Thus, we have established that molecular pharming in cereals can be a viable production system for such high-value pharmaceutical macromolecules. Our findings provide a strong foundation for exploiting alternative uses of cereal crops both in industrialized and developing countries.', 'en_US'),
(549, 'Immunogenicity in humans of a recombinant bacterial antigen delivered in a transgenic potato', 'Compared with vaccine delivery by injection, oral vaccines offer the hope of more convenient immunization strategies and a more practical means of implementing universal vaccination programs throughout the world. Oral vaccines act by stimulating the immune system at effector sites (lymphoid tissue) located in the gut. Genetic engineering has been used with variable success to design living and non-living systems as a means to deliver antigens to these sites and to stimulate a desired immune response14. More recently, plant biotechnology techniques have been used to create plants which contain a gene derived from a human pathogen; the resultant plant tissues will accumulate an antigenic protein encoded by the foreign DNA510. In pre-clinical trials, we found that antigenic proteins produced in transgenic plants retained immunogenic properties when purified; if injected into mice the antigen caused production of protein-specific antibodies6. Moreover, in some experiments, if the plant tissues were simply fed to mice, a mucosal immune response occurred710. The present study was conducted as a proof of principle to determine if humans would also develop a serum and/or mucosal immune response to an antigen delivered in an uncooked foodstuff.', 'en_US'),
(550, 'Human immune responses to a novel norwalk virus vaccine delivered in transgenic potatoes', 'A new approach for delivering vaccine antigens is the use of inexpensive, plentiful, plant-based oral vaccines. Norwalk virus capsid protein (NVCP), assembled into virus-like particles, was used as a test antigen, to determine whether immune responses could be generated in volunteers who ingested transgenic potatoes. Twenty-four healthy adult volunteers received 2 or 3 doses of transgenic potato (n = 20) or 3 doses of wild-type potato (n = 4). Each dose consisted of 150 g of raw, peeled, diced potato that contained 215751 g of NVCP. Nineteen (95%) of 20 volunteers who ingested transgenic potatoes developed significant increases in the numbers of specific IgA antibodysecreting cells. Four (20%) of 20 volunteers developed specific serum IgG, and 6 (30%) of 20 volunteers developed specific stool IgA. Overall, 19 of 20 volunteers developed an immune response of some kind, although the level of serum antibody increases was modest.', 'en_US'),
(551, 'Reduction of 14-15kDa allergenic proteins in transgenic rice plants by antisense gene', 'An antisense gene strategy was applied to suppress the 14-16 kDa allergen gene expression in maturing rice seeds. Gene constructs producing antisense RNAs of the 16 kDa allergen under the control of some rice seed-specific promoters were introduced into rice by electroporation. Immunoblot and RNA blot analyses of the seeds from the transgenic rice plants using the allergen-specific monoclonal antibody and a sequence-specific antisense RNA probe demonstrated that the 14-16 kDa allergen proteins and their transcripts of the seeds from several transgenic lines were present in much lower in amounts than those of the seeds from parental wild-type rice. The high levels of reduction observed were stably inherited in at least three generations.', 'en_US'),
(552, 'Plants for delivery of edible vaccines', 'Over the past decade, scientific advances in molecular biology and immunology have improved understanding of many diseases and led to the development of novel strategies for vaccination. The development of plants expressing vaccine antigens is a particularly promising approach. Plant-derived antigenic proteins have delayed or prevented the onset of disease in animals and have proven to be safe and functional in human clinical trials. Future areas of research should further characterize the induction of the mucosal immune system and appropriate crop species for delivery of animal and human vaccines.', 'en_US'),
(553, 'Predictions of biodiversity response to genetically modified herbicide-tolerant crops', 'We simulated the effects of the introduction of genetically modified herbicide-tolerant (GMHT) crops on weed populations and the consequences for seed-eating birds. We predict that weed populations might be reduced to low levels or practically eradicated, depending on the exact form of management. Consequent effects on the local use of fields by birds might be severe, because such reductions represent a major loss of food resources. The regional impacts of GMHT crops are shown to depend on whether the adoption of GMHT crops by farmers covaries with current weed levels.', 'en_US'),
(554, 'Transgenics for a better tomato.', 'Centuries ago when farmers planted and harvested their crops, they knew little about the science involved. Nor did they have a large seed stock. But today, science is helping farmers improve their seed selection. As a result, consumers have access to a wide variety of safe, plentiful, and nutritious foods. In the future, new biotechnology tools like genetic engineering can help plant breeders continue this trend.   Scientists like ARS plant physiologist Autar K. Mattoo know the powerful contributions that science and technology can make to the world''s food supply. ''Our goal is to develop plants for improved nutrition, longer shelf life, and resistance to harmful pathogens,'' says Mattoo, who heads the ARS Vegetable Laboratory in Beltsville, Maryland.', 'en_US');
