INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(2595, 'An assessment of the potential of herbivorous insect gut bacteria to develop competence for natural transformation.', 'Whereas the capability of DNA uptake has been well established for numerous species and strains of bacteria grown in vitro, the broader distribution of natural transformability within bacterial communities remains largely unexplored.  Here, we investigate the ability of bacterial isolates from the gut of grass grub larvae (Costelytra zealandica (White); Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) to develop natural genetic competence in vitro.  A total of 37 mostly species-divergent strains isolated from the gut of grass grub larvae were selected for spontaneous rifampicin-resistance.  Genomic DNA was subsequently isolated from the resistant strains and exposed to sensitive strains grown individually using established filter transformation protocols.  DNA isolated from wild-type strains was used as a control.  None of the 37 isolates tested exhibited a frequency of conversion to rifampicin-resistance in the presence of DNA at rates that were significantly higher than the rate of spontaneous mutation to rifampicin-resistance in the presence of wild-type DNA (the limit of detection was approximately < 1 culturable transformant per 109 exposed bacteria).  To further examine if conditions were conducive to bacterial DNA uptake in the grass grubs gut, we employed the competent bacterium Acinetobacter baylyi strain BD413 as a recipient species for in vivo studies.  However, no transformants could be detected above the detection limit of 1 transformant per 103 cells, possibly due to low population density and limited growth of A. baylyi cells in grass grub guts.  PCR analysis indicated that chromosomal Acinetobacter DNA remains detectable by PCR for up to 3 days after direct inoculation into the alimentary tract of grass grub larvae.  Nevertheless, neither transforming activity of the DNA recovered from the alimentary tract of grass grubs larvae nor competence of bacterial cells recovered from inoculated larvae could be shown.', 'en_US'),
(2596, 'Lack of detectable DNA uptake by bacterial gut isolates grown in vitro and by Acinetobacter baylyi colonizing rodents in vivo.', 'Biological risk assessment of food containing recombinant DNA has exposed knowledge gaps related to the general fate of DNA in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT). Here, a series of experiments is presented that were designed to determine if genetic transformation of the naturally competent bacterium Acinetobacter baylyi BD413 occurs in the GIT of mice and rats, with feed-introduced bacterial DNA containing a kanamycin resistance gene (nptII). Strain BD413 was found in various gut locations in germ-free mice at 103-105 CFU per gram GIT content 24-48 h after administration. However, subsequent DNA exposure of the colonized mice did not result in detectable bacterial transformants, with a detection limit of 1 transformant per 103-105 bacteria. Further attempts to increase the likelihood of detection by introducing weak positive selection with kanamycin of putative transformants arising in vivo during a 4-week-long feeding experiment (where the mice received DNA and the recipient cells regularly) did not yield transformants either. Moreover, the in vitro exposure of actively growing A. baylyi cells to gut contents from the stomach, small intestine, cecum or colon contents of rats (with a normal microbiota) fed either purified DNA (50 g) or bacterial cell lysates did not produce bacterial transformants. The presence of gut content of germfree mice was also highly inhibitory to transformation of A. baylyi, indicating that microbially-produced nucleases are not responsible for the sharp 500- to 1 000 000-fold reduction of transformation frequencies seen. Finally, a range of isolates from the genera Enterococcus, Streptococcus and Bifidobacterium spp. was examined for competence expression in vitro, without yielding any transformants. In conclusion, model choice and methodological constraints severely limit the sample size and, hence, transfer frequencies that can be measured experimentally in the GIT. Our observations suggest the contents of the GIT shield or adsorb DNA, preventing detectable exposure of feed-derived DNA fragments to competent bacteria.', 'en_US'),
(2597, 'Gene flow from transgenic maize to landraces in Mexico:  An analysis.', 'A highly publicized study in 2001 reported that maize landraces in Oaxaca, Mexico were found to contain transgenes, yet not all follow-up research has detected transgenes in the same region. Continued testing for transgenes in Mexican maize, and calls for the removal of transgenes from landraces, have only fueled the debate about the dynamics of gene flow from transgenic maize to landraces in Mexico. This paper reviews these recent findings and discusses how evolution may be expected to alter the frequency of transgenes in crop populations over time. Further, it shows that calls for removing transgenes must be interpreted in light of two ecological complexities: (a) it may be impossible to purge a particular gene from a population and (b) scientists'' ability to accurately determine the presence or absence of transgenes is limited by challenges related to sampling. The paper concludes by outlining two ways forward for removing transgenes from landraces.', 'en_US'),
(2598, 'Plant diversity in crop fields and woody hedgerows of organic and conventional farms in contrasting landscapes.', 'The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of contrasting agricultural practices in organic and conventional farming (local factors), and to evaluate the influence of surrounding landscape features (regional factors) on plant assemblages, taking into account habitat structure.  Plants were inventoried in crop fields and woody hedgerows (boundary and centre) of 16 conventional and 14 organic sites.  Habitat structure, agricultural practices and landscape characteristics were quantified for each habitat.  Hedgerow boundaries contained a higher number of plant species than adjacent habitats although many of them were exotics.  However, exotics comprised a decreasing proportion of species richness from field to hedgerow centre.  Many of the exotic species were shared between crop fields and adjacent boundaries.  There was a clear difference in species richness and composition between the organic and conventional study sites.  Fields and woody hedgerows situated in organic sites consistently harboured more native and exotic plant species than those in conventional systems.  Numerous species were only found in organic hedgerows and included several long-lived herbaceous forest species.  At the larger scale level, old-fields (areas with sparse shrubs and trees re-colonizing cleared land) were the only habitats that significantly influenced the species composition of hedgerows, particularly exotic species.  Conversely, farm type was a significant predictor of native species richness.', 'en_US'),
(2599, 'Genetic resources of eggplant (Solanum melongena) and allied species:  A new challenge for molecular geneticists and eggplant breeders.', 'Eggplants cultivated or wild relatives, cover a wide range of Solanum species (subgenus Leptostemonum), the geographic origin of which is mainly Asia and Africa.  The best known species is Solanum melongena, domesticated in the Indo-Burma region, and now cultivated all over the world.  Several public institutions in Asia, Europe and North America maintain genetic resources of this species.  Other cultivated eggplants related to S. melongena, such as the scarlet eggplant (Solanum aethiopicum) and the gboma eggplant (Solanum macrocarpon), are cultivated mainly in Africa.  The wild species related to all cultivated eggplants comprise 200 or so species, almost half of the huge subgenus Leptostemonum.  Beyond the conventional breeding use of this eggplant germplasm, many other potentialities exist.  A preliminary eggplant genetic map, based on the use of RAPDs on an intraspecific F2 progeny, is available.  A more extensive map, based on a set of markers common to well mapped Solanaceae such as potato, tomato and pepper, is also being produced for discovering possible syntenic relationships.  Such markers, and others specific to S. melongena, should also allow the molecular tagging of eggplant agronomic traits, some of which are common to other Solanaceae, inorder to provide powerful tools to eggplant breeders.  Furthermore, no resistance has been found in S. melongena germplasm, up to now, for some serious pests (such as Meloidogyne incognita) and diseases (such a Verticillium dahlia) whereas such resistances, which are monogenetically inherited, are available in tomato:  those genes could be used to produce resistant eggplants by genetic engineering.  Lastly, the whole set of eggplant genetic resources, which comprises a significant part of the genus Solanum, needs to be investigated by molecular tools to produce a functional taxonomic treatment of subgenus Leptostemonum, as well as to help answer questions about Solanum phylogeny.', 'en_US'),
(2600, 'Toxicity studies of genetically modified plants:  A review of the published literature.', 'According to the information reported by the WHO, the genetically modified (GM) products that are currently on the international market have all passed risk assessments conducted by national authorities. These assessments have not indicated any risk to human health. In spite of this clear statement, it is quite amazing to note that the review articles published in international scientific journals during the current decade did not find, or the number was particularly small, references concerning human and animal toxicological/health risks studies on GM foods. In this paper, the scientific information concerning the potential toxicity of GM/transgenic plants using the Medline database is reviewed. Studies about the safety of the potential use of potatoes, corn, soybeans, rice, cucumber, tomatoes, sweet pepper, peas, and canola plants for food and feed were included. The number of references was surprisingly limited. Moreover, most published studies were not performed by the biotechnology companies that produce these products. This review can be concluded raising the following question: where is the scientific evidence showing that GM plants/food are toxicologically safe?', 'en_US'),
(2601, 'Gene flow among wild and cultivated sunflower, Helianthus annuus in Argentina.', 'Naturalized populations of wild sunflower, Helianthus annnus, occur in six provinces of central Argentina, usually near sunflower crops. Plants of intermediate morphology indicate that gene flow might take place in both senses. In order to quantify gene flow between cultivated and wild sunflower, an experimental stand of sunflower was sown surrounded by plots of wild plants at increasing distances. Hybridization rate was estimated using a crop specific isozyme marker, and a mean of 7% progenies were crop-wild hybrids. The nearest wild plants (3 m from the cultivar) showed the highest percentage (18%) of gene flow, which was found to decrease with distance, up to 500 m. Pollen flow from wild plants to crop, evaluated through morphological characters in the progenies of cultivated plants from a stand invaded by wild sunflowers, produced 3.75% intermediate plants.', 'en_US'),
(2602, 'Does pea lectin expressed transgenically in oilseed rape (Brassica napus) influence honey bee (Apis mellifera) larvae?', 'The European honey bee (Apis mellifera) is important both for pollination and for honey production. Pollen is the major protein source for bees, which exposes them directly to changes in pollen quality e.g. through genetic engineering. In order to create a worst case scenario regarding pea lectin (PSL) expressed transgenically in oilseed rape anthers and pollen, the maximum amount of dried pollen that could be mixed in an artificial diet without negatively affecting larval performance (1.5% w/w) was fed to bee larvae. Pollen from two transgenic plant lines expressing PSL up to 1.2% of total soluble protein and pollen from one non-transgenic line was added to the same diet and used as a pollen control. When these three pollen diets and the control diet (without added pollen) were compared, no negative effect from the pollen of the transgenic plants could be detected on larval mortality, weight, or development time. An increased weight and a reduced developmental time were recorded for larvae on all diets containing pollen when compared to the diet without pollen.', 'en_US'),
(2603, 'US regulatory system for genetically modified [genetically modified organism (GMO), rDNA or transgenic] crop cultivars.', 'This paper reviews the history of the federal regulatory oversight of plant agricultural biotechnology in the USA, focusing on the scientific and political forces moulding the continually evolving regulatory structure in place today.  Unlike most other jurisdictions, the USA decided to adapt pre-existing legislation to encompass products of biotechnology.  In so doing, it established an overarching committee (Office of Science and Technology Policy) to study and distribute various regulatory responsibilities amongst relevant agencies: the Food and Drug Administration, Environmental Protection Agency and US Department of Agriculture.  This paper reviews the history and procedures of each agency in the execution of its regulatory duties and investigates the advantages and disadvantages of the US regulatory strategy.', 'en_US'),
(2604, 'Facilitating co-existence by tracking gene dispersal in conventional potato systems with microsatellite markers.', 'Based on international findings, Irish co-existence guidelines for the cultivation of GM potato stipulate that an isolation distance of 20 m is required to minimize the spread of transgenic pollen in accordance with required labeling thresholds. As potato tolerant to Phytophthora infestans is the most applicable GM crop from an Irish context, we tested the efficacy of this isolation distance under Irish environmental conditions using the conventional variety Désirée as a pollen donor and the male-sterile variety British Queen as a pollen receptor. Gene flow was determined by scoring for berry presence on receptor plants and confirmed using a microsatellite marker system designed to assess paternity in F1 seedlings. 99.1% of seedlings recovered were identified as having Désirée paternity. Whereas 19.9% (140/708) of total berries formed on receptor plants occurred at a distance of 21 m from the pollen source, only 4 of these berries bore viable true potato seed (TPS), from which 23 TPS germinated. TPS-bearing berry formation was negatively correlated with distance from the pollen source, and although overall distribution of berries and seeds was non-random across the plot, no significant correlation was evident with respect to wind direction. Microsatellite markers were also used to confirm that the foraging beetle Meligethes aeneus is a vector for the transmission of potato pollen, but a more detailed statistical analysis of this dataset was limited by inclement weather during the trial. To conclude, we recommend that a two-tiered system be established in regard to establishing isolation distances for the experimental trial and commercial cultivation of GM potato in Ireland, and that responsible crop management be adopted to minimize the establishment of TPS-derived volunteers, which we have noted will emerge through a rotation as a result of pollen-mediated gene flow.', 'en_US'),
(2605, 'Effects of tobacco genetically modified to express protease inhibitor bovine spleen trypsin inhibitor on non-target soil organisms.', 'Effects of tobacco genetically modified to express the protease inhibitor bovine spleen trypsin inhibitor (BSTI) were examined in laboratory assays against three earthworm and one collembolan species. BSTI is a serine protease inhibitor that can bind to the digestive trypsins of insects feeding on modified plants, resulting in reduced growth and survival. Protease inhibitors are active against a broad range of insects, so may have a large impact on non-target organisms. Survival and fecundity of the collembolan Folsomia candida were unaffected by consumption of artificial diet containing BSTI-expressing tobacco leaf or powdered freeze-dried BSTI-expressing tobacco leaf that was added to soil. Similarly, mortality and growth of earthworms Aporrectodea caliginosa and Lumbricus rubellus did not differ significantly between soil augmented with BSTI-expressing tobacco leaves or unmodified control leaves. The redworm Eisenia fetida gained less weight when provided with BSTI-expressing leaves in one assay, but when the experiment was repeated, there was no significant difference between treatments. BSTI-expressing tobacco and unmodified control leaves decomposed at the same rate, indicating that the inhibitor had no effect on the overall function of the decomposer community of micro-flora and fauna in soil.', 'en_US'),
(2606, 'Transgene escape in sugar beet production fields: data from six years farm scale monitoring.', 'Concerns have been raised in Europe about the efficiency, sustainability, and environmental impact of the first genetically modified crops. The committees and regulators in charge of approving procedures have encouraged a field trial approach for safety assessment studies under current agronomic conditions. We describe the gene flow from sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.) in a multi-year and multi-crop monitoring study on farmers'' fields at two locations that has been carried out since 1995. We analyzed two sugar beet lines that have been genetically transformed for herbicide resistance. One sugar beet has resistance to glufosinate and the other to glyphosate. Large differences among lines, years and locations were observed. These differences provided a broad range of situations to estimate the risks. Sugar beet bolters produced the majority (86%) of the herbicide-resistant seeds harvested in the field. Direct pollen flow from sugar beet bolters to weed beets that were growing within the same field as well as in a neighboring field that was left fallow accounted for only 0.4% of the resistant seeds released over the years and locations. Descendants of the hybrids between the sugar beet and the weed beet produced the remaining 13.6% of resistant seeds. Herbicide-resistant seeds from the progeny of the weed beet were recorded up to 112 m away from the closest transgenic pollen donor. Indications were observed of non-randomness of the weed beet producing resistant progeny. We also analyzed pollen flow to male-sterile bait plants located within and outside of the sugar beet field. Herbicide-resistant pollen flow was recorded up to 277 m, and fitted with an inverse power regression. Using sugar beet varieties with no, or very low, sensitivity to bolting and destroying bolters are two necessary measures that could delay gene flow.', 'en_US'),
(2607, 'No recombination detected in artificial potyvirus mixed infections and between potyvirus derived transgenes and heterologous challenging potyviruses.', 'Risk-assessment studies of virus-resistant transgenic plants (VRTPs) focussing on recombination of a plant virus with a transgenic sequence of a different virus should include a comparison of recombination frequencies between viruses in double-infected non-transgenic plants with those observed in singly infected transgenic plants to estimate recombination incidence in VRTPs. In this study, the occurrence of recombination events was investigated in non-transgenic plants double-infected with two different potyviruses, as well as in potyviral genomes in singly infected transgenic plants expressing potyvirus sequences. Different potyviruses, namely Potato virus A (PVA), Tobacco vein mottling virus (TVMV), two strains of Potato virus Y (PVY-O, PVY-H) and two strains of Plum pox virus (PPV-NAT, PPV-SK68), were used in three combinations for double infection of a common host. Furthermore, transgenic plants expressing either potyviral coat protein (CP), helicase (CI) or polymerase (NIb) coding sequences (PPV-NAT-CP, PVY-CI, PVY-NIb) were singly-infected with a heterologous potyvirus, which was not targeted by the respective transgenic resistance. To identify recombinant potyviral sequences, a sensitive RT-PCR was developed to detect up to one recombinant molecule out of 106 parental molecules. In 304 mixed infected non-transgenic plants, 92 mixed and 164 single infected transgenic plants screened for recombinant sequences no recombinant potyviral sequence was found. These results indicate that recombination events between different potyviruses in mixed infections and between a potyvirus infecting a potyvirus-resistant transgenic plant are likely to be very infrequent.', 'en_US'),
(2608, 'Do cropping system and insecticide use in spring oilseed rape affect the abundance of pollen beetles (Meligethes aeneus Fab.) on the crop?', 'The impact of minimised (MIN - no plough, direct drilling, no pesticides) and standard (STN - plough, standard application of pesticides) cropping systems on the abundance of old (previously overwintered) and new generations of Meligethes aeneus (Fabricius) (Nitidulidae, Coleoptera) was assessed in spring oilseed rape in 2003 - 2005 in Estonia.  Old generation M. aeneus were more abundant in STN than in MIN crops, despite the application of insecticide, probably because the latter reduced M. aeneus damage to the buds, making STN crops more attractive to M. aeneus seeking feeding and oviposition resources.  The abundance of new generation M. aeneus showed a strong linear increase over the 3 years, on both MIN and STN systems.  In 2005, the abundance of new generation M. aeneus was significantly greater in the STN than in the MIN field.  The study showed that the application of insecticides promotes population increase in new generation M. aeneus.', 'en_US'),
(2609, 'Diversity and comparative phenology of Lepidoptera on Bt and non-Bt maize in South Africa.', 'The use of Bt maize could directly or indirectly affect non-target organisms.  Assessment of the impacts of Bt crops is hampered by the lack of even the most basic checklist of the species present in most systems.  In South Africa the maize agroecosystem is of particular interest because of the large area planted with Bt maize (Event MON810) for the control of Busseola fusca (Fuller) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and Chilo partellus (Swinhoe) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) populations.  The aims of this study were to determine the diversity of Lepidoptera species that feed on or are closely associated with maize, and to assess the possible effects of Bt maize on the incidence of Lepidoptera damage under field conditions.  Field surveys were conducted at 24 sites during the 2004/2005 and 2005/2006 cropping seasons.  Fifteen species of Lepidoptera were recorded on maize.  Six of these species were recorded to feed on Bt maize.  Limited information is available on host plants and biology of some of these species.  The incidences of Lepidoptera-infested plants and infestation levels were generally lower in Bt fields than in non-Bt fields possibly indicating that these species may be affected by Bt maize.  Results showed that B. fusca larvae were able to survive on Bt maize at low population levels.  On the basis of exposure and risk of resistance development, Helicoverpa armigera and Acantholeucania loreyi can be considered to be important non-target lepidopteran herbivores on maize in South Africa.', 'en_US'),
(2610, 'Addressing micronutrient deficiencies:  Alternative interventions and technologies.', 'Market failure for nutritional attributes of foods leads to underinvestment in crop breeding to enhance nutritional content of foods.  As awareness of the importance of micronutrient deficiencies in the diets of poor people has grown, public investments in research to create biofortified staple crops have increased.  The potential for this new approach is assessed in two ways.  First, an examination of lessons from established interventions to address micronutrient deficiencies shows where and how biofortification can complement existing interventions and provides guidance regarding potential hurdles to successful implementation.  Second, the potential for different crop-breeding technologies to biofortify crops is examined, and the advances that can only be achieved through application of modern biotechnology are identified.', 'en_US'),
(2611, 'History of safe use as applied to the safety assessment of novel foods and foods derived from genetically modified organisms.', 'Very few traditional foods that are consumed have been subjected to systematic toxicological and nutritional assessment, yet because of their long history and customary preparation and use and absence of evidence of harm, they are generally regarded as safe to eat.  This ''history of safe use'' of traditional foods forms the benchmark for the comparative safety assessment of novel foods, and of foods derived from genetically modified organisms.  However, the concept is hard to define, since it relates to an existing body of information which describes the safety profile of a food, rather than a precise checklist of criteria.  The term should be regarded as a working concept used to assist the safety assessment of a food product.  Important factors in establishing a history of safe use include: the period over which the traditional food has been consumed; the way in which it has been prepared and used and at what intake levels; its composition and the results of animal studies and observations from human exposure.  This paper is aimed to assist food safety professionals in the safety evaluation and regulation of novel foods and foods derived from genetically modified organisms, by describing the practical application and use of the concept of ''history of safe use''.', 'en_US'),
(2612, 'Environmental Risk Assessment of Genetically Modified Organisms.  Methodologies for Transgenic Fish.', 'Main Contents1: Introduction to environmental risk assessment for transgenic fish 2: Problem formulation and options assessment: science-guided deliberation in risk assessment of transgenic fish 3: Development of transgenic fish: scientific background 4: Gene construct and expression: information relevant for risk assessment and management 5: Approaches to assessing gene flow 6: Assessing ecological effects of transgenic fish prior to entry into nature 7: Introduction to the concepts and methods of uncertainty analysis 8: Risk management: Reducing risk through confinement of transgenic fish 9: Risk management: Post-approval monitoring and remediation 10: Summary and synthesis Main DescriptionThe decline of many individual and wild fish stocks has commanded an increase in aquaculture production to meet the protein demands of a growing population.  Alongside selective breeding schemes and expanding facilities, transgenic methods have received increasing attention as a potential factor in meeting these demands.  With a focus on developing countries, this third text in the series provides detailed information on environmental biosafety policy and regulation and presents methodologies for assessing ecological risks associated with transgenic fish.', 'en_US'),
(2613, 'A majority of cotton genes are expressed in single-celled fiber.', 'Multicellular eukaryotes contain a diversity of cell types, presumably differing from one another in the suite of genes expressed during development.  At present, little is known about the proportion of the genome transcribed in most cell types, nor the degree to which global patterns of expression change during cellular differentiation.  To address these questions in a model plant system, we studied the unique and highly exaggerated single-celled, epidermal seed trichomes (''cotton'') of cultivated cotton (Gossypium hirsutum).  By taking advantage of advances in expression profiling and microarray technology, we evaluated the transcriptome of cotton fibers across a developmental time-course, from a few days post-anthesis through primary and secondary wall synthesis stages.  Comparisons of gene expression in populations of developing cotton fiber cells to genetically complex reference samples derived from 6 different cotton organs demonstrated that a remarkably high proportion of the cotton genome is transcribed, with 75?94% of the total genome transcribed at each stage.  Compared to the reference samples, more than half of all genes were up-regulated during at least one stage of fiber development.  These genes were clustered into seven groups of expression profiles that provided new insight into biological processes governing fiber development.  Genes implicated in vesicle coating and trafficking were found to be overexpressed throughout all stages of fiber development studied, indicating their important role in maintaining rapid growth of this unique plant cell.', 'en_US'),
(2614, 'Private Research and Public Goods:  Implications of Biotechnology for Biodiversity.', 'The pattern of crop genetic diversity has changed over the past two centuries with the modernization of agriculture, accelerating with the advent of the green revolution.  Since the green revolution, the locus of agricultural research has shifted from the public to the private sector.  The growing importance of the private sector in agricultural R&D is changing the types of crop technologies that are developed and the ways they are delivered to farmers.  The spread of transgenic crops will influence crop genetic diversity, but their implications for the availability of plant genetic resources and the resilience of agricultural ecosystems are not entirely clear.  Transgenic crops may increase or decrease crop genetic diversity, depending on how they are regulated and deployed.  This paper explores a range of policy options to increase the likelihood that private sector R&D, particularly in the form of transgenic crops, enhances rather than erodes crop genetic diversity.', 'en_US'),
(2615, 'Natural transformation-based foreign DNA acquisition in a Ralstonia solanacearum mutS mutant.', 'Mutator strains with defective methyl-mismatch repair (MMR) systems have been shown to play an important role in adaptation of bacterial populations to changing and stressful environments. In this report, we describe the impact of mutS::aacC3-IV inactivation on foreign DNA acquisition by natural transformation in the phytopathogenic bacterium Ralstonia solanacearum. A mutS mutant of R. solanacearum exhibited 33- to 60-fold greater spontaneous mutation frequencies, in accordance with a mutator phenotype. Transformation experiments indicated that intra- and interspecific DNA transfers increased up to 89-fold. To assess horizontal gene transfer (HGT) from genetically modified plants to R. solanacearum, fitness of the mutator was first evaluated in soil and plant environments. Competitiveness was not modified after 61 days in soil and 8 days in tomato, and the progress of plant decay symptoms was similar to that of the wild-type strain. Despite its survival in soil and in planta, and the powerful capacities of HGT, R. solanacearum was not genetically transformed by transgenic plant DNA in a wide range of in vitro and in planta tests.', 'en_US'),
(2616, 'The safety and allergenicity of genetically modified foods-Impact on the global markets for cereals and oilseeds.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2617, 'Alteration of soil rhizosphere communities following genetic transformation of white spruce.', 'The application of plant genetic manipulations to agriculture and forestry with the aim of alleviating insect damage through Bacillus thuringiensis transformation could lead to a significant reduction in the release of pesticides into the environment. However, many groups have come forward with very valid and important questions related to potentially adverse effects, and it is crucial to assess and better understand the impact that this technology might have on ecosystems. In this study, we analyzed rhizosphere soil samples collected from the first B. thuringiensis-transformed trees [with insertion of the CryIA(b) toxin-encoding gene] grown in Canada (Val-Cartier, QC, Canada) as part of an ecological impact assessment project. Using a robust amplified rRNA gene restriction analysis approach coupled with 16S rRNA gene sequencing, the rhizosphere-inhabiting microbial communities of white spruce (Picea glauca) genetically modified by biolistic insertion of the cryIA(b), uidA (beta-glucuronidase), and nptII genes were compared with the microbial communities associated with non-genetically modified counterparts and with trees in which only the genetic marker genes uidA and nptII have been inserted. Analysis of 1,728 rhizosphere bacterial clones (576 clones per treatment) using a Cramér-von Mises statistic analysis combined with a Monte Carlo comparison clearly indicated that there was a statistically significant difference (P < 0.05) between the microbial communities inhabiting the rhizospheres of trees carrying the cryIA(b), uidA, and nptII transgenes, trees carrying only the uidA and nptII transgenes, and control trees. Clear rhizosphere microbial community alterations due to B. thuringiensis tree genetic modification have to our knowledge never been described previously and open the door to interesting questions related to B. thuringiensis genetic transformation and also to the impact of commonly used uidA and nptII genetic marker genes.', 'en_US'),
(2618, 'Increasing tolerance to Cry1Ac cotton from cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera, was confirmed in Bt cotton farming area of China.', '1. Changes in the frequency of Cry1Ac resistance genes and shifts in tolerance of cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera, to the Cry1Ac toxin were assessed using bioassays of F1 and F2 offspring of isofemale lines from Anci County of Hebei Province (a multiple-crop system including corn, soybean, peanut, and Bt cotton) and Xiajin County of Shandong Province (an intensive Bt cotton planting area) in Northern China during 2002?2005.2. A conservative analysis of the overall results indicated that there was a small increase in the frequency of major, non-recessive resistance genes over time.3. The relative average development ratings [RADR ? growth rate of a line on a Bt diet in proportion to the growth rate on a non-Bt (NBT) diet] of the bollworm larvae in F1 tests increased significantly from year to year, indicating a gradual trend towards higher tolerance to Cry1Ac in the field populations.4. There were also significant positive correlations between RADR of the lines in the F1 generation and the RADR of their F2 offspring, indicating that the tolerance was genetically based.5. Quantitative genetic simulation analysis showed that resistance of H. armigera to Bt cotton in Xiajin could evolve to a high level in 11?15 years if no effective resistance management measures are carried out.', 'en_US'),
(2619, 'Persistence of the pesticidal Bacillus thuringiensis protein expressed in Bt maize plant materials in two soils of the Central Eastern Cape, South Africa.', 'Environmental effects of genetically modified plants are not yet fully understood.  Experiments were conducted to determine relative amounts of the bioactive Bt protein in roots, leaves and stems of Bt maize and persistence of the protein in two soil forms (Shortlands and Oakleaf).  The Bt protein activity was bioassayed using 2nd to 3rd instar larvae of diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella (L.) (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae).  Bioassay results showed that the extracts from different parts of Bt maize plants were equally toxic and caused overall larval motility of over 70%.  It was also found that two years'' storage of dried Bt maize material at room temperature, did not reduce the pesticidal activity of the protein toxin.  When Bt maize plant materials were incubated in soils for two weeks under glasshouse conditions, the extracted toxin caused 20% larval mortality and within 7 weeks of incubation in both soils, the extracts obtained caused <10% larval mortality.  However, extracts obtained from Bt maize plant materials incubated in the field showed decreased larval mortality, from 60% to 30% in two weeks and remained >25% after 12 weeks of incubation in the Shortlands soil and from 55% to 15% within four weeks and eventually down to 10% in 23 weeks of incubation in the Oakleaf soil.  The findings suggest that Bt maize plant parts contribute comparable amounts of Bt protein toxin to the soil, and toxin persistence in the soil appears to depend on soil type, and temperature and moisture conditions.', 'en_US'),
(2620, 'Estimation of gene flow via pollen spread for the orchard layout prior to the field release of apple transformants.', 'Several genetically modified apples (Malus × domestica) have been produced in Japan and adequate orchard layout of test plots is needed prior to the field release of transgenic apple trees.  Crabapples ''Adams'' and ''Purple Lemoine'', possessing a heterozygous dominant gene for red leaf color, were used as pollinizers to assess the range of pollen dispersal in apple trees.  ''Fuji'' trees in pots were scattered as pollen recipients 2 to 400 m apart from the ''Adams'' pollinizer towards four directions in the field experiment.  All fruits were harvested from the trees and seeds collected were germinated in a greenhouse after stratification.  Without bees present in the screen cage, very few fruits set at a distance less than 1 m from the pollinizer.  In field trials, the number of red seedlings arising from seed samples declined sharply with increasing distance from the pollinizer.  The area of pollen dispersal in this experiment was wider as compared with the result of Wertheim in the Netherlands.  The results of our experiments suggest that the distance to prevent unintended pollination from a pollinizer is over 150 m under Japanese environment conditions.', 'en_US'),
(2621, 'Transgenic rootstock protein transmission in grapevines', 'Methods to manage uncontrolled flow of transgenes via pollen and seeds are increasing in importance as transgenic crops become more commonplace.  In many parts of the world, grapevine scions are grafted onto rootstocks, which are adapted to resist adverse soil conditions and pests and/or to promote vigor.  Water, minerals and other important nutrients are transferred in bulk from the rootstock to scion via the xylem.  Thus, it is possible that bioactive peptides produced by a transgenic rootstock and deposited into its xylem sap would be similarly transferred to a non-transgenic scion.  If the peptide conferred a desirable trait to the non-transgenic scion, such as disease resistance, the issue of unwanted gene flow would be solved, since transgenic pollen and seeds would not be produced during flowering and fruit production.  Furthermore, the commercialization of transgenic grapevines would be simplified, since relatively few transgenic rootstock varieties would be needed to protect any non-transgenic scion.  As an example, transgenic rootstock technology might be used in the control of Pierce''s disease (PD), which is caused by the xylem-limited bacteria, Xylella fastidiosa.  Antimicrobial peptides produced by a transgenic rootstock may control bacteria in the xylem sap of a non-transgenic scion, thus providing PD resistance.  To test this hypothesis, transgenic Vitis vinifera ''Thompson Seedless'' expressing the Shiva-1 lytic peptide gene was treated as a rootstock.  Non-transgenic V. vinifera ''Cabernet Sauvignon'' and ''Thompson Seedless'' were grafted onto the rootstock.  Controls consisted of grafted and non-grafted transgenic and non-transgenic vines.  Presence of the Shiva-1 peptide in xylem sap of the scion was detected by Enzyme-Linked Immunoabsorbent Assay (ELISA).', 'en_US'),
(2622, 'Genetically modified crops and insect conservation.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2623, 'Comparison of nutritional quality between chinese indica rice with sck and cry1Ac genes and its nontransgenic counterpart.', 'Nutritional assessment of transgenic crops used for human food and animal feed is an important aspect of safety evaluations. An insect-resistant rice (IRR) was generated by the stable insertion of sck, a modified cowpea trypsin inhibitor gene, and cry1Ac, encoding a crystal protein from Bacillus thuringiensis into the genome of a common variety of Chinese indica rice. The composition of the brown and milled rice grain from the resulted IRR line designated Liangyou Kefeng No. 6 was compared with that of the parental rice cultivar Liangyou 2186. Nutrients, including the proximates, amino acids, fatty acids, minerals, and vitamins, were measured. The antinutritive components such as phytic acid, lectin, and trypsin inhibitors were also examined. The data demonstrated that the nutritional quality of both the brown and milled rice grains from the transgenic line was substantially equivalent to that of the nontransgenic counterpart, and measured amounts of nutritional components fell within the range of values reported for other commercial lines.', 'en_US'),
(2624, 'The flow of maize pollen in a designed field plot.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2625, 'Serum testing of genetically modified soybeans with special emphasis on potential allergenicity of the heterologous protein CP4 EPSPS.', 'Roundup Ready soy contains the CP4-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (CP4 EPSPS) protein. Serum IgE from two distinct populations of soy-allergic patients were recruited to determine their IgE-binding specificity. One population consisted of 10 adult patients from Europe, whose primary diagnosis was soy food allergy with some also having mite allergy. In addition, 6 primarily mite-allergic, 6 food-allergic (celery, carrot, milk, shrimp, walnut, and apple), and 5 non-allergic patients were tested. Another population consisted of 13 children from Korea, whose primary diagnosis was atopic dermatitis and secondarily soy and egg sensitization. In addition, 11 non-allergic patients were tested. Each patient population was extensively characterized with respect to clinical symptoms, specific IgE (CAP) scores, and total IgE. Immunoblots and ELISA assays were developed using serum IgE from these patients and soy extracts, CP4 EPSPS, rice extract, ovalbumin, rubisco, purified major peanut allergen Ara h 2, the putative soy allergen Gly m Bd 30k and mite allergen Der f 2 proteins as the intended targets. Immunoblot results indicated that soy-allergic patients bound soy extracts but did not specifically bind rubisco or CP4 EPSPS. ELISA results were in general agreement with the immunoblot results except that rubisco bound significant quantities of serum IgE from some patients. These results indicate that the CP4 EPSPS protein does not bind significant quantities of IgE from two geographically distinct sensitive populations and there is no evidence for an increased allergenic potential of this biotech protein.', 'en_US'),
(2626, 'Comparison of conventional FASTA identity searches with the 80 amino acid sliding window FASTA search for the elucidation of potential identities to known allergens.', 'Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization (FAO/WHO) recommended that IgE cross-reactivity between a transgenic protein and allergen be considered when there is F 35% identity over a sliding window of 80 amino acids.  Our objective was to evaluate the false positive and negative rates observed using the FAO/WHO versus conventional FASTA analyses.  Data used as queries against allergen databases and analyzed to assess false positive rates included: 1102 hypothetical corn ORFs; 907 randomly selected proteins; 89 randomly selected corn proteins; and 97 corn seed proteins.  To evaluate false negative rates of both methods: Bet v 1a along with several crossreacting fruit/vegetable allergens and a bean -amylase inhibitor were used as queries.  Both methods were also evaluated for their ability to detect a putative nonallergenic test protein containing a sequence derived from Ara h 1.  FASTA versions 3.3t0 and 3.4t25 were utilized.  Data indicate a conventional FASTA analysis produced fewer false positives and equivalent false negative rates.  Conventional FASTA versus sliding window derived E scores were generally more significant.  Results suggest a conventional FASTA search provides more relevant identity to the query protein and better reflects the functional similarities between proteins.  It is recommended that the conventional FASTA analysis be conducted to compare identities of proteins to allergens.', 'en_US'),
(2627, 'Why do some of the public reject novel scientific technologies?  A synthesis of results from the fate of biotechnology research programme.', 'This report synthesises outputs from a five year programme of research on public perceptions of biotechnology.  In interpreting the overall results, a pressure-response-assessment-outcome model is introduced to explain reactions to biotechnology.  Biotechnology pressures or challenges peoples'' attitudes and values.  It invokes deep-seated reactions from people in New Zealand and there are a number of dimensions to these reactions.  One is the ethical or moral question about whether the biotechnology is right and proper to use.  Closely related are the spiritual issues that biotechnology raises, and while these were not strong with pakeha they were important to South Island Maori who linked these to core cultural concepts of whakapapa and mauri .  Also invoked are ideas about nature, which for pakeha were linked directly to concerns about the impact on New Zealand''s clean green image.  Finally, biotechnology challenges the boundaries between plants and animals and between humans and non humans.', 'en_US'),
(2628, 'Biotechnology, industrial agriculture, and the risk society.', 'This article evaluates the risk/reflexive society perspective empirically by examining debates surrounding agricultural biotechnologies and the relationships between concepts associated with this perspective and support for agricultural biotechnology applications, using data from a regional U.S.  Southwest telephone survey (n = 432).  The perspective aided in conceptualizing debates surrounding agricultural biotechnology applications.  Proponents of biotechnology tend to promote arguments consistent with the industrial paradigm, whereas critics tend to espouse risk/reflexivesociety arguments.  The survey findings were more difficult to interpret.  Trust and items about industrial agriculture were significantly related to support for both plant and animal biotechnology applications.  Perceived knowledge was only significantly related to plant applications, while perceived control and how foods are produced were not significantly related to support.  As the debates surrounding biotechnology remain controversial and the populace remains relatively unengaged, these results portray a public that represents a spectrum of views along an industrial/risk continuum.', 'en_US'),
(2629, 'New analysis of a rat feeding study with a genetically modified maize reveals signs of hepatorenal toxicity.', 'Health risk assessment of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) cultivated for food or feed is under debate throughout the world, and very little data have been published on mid- or long-term toxicological studies with mammals. One of these studies performed under the responsibility of Monsanto Company with a transgenic corn MON863 has been subjected to questions from regulatory reviewers in Europe, where it was finally approved in 2005. This necessitated a new assessment of kidney pathological findings, and the results remained controversial. An Appeal Court action in Germany (Münster) allowed public access in June 2005 to all the crude data from this 90-day rat-feeding study. We independently re-analyzed these data. Appropriate statistics were added, such as a multivariate analysis of the growth curves, and for biochemical parameters comparisons between GMO-treated rats and the controls fed with an equivalent normal diet, and separately with six reference diets with different compositions. We observed that after the consumption of MON863, rats showed slight but dose-related significant variations in growth for both sexes, resulting in 3.3% decrease in weight for males and 3.7% increase for females. Chemistry measurements reveal signs of hepatorenal toxicity, marked also by differential sensitivities in males and females. Triglycerides increased by 24?40% in females (either at week 14, dose 11% or at week 5, dose 33%, respectively); urine phosphorus and sodium excretions diminished in males by 31?35% (week 14, dose 33%) for the most important results significantly linked to the treatment in comparison to seven diets tested. Longer experiments are essential in order to indicate the real nature and extent of the possible pathology; with the present data it cannot be concluded that GM corn MON863 is a safe product.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(2630, 'Environmental impact and risk management strategies of Bt cotton commercialization in China.', 'Transgenic cotton expressing the Cry1Ac toxin from Bacillus thuringiensis has been planted widely in China since 1997, and reached 70% of the total cotton area in 2006. The results of monitoring the environmental impact of Bt cotton commercialization indicated that the target pests, cotton bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera) and pink bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella), were effectively controlled while the mirids (Hemiptera: Miridae) evolved to be key pests in the cotton system. There were no significant changes in resistance gene frequency of field populations of cotton bollworm, but a shift toward increased tolerance was apparent in the area of intensive planting of Bt cotton, indicating that the potential risk of resistance of the target pest has become a major threat for sustainable planting of Bt cotton. Considering the factors associated with the evolution of resistance, risk management strategies are discussed in this paper.', 'en_US'),
(2631, 'Effects of transgenic Bt cotton on insecticide use and abundance of two generalist predators.', 'Considerable effort has been expended to determine if crops genetically engineered to produce Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxins harm non-target arthropods. However, if Bt crops kill target pests and thereby reduce insecticide use, this could benefit some non-target arthropods. We analyzed data from 21 commercial cotton fields in Arizona to test the effects of Bt cotton on insecticide use and abundance of two non-target arthropods, the generalist predators Chrysoperla carnea Stephens (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) and Orius tristicolor (White) (Heteroptera: Anthocoridae). The number of insecticide sprays was more than double for non-Bt cotton compared with Bt cotton that produced Cry1Ac. The abundance of both predators was negatively associated with the number of insecticide sprays, although significantly so for only one of two sampling periods for each species tested. With the effects of insecticides statistically removed, field type (Bt or non-Bt cotton) did not affect the abundance of either predator. Accordingly, without adjusting for the effects of insecticide sprays, the abundance of C. carnea was higher in Bt cotton fields than in non-Bt cotton fields, but significantly so during only one of two sampling periods. The abundance of O. tristicolor did not differ between field types, even without adjusting for effects of insecticide sprays. The results indicate that Bt crops can affect insecticide use, which in turn can affect the relative abundance of non-target arthropods in Bt and non-Bt fields. Thus, environmental impact assessment should incorporate analysis of the effects of transgenic crops on management practices, as well as evaluation of the direct effects of such crops.', 'en_US'),
(2632, 'Willingness to pay (WTP) a premium for non-GM foods versus willingness to accept (WTA) a discount for GM foods.', 'In a survey of UK consumers, we elicited their willingness to accept (WTA) a discount for GM foods and willingness to pay (WTP) a premium for non-GM foods in order to assess their valuation on the non-GM characteristic in food products.  Mean WTA is found to exceed mean WTP, suggesting the valuation of the non-GM characteristic reflects an endowment effect, imperfect substitutability between GM and non-GM foods, or both.  Regression results show that perceived risks (benefits) associated with GM foods significantly increase (decrease) WTA and WTP estimates.  Additional regression models using the difference between WTA and WTP as the dependent variable indicate that risk (benefit) perceptions increased (decreased) the discrepancy between WTA and WTP estimates.  The role of risk perceptions in explaining this discrepancy is congruent with consumers'' propensity toward loss aversion as predicted by the endowment effect hypothesis and prospect theory.', 'en_US'),
(2633, 'Air-mediated pollen flow from genetically modified to conventional crops.', 'vTools for estimating pollen dispersal and the resulting gene flow are necessary to assess the risk of gene flow from genetically modified (GM) to conventional fields, and to quantify the effectiveness of measures that may prevent such gene flow. A mechanistic simulation model is presented and used to simulate pollen dispersal by wind in different agricultural scenarios over realistic pollination periods. The relative importance of landscape-related variables such as isolation distance, topography, spatial configuration of the fields, GM field size and barrier, and environmental variation are examined in order to find ways to minimize gene flow and to detect possible risk factors.The simulations demonstrated a large variation in pollen dispersal and in the predicted amount of contamination between different pollination periods. This was largely due to variation in vertical wind. As this variation in wind conditions is difficult to control through management measures, it should be carefully considered when estimating the risk of gene flow from GM crops. On average, the predicted level of gene flow decreased with increasing isolation distance and with increasing depth of the conventional field, and increased with increasing GM field size. Therefore, at a national scale and over the long term these landscape properties should be accounted for when setting regulations for controlling gene flow. However, at the level of an individual field the level of gene flow may be dominated by uncontrollable variation.Due to the sensitivity of pollen dispersal to the wind, we conclude that gene flow cannot be summarized only by the mean contamination; information about the frequency of extreme events should also be considered. The modeling approach described in this paper offers a way to predict and compare pollen dispersal and gene flow in varying environmental conditions, and to assess the effectiveness of different management measures.', 'en_US'),
(2634, 'The effect of wind direction on cross-pollination in wind-pollinated GM crops.', 'In Europe, regulatory thresholds restrict adventitious GM (genetically modified) presence in conventional crops. Minimum distances for the spatial separation of fields are often recommended to reduce field-to-field cross-pollination to an acceptable level. Field trials are typically the basis for setting separation distances. However, using records of wind direction and speed from weather stations across Europe, we predict theoretically that field-to-field windborne cross-pollination in maize, oilseed rape, sugar beet, and rice varies greatly according to the relative orientation of the GM and non-GM fields. Furthermore, at a given site and orientation from a GM field, we predict that the cross-pollination rate varies substantially from year to year. Consequently, even replicated field trials may inaccurately estimate typical levels of cross-pollination and therefore distort our perception of the separation distances required to achieve sub-threshold adventitious GM presence. We propose methods to predict the likely range in levels of cross-pollination based on the limited data typically available from field trials. Additionally, we suggest suitable time lags between peak flowering in adjacent fields that could be introduced to reduce cross-pollination to a specified level.', 'en_US'),
(2635, 'Long-distance GM pollen movement of creeping bentgrass using modeled wind trajectory analysis.', 'The importance of understanding the role of atmospheric conditions in pollen dispersal has grown in recent years with increased field-testing of genetically modified (GM) crop plants. An atmospheric model was used to characterize wind trajectories at 10 m and 100 m above GM pollen source fields located within a 4452-ha ''control'' area north of Madras, Oregon, USA, designated by the Oregon Department of Agriculture (ODA). The area was used in 2003 for the growth of GM creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera) engineered to be resistant to glyphosate herbicide. The presence of the GM gene (CP4 EPSPS) provided a distinct selectable marker for pollen-mediated gene flow to sentinel and resident Agrostis spp. plants. Linkage of GM gene presence with wind flow characteristics over the ''control'' area became essential to understand the timing and processes leading to long-distance transport of this pollen. Wind trajectories showed a general pattern of northwest to southeast air movement. Trajectory travel distances calculated hourly from 06:00 hours to 15:00 hours during the 2003 pollination period (15 June?15 July) showed movement up to 15 km from the ''control'' area''s center by the first hour. Maximum travel distances increased to 40 and 55 km after two and three hours from release, respectively. Calculated wind trajectory positions corresponded with observed long-distance pollen-mediated gene flow in the seedlings of sentinel and resident plants. The highest correlations were found during the late morning hours. Back-calculated wind trajectories from sentinel and resident locations with GM-gene-positive progeny suggested that most successful fertilizations occurred in the direction of prevailing winds during late June 2003. The occurrence of positive progeny from sentinel plants, upwind of the ''control'' area during this period, indicated the additional influence of local topography on pollen dispersal.', 'en_US'),
(2636, 'Looking a gift horse in the mouth:  The case of Zambia''s refusal to accept American food aid.', 'Consider food.  What it is? At its most basic, it is something we collect and consume to survive.  It can be very simple ? a grain, a tuber, or an animal.  Often, however, food is quite complex.  One reason for this complexity is that food is an important part of culture.  Another reason is that the production of food includes different processes: planting and harvesting, storage, distribution, preparation and disposal.  As production expands - from providing for the household to providing for central markets and again to exporting to an international market - safety issues and complexity also expand.  At each step, new issues may emerge; issues associated with both the safety of the production process and of the final product.  In addition, at each link there are potentially new actors who may both affect and be affected by these processes and their products; new actors with potentially different interests.  Underlying any definition of food then are particular actors'' interests in framing just what ''food'' is and is not and delineating how it can and should be used.  These interests can include new ways of using food, a new technology used in its production or other interests entirely - such as interest in the environment.  Food, then, is not merely an objective, static thing, defined and used in the same way by all consumers.  If it were, regulation of it would be relatively straight-forward.  Instead, food and food regulation have the potential to change and to awaken strong feelings and emotions in producers, consumers and other stakeholders.  Food, then, is not only complex, it is also value-laden.', 'en_US'),
(2637, 'Effects of transgenic Bt maize pollen on longevity and fecundity of Trichogramma ostriniae in laboratory conditions.', 'The effects of transgenic Bt maize pollen expressing the Cry1Ab protein of Bacillus thuringiensis (Berliner) as a food source on Trichogramma ostriniae Pang et Chen (Hymenoptera Trichogrammatidae) were examined in laboratory by studying longevity, progeny production and offspring sex ratio.  Females fed on suspension of pollen of Bt maize or non-Bt maize in water lived significantly longer than those fed on water alone.  However, the longevity of females fed on 10% honey alone was similar to those fed on suspension of pollen of Bt maize or non-Bt maize in 10% honey.  T. ostriniae females fed on suspension of pollen of Bt maize or non-Bt maize in water produced significantly more progeny than those fed on water alone.  The number of parasitised host eggs and number of offspring emerged by T. ostriniae females fed on 10% honey was not significantly different to those fed on 10% honey suspension of pollen of Bt maize or non-Bt maize.  No significant differences in longevity, number of parasitised eggs, offspring emerged and the offspring sex ratio were observed between the females feeding on pollen of Bt maize and non-Bt maize, this was shown in experiments with suspension of 10% honey and with water.  Maize pollen in water increased the reproduction and survival of T. ostriniae females compared to water alone.  Bt maize pollen did not adversely affect T. ostriniae.', 'en_US'),
(2638, 'GM soybeans and health safety-a controversy reexamined.', 'An unprecedented study claiming that transgenic soybeans compromise the fertility of rats and the survival and growth of their offspring has garnered widespread media and political attention but remains unpublished in the peer-reviewed literature.  Here, an account of the work from the principal investigator, Irina Ermakova, is appended with comments from researchers in the field.', 'en_US'),
(2639, 'A proteomic study to identify soya allergens - The human response to transgenic versus non-transgenic soya samples.', 'Background:  In spite of being among the main foods responsible for allergic reactions worldwide, soybean (Glycine max)-derived products continue to be increasingly widespread in a variety of food products due to their well-documented health benefits.  Soybean also continues to be one of the elected target crops for genetic modification.  The aim of this study was to characterize the soya proteome and, specifically, IgE-reactive proteins as well as to compare the IgE response in soya-allergic individuals to genetically modified Roundup Ready soya® versus its non-transgenic control.  Methods:  We performed two-dimensional gel electrophoresis of protein extracts from a 5% genetically modified Roundup Ready flour sample and its non-transgenic control followed by Western blotting with plasma from 5 soya-sensitive individuals.  We used peptide tandem mass spectrometry to identify soya proteins (55 protein matches), specifically IgE-binding ones, and to evaluate differences between transgenic and non-transgenic samples.  Results:  We identified 2 new potential soybean allergens - one is maturation associated and seems to be part of the late embryogenesis abundant proteins group and the other is a cysteine proteinase inhibitor.  None of the individuals tested reacted differentially to the transgenic versus non-transgenic samples under study.  Conclusion:  Soybean endogenous allergen expression does not seem to be altered after genetic modification.  Proteomics should be considered a powerful tool for functional characterization of plants and for food safety assessment.', 'en_US'),
(2640, 'Regulation of animal biotechnology:  Research needs.', 'Livestock that result from biotechnology have been a part of agricultural science for over 30 years but have not entered the market place as food or fiber.  Two biotechnologies are at the forefront as challenges to the world''s systems for regulating the market place: animal clones and transgenic animals.  Both technologies have come before the Food and Drug Administration in the United States and it appears that action is imminent for clones.  The FDA has asserted principles for evaluation of clones and asserts that ''? remaining hazard(s) from cloning are likely to be subtle in nature.'' The science-based principles recognize that in some areas related to developmental biology and gene expression in clones, additional scientific information would be useful.  The role of science then is to use the genomic tools that we have available to answer questions about epigenetic regulation of development and reprogramming of genes to the state found in germ cells.  Transgenics pose additional challenges to regulators.  If the transgenics are produced using cloning from modified cells then the additional scientific information needed will be related to the effects of insertion and expression of the transgenes.  Other approaches such as retrovirally vectored transgenesis will elicit additional questions.  These questions will be challenging because the science will have to be related to the expression and function of each gene or class of genes.  For the promises of animal biotechnology to be fulfilled, scientists will have to resolve many questions for regulators and the public but tools to answer those questions are rapidly becoming available.', 'en_US'),
(2641, 'Improving containment strategies in biopharming.', 'This review examines the challenges of segregating biopharmed crops expressing pharmaceutical or veterinary agents from mainstream crops, particularly those destined for food or feed use. The strategy of using major food crops as production vehicles for the expression of pharmaceutical or veterinary agents is critically analysed in the light of several recent episodes of contamination of the human food chain by non-approved crop varieties. Commercially viable strategies to limit or avoid biopharming intrusion into the human food chain require the more rigorous segregation of food and non-food varieties of the same crop species via a range of either physical or biological methods. Even more secure segregation is possible by the use of non-food crops, non-crop plants or in vitro plant cultures as production platforms for biopharming. Such platforms already under development range from outdoor-grown Nicotiana spp. to glasshouse-grown Arabidopsis, lotus and moss. Amongst the more effective methods for biocontainment are the plastid expression of transgenes, inducible and transient expression systems, and physical containment of plants or cell cultures. In the current atmosphere of heightened concerns over food safety and biosecurity, the future of biopharming may be largely determined by the extent to which the sector is able to maintain public confidence via a more considered approach to containment and security of its plant production systems.', 'en_US'),
(2642, 'Tracking papaya pollen movement with the GUS transgene marker.', 'Transgenic, virus-resistant papaya cultivars in Hawaii are easily identified by a colorimetric assay for the beta-glucuronidase (GUS) marker transgene.  We used GUS to track pollen movement from a central 0.5-ha plot of gynodioecious transgenic ''Rainbow'' plants by seed assays on plants in surrounding border rows of non-transgenic ''Sunrise'' papaya.  GUS evidence of cross-pollination occurred in 70% of female plants (43% of assayed seeds), compared with only 13% of the predominantly self-pollinating hermaphrodite plants (7% of seeds) segregating in the gynodioecious ''Sunrise'' border rows.  The percentage of GUS+ seeds in border row plants showed a weak negative correlation (r = -0.32) with distance from the nearest transgenic tree (30 m maximum).  In a non-transgenic papaya field located 400 m downwind from the ''Rainbow'' source, no evidence of GUS was found in 1000 assayed seeds.  In a separate study, the origin of GUS+ seed discovered in papaya fruits from an organic farm was investigated.  Leaf GUS assays revealed that 70% of trees were transgenic, indicating that the grower had planted genetically engineered seed.  The impact of pollen drift from transgenic trees within the same field was determined by screening for GUS expression in seed samples from 20 non-transgenic hermaphrodites.  Only 3 hermaphrodites (15%) showed GUS+ seeds, at low levels ranging from 3 to 6% of contaminated samples.  These data indicate that the major source of transgenic contamination in organic fields is seeds of unverified origin, rather than pollen drift from neighbouring transgenic fields.  Organic growers are advised to 1) plant only seed that is known to be non-transgenic, preferably obtained by manual self-pollination of selected non-transgenic hermaphrodites, 2) grow only hermaphrodite (self-pollinating) trees, removing any female or male plants from production fields, and 3) maintain 400 m distance from nearest transgenic papayas.', 'en_US'),
(2643, 'Exposure and effects assessments of Bt-maize on non-target organisms (gastropods, microarthropods, mycorrhizal fungi) in microcosms', 'Potential differences between Bt-maize (MEB307 expressing the insecticidal Cry1Ab protein) and a near-isogenic non-Bt variety (Monumental) in their influence on the garden snail (Helix aspersa), soil microarthropods (Collembola, Actinedida, Acaridida, Gamasida and Oribatida) and mycorrhizal fungi were studied. Growing snails were caged in microcosms allowing the development of Bt or non-Bt-maize (Zea mays L.) on a sandy loam soil. After 3 months exposure, survival and growth of snails were similar in both treatments. Cry1Ab protein was detected in the Bt-maize leaves (22?42.2 ìg Bt protein g-1 dry wt), in the snail tissues (0.04?0.11 ìg Bt-protein g-1 dry wt) and in their faeces (0.034?5 ìg Bt-protein g-1 dry wt). Total soil microarthropod abundance and diversity were similar between control (non-Bt-maize) and the genetically modified (GM) Bt-maize microcosms. The mycorrhizal colonization of roots did not differ between Bt and non-Bt-maize (frequency of mycorrhizal roots was 88.7% and 83.3% respectively). The mycorrhizal infectivity of soils, expressed as MI50 (minimum soil dry weight required to colonize 50% of plants) was measured using red clover. MI50 was similar for soils where Bt or non-Bt-maize was cultivated for 4 months. The detection of Cry1Ab protein in the viscera and faeces of H. aspersa exposed to Bt-maize indicates that snails contribute to the transfer of the Bt-protein from plant to soil or snail predators. This may constitute an alternative route of exposure for Bt-protein in soil, but this was without a negative influence on mycorrhizal fungi or microarthropods. Results showed that Bt-maize was not toxic for the selected non-target species exposed for 3 or 4 months. The microcosms and analyses used in this study represent new methods for assessing effects of chronic exposure to GM plants of several diverse, yet ecologically and temporally associated species. As the soil organisms we studied can also be used in standardized ecotoxicological tests (XP X31-205-2 for mycorrhizal fungi, ISO 11267 for Collembola and ISO 15952 for snails), microcosm exposures represent a way to link laboratory and field methods for the ecotoxicological evaluation of GM plants.', 'en_US'),
(2644, 'Microbial and microfaunal community structure in cropping systems with genetically modified plants.', 'Soils from field sites at Foulum (DK), Narbons (FR) and Varois (FR) planted with genetically modified maize expressing either the insecticidal Bacillus thuringiensis protein (Bt) or herbicide tolerance (HT), as described elsewhere in this volume, were analysed for nematodes, protozoa and microbial community structure. These analyses were mirrored in single-species testing and in mesocosm experiments, and were coordinated with field samples taken for microarthropods, enchytraeids and earthworms so allowing for cross-comparison and a better understanding of the results observed in the field. Over the first 2 years of the field experiments (in 2002 and 2003), the effect of Bt-maize was within the normal variation expected in these agricultural systems. Sampling in 2004 and 2005 was expanded to include the effects of tillage (i.e. reduced tillage versus conventional tillage) and also the use of HT-maize. Tillage had major effects regardless of soil type (Varois or Foulum), with reduced-tillage plots having a greater abundance of microfauna and a different microbial community structure (measured both by phospholipid fatty-acid analysis (PLFA) and by community-level physiological profiling (CLPP)) from conventionally tilled plots. Grass, as a contrasting cropping system to maize, also had an effect regardless of soil type and resulted in greater microfaunal abundance and an altered microbial community structure. Differences in crop management, which for the Bt-maize was removal of the insecticide used to control European corn borer and for HT-maize was a change in herbicide formulation, were only tested at single sites. There were differences in microbial community structure (CLPP but not PLFA) and sporadic increases in protozoan abundance under the Bt-crop management. The HT-maize cropping system, which covered a shorter period and only one site, showed little change from the conventional system other than an altered microbial community structure (as measured by PLFA only) at the final harvest. The Bt-trait had a minimal impact, with fewer amoebae at Foulum in May 2003, fewer nematodes at Foulum in May 2004 but more protozoa at Varois in October 2002 and an altered microbial community structure (PLFA) at Foulum in August 2005. These were not persistent effects and could not be distinguished from varietal effects. Based on the field evaluations of microfauna and microorganisms, we conclude that there were no soil ecological consequences for these communities associated with the use of Bt- or HT-maize in place of conventional varieties. Other land management options, such as tillage, crop type and pest management regime, had significantly larger effects on the biology of the soil than the type of maize grown.', 'en_US'),
(2645, 'Evaluation of effects of transgenic Bt maize on microarthropods in a European multi-site experiment.', 'The effects of maize expressing the Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Ab protein (Bt maize) on soil microarthropods were assessed in the field at four European locations (two in Denmark and two in France) that differ in their climatic conditions or soil properties. Each site was considered as a separate experiment, with separate statistical comparison. Effects of farming practices using Bt maize were compared with conventional farming practices using near-isogenic non-Bt maize and also (at some of the sites) other conventional varieties. Furthermore, at one field site (Foulum, Denmark), the effects of Bt crops were studied in both conventional tillage and reduced tillage contexts. At another field site (Askov, Denmark), Bt maize effects were also compared to the effects of the chemical insecticide dimethoate. Moreover, at three of the field sites (all except Narbons, France), the possibility of a localised Bt effect around the rhizosphere compared to the bulk soil was assessed by sampling within and between maize rows. There were some significant negative effects of Bt maize on microarthropods in soils with a high clay content. Significant differences of the same magnitude also occurred between different conventional varieties of maize, but the effect of dimethoate appeared clearly greater than Bt effects. It is thus debatable if the Bt maize effect is an effect of the Bt toxin or just an effect of the maize variety. Based on the results, it can be concluded that the effect of Bt maize on soil microarthropods was small and within the normal variation expected in conventional agricultural systems.', 'en_US'),
(2646, 'Responses by earthworms to reduced tillage in herbicide tolerant maize and Bt maize cropping systems.', 'Genetically modified (GM) crops may affect earthworms either directly through the plant, its root exudates and litter, or indirectly through the agricultural management changes that are associated with GM plant production.  In order to investigate such possible effects, we established two field studies of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) maize and a glufosinate ammonium tolerant maize and included a reduced tillage (RT) treatment and a conventional tillage (CT) treatment as examples of a likely concomitant change in the agricultural practise.  At a French study site at Varois, (Bourgogne), a field grown with the Bt-toxin producing transgenic maize line MON810 was studied for 1 year.  At a Danish study site, Foulum (Jutland), 1 year of Bt maize was followed by 2 years of herbicide tolerant (HT) maize.  At the French study site, the most prominent effects observed were due to the tillage method where RT significantly reduced the earthworm populations to levels about half of CT.  At the Danish study site effects of CT complied with known reduction of anecic earthworms due to this technique and likewise effects of RT were observed for endogeic earthworms.  Earthworm populations were diminished with the HT crop, probably due to exposure to the herbicide Basta® during the two consecutive autumn seasons.  This study confirms the importance of including the tillage techniques and pesticide usage when evaluating the environmental effects of new agricultural technologies.', 'en_US'),
(2647, 'Hierarchical classification of environmental factors and agricultural practices affecting soil fauna under cropping systems using Bt maize.', 'The population dynamics of soil organisms under agricultural field conditions are influenced by many factors, such as pedology and climate, but also farming practices such as crop type, tillage and the use of pesticides.  To assess the real effects of farming practices on soil organisms it is necessary to rank the influence of all of these parameters.  Bt maize (Zea mays L.), as a crop recently introduced into farming practices, is a genetically modified maize with the Cry1Ab gene which produces a protein toxic to specific lepidopteran insect pests.  To assess the effects of Bt maize on non-target soil organisms, we conducted research at a field site in Foulum (Denmark) with a loamy sand soil containing 6.4% organic matter.  The study focused on populations of springtails (Collembola) and earthworms (Oligochaeta) from samples taken at the beginning and at the end of the maize crop-growing season during 2 consecutive years.  Farming practices, soil parameters, the biological structure of soil communities, and the type and age of the crop at the time of sampling, were used as attributes to predict the total abundance of springtails and biomass of earthworms in general and the abundance or biomass for specific functional groups (epigeic, endogeic and anecic groups for earthworms, and eu-, eu to hemi-, hemi-, hemi to epi- and epiedaphic groups for Collembola).  Predictive models were built with data mining tools, such as regression trees that predict the value of a dependent variable from a set of independent variables.  Regression trees were constructed with the data mining system M5''.  The models were evaluated by qualitative and quantitative measures of performance and two models were selected for further interpretation: anecic worms and hemi-epiedaphic Collembola.  The anecic worms (r2=0.83) showed preferences for less clay and more silt soil with medium pH but were not influenced directly by farming practices.  The biomass of earthworms was greater in early autumn than in spring or late autumn.  Biomass of hemi-epiedaphic Collembola (r2=0.59) increased at the end of the maize growing season, while higher organic matter content and pH tended to increase their biomass in spring.  Greater abundance of Collembola was also noted in early autumn if the crop was non-Bt maize.  The models assessed by this research did not find any effects of the Bt maize cropping system on functional groups of soil fauna.', 'en_US'),
(2648, 'A qualitative multi-attribute model for assessing the impact of cropping systems on soil quality.', 'An important goal of the European Commission-funded ECOGEN project is to develop a computer-based decision support system (DSS) for the assessment of economic and ecological impacts of using genetically modified crops. In ecological impact assessment, special emphasis is put on soil biology and estimating soil quality from the observed biological parameters. Methodologically, we have addressed this goal using model-based DSS, taking the approach of qualitative multi-attribute modelling. The approach is based on developing various hierarchical multi-attribute models that consist of qualitative attributes and utility (aggregation) functions, represented by decision rules. The model presented in this paper assesses the impact of cropping systems on soil quality and can subsequently be used to assess crop management options. It was developed as a collaboration between ECOGEN soil experts and decision analysts, and consists of 34 attributes, hierarchically structured into eight levels. There are 21 input attributes, most of which measure the richness and biomass of representative soil organisms. The assessment of soil quality is based on two main indicators: (1) soil diversity (assessed through microfauna, mesofauna and macrofauna richness) and (2) soil functioning (in terms of leaching, comminution, mineralisation and plant growth). In the paper, we address the methodological aspects of the model and its development, and describe the components of the model (attributes, value scales, decision rules and weights). We present initial results of its application to the assessment of crop management on soil quality in the case of using conventional and Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)-maize at three field sites in France and Denmark. Our finding was that soil quality was unaffected even though several input attributes had changed. We also analyse the sensitivity of the model and discuss its current and potential contribution to soil quality management. The model is operational (available through a web page) and can be used for the assessment, comparison and analysis of realistic management scenarios. Furthermore, it provides an effective means of synthesising a lot of data, encoding knowledge about soil-quality factors, supporting communication among experts, answering ''what-if'' and ''so-what'' questions, and supporting the evaluation of new agricultural practices.', 'en_US'),
(2649, 'The role of laboratory, glasshouse and field scale experiments in understanding the interactions between genetically modified crops and soil ecosystems:  A review of the ECOGEN project.', 'The interactions of genetically modified (GM) crops with soil species and ecosystems is complex, requiring both specific and broad spectrum assessments.  In the ECOGEN project we undertook experiments at three scales of increasing complexity, using Bt maize expressing the Cry1Ab protein from Bacillus thuringiensis as an example.  Test species were selected for laboratory-scale experiments to represent taxonomic groups that we could also monitor at glasshouse and field scales (e.g., nematodes, protozoa, micro-arthropods, earthworms, and snails).  In the laboratory, single species were exposed to purified Cry1Ab protein or to Bt maize leaf powder incorporated into simplified diets under controlled conditions.  In the glasshouse, multiple test species and soil microbial communities taken from ECOGEN''s field sites were exposed to Bt maize plants growing under glasshouse or mesocosm conditions.  In the field, evaluations were conducted on our selected indicator groups over multiple sites and growing seasons.  Field evaluation included assessment of effects due to the local environment, crop type, seasonal variation and conventional crop management practice (tillage and pesticide use), which cannot be assessed in the glasshouse.  No direct effects of Cry1Ab protein or Bt leaf residues were detected on our laboratory test organisms, but some significant effects were detected in the glasshouse.  Total nematode and protozoan numbers increased in field soil under Bt maize relative to conventional maize, whilst microbial community structure and activity were unaffected.  Field results for the abundance of nematodes and protozoa showed some negative effects of Bt maize, thus contradicting the glasshouse results.  However, these negative results were specific to particular field sites and sampling times and therefore were transient.  Taking the overall variation found in maize ecosystems at different sites into account, any negative effects of Bt maize at field scale were judged to be indirect and no greater than the impacts of crop type, tillage and pesticide use.  Although the ECOGEN results were not predictive between the three experimental scales, we propose that they have value when used with feedback loops between the scales.  This holistic approach can used to address questions raised by results from any level of experimentation and also for putting GM crop risk:benefit into context with current agricultural practices in regionally differing agro-ecosystems.', 'en_US'),
(2650, 'The Maximum Incremental Social Tolerable Irreversible Costs (MISTICs) and other benefits and costs of introducing transgenic maize in the EU-15.', 'The decision to release a new transgenic crop variety for planting in the European Union (EU) is a decision under irreversibility and uncertainty.  We use a real option model to assess the ex-ante incremental benefits and costs of the decision to release Bt maize and HT maize in the EU-15 member states.  The analysis uses Eurostat data for modelling the benefits and costs of non-transgenic maize using partial equilibrium models.  The farm-level benefits and costs of Bt maize and HT maize are derived from field trials conducted within the EU-funded ECOGEN project in combination with secondary data sources.  Adoption curves, hurdle rates and Maximum Incremental Social Tolerable Irreversible Costs (MISTICs) are calculated at country level for selected EU-15 member states.  In general, the results show that the MISTICs on a per capita level are very small confirming previous results calculated in values for the year 1995.  The MISTICs per farm are much larger.  This indicates a problem for decision makers.', 'en_US'),
(2651, 'Studying the effect of exposure of the snail Helix aspersa to the purified Bt toxin, Cry1Ab.', 'The present study was intended to assess the effect of the Bt toxin, Cry1Ab, on the snail, Helix aspersa. We studied hatchability of eggs as well as growth and survival of the juvenile snails. The eggs were exposed to purified Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Ab toxin mixed in with soil in 0, 11, 22, 44 or 88 mg Bt kg-1. To check the growth and survival of the juvenile snails, we conducted two different sets of experiments. In the first experiment, the snails were exposed to soil mixed with Bt toxin in 0, 5.5, 11, 22 or 44 mg Bt kg-1 concentrations. In the second experiment, the snails were fed a diet with pure Bt toxin at 0, 11, 44 or 88 mg Bt kg-1 dry weight. We found that Bt toxin has no negative effect on H. aspersa during the observed life stages.', 'en_US'),
(2652, 'Unintentional changes of defence traits in GM trees can influence plant-herbivore interactions.', 'GM trees hold promises of increased quality and yield and reduced use of herbicides and pesticides but could also have ecological consequences.  We investigated whether modification of a non-defensive trait unintentionally influenced plant traits important for plant-herbivore interactions.  We found that over-expression of sucrose phosphate synthase (SPS), which is known to increase mesophyll sucrose content and biomass production in GM aspens, also unintentionally induced changes in the concentration of plant phenolics and nitrogen.  One of the GM lines, SPS33A, had higher concentrations of salicin, tremuloidin, condensed tannins and nitrogen and lower concentrations of coumaric acid and four flavonoids compared with the isogenic wild type.  Line SPS33A was also utilized less by the leaf-beetle Phratora vitellinae than the isogenic wild type.  Ecological consequences such as this are not specific to GM trees or GM plants but can occur as a result of the introduction of all introduced new varieties of crops or trees.  Nevertheless, the results underline the need to consider these unexpected effects when evaluating both the potential benefits and the potential risks with GM plants, and highlight the need to establish and implement comprehensive product-by-product evaluation protocols for GM plants.', 'en_US'),
(2653, 'Effects of corn silage derived from a genetically modified variety containing two transgenes on feed intake, milk production, and composition, and the absence of detectable transgenic deoxyribonucleic acid in milk in Holstein dairy cows.', 'The objectives were to compare the chemical composition, nutritive value, feed intake, milk production and composition, and presence in milk of transgenic DNA and the encoded protein Cry1Ab when corn silages containing 2 transgenes (2GM: herbicide tolerance: mepsps and insect resistance: cry1Ab) were fed as part of a standard total mixed ration (TMR) compared with a near isogenic corn silage (C) to 8 multiparous lactating Holstein dairy cows in a single reversal design study. Cows were fed a TMR ration ad libitum and milked twice daily. Diets contained [dry matter (DM) basis] 45% corn silage, 10% alfalfa hay, and 45% concentrate (1.66 Mcal of net energy for lactation/kg of DM, 15.8% crude protein, 35% neutral detergent fiber, and 4.1% fat). Each period was 28-d long. During the last 4 d of each period, feed intake and milk production data were recorded and milk samples taken for compositional analysis, including the presence of transgenic DNA and Cry1Ab protein. There was no significant difference in the chemical composition between C and 2GM silages, and both were within the expected range (37.6% DM, 1.51 Mcal of net energy for lactation/kg, 8.6% crude protein, 40% neutral detergent fiber, 19.6% acid detergent fiber, pH 3.76, and 62% in vitro DM digestibility). Cows fed the 2GM silage produced milk with slightly higher protein (3.09 vs. 3.00%), lactose (4.83 vs. 4.72%) and solids-not-fat (8.60 vs. 8.40%) compared with C. However, the yield (kg/d) of milk (36.5), 3.5% fat-corrected milk (34.4), fat (1.151), protein (1.106), lactose (1.738), and solids-not-fat (3.094), somatic cell count (log10: 2.11), change in body weight (+7.8 kg), and condition score (+0.09) were not affected by type of silage, indicating no overall production difference. All milk samples were negative for the presence of transgenic DNA from either trait or the Cry1Ab protein. Results indicate that the 2GM silage modified with 2 transgenes did not affect nutrient composition of the silages and had no effect on animal performance and milk composition. No transgenic DNA and Cry1Ab protein were detected in milk.', 'en_US'),
(2654, 'Field tests in the UK of a genetically modified baculovirus.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2655, 'Aflatoxin accumulation in corn hybrids infested at different growth stages with Southwestern Corn Borer (Lepidoptera: Crambidae).', 'Aflatoxin is a potent toxin produced by the fungus Aspergillus flavus.  Contamination of corn, Zea mays L., with aflatoxin greatly reduces the value of corn grain and is a major impediment to profitable corn production in the South.  Infestation of developing corn ears with southwestern corn borer, Diatraea grandiosella Dyar (Lepidopera: Crambidae), increases the likelihood of aflatoxin contamination.  In this investigation, six corn hybrids with different levels of resistance to southwestern corn borer damage and aflatoxin contamination were evaluated for damage by southwestern corn borer and aflatoxin contamination after infestation with southwestern corn borer at 7-d intervals from 35?84 d after planting and inoculation with an A. flavus conidial suspension.  Transgenic (Bt) hybrids exhibited excellent resistance to southwestern corn borer and less aflatoxin contamination than conventional versions of the same hybrids.  A conventional hybrid with intermediate resistance to southwestern corn borer also exhibited relatively low levels of aflatoxin contamination.  A conventional hybrid selected for resistance to aflatoxin contamination was heavily damaged by southwestern corn borer, but exhibited little aflatoxin contamination.  Hybrids that have resistance to both southwestern corn borer and aflatoxin contamination appear to have the greatest potential for effectively reducing losses to aflatoxin in the South.  Damage by southwestern corn borer to plants in both the vegetative and reproductive stages of growth can increase aflatoxin contamination in susceptible corn hybrids.', 'en_US'),
(2656, 'Use of real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and transformation assay to monitor the persistence and bioavailability of transgenic genes released from genetically modified papaya expressing nptII and PRSV genes in the soil.', 'Soil samples were collected from an isolated field from December 2003 to April 2004 where transgenic papaya were planted, and the persistences of transgenic genes of 796 bp (located between 35S promoter and coat protein, 35S-P/PRSV-CP), 398 bp (located between plasmid pBI121 and NOS terminator, pBI121/NOS-T), and 200 bp (located between NOS promoter and nptII gene, NOS-P/nptII) were studied.  At the end of planting, the residues of 398 bp in the soil was 0.06 g g-1 of soil, whereas the residues of 769 and 200 bp were less than 30 pg g-1 of soil (detection limit).  Kinetics studies on the persistence of these three fragments in sterile distilled water and nonsterile soil microcosms showed that two mechanisms might be involved: an initial fast exponential degradation pattern in the first week and then followed by a slow-release pattern throughout the experiment.  Persistence of transgenic DNA in sterile water was longer than in nonsterile soil microcosms, indicating that enzymatic degradation and soil adsorption played important roles on the persistence of DNA in the environment.  The reason for the fragment of 398 bp persisted longer than fragments of 769 and 200 bp is not clear, but the guanine plus cytosin (G plus C) content in the DNA fragment might be involved in the stability of DNA in the environment.  Biological availability of soil DNA to bacteria conducted by the transformation assay indicated that gene transformation from soil DNA extracts to two Acinetobacter spp. did not occur.', 'en_US'),
(2657, 'Food policy, trade, markets, and genetically modified foods:  A review of the literature on the science, technology, politics, and economics of labeling', 'The issue of whether or not to label will be a crucial one for the U.S. agricultural sector in the coming years. This paper develops a discussion of biotechnology in agriculture in the U.S., reports on the results of a survey to examine consumer response to labeling genetically modified foods, and discusses policy implications for markets and trade in genetically modified foods. Two hundred and fifty responses to a 2003 mail-questionnaire survey were analyzed for the paper. Chi-square test of independence was applied to data. Analyses showed that only 4.6% of consumers agreed that labeling should not be required for any biotech foods, while 94.4% agreed with the statement that labeling should be required for some or all biotech foods sold in the U.S. At p =? 0.001, chi-square tests showed that preferences for the labeling scenarios posed were dependent on gender, number of people in household, race, religious preference, age, education, place of residence, and income. Results can be used in providing guidance for labeling policy.', 'en_US'),
(2658, 'Consumer acceptance of genetically modified foods: The role of product benefits and perceived risks.', 'This study examines consumer willingness to consume genetically modified food products with clearly stated benefits and risks.  Results suggest that males, Caucasians, Southerners, and those with some college education are more likely to consume genetically modified foods.  Trust in government, the biotech industry, and the medical profession on matters relating to GM foods also has a positive impact on the willingness to consume GM foods; such trust allays fears associated with risks posed by GM technology.', 'en_US'),
(2659, 'Prokaryotic expression and allergenicity assessment of Hygromycin B Phosphotransferase protein derived from genetically modified plants.', 'The hygromycin B phosphotransferase gene (hpt) has been widely used in the process of plant genetic engineering to produce plants that can secrete the HPT protein. As part of a safety assessment, sufficient quantities of the protein were produced in Escherichia coli to conduct in vitro digestibility and animal studies. Western blotting analysis showed that the HPT protein was digested by simulated gastric fluid within 40 s. ELISA demonstrated that the protein did not induce detectable levels of specific IgE antibodies or histamine in test animals. Alignment of the amino acid sequence of HPT with those of known allergens did not produce evidence of sequence similarities between these allergens and the HPT protein. We conclude that HPT has a low probability to induce allergenicity.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(2660, 'Implications of gene flow in the scale-up and commercial use of biotechnology-derived crops: economic and policy considerations.', 'This paper reviews the concept of gene flow-the successful transfer of genetic information between different individuals, populations, and generations (to progeny) and across spatial dimensions.  The paper also discusses the relatively limited situations in which gene flow is likely to cause economic problems in the production of commercial biotech crops.  Gene flow is presented in the context of an associated phenomenon, adventitious presence, in which unwanted substances unavoidably make their way into the production, channeling, and marketing system of grain and crop products.Because reproductive biology differs markedly among crop species, so does the potential for outcrossing and subsequent gene flow.  Economically or environmentally significant gene flow into weedy relatives of these crops often is limited because of restricted geographical overlap of the crop and weed regions or because the weedy relatives are not exceptionally competitive or invasive.Numerous useful traits are being imparted into biotech and nonbiotech crops.  Most of these traits are likely to have little impact on the dynamics of gene flow, especially outside of agricultural fields.  Precommercialization procedures that take into account the specific trait being introduced will help to insure that impacts of gene flow remain low.  Where trait characteristics warrant, a variety of production practices can be used to mitigate gene flow, and novel genetic/molecular containment technologies are being developed to accomplish similar goals.The economic consequences of gene flow from biotech crops may differ in crops produced for seed (to be planted) vs. crops produced for commodity uses (to be consumed or woven into textiles), or in traditional vs. niche marketplaces.  Approaches to minimize potential negative impacts are discussed.Potential risks and benefits of maintaining or altering the existing safety and regulatory mechanisms are addressed in the context of public policy considerations.  These considerations include the potential benefits of establishing thresholds for unapproved biotech substances in any commodity and for approved biotech substances in a commodity labeled as nonbiotech.  Existing regulations are costly and can discourage development of beneficial products.  Regulatory approaches that consider benefits and costs more holistically may facilitate improved development of these technologies.To date, there have been no major health or environmental setbacks due to gene flow from biotech crops; in fact, these crops have led to significant, documentable improvements and, in some instances, decreased environmental risks.  Education addressing the realistic advantages and challenges of continued development and commercialization of biotech crops, as well as nonbiotech crops, will be a key to public understanding and discourse related to future policy toward biotech crops.', 'en_US'),
(2661, 'Interactions between Bt transgenic crops and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi: a new urgent issue of soil ecology in agroecosystems.', 'Species, varieties and area of Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) transgenic crops have increased rapidly worldwide in the past 11 years (1996-2006) for economic, environmental and health benefits.  However, the ecological risks of Bt transgenic crops were critically highlighted for potential adverse effects on agroecosystems, in particular, non-target effects on soil microorganisms.  Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are important soil microorganisms providing a range of benefits to the majority of crop plants in the agroecosystem, worthy of monitoring for non-target effects of Bt transgenic crops.  Bt transgenic crops may affect AMF in many ways during their life with regard to the temporal-spatial relevance between the occurrence of Bt proteins and fungal symbiotic development of AMF.  This may lead to an unwelcome surprise with regard to specific abundance and diversity of AMF when Bt transgenic crops are planted continuously.  It is concluded that interactions between AMF and Bt transgenic crops at individual and community level are a new urgent soil ecological issue.  Some evidence about Bt transgenic crop effects on AMF revealed by recent articles are summarized, and research prospects are highlighted in the paper.', 'en_US'),
(2662, 'Allergenicity assessment of genetically modified crops-what makes sense?', 'GM crops have great potential to improve food quality, increase harvest yields and decrease dependency on certain chemical pesticides. Before entering the market their safety needs to be scrutinized. This includes a detailed analysis of allergenic risks, as the safety of allergic consumers has high priority. However, not all tests currently being applied to assessing allergenicity have a sound scientific basis. Recent events with transgenic crops reveal the fallacy of applying such tests to GM crops.', 'en_US'),
(2663, 'From risk to uncertainty in the regulation of GMOs: social theory and Australian practice.', 'A realist discourse of risk currently dominates regulatory decision making for genetically modified organisms (GMOs).  This paper challenges the appropriateness of this for regulating the environmental impact of GMOs.  Discussing psychometric research, cultural theory and the development of typologies of uncertainty, I argue that there is an emerging theoretical shift away from a singular focus on quantifying risk, and towards the articulation of decision-making processes contrastingly constructed around the negotiation of uncertainty.  Key factors distinguishing these approaches include: the discourse of decision making, the role granted scientific knowledge, the avenues for public participation, the range of policy options considered, and the requirements for ongoing research and monitoring.  After establishing this theoretical framework, I analyse Australia''s regulatory system for GMOs and conclude that although it is more accurately characterized as a risk-based approach to environmental decision making, there are ways in which a shift towards uncertainty can begin.', 'en_US'),
(2664, 'Activity density, diversity and seasonal dynamics of ground beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae) in Bt- (MON810) and in isogenic maize stands.', 'To compare carabid assemblages from transgenic Bt- and isogenic maize in Hungary, we used pitfall traps in an experiment (30x30 m plots, arranged alternately in 6 replications), during the growing season of maize during 2001-2003.  We captured altogether 44,103 individuals of 58 species.  The most common species in our sampling were Calathus ambiguus, Dolichus halensis, Harpalus distinguendus, H. rufipes, Poecilus sericeus and Trechus quadristriatus.  The same species dominated both in the Bt- and in the isogenic maize plots.  Under our test conditions (plot size and 3 years of sampling), no significant differences were found either in the structural characteristics (number of individuals, number of species and diversity), activity density or seasonal activity patterns of the dominant species.', 'en_US'),
(2665, 'Dynamics of gene introgression in the African malaria vector Anopheles gambiae.', 'Anopheles gambiae is a major malaria vector in Africa and a popular model species for a variety of ecological, evolutionary, and genetic studies on vector control.  Genetic manipulation of mosquito vectorial capacity is a promising new weapon for the control of malaria.  However, the release of exotic transgenic mosquitoes will bring in novel alleles in addition to the parasite-inhibiting genes, which may have unknown effects on the local population.  Therefore, it is necessary to develop methodologies that can be used to evaluate the spread rate of introduced genes in A. gambiae.  In this study, the effects and dynamics of genetic introgression between two geographically distinct A. gambiae populations from western Kenya (Mbita) and eastern Tanzania (Ifakara) were investigated with amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs) and microsatellite markers.  Microsatellites and polymorphic cDNA markers revealed a large genetic differentiation between the two populations (average FST = 0.093, P < 0.001).  When the two strains were crossed in random mating between the two populations, significant differences in the rate of genetic introgression were found in the mixed populations.  Allele frequencies of 18 AFLP markers (64.3%) for Mbita and of 26 markers (92.9%) for Ifakara varied significantly from F5 to F20.  This study provides basic information on how a mosquito release program would alter the genetic makeup of natural populations, which is critical for pilot field testing and ecological risk evaluation of transgenic mosquitoes.', 'en_US'),
(2666, 'Harmony or havoc:  Can the WTO, Biosafety Protocol and Codex Alimentarius work together?', 'The international movement of GMOs (genetically engineered organisms) falls under an increasing number of apparently independent legal regimes, each with somewhat different primary goals. This policy brief explores the evolving treaty rules ? in light of promoting trade, protecting the environment, safeguarding human health, and recognizing consumer interests ? and the still open issues identified.  It is not clear whether a rationally integrated international system will emerge, or if so, when and how.', 'en_US'),
(2667, 'Report of an Expert Panel on the reanalysis by Séralini et al. (2007) of a 90-day study conducted by Monsanto in support of the safety of a genetically modified corn variety (MON 863).', 'MON 863, a genetically engineered corn variety that contains the gene for modified Bacillus thuringiensis Cry3Bb1 protein to protect against corn rootworm, was tested in a 90-day toxicity study as part of the process to gain regulatory approval.  This study was reanalyzed by Séralini et al. who contended that the study showed possible hepatorenal effects of MON 863.  An Expert Panel was convened to assess the original study results as analyzed by the Monsanto Company and the reanalysis conducted by Séralini et al.  The Expert Panel concludes that the Séralini et al. reanalysis provided no evidence to indicate that MON 863 was associated with adverse effects in the 90-day rat study.  In each case, statistical findings reported by both Monsanto and Séralini et al. were considered to be unrelated to treatment or of no biological or clinical importance because they failed to demonstrate a dose?response relationship, reproducibility over time, association with other relevant changes (e.g., histopathology), occurrence in both sexes, difference outside the normal range of variation, or biological plausibility with respect to cause-and-effect.  The Séralini et al. reanalysis does not advance any new scientific data to indicate that MON 863 caused adverse effects in the 90-day rat study.', 'en_US'),
(2668, 'Development of agribiotechnology and biosafety regulations used to assess safety of genetically modified crops in Bangladesh.', 'Bangladesh is on the verge of adopting genetically modified (GM) crops for commercial cultivation and consumption as feed and food.  Most of the laboratories are engaged in tissue culture and molecular characterization on plants, whereas some have started living modified organism research with shortages of trained manpower, infrastructure, and funding.  Nutritionally improved Golden Rice, biotech brinjal, and late blight-resistant potato are in contained trials in a greenhouse, and potato ring spot virus-resistant papaya is in the process of approval for a field trial.  The government has taken some initiative in support of GM organism research, which include the formation of a Biotechnology Department in all institutes and the formation of the apex body, the National Task Force Committee on Biotechnology of Bangladesh under the chairpersonship of the Prime Minister.  Biosafety policy guidelines and related aspects of biotechnology issues have been approved, and the laws are in the process of being promulgated.  Being a party to the Cartagena Protocol, proper biosafety measures are regulated by the appropriate authority as stated.  Although there are no laws made yet directly for biosafety of GM crops/foods, the relevant laws on agriculture, medicine, food, import, trade, environment, etc., may suffice and explain the situation.', 'en_US'),
(2669, 'Development of agricultural biotechnology and biosafety regulations used to assess the safety of genetically modified crops in Iran.', 'Rapid progress in the application of biotechnological methodologies and development of genetically modified crops in Iran necessitated intensive efforts to establish proper organizations and prepare required rules and regulations at the national level to ensure safe application of biotechnology in all pertinent aspects. Practically, preparation of a national biotechnology strategic plan in the country coincided with development of a national biosafety framework that was the basis for the drafted biosafety law. Although biosafety measures were observed by researchers voluntarily, the establishment of national biosafety organizations since the year 2000 built a great capacity to deal with biosafety issues in the present and future time, particularly with respect to food and agricultural biotechnology.', 'en_US'),
(2670, 'Nutritional and safety assessments of foods and feeds nutritionally improved through biotechnology:  Lysine maize as a case study.', 'During the last decade, the area of biotech crops modified for agronomic input traits (e.g., herbicide tolerance and insect protection) has increased to 90 million ha/year, grown by over 8 million farmers in a total of 17 countries.  As adoption of these improved agronomic trait biotech crops has grown, so has interest in biotech crops that have improved nutritional characteristics for use as feed and food.  A previous publication by the International Life Sciences Institute (ILSI) reported on the principles and concepts proposed for the nutritional and safety assessments of foods and feeds nutritionally improved through biotechnology.  In this paper, the guidelines and principles recommended in the earlier publication are discussed relative to a specific case study, Lysine maize.  Lysine maize is a feed ingredient with enhanced nutritional characteristics for poultry and swine and provides an alternative to the need for addition of supplemental lysine to some diets for these animals.  The 2004 Task Force of the ILSI has also applied the concepts from that report to 4 other case studies: sweet potato enriched in provitamin A (2 examples, one using biotechnology and one using conventional breeding); Golden Rice 2; double-embryo maize; and ASP-1 enhanced protein sweet potato.', 'en_US'),
(2671, 'Implementing isolation perimeters around genetically modified maize fields.', 'Due to the growing cultivation area of genetically modified (GM) maize and the rising number of GM maize varieties commercially available to European farmers, the co-existence between GM and non-GM maize is becoming a burning issue in some European regions.  Hence, Member States are imposing or discussing specific co-existence measures to keep the adventitious presence of GM material in non-GM produces below the established labelling threshold.  As maize is a cross-pollinated crop that uses wind for the dispersal of its pollen, on-farm co-existence measures may rely on the spatial isolation of GM and non-GM maize fields.  In this study, we developed an approach that combines geographic information system (GIS) datasets with Monte Carlo simulations to assess the feasibility of implementing isolation perimeters around GM maize fields, since its practical implementation is rarely addressed in the co-existence debate.  More specifically, five scenarios differing in shares and spatial distributions of GM maize were tested for various isolation perimeters in two agricultural areas in Flanders (Belgium).  The GIS analyses emphasised the small size of maize fields and their scattered distribution throughout the cropped area.  The feasibility of implementing isolation perimeters was largely affected by the (GM) maize share, the spatial distribution of GM maize, and the width of isolation perimeters.  The higher the (GM) maize share and the wider the isolation perimeter, the higher the proportions of farmers with non-GM maize fields occurring within the implemented isolation perimeter.  Compared with randomly distributed GM maize fields, the clustering of GM maize fields on a larger scale and at the farm level increased the feasibility of implementing isolation perimeters.  The approach developed proved to be a valuable tool to quantify the feasibility of implementing isolation perimeters under real agricultural conditions.', 'en_US'),
(2672, 'Persistence of Cry toxins and cry genes from genetically modified plants in two agricultural soils.', 'The environmental impact of genetically modified crops has been the subject of intense research in the past decade.  Since the introduction of insect-resistant crops in 1996, cultivation of this group of genetically modified crops has grown substantially.  Most insect-resistant varieties, including corn and cotton, have been engineered to express crystal (Cry) toxins.  Although several studies concerning the environmental fate of this group of insecticidal toxins have been conducted during the past decade, conflicting information exists dealing with the persistence of Cry toxins in soil.  In the present investigation, the persistence of antilepidopteran Cry1Ab and Cry1Ac toxins in two different agricultural soils was studied.  The potential of cry1Ab genes to persist in soil was also estimated.  The results from this laboratory investigation indicated that the two toxins dissipated rapidly in both the sandy and in the clay loam soil.  The two toxins showed similar degradation rates in soil.  During the 35-day incubation period, more than 92 and 79% of the initial amount of Cry toxins dissipated in the sandy and clay loam soil, respectively.  Extractable fractions of the two toxins were lower in the fine-textured soil with respect to the coarse soil.  Reduced recovery efficiency from the clay loam soil and thus bioavailability were presumably involved in the lower decline of Cry toxins in this soil.  Investigations conducted with an insect-resistant transgenic corn hybrid showed no detectable levels of cry1Ab genes in soil six months after plant harvest.', 'en_US'),
(2673, 'Susceptibility of Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) to ä-endotoxyn Cry2Ab of Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner.', 'Bollgard II® cotton expresses the ä-endotoxins Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab of Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner, controls larvae of Helicoverpa zea (Boddie), and will probably be used in the near future in Mexican agriculture.  However, the initial susceptibility to this toxin in populations of H. zea is unknown.  The objective of the present study was to determine the susceptibility to the ä-endotoxin Cry2Ab in neonate larvae of five populations (one susceptible and four field populations) of H. zea.  The observed mortality levels were low (<43%) in the evaluated doses (=5 ìg mL-1).  The estimated concentration necessary to prevent 50% of the exposed larvae from reaching the third instar or inhibition of development of 50% of treated larvae (ID50) varied from 0.017 to 0.086 ìg mL-1, while the ID95 varied from 1.06 to 1.93 ìg mL-1.  The concentration that reduced or inhibited 50% of the weight of treated larvae (IP50) varied from 0.013 to 0.025 ìg mL?1, and the IP95 from 0.5 to 1.48 ìg mL-1.  The obtained toxicity values to ä-endotoxin Cry2Ab in larvae of H. zea are considered as initial response or reference point, given that this toxin is still not used in the field and will serve to estimate the proportion of change over time once Bolgard II® is used in México.', 'en_US'),
(2674, 'Quantification of changes in chemical pesticide human health risk following the introduction of Bt cotton and herbicide-tolerant soybean:  A case study.', 'Human health risks associated with changes in synthetic chemical pesticide use following the introduction of genetically modified crops are quantified in this article. Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) cotton and herbicide-tolerant (HT) soybean, two genetically modified crops, were chosen as the focus for this study based on their global popularity.  An innovative multimedia total exposure model, CalTOX, was used to calculate the health risks for two target populations, before and after the introduction of Bt cotton and HT soybean.  Major results include the quantification of incremental lifetime cancer risk based on a time-weighted average exposure, and the quantification of hazard ratios for non-cancer effects based on the maximum exposure rate value, both computed over the exposure duration.  Results show that human health risks are not intuitively and necessarily reduced with the reduction of pesticide use.  For example, more trifluralin was used after the introduction of HT soybeans in Iowa and Minnesota, leading to higher risks.  Moreover, the general population may have larger exposures to pesticides when compared with the population living in areas where pesticides are actually applied.  This may occur because exposure to pesticides is not only dependent on geographical distance from the contaminated area, but also strongly dependent on other factors, such as the characteristic travel distance and environmental persistence.', 'en_US'),
(2675, 'South Korean public preferences for genetically modified foods:  A random parameter model.', 'Food biotechnology promises to deliver a wide range of enhanced consumer benefits.  This study models consumer''s willingness to trade-off the potential risks of GM foods with the possibility of extracting significant benefits. It estimates the marginal effects and relationships between product characteristics and consumer attributes on acceptance of GM foods for South Korea.', 'en_US'),
(2676, 'Consumer attitudes toward genetic modification and other possible production attributes for chicken.', 'Today''s consumers face foods whose production attributes they are often largely unfamiliar with and uncertain about.  This study surveyed Delaware consumers about labeling, health risk concerns, and knowledge of five potential attributes for chicken:  free-range, treated with antibiotics, irradiated, fed genetically modified (GM) feed, and GM chicken.  Respondents were highly in favor of labeling all attributes, and perceived a high health risk from and had a low self-reported knowledge of many of the attributes.  Gender, tobacco use, and label reading habits were significant factors in explaining the difference in responses.  An analysis of survey comments further demonstrated the extent of consumer concerns.', 'en_US'),
(2677, 'The effects of urban consumer perceptions on attitudes for labeling of genetically modified foods.', 'The effects of consumer perceptions on attitudes toward the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA)''s current labeling policy for GM foods are examined.  Results show that as beliefs regarding potential adverse effects of GM crops on wildlife and the environment increase, consumers are less likely to support the FDA''s current labeling policy.  The perceived safety of GM foods was also found to be important.  As consumer perceive GM foods to be safe (unsafe), they are more (less) likely to support the current policy.  However, concerns regarding potential environmental damage of GM crops are more important relative to beliefs regarding the potential for negative long-term health effects.', 'en_US'),
(2678, 'U.S. public awareness and knowledge of and interest in biotechnology:  A principal component factor analysis.', 'Unlike earlier surveys based studies on public attitudes and perceptions of biotechnology, this study investigates the importance of consumers'' awareness and knowledge of an interest in biotechnology.  Results suggest that Americans are largely unaware of both the presence in their lives of GM food and of its wide application in food production.  In view of this, many Americans would like to see more GM media coverage.  Additionally, most Americans are unfamiliar with the laws and safety testing regarding GM food.', 'en_US'),
(2679, 'Factors influencing urban consumers'' acceptance of genetically modified foods.', 'Linkages between consumer beliefs and attitudes regarding the risks and benefits of genetically modified foods and consumer purchase intentions for these foods are examined. Factors that hinder consumer purchases of genetically modified foods are also tested. Results show that purchase intentions for consumers willing to buy genetically modified crops and meats are primarily affected by their belief that these foods are safe. On the other hand, intentions of consumers who decide not to buy genetically modified foods are affected by ethical concerns and the belief that the production of genetically modified foods is harmful to wildlife and the environment.', 'en_US'),
(2680, 'Willingness to pay for genetically modified foods under differing information scenarios.', 'Bid prices were elicited for standard-label cookies, muffins, and potato chips and those guaranteed to be free of genetically modified (GM) ingredients using an nth price Vickery experimental auction.  A non-GMguarantee increased bids over those offered for standardlabel products using paired-samples t-tests.  However, product labeling did not significantly effect bid price estimated using standard ordinary least squares.  Overall, providing information about the positive or negative impact of biotechnology on the environment did not affect the bid for the standard-labeled (presumed GM) product.  An exception was among students with an agriculture major for whom positive (negative) information decreased (increased) bids for GM products.', 'en_US'),
(2681, 'Altered pesticide use on transgenic crops and the associated general impact from an environmental perspective.', 'The large-scale commercial cultivation of transgenic crops has undergone a steady increase since their introduction 10 years ago.  Most of these crops bear introduced traits that are of agronomic importance, such as herbicide or insect resistance.  These traits are likely to impact upon the use of pesticides on these crops, as well as the pesticide market as a whole.  Organizations like USDA-ERS and NCFAP monitor the changes in crop pest management associated with the adoption of transgenic crops.  As part of an IUPAC project on this topic, recent data are reviewed regarding the alterations in pesticide use that have been observed in practice.  Most results indicate a decrease in the amounts of active ingredients applied to transgenic crops compared with conventional crops.  In addition, a generic environmental indicator - the environmental impact quotient (EIQ) - has been applied by these authors and others to estimate the environmental consequences of the altered pesticide use on transgenic crops.  The results show that the predicted environmental impact decreases in transgenic crops.  With the advent of new types of agronomic trait and crops that have been genetically modified, it is useful to take also their potential environmental impacts into account.', 'en_US'),
(2682, 'The transatlantic rift in genetically modified food policy.', 'The regulatory structures underlying United States and European Union policies regarding genetically modified (GM) food and crops are fundamentally different.  The US regulates GM foods and crops as end products, applying roughly the same regulatory framework that it does to non GM foods or crops.  The EU, on the other hand, regulates products of agricultural biotechnology as the result of a specific production process.  Accordingly, it has developed a network of rules that regulate GM foods and crops specifically.  As a result, US regulation of GM foods and crops is relatively permissive, whereas EU regulation is relatively restrictive.  Why are genetically modified food policies in the United States and the European Union so strikingly different? In the light of the recent World Trade Organization dispute on agricultural biotechnology, it may seem that economic interests are the driving force behind policies.  While they are certainly part of the picture, the issue is far more complex.  This paper argues that three different elements help explain differences between US and EU GM food policies.  First, an investigation of US and European policies of the 1970s and 1980s on recombinant DNA research and of events leading up to early GM food and crop regulation allows a deeper understanding of current policy.  Second, scrutinizing underlying values and norms can uncover the beliefs that condition current GM food and crop policy.  Third, an analysis of involved actors'' views and levels of success in influencing policy is essential to understanding US and EU policies.', 'en_US'),
(2683, 'Ethical analysis of the use of GM fish:  Emerging issues for aquaculture development.', 'Improvements in production methods over the last two decades have resulted in aquaculture becoming a significant contributor to food production in many countries.  Increased efficiency and production levels are off-setting unsustainable capture fishing practices and contributing to food security, particularly in a number of developing countries.  The challenge for the rapidly growing aquaculture industry is to develop and apply technologies that ensure sustainable production methods that will reduce environmental damage, increase productivity across the sector, and respect the diverse social and cultural dimensions of fish farming that are observed globally.  The aquaculture industry currently faces a number of technology trajectories, which include the option to commercially produce genetically modified (GM) fish.  The use of genetic modification in aquaculture has the potential to contribute to increased food security and is claimed to be the next logical step for the industry.  However, the potential use of these technologies raises a number of important ethical questions.  Using an ethical framework, the Ethical Matrix, this paper explores a number of the ethical issues potentially raised by the use of GM technologies in aquaculture.  Several key issues have been identified.  These include aspects of distributive justice for producers; use of a precautionary approach in the management of environmental risk and food safety; and impacts on the welfare and intrinsic value of the fish.  There is a need to conduct a comparative analysis of the full economic cycle of the use of GM fish in aquaculture production for developing countries.  There is also a need to initiate an informed dialogue between stakeholders and strenuous efforts should be made to ensure the participation of producers and their representatives from developing nations.  An additional concern is that any national licensing of the first generation of GM fish, i.e., in the USA, may initiate and frame an assessment cycle, mediated by the WTO, which could dominate the conditions under which the technology will be applied and regulated globally.  Therefore, an integrated analysis of the technology development trajectories, in terms of international policy, IPR, and operational implications, as well as an analysis of a broader range of ethical concerns, is needed.', 'en_US'),
(2684, 'Consumer demand for quality:  Major determinant for agricultural and food trade in the future?', 'The impact of consumer demand for quality on the agricultural and food system is an increased emphasis on quality differentiation but not all in the direction of upgrading quality.  The more elite market segments are thriving and reaching growing numbers of consumers but the basic price/quality markets remain strong.  Most recent economic studies find that consumers are willing to pay for food safety and other quality attributes, and for information about them.  The magnitude of the valuations varies by food product, attribute, country, and study design.  This literature and a case study of genetically modified foods suggest that consumer demand has a strong effect on agricultural and food trade.', 'en_US'),
(2685, 'Rethinking the risk management process for genetically engineered crop varieties in small-scale, traditionally based agriculture.', 'Proponents of genetically engineered (GE) crops often assume that the risk management used in the industrial world is appropriate for small-scale, traditionally based agriculture in the Third World.  Opponents of GE crops often assume that risk management is inappropriate for the Third World, because it is inherently biased in favor of the industrial world.  We examine both of these assumptions, by rethinking risk management for GE crops and transgenes, using the example of maize transgene flow from the U.S. to Mexico.  Risk management for the Third World is a necessary first step of a broader benefit?cost analysis of GE crops, which would include comparisons with existing varieties and with alternative varieties such as transgenic farmer varieties and organic varieties.  Our goal is to use existing information on GE crops and on the social and biological characteristics of Third World agriculture to identify key processes that need to be considered in risk management, and the additional research required to adequately understand them.  The four main steps in risk management are hazard identification, risk analysis (exposure x harm), risk evaluation, and risk treatment.  We use informal event trees to identify possible exposure to GE crops and transgenes, and resulting biological and social harm; give examples of farmers'' ability to evaluate social harm; and discuss the possibilities for risk treatment.  We conclude that risk management is relevant for Third World agriculture, but needs to be based on the unique biological and social characteristics of small-scale, traditionally based agriculture, including the knowledge and values of Third World farmers and consumers.', 'en_US'),
(2686, 'Introduction to environmental risk assessment for transgenic fish.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2687, 'Problem formulation and options assessment: science-guided deliberation in risk assessment of transgenic fish.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2688, 'Gene construct and expression: information relevant for risk assessment and management.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2689, 'Approaches to assessing gene flow.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2690, 'Assessing ecological effects of transgenic fish prior to entry into nature.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2691, 'Introduction to the concepts and methods of uncertainty analysis.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2692, 'Risk management:  Reducing risk through confinement of transgenic fish.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2693, 'Risk management:  Post-approval monitoring and remediation.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2694, 'Excision of selectable marker genes from transgenic crops as a concern for environmental biosafety.', 'The main task in the development of transgenic plants is the capability to distinguish between plant cells with an integrated transgene and the bulk of non-transformed cells. Selectable marker genes are required to achieve this goal within the transgene, and to select for their expression. These selectable markers are mostly based on genes conferring antibiotic or herbicide resistance. The presence of the marker gene will lead to unpredictable environmental hazards, so on the basis of economic incentives and safety concerns, several methods, such as site-specific recombination, homologous recombination and co-transformation, have been developed to eliminate these genes from the genome after successful transformation has been achieved. Gene transfer without the incorporation of an antibiotic-resistance marker or herbicide-resistance marker in the host genome should convince the public with regard to the field release of transgenic organisms. Moreover, it would obviate the need for different selectable markers in subsequent rounds of gene transfer into the same host.', 'en_US'),
(2695, 'Preliminary investigations reveal that Bacillus thuringiensis ä-endotoxin CryIA(c) incorporated in soil does not affect arbuscular mycorrhiza in Sorghum bicolor (L.) (Moench).', 'The imminent introduction of transgenic crops into Kenya requires a rigorous assessment of the potential risks involved. This study focused on the possible effect of Bacillus thuringiensis ä-endotoxin [CryIA(c)] on arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) associated with sorghum. In green house experiments, sorghum seedlings were inoculated with a mixed culture of AM fungi and grown in black cotton soil that contained increasing concentrations of B. thuringiensis toxin. The plants were sampled after 2, 4, 6 and 12 - week intervals. There was a progressive increase in AMF colonization from the 1st harvest (after 2 weeks) to the 4th harvest (after 12 weeks) in all treatments. Additionally, the total root length, fresh shoot weight and fresh root weight was not influenced significantly by the presence of the Bt toxin. These findings suggest that the presence of the Bt toxin in soil does not affect AM of sorghum.', 'en_US'),
(2696, 'Genetically modified crop plants: science versus society? - A perspective.', 'Virus-resistant genetically modified (GM) plants offer the possibility of solving local virus-related production agricultural problems for local communities in both developed and undeveloped countries.  However, major concerns are held regarding the safety, health (personal and environmental) and ethics of growing GM crop plants.  Such non-technical factors and regulatory processes have slowed and/or prevented the field testing and commercialisation of many virus-resistant GM crop plants.  The intimate relationships between food, community and the environment accentuate the need for communication between science and society.  Resources for active and honest interaction between science and society must be incorporated into research programs to address the issues of the public so that new technologies are developed for the communities that they serve.', 'en_US'),
(2697, 'Crop seed spillage along roads:  a factor of uncertainty in the containment of GMO.', 'Feral populations of crop species along roadsides contribute to the uncertainty regarding the containment of genetically modified (GM) crops, as the feral populations could promote the persistence of transgenes outside of cultivated fields.  Roadside populations of several common crop species are known to occur far from arable fields, and the dispersal pathways that promote their recruitment in road verges are unclear.  Human-aided dispersal, in particular adhesive dispersal by vehicles, has been suggested as a possible vector, but this has not yet been proven experimentally.  We sampled the seed rain from vehicles inside two motorway tunnels in an urban environment to reveal the contribution of crop species to seeds unintentionally dispersed by traffic beyond agricultural production areas.  Three species of arable crops, wheat Triticum aestivum, rye Secale cereale and oilseed rape Brassica napus, were among the most frequent species deposited by vehicles inside the motorway tunnels.  Each of the three species was clearly more predominant in one direction of traffic.  While seeds of Triticum aestivum and Secale cereale were primarily transported into the city, Brassica napus was significantly more abundant in samples from lanes leading out of the city.  Seed sources in the local surroundings of the tunnels were virtually nonexistent, and the high magnitude of seed deposition combined with high seed weights suggests a dispersal mechanism different from other species in the sample, at least for Triticum aestivum and Secale cereale.  This provides evidence that spillage during transport is a major driver for long-distance dispersal of crops.  Our results suggest that seed dispersal by vehicles is the major driver in the recruitment of roadside populations of arable crops, providing a possible escape route for GM crops.  Risk management should thus aim at curbing transport losses of GM crops.', 'en_US'),
(2698, 'Comparative safety testing of genetically modified foods in a 90-day rat feeding study design allowing the distinction between primary and secondary effects of the new genetic event.', 'This article discusses the wider experiences regarding the usefulness of the 90-day rat feeding study for the testing of whole foods from genetically modified (GM) plant based on data from a recent EU-project [Poulsen, M., Schrøder, M., Wilcks, A., Kroghsbo, S., Lindecrona, R.H., Miller, A., Frenzel, T., Danier, J., Rychlik, M., Shu, Q., Emami, K., Taylor, M., Gatehouse, A., Engel, K.-H., Knudsen, I., 2007a. Safety testing of GM-rice expressing PHA-E lectin using a new animal test design. Food Chem. Toxicol. 45, 364?377; Poulsen, M., Kroghsbo, S., Schrøder, M., Wilcks, A., Jacobsen, H., Miller, A., Frenzel, T., Danier, J., Rychlik, M., Shu, Q., Emami, K., Sudhakar, D., Gatehouse, A., Engel, K.-H., Knudsen, I., 2007b. A 90-day safety in Wistar rats fed genetically modified rice expressing snowdrop lectin Galanthus nivalis (GNA). Food Chem. Toxicol. 45, 350?363; Schrøder, M., Poulsen, M., Wilcks, A., Kroghsbo, S., Miller, A., Frenzel, T., Danier, J., Rychlik, M., Emami, K., Gatehouse, A., Shu, Q., Engel, K.-H., Knudsen, I., 2007. A 90-day safety study of genetically modified rice expressing Cry1Ab protein (Bacillus thuringiensis toxin) in Wistar rats. Food Chem. Toxicol. 45, 339?349]. The overall objective of the project has been to develop and validate the scientific methodology necessary for assessing the safety of foods from genetically modified plants in accordance with the present EU regulation. The safety assessment in the project is combining the results of the 90-day rat feeding study on the GM food with and without spiking with the pure novel gene product, with the knowledge about the identity of the genetic change, the compositional data of the GM food, the results from in-vitro/ex-vivo studies as well as the results from the preceding 28-day toxicity study with the novel gene product, before the hazard characterisation is concluded. The results demonstrated the ability of the 90-day rat feeding study to detect the biological/toxicological effects of the new gene product in the GM food. The authors consider on this basis that the 90-day, rodent feeding study with one high dose level and a dietary design based upon compositional data on the GM food and toxicity data on the gene product is sensitive and specific enough to verify the presence/absence of the biological/nutritional/toxicological effects of the novel gene insert and further by the use of spiking able to separate potentially unintended effects of the novel gene product from other unintended effects at the level of intake defined in the test and within the remit of the test. Recommendations for further work necessary in the field are given.', 'en_US'),
(2699, 'An empirical test of competing theories of hazard-related trust:  The case of GM food.', 'Few scholars doubt the importance of trust in explaining variation in public perception of technological risk.  Relatively little, however, is known about the particular types of judgments that people use in granting or withholding trust.  This article presents findings from an empirical study that explores several dimensions of trust relevant for citizens'' judgments of scientists involved in the development of GM food.  The relationship between particular dimensions of trust and perceptions of GM food risk is also explored, using structural equation modeling.  Results suggest that trust judgments based on the perception of shared values are most important in relation to GM food risk, but that judgments about scientists'' technical competence are also important.', 'en_US'),
(2700, 'Effect of genotype, edaphic, environmental conditions, and agronomic practices on Cry1Ac protein expression in transgenic cotton.', 'Poor Cry1Ac protein expression was common in the first years of transgenic (Bt) cotton in Australia, when single-gene Cry1Ac cotton (called Ingard in Australia and Bollgard in USA) was grown.  Two-gene cultivars (called Bollgard II in both countries) show enhanced Cry1Ac protein expression compared with Ingard cultivars.  Environment, soil properties, and agronomic management are believed to affect Cry1Ac protein expression.  This research evaluated the impact of crop nutrition, plant population density, light intensity, water management, herbicide application, soil fertility, plant growth regulator application, and cotton cultivars on Cry1Ac protein expression in field and glasshouse experiments, as measured in cotton leaves using commercial quantitative ELISA assays.  Cultivars provided the major source of variation in leaf Cry1Ac protein expression.  Cry1Ac protein concentration ranged from 0.27 to 6.01 mg kg-1 in 15 experiments conducted over 4 yr.  There was considerable variation among individual plants of a cultivar.  Cry1Ac protein expression was highly heritable (h2 = 0.94), as parent plants produced progeny with a similar level of Cry1Ac protein expression.  Cry1Ac protein expression was higher in older (lower) leaves.  Treatment effects were often more evident in older than younger leaves.  Short episodes of waterlogging, shading, herbicide application, or plant growth regulator application did not significantly affect leaf Cry1Ac protein expression, while severely wilted plants exhibited reduced Cry1Ac expression.  Cry1Ac protein expression was reduced under conditions that affected cotton growth and development or plant survival, such as drought or sodic/saline soil that severely impaired crop nutrition.  Cry1Ac protein synthesis may be limited or the protein metabolized in plants subjected to environmental or edaphic stresses.', 'en_US'),
(2701, 'Linking soil organisms within food webs to ecosystem functioning and environmental change.', 'Agronomists, ecologists, ecosystem scientists, and various other researchers are recognizing the value of studying responses of soil biota to environmental perturbations because of their functional roles in ecosystem processes and varying sensitivities to environmental perturbations.  In this chapter, I provide a descriptive overview of trophic interactions in soil and selected examples of current research on soil biotic responses to human-associated disturbance [biodiversity loss, invasive species, climate change, and genetically modified (GM) crops].  In many cases, researchers generally use population estimates of functional groups as a surrogate for food web interactions and, from these, infer that responses could cascade through food webs to impact ecosystem functioning.  I then review alternative approaches to monitoring soil food web dynamics, approaches that focus on estimating the emergent properties of food webs themselves.  Because these emergent properties are directly linked to nutrient cycling and energy flow, they should provide a more robust indication of ecosystem functioning in response to environmental perturbations.  The first, nematode faunal analysis, is an empirical approach that utilizes a subset of soil organisms representing multiple functional groups and incorporates information regarding organism life history to estimate emergent properties of the existing soil food web, such as productivity and sensitivity to disturbance.  The second is a modeling approach that attempts to predict how localized changes within a food web will influence the overall stability and productivity of the food web.  Finally, I address some shortcomings in our current understanding of soil food web structure and resolution, and promising avenues for addressing these shortcomings.', 'en_US'),
(2702, 'No differences in decomposition rates observed between Bacillus thuringiensis and non-Bacillus thuringiensis corn residue Incubated in the field.', 'Recent speculation of slower residue decomposition for Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) corn (Zea mays L.) hybrids compared with non-Bt corn hybrids has prompted investigative study.  We evaluated the residue decomposition rates of Bt and non-Bt corn hybrids over a period of 22 mo under field conditions using the litter bag technique.  The four corn hybrids used were (i) DKC60?16 (Bt+, Cry1Ab protein active against the leptidopteran European corn borer, event MON810), (ii) DKC60?12 (Bt+, Cry3Bb1 protein active against the coleopteran corn rootworm, event MON863), (iii) DKC60?14 (stacked Bt++, Cry1Ab and Cry3Bb1 proteins) and, (iv) DKC60?15 (Bt?, base genetics).  The biochemical and physical properties of the corn residues were determined.  No differences in the decomposition rates of the residue from the four corn hybrids were detected.  Residue decomposition rate constants were approximately 0.25 d?1 for all four hybrids with predicted residue half-lives of about 200 d.  No differences in compositional properties, including lignin content, were observed among the four hybrids.  Physical compression testing of the chopped residue failed to detect significant differences in mechanical strength properties among the hybrids.  This is the first report regarding decomposition of Bt corn residue under field conditions following ambiguous reports from laboratory studies on the relative susceptibility of Bt corn residue to decomposition.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(2703, 'Biosafety assessment of probiotics used for human consumption:  Recommendations from the EU-PROSAFE project.', 'On June 26?27, 2006, 60 academic and industry scientists gathered during the PROSAFE workshop to discuss recommendations on taxonomy, antibiotic resistance, in vitro assessment of virulence and in vivo assessment of safety of probiotics used for human consumption.  For identification of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) intended for probiotic use, it was recommended that conventional biochemical methods should be complemented with molecular methods and that these should be performed by an expert lab.  Using the newly developed LAB Susceptibility test Medium (LSM), tentative epidemiological cut-off values were proposed.  It was recommended that potentially probiotic strains not belonging to the wild-type distributions of relevant antimicrobials should not be developed as future products for human or animal consumption.  Furthermore, it was recommended that the use of strains harbouring known and confirmed virulence genes should be avoided.  Finally, for in vivo assessment of safety by investigating strain pathogenicity in animal models, the rat endocarditis model appeared to be the most reliable model tested in the PROSAFE project.  Moreover, consensus was reached for approving the necessity of a human colonisation study in a randomised placebo-controlled double-blind design; however, further discussions are needed on the details of such as study.', 'en_US'),
(2704, 'Coexistence in maize:  Do nonmaize buffer zones reduce gene flow between maize fields?', 'One approach to ensuring coexistence of genetically modified (GM) and conventional maize (Zea mays L.) is reducing pollen-mediated gene flow.  Field experiments were conducted in 2005 at four sites in Germany to compare a tall sunflower crop (Helianthus annuus L.) vs. a short clover?grass crop (Trifolium pratense L. and Lolium spp.) with regard to their ability to reduce outcrossing when grown as buffer between pollen donor and recipient maize plots.  Three different maize test systems were used: (i) quantification of a donor transgene via real-time polymerase chain reaction (rt PCR), (ii) a nontransgenic test system based on a dominant kernel color trait, and (iii) a molecular marker test system based on rt PCR quantification of a cultivar-specific nontransgenic DNA sequence.  We found that the three test systems yielded comparable results concerning buffer-crop effectiveness and edge effects.  There was no difference in outcrossing rates when comparing the sunflower vs. clover?grass buffer crop.  Outcrossing rates downwind beyond 12 m sunflower as buffer crop within adjacent 12-m-wide recipient maize were 4.2, 11.7, and 3.8% for the GM maize, the kernel color, and the molecular marker test system compared with clover?grass with 4.3, 9.6, and 3.6%.  Pronounced edge effects were detected at the edges of recipient maize fields.  Based on the present study, growing sunflower as a tall crop between GM and non-GM maize cannot be recommended as an appropriate coexistence measure.', 'en_US'),
(2705, 'Patterns of political response to biofortified varieties of crops produced with different breeding techniques and agronomic traits.', 'This article first examines the political response to two crops that were nutritionally enhanced through conventional breeding?Quality Protein Maize (QPM) and orange-fleshed sweet potatoes.  In the next section, the political response to food crops?maize, potato, and papaya?which have improved agronomic traits through genetic engineering is described.  Finally, we mention briefly the initial political responses to biofortified GMO rice, potatoes, cassava, and sorghum.  To gain political support as well as extensive adoption by farmers, biofortification needs to be combined with attractive agronomic traits.  These case studies also show that only GMOs have elicited a strong negative political response and that the consumer trait, biofortification, is not likely to make GMOs more appealing to activists and politicians.  However, political opposition to GMOs can be outweighed by well-organized, politically powerful interest groups.', 'en_US'),
(2706, 'Political actors on the landscape.', 'The introduction of novel foods and crops into the developing world triggers different reactions from different political actors.  Quite often, the patterns of response in developing countries run parallel to policy debates in rich countries, reflecting the close relationships that still can be found between government ministries, companies, and NGOs in rich countries and their subordinate partners in the developing world.  In general, the strongest supporters of novel foods and crops will be scientists, agricultural ministries, and the private companies trying to sell the new technology.  The strongest skeptics are likely to be NGOs claiming to speak for the poor, as well as environmental ministries.  If the novel foods and crops are GMO varieties, the patterns of local support will be much weaker, and the opposition is likely to be broader and significantly stronger.', 'en_US'),
(2707, 'Crop case study:  GMO Golden Rice in Asia with enhanced Vitamin A benefits for consumers.', 'Golden Rice is genetically modified to provide beta-carotene in the rice grain and it could potentially address widespread Vitamin A deficiency in poor countries where rice is a staple.  Political opponents have viewed Golden Rice as representing the interests of multi-nationals and as inherently unsafe for consumption.  Progress has been made towards adapting this crop to tropical-rice growing environments, but it has not yet been introduced into farmers'' fields.  Efficacy and safety have not yet been fully tested.  Substantial work remains to target and deliver this intervention to Vitamin A-deficient populations, and to overcome remaining resistance to this technology.  The political response to the on-going development of Golden Rice is reviewed to draw lessons for biofortification efforts that employ modern biotechnology.  Within Asian countries, successful development and delivery will require policy dialogue among agriculturalists, health specialists, and advocates for the poor.', 'en_US'),
(2708, 'Biofortification for China:  Political responses to food fortification and GM technology, interest groups, and possible strategies.', 'Despite making enormous strides in reducing poverty, hunger, and malnutrition, China still has large numbers of people who do not consume sufficient micronutrients such as iron, zinc and Vitamin A.  To meet this need, government agencies in China are supporting programs in industrial fortification and vitamin supplements.  In recent years the government has also supported research on biofortification of major grain crops using both conventional plant breeding and transgenic techniques.  The article assesses the potential political barriers to the acceptance of biofortified crops and concludes that biofortification using non-transgenic techniques would probably not face much opposition, while biofortification with transgenic techniques might have a more difficult time.  The article then assesses which groups in China are likely to support or oppose biofortification and then proposes some strategies that the government and international agencies might use if they decide to support biofortification.', 'en_US'),
(2709, 'Biofortified crops and biotechnology:  A political economy landscape for India.', 'Micronutrient deficiencies are responsible for major health problems among the poor in India.  Biofortification promises to be a cost-effective approach in enhancing the intake of micronutrients.  However, it requires government support in terms of resources and regulatory climate.  This paper assesses the political receptivity to biofortification especially when it may involve genetic engineering.  The paper draws on an understanding of political economy of pro-poor policies as well as the political responses to Bt cotton-the only GM crop that has received regulatory approval.  The paper argues that mainstream political parties are unlikely to take strong positions on biofortified crops?whether in favor or in opposition-unless it affords an opportunity to politically mobilize farmers.  If it involves genetic modification, biofortified crops will certainly be opposed by NGOs opposed to biotechnology.  The extent of support from the scientific community will depend on whether the health and nutrition community is involved.', 'en_US'),
(2710, 'Socio-economic and political concerns for GM foods and biotechnology adoption in the Philippines.', 'The Philippines established the first National Institute of Biotechnology and Applied Microbiology in 1980.  However, it was only in 2002 when Bt corn was first commercially introduced.  Strong opposition by key sectors including the influential Roman Catholic Church contributed to this delay and will probably continue to affect the introduction of other GM crops in the future.With favorable adoption rates of Bt corn, opposition dissipated and local scientific initiatives have expanded to other crops (e.g., GM papaya, eggplant).  The Philippine Rice Research Institute in collaboration with IRRI is currently engaged in the adaptation of Golden Rice (biofortified for Vitamin A) but it is not clear how the polity will react to this new technology when it is ready for adoption.  It is a major food staple in contrast to Bt corn.  The government''s agenda also puts a high premium on food self-sufficiency, especially rice.', 'en_US'),
(2711, 'Assessing the prospects for the adoption of biofortified crops in South Africa.', 'South Africa was an early adopter of GM crops and, more recently, introduced a national food-fortification program.  This article discusses the country''s experiences in developing an appropriate regulatory framework and the responses of key stakeholders.  In addition, an assessment is presented of the prospects for the adoption of biofortified crops in South Africa.', 'en_US'),
(2712, 'Biofortified foods and crops in West Africa:  Mali and Burkina Faso.', 'Micronutrient deficiencies, especially deficiencies of Vitamin A, iron, and zinc, are widespread in Burkina Faso and Mali and contribute to high mortality rates.  Biofortification of the major food staple crops consumed in these countries has considerable potential to increase the micronutrient status of vulnerable populations if the challenges of seed distribution can be overcome.  This article examines the political landscape for the introduction of biofortified crops, including those developed through genetic engineering.  Based on the experience with current strategies of food fortification, it is shown that the political environment for biofortified crops developed through conventional breeding is highly favorable.  Analyzing the current state of biosafety legislation and the political debates regarding genetically modified (GM) crops in the region, where the current focus is on Bt cotton, this study concludes that the political environment for introducing GM biofortified food crops is at present not conducive.  Strategies that prioritize the introduction of GM crops may jeopardize the favorable environment to welcome non-GM biofortified crops.', 'en_US'),
(2713, 'Patterns of political support and pathways to final impact.', 'A hypothetical scheme is offered for predicting which biofortified food technologies will enjoy greatest political support or opposition and from which actors on the political landscape.  Beyond political support, benefits to nutrition from biofortified crops will also require acceptance by both farmers and consumers, as well as adequate nutrient uptake.  Keys are reviewed to strengthening these three non-political links in the chain of final success.  A four-pronged strategy for moving forward is then offered.', 'en_US'),
(2714, 'Cost-efficacy in measuring farmland biodiversity - lessons from the Farm Scale Evaluations of genetically modified herbicide-tolerant crops,', 'Measuring farmland biodiversity is time-consuming and costly.  Operational data from the Farm Scale Evaluation of genetically modified crops project were collated to identify the financial and time costs of each of the 14 protocols used.  A subset of 113 of the 266 experimental sites was used.  The mean overall cost per site was £19 453 (£ of 2002).  Laboratory time was almost 2.5 times that in the field.  The most costly protocol was soil surface invertebrates because it required species level identification.  The ''bees and butterflies'' protocol at £418 per site was particularly cost-effective.  The six vegetation protocols accounted for 65% and the six arthropod protocols accounted for 29% of the total costs.  The recommended reduction from 12 to 3 transects would have saved £1356 per site, 6% of total budget.  A minimalist approach using the single-season seedbank protocol would cost £3437 per site.  The effect of geographical spread of sites on cost was small because of clustering of sites and the large number of protocols.  Careful selection of ecological indicators can save considerable resources.', 'en_US'),
(2715, 'Assessment of risk of insect-resistant transgenic crops to nontarget arthropods.', 'An international initiative is developing a scientifically rigorous approach to evaluate the potential risks to nontarget arthropods (NTAs) posed by insect-resistant, genetically modified (IRGM) crops. It adapts the tiered approach to risk assessment that is used internationally within regulatory toxicology and environmental sciences. The approach focuses on the formulation and testing of clearly stated risk hypotheses, making maximum use of available data and using formal decision guidelines to progress between testing stages (or tiers). It is intended to provide guidance to regulatory agencies that are currently developing their own NTA risk assessment guidelines for IRGM crops and to help harmonize regulatory requirements between different countries and different regions of the world.', 'en_US'),
(2716, 'Consumer acceptance, valuation of and attitudes towards genetically modified food: Review and implications for food policy.', 'An increasing set of evidence has been reported on how consumers could potentially react to the introduction of genetically modified food. Studies typically contain some empirical evidence and some theoretical explanations of the data, however, to date limited effort has been posed on systematically reviewing the existing evidence and its implications for policy. This paper contributes to the literature by bringing together the published evidence on the behavioural frameworks and evidence on the process leading to the public acceptance of genetically modified (GM) food and organisms (GMOs). In doing so, we employ a set of clearly defined search tools and a limited number of comprehensive key words. The study attempts to gather an understanding of the published findings on the determinants of the valuation of GM food - both in terms of willingness to accept and the willing-to-pay a premium for non-GM food, trust with information sources on the safety and public health and ultimate attitudes underpinning such evidence. Furthermore, in the light of such evidence, we formulate some policy strategies to deal with public uncertainly regarding to GMOs and, especially GM food.', 'en_US'),
(2717, 'Fate and effects of insect-resistant Bt crops in soil ecosystems.', 'Recent applications of biotechnology, especially genetic engineering, have revolutionized crop improvement and increased the availability of valuable new traits. A current example is the use of the insecticidal Cry proteins from the bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), to improve crops, known as Bt crops, by reducing injury from various crop pests. The adoption of genetically modified (GM) crops has increased dramatically in the last 11 years. However, the introduction of GM plants into agricultural ecosystems has raised a number of questions, including the ecological impact of these plants on soil ecosystems. Crop residues are the primary source of carbon in soil, and root exudates govern which organisms reside in the rhizosphere. Therefore, any change to the quality of crop residues and rhizosphere inputs could modify the dynamics of the composition and activity of organisms in soil. Insect-resistant Bt crops have the potential to change the microbial dynamics, biodiversity, and essential ecosystem functions in soil, because they usually produce insecticidal Cry proteins through all parts of the plant. It is crucial that risk assessment studies on the commercial use of Bt crops consider the impacts on organisms in soil. In general, few or no toxic effects of Cry proteins on woodlice, collembolans, mites, earthworms, nematodes, protozoa, and the activity of various enzymes in soil have been reported. Although some effects, ranging from no effect to minor and significant effects, of Bt plants on microbial communities in soil have been reported, using both culturing and molecular techniques, they were mostly the result of differences in geography, temperature, plant variety, and soil type and, in general, were transient and not related to the presence of the Cry proteins. The respiration (i.e., CO2 evolution) of soils cultivated with Bt maize or amended with biomass of Bt maize and other Bt crops was generally lower than from soils cultivated with or amended with biomass of the respective non-Bt isolines, which may have been a result of differences in chemical composition (e.g., the content of starch, soluble N, proteins, carbohydrates, lignin) between Bt plants and their near-isogenic counterparts. Laboratory and field studies have shown differences in the persistence of the Cry proteins in soil, which appear to be the result primarily of differences in microbial activity, which, in turn, is dependent on soil type (e.g., pH, clay mineral composition, other physicochemical characteristics), season (e.g., temperature, water tension), crop species (e.g., chemical composition, C:N ratio, plant part), crop management practices (e.g., till vs. no-till), and other environmental factors that vary with location and climate zones. This review discusses the available data on the effects of Cry proteins on below-ground organisms, the fate of these proteins in soil, the techniques and indicators that are available to study these aspects, and future directions. ', 'en_US'),
(2718, 'Statement of the Scientific Panel of Genetically Modified Organisms on the safe use of the nptII antibiotic resistance marker gene in genetically modified plants.', 'The GMO Panel agrees with the EMEA that the preservation of the therapeutic potential of the aminoglycoside group of antibiotics is important.  The Panel is also of the opinion that the therapeutic effect of these antibiotics will not be compromised by the presence of the nptII gene in GM plants, given the extremely low probability of gene transfer from plants to bacteria and its subsequent expression.  Furthermore, the GMO Panel considers it very unlikely that the presence of the nptII gene in GM plants will change the existing widespread prevalence of this antibiotic resistance gene in bacterial sources in the environment.  The GMO Panel also points to evidence which indicates that integration of the nptII gene would only be one of many mechanisms by which bacteria could become resistant to aminoglycosides such as kanamycin.Therefore, the GMO Panel reiterates its earlier conclusions (EFSA, 2004) that the use of the nptII gene as selectable marker in GM plants (and derived food or feed) does not pose a risk to human or animal health or to the environment.  The GMO Panel also confirms earlier safety assessments of GM plants and derived food/feed comprising the nptII gene.The GMO Panel emphasizes that the use of antibiotic resistance marker genes in GM plants has been the subject of several reviews (Gay and Gillespie, 2005, Goldstein et al., 2005, Miki and McHugh, 2004, Nap et al., 1992, Nielsen et al., 1998, Ramessar et al., 2007) and expert consultations: Working Party of the British Society for Antimicrobial Chemotherapy (Bennett et al., 2004), FAO/WHO Consultation on Foods Derived from Biotechnology (FAO/WHO, 2000), Scientific Steering Committee of the European Commission (SSC, 1999) Zentrale Kommission für die Biologische Sicherheit, DE (ZKBS, 1999), The Advisory Committee on http://www.efsa.europa.eu 5 Novel Foods and Processes, UK (ACNFP, 1996).  It has been concluded in these reports that the frequencies of gene transfer from plants to bacteria are likely to be extremely low and that the presence of antibiotic resistance marker genes, and in particular the nptII gene, in GM plants do not pose a relevant risk to human or animal health or to the environment.', 'en_US'),
(2719, 'Impact of mycotoxins on human health in developing countries.', 'Adverse human health effects from the consumption of mycotoxins have occurred for many centuries. Although mycotoxin contamination of agricultural products still occurs in the developed world, the application of modern agricultural practices and the presence of a legislatively regulated food processing and marketing system have greatly reduced mycotoxin exposure in these populations. At the mycotoxin contamination levels generally found in food products traded in these market economies, adverse human health effects have largely been overcome. However, in the developing world, where climatic and crop storage conditions are frequently conducive to fungal growth and mycotoxin production, much of the population relies on subsistence farming or on unregulated local markets. The extent to which mycotoxins affect human health is difficult to investigate in countries whose health systems lack capacity and in which resources are limited. Aflatoxin B1, the toxin on which major resources have been expended, has long been linked to liver cancer, yet its other effects, such as immune suppression and growth faltering previously observed in veterinary studies, are only now being investigated and characterized in human populations. The extent to which factors such as immune suppression contribute to the overall burden of infectious disease is difficult to quantify, but is undoubtedly significant. Thus, food safety remains an important opportunity for addressing current health problems in developing countries.', 'en_US'),
(2720, 'The Changing Face of the U.S. Grain System:  Differentiation and Identity Preservation Trends', 'This report examines current trends in the U.S. grain industry.  Many identity preservation (IP) grain systems have emerged recently, driven by a confluence of supply and demand factors.  IP grain requirements for specific production protocols, marketing channels, and quality assurance depend on whether the crops are trait-specific, non-GM (genetically modified), organic, or pharmaceutical.  Cost structures vary according to the relative importance of segregation and risk management.  High information management, greater market coordination, and frequent reliance on contracts characterize IP grains.  IP grain markets are also inherently riskier, with volatile supply, inelastic demand, and fluctuating price premiums.  Increasing grain differentiation is altering the marketing structure of the U.S. grain industry and creating possible roles for government policy, particularly in market facilitation, standard setting, and regulations affecting food safety and biosecurity.', 'en_US'),
(2721, 'Attitudes towards genetically modified food with a specific consumer benefit in food allergic consumers and non-food allergic consumers.', 'The aim of the reported study was to investigate attitudes towards genetically modified food with a specific consumer benefit.   Fifty food allergic and one hundred non-allergic consumers took part in a telephone interview study in each of Austria, Spain and the Netherlands.  Participants were first asked about their purchase intentions for an unspecified genetically modified food.  Next, participants were asked about their purchase intentions for a genetically modified food with a specific consumer benefit. Food allergic consumers were asked about ''low-allergen food'' produced using genetic modification and non-allergic consumers were asked about ''food that benefits your health'' produced using genetic modification.  It was found that intention to purchase genetically modified food with these specific benefits was higher than intention to purchase an unspecified genetically modified food.', 'en_US'),
(2722, 'No evidence of an impact on the rhizosphere diazotroph community by the expression of Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Ab toxin by Bt white spruce.', 'Nitrogen fixation is one of the most important roles played by soil bacterial communities, as fixation supplies nitrogen to many ecosystems which are often N limited.  As impacts on this functional group of bacteria might harm the ecosystem''s health and reduce productivity, monitoring that particular group is important.  Recently, a field trial with Bt white spruce, which constitutively expresses the Cry1Ab insecticidal toxin of Bacillus thuringiensis, was established.  The Bt white spruce was shown to be resistant to spruce budworm.  We investigated the possible impact of these genetically modified trees on soil nitrogen-fixing bacterial communities.  The trial consisted of untransformed controls, GUS white spruce (transformed with the ß-glucuronidase gene), and Bt/GUS white spruce (which constitutively expresses both the Cry1Ab toxin and ß-glucuronidase) in a random design.  Four years after planting, soil samples from the control and the two treatments from plantation as well as from two natural stands of white spruce were collected.  Diazotroph diversity was assessed by extracting soil genomic DNA and amplifying a region of the nitrogenase reductase (nifH) gene, followed by cloning and sequencing.  Analysis revealed that nitrogen-fixing communities did not differ significantly among the untransformed control, GUS white spruce, and Bt/GUS white spruce.  Nevertheless, differences in diazotroph diversity were observed between white spruce trees from the plantation site and those from two natural stands, one of which grew only a few meters away from the plantation.  We therefore conclude, in the absence of evidence that the presence of the B. thuringiensis cry1Ab gene had an effect on diazotroph communities, that either site and/or field preparation prior to planting seems to be more important in determining diazotroph community structure than the presence of Bt white spruce.', 'en_US'),
(2723, 'Interactions of transgenic-Bt potato resistance to Colorado potato beetle with the fitness and behavior of the potato aphid Macrosiphum euphorbiae.', 'The performance and flight behavior of the potato aphid Macrosiphum euphorbiae was studied on the ''Superior-BT'' line transgenic for the CryIIIA toxin of Bacillus thuringiensis (BT), resistant to the Colorado potato beetle; and non transformed ''Superior'' line which served as control.  Mortality of the treated aphids was negligible and potato lines did not affect the development time of M. euphorbiae, but aphids were largest on ''Superior'' and smallest on BT potatoes.  This difference was reflected in aphid fecundity, which was lowest on ''Superior-BT'', and highest on Superior.  Incidence of flight in newly emerged late M. euphorbiae that developed on BT was high compared to control.  The results illustrate that the performance of a secondary pest of potato can be unpredictably affected by the resistance factor involved in developing specific resistance to a primary pest.', 'en_US'),
(2724, 'Consumers'' view and awareness of genetically modified food.', 'This publication comprises material on recent studies on quality management in agri-food chains.  Due to several food crisis''s (e.g,. BSE, Foot-and-Mouth disease) and growing demands for food quality and safety, quality management systems and quality assurance schemes have been widely adopted in different countries in recent years.  Scientific knowledge about the features, the acceptance and the effectiveness and efficiency of these newly introduced quality management initiatives, has remained scarce until now.  The material, by experts in the field, focuses on the evaluation of quality management systems and quality assurance schemes.  The main issues are the costs and benefits of quality management given the influence of the public sector and consumers'' expectations about food quality and safety.  Not only are benchmarking and harmonisation methods examined with regard to their impact on the effectiveness of quality assurance schemes, but, also the role of trust, cooperation and integration for efficient quality management is discussed.  Different economic theories such as microeconomics, organization and marketing theory as well as advanced statistical methods are applied.  Concepts are discussed from the various points of view of industrialised, export-oriented and developing countries throughout the book.  The information in this book gives a comprehensive review of quality management concepts in food chains and highlight future research directions from a global perspective.  This book is of interest to all those who concern themselves with the topic, be it in academia or in the professional sector.', 'en_US'),
(2725, 'Biosafety and emerging socio economic issues.', 'India, as a party to the Convention on Biodiversity and having ratified the Cartagena Protocol (CP) is committed to the safe handling of living or genetically modified organisms (LMOs or GMOs).  CP provides a broad framework on biosafety especially focusing on transboundary movements of GMOs and also covers seeds that are meant for intentional release in the environment, as well as those GMOs that are intended for food, feed or used in food processing.  A number of countries have drafted their biosafety regulatory framework taking into consideration the socioeconomic aspects of release of GMOs, the common feature emphasised being the health and economic loss due to the release of such GMOs.  Besides many countries have also emphasised the labeling requirements to enable consumers to make a choice.  In the case of India, the regulatory framework, does not adequately emphasise the socio economic aspects, the need for which has been realised after the release of GMO; in the environment.  To examine the implications more research is going on in both public and private sector in India.  The major lacuna in the Indian system of adoption of GMO was, the failure of the monitoring of the GM crop after the commercial release to ensure proper implementation of biosafety measures.  Failure to adopt bio safety measures, irrational use of pesticides and an indiscriminate crossing of the unapproved variety could lead to wide spread pest resistance and resurgence and leading to a potential technology not utilised optimally.', 'en_US'),
(2726, 'Temporal detection of Cry1Ab-endotoxins in coccinellid predators from fields of Bacillus thuringiensis corn.', 'The area planted to genetically engineered crops has increased dramatically in the last ten years. This has generated many studies examining non-target effects of bioengineered plants expressing Bacillus thuringiensis endotoxins. To date, most have focused on population-level effects in the field or laboratory evaluation of specific plant-herbivore or plant-herbivore-predator trophic pathways. Using a post-mortem enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, we examined the uptake of Cry1Ab-endotoxins by predatory coccinellids and the importance of anthesis to this trophic pathway. Adult Coleomegilla maculata, Harmonia axyridis, Cycloneda munda and Coccinella septempunctata contained low, but detectable, quantities of Bt-endotoxin when screened by ELISA. This was most evident in C. maculata, with 12.8% of 775 individuals testing positive for Cry1Ab-endotoxins. Interestingly, the presence of endotoxins in gut samples was not confined to periods around anthesis, but coccinellid adults tested positive two weeks before and up to ten weeks after pollen was shed, suggesting tri-trophic linkages in their food chain facilitates the transfer of endotoxins into higher-order predators. This contrasts with adult Coleomegilla maculata entering overwintering sites where Bt-endotoxins were not detected in gut samples, indicating low levels of persistence of Cry1Ab-endotoxins within coccinellid predators. This study enhances our understanding of complex interactions between transgenic crops and non-target food webs, but further research is required to quantify the significance of specific trophic linkages in the field.', 'en_US'),
(2727, 'Low frequencies of transgene flow between Bt/CpTI rice and their non-transgenic counterparts under alternating cultivation.', 'With the fast development of biotechnology, many transgenic crops have been developed and are in the pipelines for environmental release or commercialization.  Crop-to-crop transgene flow from transgenic to non-transgenic rice varieties will affect seed purity of non-transgenic rice varieties, which might lead to unwanted biosafety problems.  To assess the probability of transgene outflow in rice (Oryza sativa), gene flow experiments were conducted at two confined biosafety experimental sites in Fuzhou of Fujian Province and Sanya of Hainan Province, with the field design of alternating rows of transgenic rice lines and non-transgenic varieties.  Three transgenic rice lines containing two insect-resistance genes (Bt/CpTI) and their non-transgenic counterparts (isogenic lines) were used in the experiments to achieve high levels of spontaneous outcrossing.  A hygromycin resistance gene tightly linked with the target transgenes was used as a selective marker for identifying transgenic hybrids.  Based on examination of 70,056 geminated seeds, we observed low frequencies of transgene outflow (0.275?0.832%) under cultivation of alternating rows between transgenic rice and its non-transgenic counterparts.  This result of low crop-to-crop transgene flow in rice at such close spacing can provide scientific support for the safe use of transgenic rice in terms of ''contamina-tion'' of non-transgenic rice caused by pollen-mediated transgene outflow, if certain isolation measures are taken.', 'en_US'),
(2728, 'Flow of genetic information through agricultural ecosystems: a generic modelling framework with application to pesticide-resistance weeds and genetically modified crops', 'Unintended spatial spread of genetic information is one of the major problems in modern agriculture.  The vertical distribution of transgenic properties and the spatial spread of resistant weeds and pests are likely to develop under long-term pesticide use.  These are complex systems that require an integrated view of population dynamics, genetics, and physical transport processes.  Mathematical models may be utilised to support of risk assessment and to derive appropriate risk management strategies.  In this contribution we propose a generic modelling framework that provides an explicit simulation of the spatial patterns of gene flow through agro-ecosystems.Pollen dispersal is modelled with traditional transport equations from atmospheric physics that are applied to outcrossing studies of genetically modified maize.  Transport equations were coupled to models of population dynamics and genetics with partial differential equations that combine dispersal, growth and genetics.  The overall model consists of a set of coupled partial differential equations for pollen dispersal, and the spatial and temporal dynamics of each biotype involved.  Initial boundary value problems are set up for the dispersal of resistance in dependence on spatial spread patterns, which are solved by finite element methods.', 'en_US'),
(2729, 'Effects of Bt corn pollen on honey bees: emphasis on protocol development.', 'Laboratory feeding studies showed no effects on the weight and survival of honey bees feeding on Cry1Ab-expressing sweet corn pollen for 35 days. In field studies, colonies foraging in sweet corn plots and fed Bt pollen cakes for 28 days showed no adverse effects on bee weight, foraging activity, and colony performance. Brood development was not affected by exposure to Bt pollen but significantly reduced by the positive insecticide control. The number of foragers returning with pollen loads, pollen load weight, and forager weight were the most consistent endpoints as indicators of foraging activity. Using variances of measured endpoints, experimental designs required to detect a range of effect sizes at 80% statistical power were determined. Discussed are methods to ensure exposure to pollen, duration of exposure, positive controls, and appropriate endpoints to consider in planning laboratory and field studies to evaluate the non-target effects of transgenic pollen.', 'en_US'),
(2730, 'Evolution of glyphosate-resistant Johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense) in glyphosate-resistant soybean.', 'In Argentinean crop fields, weed control is mainly achieved by intense use of glyphosate as a nonselective and/or selective herbicide. Glyphosate use is very high as more than 95% of the 16 million ha soybean crop consists of glyphosate-resistant cultivars, always treated with this herbicide. From initial success, inconsistent glyphosate control of Johnsongrass, an invading C4 perennial grass of soybean crops, has become evident to producers from northern Argentina over the last 3 yr. Prior to this, glyphosate provided good control. This study evaluated the nature of these recurrent glyphosate failures in Johnsongrass. Experiments conducted with Johnsongrass plants obtained from seed and rhizome phytomers collected from fields with intense glyphosate use history showed that these populations showed differential survival and biomass productivity when glyphosate treated than Johnsongrass plants obtained from similar propagules collected from field sites with no history of glyphosate use. This empirical evidence establishes that the Johnsongrass survival in glyphosate-treated transgenic soybean fields from northern Argentina is due to evolved glyphosate resistance.', 'en_US'),
(2731, 'Landscape gene flow, coexistence and threshold effect:  The case of genetically modified herbicide tolerant oilseed rape (Brassica napus).', 'Globally there have been a number of concerns about the development of genetically modified crops many of which relate to the implications of gene flow at various levels. In Europe these concerns have led the European Union (EU) to promote the concept of ''coexistence'' to allow the freedom to plant conventional and genetically modified (GM) varieties but to minimise the presence of transgenic material within conventional crops. Should a premium for non-GM varieties emerge on the market, the presence of transgenes would generate a ''negative externality'' to conventional growers. The establishment of maximum tolerance level for the adventitious presence of GM material in conventional crops produces a threshold effect in the external costs.The existing literature suggests that apart from the biological characteristics of the plant under consideration (e.g. self-pollination rates, entomophilous species, anemophilous species, etc.), gene flow at the landscape level is affected by the relative size of the source and sink populations and the spatial arrangement of the fields in the landscape. In this paper, we take genetically modified herbicide tolerant oilseed rape (GM HT OSR) as a model crop. Starting from an individual pollen dispersal function, we develop a spatially explicit numerical model in order to assess the effect of the size of the source/sink populations and the degree of spatial aggregation on the extent of gene flow into conventional OSR varieties under two alternative settings. We find that when the transgene presence in conventional produce is detected at the field level, the external cost will increase with the size of the source area and with the level of spatial disaggregation. On the other hand when the transgene presence is averaged among all conventional fields in the landscape (e.g. because of grain mixing before detection), the external cost will only depend on the relative size of the source area. The model could readily be incorporated into an economic evaluation of policies to regulate adoption of GM HT OSR.', 'en_US'),
(2732, 'Preferences of Turkish people for irradiated, GM or organic foods.', 'Through commercial application, new technologies may improve health, agriculture, farming practices and the quality of foods.  However, along with the array of potential benefits are potential risks and uncertainties surrounding the commercial applications of these technologies.  In this study, a survey was prepared to receive opinion of Turkish People living in the most populated area of Turkey about irradiated foods, food additives and organic foods and genetically modified foods.  Survey questions were asked to 1226 people (626 women and 600 men) in 4 different age groups (15- 30, 31-45, 46- 60, 61-90 years old).  Questions were generally prepared to expose their knowledge and awareness about food additives, organic foods, irradiation, genetically modified foods or hormone residues in foods.  Most of them think that consuming food containing some of the food additives can lead to some health problems.  The half of the participants did not have knowledge about food irradiation.  The results of the current study also indicated that 9% of respondents did not concern for the safety of irradiated foods; however, 69% of them concerned very much.  In addition, the present study indicated that only 8% of respondents thought that GM foods were safe, 69% thought that they were little risky, 23% of them thought they were extremely risky for our health.  All participants with different age, gender, income level or education level had negative thought about hormone residues in food products.  Interestingly, 29 and 18% of them did not have knowledge about organic foods and believed that they can be unhealthy, respectively.  In conclusion, most of the participants, especially 31-45 years old and high income people, were cautious about what they purchase.', 'en_US'),
(2733, 'Nontarget effect of transgenic insecticidal crops overview to date and future challenges.', 'In the mid-1990s, commercial cultivation of transgenic insecticidal crops (Bt corn, cotton and potato) began in North America.  In 1998 and 1999, some researchers warned that these Bt crops may have unexpected negative effects on nontarget butterflies, beneficial natural enemy insects, and soil fauna.  Since then, many peer-reviewed articles have been published about the nontarget effects of transgenic insecticidal crops.  Most subsequent studies revealed that Bt corn pollen has no harmful effect on nontarget butterflies in the field.  Negative effects on predatory or parasitic insects shown in laboratory experiments have never been demonstrated in greenhouse or field studies.  Although assessing the effect on soil fauna is difficult compared with on nontarget butterflies or above-ground natural enemies, none of the reports have documented deleterious effects on soil biota.  The current commercially used Bt crops appear to have little significant adverse effect on nontarget fauna.  Before the approval of commercial field cultivation, many ecological risk assessments are imposed on new types of transgenic crops (new trait event) and the nontarget effect is an essential part of the risk assessment for transgenic insecticidal crops.  Many further articles on the nontarget effect will be published for transgenic insecticidal crops including the current Bt crops.', 'en_US'),
(2734, 'Hybridisation within Brassica and allied genera:  evaluation of potential for transgene escape.', 'Determining the potential for hybridisation between transgenic crops and their relatives is a major component of risk assessment.  Recent assessments of the extent of reproductive compatibility between crops and their relatives draw heavily on existing data from experimental crosses to infer the likelihood of hybridisation and introgression.  Since the literature in this area continues to grow at a rapid pace, it is essential that such analyses can be easily updated.  We used a database approach to assemble data on reproductive compatibility for eight crop species in Brassica, Raphanus and Sinapis, using data from hand pollination, spontaneous (unassisted) pollination and trials using in vitro techniques (e.g. embryo rescue), incorporating 326 studies and 216 species combinations.  We found many reports for major crop species (B. juncea, B. napus, B. oleracea and B. rapa), but fewer for minor crops (B. carinata, B. nigra, Raphanus sativus and Sinapis alba).  Many species combinations remain untested, and we highlight these information gaps.  While reproductively incompatible species can be discounted as targets for transgene escape, compatible species must be evaluated further in the particular context where transgenic crops are grown.  Because the data is retained in a database in a relatively unmodified form, multiple views of the data can be generated; this review represents one possible view of this data.  Our approach also allows new data to be easily incorporated into future reanalyses and can be extended to other crop groups, and as such is a useful method of assembling, analysing and sharing data for risk assessment.', 'en_US'),
(2735, 'Selection of non-target Lepidoptera species for ecological risk assessment of Bt maize in South Africa.', 'It is essential to assess the environmental risk that Bt maize may hold and to study its effect on species assemblages that fulfill a variety of ecosystem functions.  Environmental risk assessment can be improved through the use of an ecological model which can be applied to a specific environment, so that local species can be classified functionally and prioritized to identify potential test species.  Although the stem borers, Busseola fusca (Lepidoptera : Noctuidae), and Chilo partellus (Lepidoptera : Crambidae), are the target species of Bt maize in South Africa various other Lepidoptera species are also directly exposed to Bt toxin.  In this paper an ecological approach was followed for selection of non-target Lepidoptera species for ecological risk assessment of Bt maize, using data collected over a two-year period on Lepidoptera biodiversity on maize.  Nine primary non-target lepidopterous consumers were identified.  A selection matrix was developed in which each species was ranked for its maximum potential exposure to Bt toxin by assessing its occurrence, abundance, presence and linkage to other host plants in the maize ecosystem.  Non-target Lepidoptera most likely to be affected were identified and prioritized for future testing and inclusion in risk assessments.  Several non-target species were prioritized for their close association with maize, general occurrence in the maize-growing regions and their potential for economic damage should they become secondary pests.  Through use of the selection matrix, knowledge gaps were identified for future research and guidance for the design of ecologically realistic experiments.  Non-target species populations with the highest maximum potential exposure to Bt toxin are Sesamia calamistis (Hampson) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and Acantholeucania loreyi (Duponchel) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae).  Eublemma gayneri (Rothschild) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) can be considered to be a ''value unknown'' species in the wild.  Because of their sporadic occurrence, Agrotis segetum (Denis & Schiffermüller) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and Spodoptera exigua (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) are considered to be of lesser importance than H. armigera and A. loreyi, but should also be considered during pre- and post-release monitoring.', 'en_US'),
(2736, 'The effect of glyphosate on digestion and horizontal gene transfer during in vitro ruminal fermentation of genetically modified canola.', 'BACKGROUND:  The impact of glyphosate on ruminal fermentation, selective pressure on ruminal bacteria and horizontal transfer of the gene encoding 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (epsps) to ruminal bacteria was studied using batch culture with glyphosate-tolerant (Roundup Ready®) canola meal as substrate. RESULTS:  A glyphosate concentration × time interaction (P < 0.05) occurred when glyphosate (0-100 mmol L-1) was included in in vitro ruminal incubations with a diet containing 150 g kg-1 Roundup Ready® canola meal (Experiment 1).  Glyphosate at 50 and 100 mmol L-1 inhibited fermentation.  In Experiment 2, epsps fragments were detected in plant debris for up to 16 h of incubation using primer sets that amplified three fragments (62, 108 and 300 bp) of DNA spanning the transgenic construct.  Persistence was affected by fragment size but not by glyphosate concentration (0, 10 or 60 mmol L-1).  Extensive polymerase chain reaction assays provided no evidence of acquisition of epsps by feed- or fluid-associated bacteria during fermentation.  A glyphosate concentration × time interaction (P < 0.05) was observed for all fermentation parameters measured, and glyphosate caused a general inhibition of fermentation. CONCLUSION:  The presence of glyphosate did not increase selective pressure for gene transfer of DNA encoding glyphosate resistance from Roundup Ready® canola meal to ruminal bacteria.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(2737, 'Computational analysis of the relationship between allergenicity and digestibility of allergenic proteins in simulated gastric fluid.', 'Background:  Safety assessment of genetically modified (GM) food, with regard to allergenic potential of transgene-encoded xenoproteins, typically involves several different methods, evaluation by digestibility being one thereof. However, there are still debates about whether the allergenicity of food allergens is related to their resistance to digestion by the gastric fluid. The disagreements may in part stem from classification of allergens only by their sources, which we believe is inadequate, and the difficulties in achieving identical experimental conditions for studying digestion by simulated gastric fluid (SGF) so that results can be compared. Here, we reclassify allergenic food allergens into alimentary canal-sensitized (ACS) and non-alimentary canal-sensitized (NACS) allergens and use a computational model that simulates gastric fluid digestion to analyze the digestibilities of these two types.Results:  The model presented in this paper is as effective as SGF digestion experiments, but more stable and reproducible. On the basis of this model, food allergens are satisfactorily classified as ACS and NACS types by their pathways for sensitization; the former are relatively resistant to gastric fluid digestion while the later are relatively labile.Conclusion:  The results suggest that it is better to classify allergens into ACS and NACS types when understanding the relationship between their digestibility and allergenicity and the digestibility of a target foreign protein is a parameter for evaluating its allergenicity during safety assessments of GM food.', 'en_US'),
(2738, 'Effect of pollinator abundance on self-fertilization and gene flow:  application to GM canola.', 'Cross-pollination from fields of transgenic crops is of great public concern.  Although cross-pollination in commercial canola (Brassica napus) fields has been empirically measured, field trials are expensive and do not identify the causes of cross-pollination.  Therefore, theoretical models can be valuable because they can provide estimates of cross-pollination at any given site and time.  We present a general analytical model of field-to-field gene flow due to the following competing mechanisms: the wind, bees, and autonomous pollination.  We parameterize the model for the particular case of field-to-field cross-pollination of genetically modified (GM) canola via the wind and via bumble bees (Bombus spp.) and honey bees (Apis mellifera).  We make extensive use of the large data set of bee densities collected during the recent U.K. Farm Scale Evaluations.  We predict that canola approaches almost full seed set without pollinators and that autonomous pollination is responsible for =25% of seed set, irrespective of pollinator abundance.  We do not predict the relative contribution of bees vs. the wind in landscape-scale gene flow in canola.  However, under model assumptions, we predict that the maximum field-to-field gene flow due to bumble bees is 0.04% and 0.13% below the current EU limit for adventitious GM presence for winter- and spring-sown canola, respectively.  We predict that gene flow due to bees is ~3.1 times higher at 20% compared to 100% male-fertility, and due to the wind, 1.3 times higher at 20% compared to 100% male-fertility, for both winter- and spring-sown canola.  Bumble bee-mediated gene flow is ~2.7 times higher and wind-mediated gene flow ~1.7 times lower in spring-sown than in winter-sown canola, regardless of the degree of male-sterility.  The model of cross-pollination due to the wind most closely predicted three previously published observations: field-to-field gene flow is low; gene flow increases with the proportion of plants that are male-sterile; and gene flow is higher in winter- than in spring-sown canola.  Our results therefore suggest that the wind, not bees, is the main vector of long-distance gene flow in canola.', 'en_US'),
(2739, 'Opportunities for biotechnology and policy regarding mycotoxin issues in international trade.', 'Despite being introduced more than a decade ago, agricultural biotechnology still remains framed in controversy impacting both the global economy and international regulations.  Controversies surrounding agricultural biotechnology produced crops and foods commonly focus on human and environmental safety, intellectual property rights, consumer choice, ethics, food security, poverty reduction and environmental conservation.  Originally, some consumers were reluctant to accept the first generation agricultural biotechnology products because they appeared to primarily benefit agricultural producers; however, it is clear from continued evaluations that these technologies also improved both the safety and wholesomeness of food and helped improve the environment.  Plants engineered to resist insect pests and tolerate less toxic pesticides resulted in improved yields thereby enabling farmers to produce more food per acre while reducing the need for herbicides, pesticides, and water and tilling.  An indirect benefit of reduced pest damage in transgenic corn expressing genes to control insect pests is lower levels of mycotoxins, most notably those caused by the genus Fusarium.  Mycotoxins are an important regulatory issue globally because of their toxic and carcinogenic potential to humans and animals.  Complicating this issue is the fact that toxicological databases for mycotoxins are relatively incomplete compared to other food contaminants.  Current debates about agricultural biotechnology and mycotoxins reveal significant differences in perception of associated risks and benefits.  When faced with uncertainty, regulators tend to set limits as low as possible.  Additionally, some regulators invoke the ''Precautionary Principle'' when limited information is available or disputes over interpretation exist for possible contaminants, including mycotoxins.  A major concern regarding use of the ''Precautionary Principle'' is the appearance that regulators can justify setting any limit on the basis of inconclusive or unknown potential hazards of a contaminant which may significantly impact global trade because mycotoxin residues vary widely between countries.  This paper describes the current economic and heath impact of these regulations and their impact on international trade.', 'en_US'),
(2740, 'Maize plants:  An ideal production platform for effective and safe molecular pharming.', 'Maize (Zea mays), the world''s third most important cereal crop, was the first plant developed into a commercial platform for molecular pharming in the field.  Although there are now many different plant-based platforms, including leafy crops, fruit and vegetable crops, other cereals, aquatic plants, algae and systems based on plant viruses and cultured plant cells, maize still demonstrates the unique combination of advantages that made it the first choice for many researchers.  In this review, we look at the drivers for using maize as a platform for large-scale production of recombinant pharmaceutical proteins.  As well as discussing the technical merits and limitations of the species, we explore the regulatory burden that plant-made pharmaceuticals carry, and use scientific data to expose the misconceptions surrounding the perceived ''risks'' of using maize as a pharmaceutical crop.', 'en_US'),
(2741, 'A three-year longitudinal study on the effects of a diet containing genetically modified Bt176 maize on the health status and performance of sheep.', 'This study shows that a diet including insect-resistant Bt176 maize, fed to 53 ewes and their progeny for 3 years, did not have adverse effects on their health or performance and that no horizontal gene transfer to ruminal microorganisms or animal tissues was detected.  No differences were observed regarding performance, reproductive traits, haematological parameters, antioxidant defences, lymphocyte proliferative capacity, phagocytosis and intracellular killing of macrophages, and ruminal microbial population characteristics between control and genetically modified (GM) maize-fed animals.  Immune response to Salmonella abortus ovis vaccination was more efficient in GM maize fed sheep.  No modifications of histological features of tissues were found; however, cytochemical analyses of ruminal epithelium by Ki67 staining provided evidence of proliferative activation of basal cells in all GM maize-fed ewes.  Preliminary electron microscopy analyses of the liver and pancreas revealed smaller cell nuclei containing increased amounts of heterochromatin and perichromatin granules in GM maize-fed lambs.  Meat protein content and water loss by cooking were slightly affected by the dietary treatment.  No transgenic DNA was detected in tissues, blood, and ruminal fluid or ruminal bacteria.  Longitudinal studies should be included in evaluation of food safety whenever possible and sheep may be a useful animal model for toxicological assessment.', 'en_US'),
(2742, 'Antibiotic-resistant soil bacteria in transgenic plant fields.', 'Understanding the prevalence and polymorphism of antibiotic resistance genes in soil bacteria and their potential to be transferred horizontally is required to evaluate the likelihood and ecological (and possibly clinical) consequences of the transfer of these genes from transgenic plants to soil bacteria.  In this study, we combined culture-dependent and -independent approaches to study the prevalence and diversity of bla genes in soil bacteria and the potential impact that a 10-successive-year culture of the transgenic Bt176 corn, which has a blaTEM marker gene, could have had on the soil bacterial community.  The bla gene encoding resistance to ampicillin belongs to the beta-lactam antibiotic family, which is widely used in medicine but is readily compromised by bacterial antibiotic resistance.  Our results indicate that soil bacteria are naturally resistant to a broad spectrum of beta-lactam antibiotics, including the third cephalosporin generation, which has a slightly stronger discriminating effect on soil isolates than other cephalosporins.  These high resistance levels for a wide range of antibiotics are partly due to the polymorphism of bla genes, which occur frequently among soil bacteria.  The blaTEM116 gene of the transgenic corn Bt176 investigated here is among those frequently found, thus reducing any risk of introducing a new bacterial resistance trait from the transgenic material.  In addition, no significant differences were observed in bacterial antibiotic-resistance levels between transgenic and nontransgenic corn fields, although the bacterial populations were different.', 'en_US'),
(2743, 'Consumer attitudes toward issues in food safety.', 'The objectives of this study were to evaluate consumer attitudes regarding the safety of the food supply, relate food safety concern levels with groups of specific items, regulatory issues and prioritization of food safety funding areas, and to evaluate attitudes and behaviors toward specific food safety issues.  As general level of concern with food safety increased, so did concern with chemical, microbiological and regulatory issues.  Concern with microbiological issues was higher than in previous studies.  Only about 15% of the consumers thought they had contracted a foodborne illness during the last year; >40% thought the source was restaurant food and >25% thought the source was a school or church event.  Concerns with cholesterol, salt and sugar were significantly higher than in previous studies.  Consumers were very concerned about the inspection of imported foods and restaurant sanitation; however, they did not assign a high priority to funding of regulatory issues such as hiring more inspectors.  The majority of consumers surveyed think that genetically modified foods, irradiated foods, food from animals treated with hormones or treated with antibiotics found safe by the Food and Drug Administration, are safe to eat (80, 77, 72 and 74%, respectively); however, about one-third would not purchase them, and more than 20% have reduced their consumption of some foods because they think they are irradiated, contain genetically modified organisms or are derived from animals treated with hormones or antibiotics.Practical Applications:  Half the 400 consumers surveyed considered their food very safe, about a 10% decrease since 2002.  As far as ''chemical issues,'' consumers were most concerned with pesticide residues, hormones in poultry and meat, and preservatives.  Concern with ''microbiological issues'' was substantially higher than in past studies.  This may be because of the awareness of recent foodborne illness outbreaks linked to restaurant sanitation and meat being thoroughly cooked.  Even though consumers were increasingly concerned about microbiological and regulatory issues, the priority for funding more inspectors for foodservice and manufacturing facilities was not higher.  Consumers who were very concerned with food safety generally gave moderately high priority to funding mandatory labeling of foods containing genetically modified organisms (GMOs), and human health studies to understand the risks of hormones in food animals.  If the Food and Drug Administration determined that irradiated foods, those containing GMOs and products derived from animals treated with either antibiotics or hormones are safe, more than 70% of consumers believe they are safe to eat; however, 18?28% have reduced their consumption of these foods and more than one-third would pay more for products guaranteed not to have been so treated.  These findings demonstrate that consumer concerns about food safety are a moving target and that concern, attitudes and behaviors are inconsistent.  This implies that while general food safety education programs may be effective in establishing an overall knowledge base, often the food industry and regulatory agencies must respond ''after the fact'' to specific issues, such as Escherichia coli.', 'en_US'),
(2744, 'Safety and nutritional assessment of GM plants and derived food and feed:  The role of animal feeding trials.', 'In this report the various elements of the safety and nutritional assessment procedure for genetically modified (GM) plant derived food and feed are discussed, in particular the potential and limitations of animal feeding trials for the safety and nutritional testing of whole GM food and feed. The general principles for the risk assessment of GM plants and derived food and feed are followed, as described in the EFSA guidance document of the EFSA Scientific Panel on Genetically Modified Organisms.', 'en_US'),
(2745, 'Microarray analyses reveal that plant mutagenesis may induce more transcriptomic changes than transgene insertion.', 'Controversy regarding genetically modified (GM) plants and their potential impact on human health contrasts with the tacit acceptance of other plants that were also modified, but not considered as GM products (e.g., varieties raised through conventional breeding such as mutagenesis). What is beyond the phenotype of these improved plants? Should mutagenized plants be treated differently from transgenics? We have evaluated the extent of transcriptome modification occurring during rice improvement through transgenesis versus mutation breeding. We used oligonucleotide microarrays to analyze gene expression in four different pools of four types of rice plants and respective controls: (i) a ã-irradiated stable mutant, (ii) the M1 generation of a 100-Gy ã-irradiated plant, (iii) a stable transgenic plant obtained for production of an anticancer antibody, and (iv) the T1 generation of a transgenic plant produced aiming for abiotic stress improvement, and all of the unmodified original genotypes as controls. We found that the improvement of a plant variety through the acquisition of a new desired trait, using either mutagenesis or transgenesis, may cause stress and thus lead to an altered expression of untargeted genes. In all of the cases studied, the observed alteration was more extensive in mutagenized than in transgenic plants. We propose that the safety assessment of improved plant varieties should be carried out on a case-by-case basis and not simply restricted to foods obtained through genetic engineering.', 'en_US'),
(2746, 'The role of political myth in the international conflict over genetically modified foods and crops.', 'Although the controversy over genetically modified (GM) foods and crops has generated some well known myths, such as frankenfoods, there has been little analysis of the political role played by these myths. Yet the significance of myth in the GM debate is considerable: indeed, by reflecting and reinforcing the political stances of the major protagonists, myths have themselves become important components in the conflict. With the aid of theoretical tools derived from Laclau, we examine the notion of political myth, and find that it has three levels: factual error, social meaning and political hegemony. We apply this theory to the GM controversy, distinguishing between substantive GM myths, such as frankenfoods, and procedural GM myths, such as the EU moratorium on GM products. We conclude that if such political myths become powerful enough, they could transform themselves into dominant hegemons - i.e. what Laclau calls social imaginaries - and begin to dictate GM policies across the globe', 'en_US'),
(2747, 'Modelling the persistence of volunteer oilseed rape (Brassica napus).', 'The mixing of volunteer oilseed rape (Brassica napus) within the crop has been tolerated by farmers.  However, the coexistence of volunteer and crop populations needs to be tightly controlled where the introduction of unique varieties is accompanied by concern over the associated economic and environmental risks, as with the introduction of genetically modified (GM) varieties.  A means is required to explore volunteer population dynamics before GM varieties are widely grown commercially.  Yet, few measurements of the physiological status in situ, life-cycle biology or even their decline in the seed bank are available for any type of volunteer population.  Accordingly, a model of within-field oilseed rape population dynamics was developed to predict the density of volunteers and the associated impurity (proportion of volunteer plants or seeds in the total number of oilseed rape plants or seeds) under a range of conditions, and to define a framework for exploring persistence of GM and other volunteers in agricultural systems.  Simulations were based on a parameterisation of a typical winter oilseed rape cultivar grown in rotation with winter wheat.  For all combinations of parameter values considered, the volunteer cohorts declined over time.  The results were consistent with observations on the persistence of oilseed rape.  Persistence remained high across the range of life-history parameter values estimated for oilseed rape.  In the absence of control the simulated volunteer cohort did not fall below 1% of the total oilseed rape density until 16 years after it was sown.  The stringent application of a combination of control measures (represented by 100% herbicide efficacy and reduction of harvest seed loss to 1%) reduced impurity to 0.12% within 3 years.  National and international legislation has imposed thresholds for labelling of adventitious presence of GM material in foodstuffs, including harvested crops, ranging from 0.5% and 0.9% in the European Union to 5% in Japan.  The results of this study indicate that the lower thresholds could be met within a reasonable time-frame (3 years) but only with the rigorous application of volunteer control measures.  This might affect the adoption rates of GM and other unique varieties of oilseed rape by reducing the net benefit of these to individual farmers and have a limiting effect on the supposed reduction herbicide use associated with GM herbicide tolerance.  Consequently, dedicated production of single varieties, e.g. either GM or non-GM, may be the only way that the coexistence of these crop types can be achieved.', 'en_US'),
(2748, 'Proceedings of the International Workshop: ''Post Market Environmental Monitoring of Genetically Modified Plants: Harmonisation and Standardisation ? a Practical Approach''', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2749, 'General surveillance:  roles and responsibilities the industry view.', 'A General Surveillance plan to monitor for unanticipated adverse effects of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) on human health and the environment is required as part of the EU legislation for imported and cultivated GMOs. Imported GM products:  Operators involved in the import, handling and processing of grain commodities entering the EU have monitoring procedures in place to survey products and are organised in associations across the EU Member States.  They can therefore be considered as the best placed to monitor for potential unanticipated adverse effects linked to imports of GM products into the EU.  Recognising this, the Plant Biotechnology Industry has established a collaboration to cover General Surveillance of grain commodity imports with the relevant associations, which is coordinated by EuropaBio, the European Association for Bioindustries. Cultivated GM plants:  Monitoring for unanticipated adverse effects should take place in agronomic zones representative of commercial GM crop cultivation.  Farmers are therefore considered to be the most valuable sources of information when it comes to General Surveillance of GM crop cultivation, due to their extensive experience with and direct involvement in cultivation.  Acknowledging this, the Plant Biotechnology Industry has developed a harmonised general surveillance approach based on farmer questionnaires.', 'en_US'),
(2750, 'First EFSA experiences with monitoring plans.', 'A plan for Post Market Environmental Monitoring (PMEM) of genetically modified (GM) plants is mandatory in all applications for deliberate release submitted under EU Directive 2001/18/EC and EU Regulation 1829/2003.  PMEM is composed of case-specific monitoring and general surveillance of GM plants.  The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) is responsible for assessing the scientific quality of PMEM plans submitted with each application.  In a scientific opinion, the EFSA GMO Panel presented specific guidance for applicants for developing PMEM plans.  In addition the EFSA GMO Panel explained the scientific rationale for this guidance and makes a number of recommendations for the management and conduct of PMEM by both applicants and risk managers.  Until the end of March 2007, the EFSA GMO Panel gave opinions on 11 PMEM plans submitted under EU Directive 2001/18/EC and another 11 plans submitted within applications under EU Regulation 1829/2003.  Currently 27 applications for GM plants are still in the evaluation process and the EFSA GMO Panel sent 26 questions to the applicants for clarification and additional information during the evaluation process.  Sixteen of these questions were related to General Surveillance (e.g. general structure, farm & operator questionnaires, integrations of identity preservation systems, use of existing surveillance systems, feral plant surveillance).  Nine questions requested clarification on the environmental risk assessment, which might effect whether case-specific monitoring is needed.  In one case (an application for cultivation of a GM crop), the GMO Panel recommended case-specific monitoring.  We explain in more detail how the environmental risk assessment of two Bt maize dossiers (maize Bt11 and 1507) were considered by the GMO Panel in the evaluation of the PMEM plan and the consequences for the environmental monitoring plan.  As stated in the EFSA opinion on post-market environmental monitoring, the general surveillance plans shall, when possible, make use of existing monitoring systems in addition to more focused monitoring systems.  However, the use of these national monitoring programmes is outside of the management and control of an individual applicant and thus it cannot be the task of an applicant alone to use, modify or improve existing surveillance systems.  The availability of biodiversity monitoring programmes in the EU Member States should be evaluated by applicants in close liaison with risk managers.', 'en_US'),
(2751, 'Implementation of a post-market monitoring for insect-protected maize MON 810 in the EU.', 'Monsanto has developed an alternative to traditional insecticides for the control of lepidopteran insect pests, with reduced impact on the environment, by genetically modifying maize plants to produce the insecticidal protein Cry1Ab from the common soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki (B. t. k.). These insect-protected maize plants, called MON 810, guard against foliage feeding and stalk tunneling from the European corn borer (ECB) (Ostrinia nubilalis (Hübner)) and the pink stem borer (Sesamia nonagrioides). Starting in 2005, Monsanto has undertaken a general surveillance (GS) monitoring programme of MON 810 cultivation on a voluntary basis, anticipating possible mandatory requirement for post-market environmental monitoring in all applications for deliberate release submitted under Directive 2001/18/EC and Regulation (EC) No 1829/2003 (including the application for renewal of the MON 810 consent). The experience gathered with the implementation of this first implementation on a GM plant cultivated at commercial scale in the European Union brought practical insight for future programmes, including the one from 2006. The analysis of the information collected during the 2006 general surveillance of MON 810 did confirm the absence of potential adverse effects related to MON 810 plants and their cultivation.', 'en_US'),
(2752, 'Implementation of general surveillance for Amflora potato cultivation - data management.', 'The potato variety Amflora, a starch potato with an increased content of amylopectin in tuber starch, is close to be approved within the EU under Directive 2001/18/EC for cultivation and processing into starch for industrial uses.  General surveillance as outlined in the monitoring plan for Amflora details approaches, methods and responsibilities proposed to be used within the frame of a closed-loop cultivation system.  This system, also referred to as an identity preservation (IP) system, constitutes an important management tool in order to preserve the unique characteristics and the value of the potatoes modified for an increased amylopectin content in the tuber.  Elements of the IP system, for example the farm questionnaire will be used as a basis to collect relevant data on plant growth, characteristics and treatments as well as to record general observations performed by the grower during cultivation and will thus allow for monitoring for any unanticipated or unforeseen effects during cultivation of amylopectin potatoes in the agricultural environment.', 'en_US'),
(2753, 'Standardisation of methods for GMO monitoring on a European level.', 'The realisation of the European Single Market results in the fact that more and more national legal rules originate in guidelines, ordinances and decisions of the European Union (EU).  In its resolution of 7 May 1985 which refers to a ''New Approach'' in the field of technical harmonisation and standardisation, the European Council decided a division of work between the European legislator and private standardisation. Also in the field of GMO Monitoring, the central requirements are made in Brussels with the European Directive on deliberate release of genetically modified organisms into the environment 2001/18/EC and the accompanying regulations.  VDI Guidelines published in German and English language serve as the German point of view in the European standardisation process.  CEN/TC 264 decided at its last plenary meeting in June 2006 with Resolution 459 to establish a new working group (WG 29 ''Ambient air - Monitoring of genetically modified organisms'') to work on GMO Monitoring including monitoring of pollen.  Until November 2007 all members of WG 29 are asked to provide all relevant information about pollen sampling techniques to develop first drafts.', 'en_US'),
(2754, 'Use of existing networks for the general surveillance of GMP?  Proposal of a reporting system and a central reporting office.', 'The use of existing networks for General Surveillance of GMP is recommended in Directive 2001/18 and EC Regulation 1829/2003.  Existing networks have been established for specific purposes: to monitor several areas of protection (like biodiversity, plant diseases) and to inform Authorities and the public in case of adverse incidents.  Within the last years, several research groups have tried to identify such programs, to assess their suitability for GMP monitoring and to look for technical solutions to link their data with GMP cultivation.  The results of these investigations are still unsatisfactory.  Networks are established only in small regions, they are not at all harmonized within the EU, the frequency of data sampling does not correspond to the needs of GMP monitoring, or the data quality or availability is not manageable for applicants.  It therefore might be more suitable not to use the detailed data of such networks but rather use them as a filter collecting only incidents.  A Central Reporting Office might work as a collecting point of reports, adverse incidents, or recommendations published by these networks, manage this information for a GMP monitoring and provide it to applicants or CA.', 'en_US'),
(2755, 'Public GMO location register in Germany - Harmonization in Europe?', 'According to Article 31 (3b) of Directive 2001/18/EC, Member States shall establish public registers for recording the cultivation of GM plants grown under part C.  The primary purpose is the monitoring of potential adverse environmental effects of such GMOs.  The German GMO location register was established in February 2005 by the Federal Office for Consumer Protection and Food Safety (BVL).  Actual data for the intention of GMO planting as well as the real cultivation area per year and postal code area are publicly available via internet.  The German Gene Technology Act has the aim to broaden the location register towards an instrument of coexistence and transparency.  After three years of experience we report on notification statistics, public interest, encountered difficulties and future plans of development.  In addition we describe the situation in other EU Member States regarding the introduction and the access to public location registers.  Requirements on the data base and data harmonization are discussed in the light of using location registers as a monitoring instrument throughout Europe.', 'en_US'),
(2756, 'Using an oilseed rape x wild /weedy relative gene flow index for the monitoring of transgenic oilseed rape.', 'To estimate the introgressive hybridisation propensity (IHP) between transgenic oilseed rape and certain of its crosscompatible wild /weedy relatives at the landscape level, a conceptual approach was developed.  A questionnaire was established enclosing the successive steps to successfully achieve introgressive hybridisation.  Each step was described and scored, resulting in an IHP value for each cross-compatible wild /weedy relative.  This approach revealed that in Flanders (Belgium) Brassica rapa has the highest IHP value, followed by Hirschfeldia incana, Diplotaxis tenuifolia, Raphanus raphanistrum and Sinapis arvensis.  Using these values, monitoring priorities can be defined within the pool of cross-compatible wild /weedy oilseed rape relatives.  It is discussed how the numerical quantification may serve as a valuable tool in case-specific monitoring and general surveillance of transgenic oilseed rape.', 'en_US'),
(2757, 'Challenges and perspectives in decision-making during post-market environmental monitoring of genetically modified crops.', 'Within the legal frameworks regulating post-market monitoring (PMM) of genetically modified (GM) crops, both notifier and regulatory authorities have to decide whether an observed environmental effect is relevant, i.e., whether the effect is considered to represent an environmental damage and therefore requires corrective action.   Given that presently there is no consensus on applicable criteria to valuate ''environmental damage'', notifier and regulatory authorities are facing a number of challenges when being confronted to environmental decision-making related to PMM of GM crops.   In the present paper, we argue that these challenges mainly have two causes.   First, there are methodological limits in data collection and analysis, which in turn challenge decisions whether the observed effects fulfill the proposed criteria for environmental damage.   Second, scientific data is valued controversially due to differing value judgement on the environmental entities that should not be affected by the cultivation of GM crops.  We analyse both challenges and propose potential perspectives how they could be addressed.', 'en_US'),
(2758, 'Coordination of GMO monitoring in the agro-ecosystem - a concept for Germany.', 'At the Monitoring Workshop 2006 in Berlin the German Competent Authority ''BVL'' presented a general concept for coordination and data handling in GMO monitoring by German authorities.  This paper will expand and detail the topic for coordinating the module ''Agro-Ecosystem / Agriculture''.  Initiated by the German Plant Protection Agencies in 1999, BBA coordinates a working group on monitoring genetically modified (GM) plants in the agro-ecosystem.  This working group may form a core for further coordination and harmonisation of GMO monitoring in relation to agriculture.  The working group provides a forum for stakeholders concerned with monitoring of GMOs as well as environment.  At present, GMO monitoring seems to suffer from inconsistent data acquisition techniques, restricted access to data, inconsistent formats, and unclear demands.  Evaluation of large scale effects of GM plant cultivation ? foreseen or unforeseen ? is a challenge to cover the broad scope of the European regulations.  Until now, neither applicants / breeders nor national or European authorities organised efficient means to handle and analyse the mass of heterogeneous GMO- or ''baseline''-related data to guide GMO monitoring regimes.  Facing these structural problems the working group should enable applicants, authorities and other stakeholders to address GMO-related concerns revealed in or arising from different monitoring sectors in the agro-ecosystem.  Networking between representatives of different GMO-related and non-GMO-related monitoring programs should allow to exchange experiences, establish ''task forces'' / research groups and initiate concerted measures.', 'en_US'),
(2759, 'Insect resistance monitoring for Bt maize cultivation in the EU:  proposal from the industry IRM working group.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2760, 'WebGIS GMO monitoring.', 'The surveillance of genetically modified organisms (GMO) dispersal is a new challenging task in environmental monitoring.  Web-based geoinformation systems (WebGIS) are tools for the harmonisation of monitoring methods, network design and data handling in the framework of GMO-monitoring data.  Furthermore, WebGIS can be used for serving report duties, for planning GMO-monitoring or as data base for statistical analyses and dispersal models.  We developed a WebGIS GMO Monitoring and integrated site-specific data from appropriate environmental monitoring networks and surface maps allowing for the description of the environment of the monitoring sites in terms of, e.g., land use and climate or altitude above sea level.  We used platform independent Open Source-software.  The WebGIS considers standards released by the Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) and the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) to ensure interoperability between web mapping services (WMS) located all over the world.  Projects like INSPIRE (Infrastructure for Spatial Information in Europe) or PortalU use these standards as well.  The WebGIS GMO Monitoring offers tools for visualisation, spatial and logical queries as well as interactive data processing tools.', 'en_US'),
(2761, 'Principles and methods for general surveillance sites selection.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2762, 'Preliminary development of a genetic strategy to prevent transgene escape by blocking effective pollen flow from transgenic plants.', 'Genetic modification (GM) of plants has great potential in the production of food and industrial compounds, and in molecular pharming.  One of the greatest public concerns regarding this technology is effective pollen flow, in which wind- or insect-borne transgenic pollen is able to fertilise either non-GM crops of the same species, or closely related weed species, and lead to viable seed formation.  In this paper we describe a novel concept, based on epigenetic inheritance (imprinting) and post-transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS)/RNA interference (RNAi), designed to prevent transgene escape via pollen flow from transgenic plants.  A key advantage of this strategy is that it would allow all seeds from self-pollinated transgenic plants to be harvested and re-sown, without the need for specific treatments, while retaining all of the transgenes present in the parent.  Thus, this strategy is not a Genetic Use Restriction Technology (GURT) and if implemented would not prevent seed saving by end-users.', 'en_US'),
(2763, 'How well is Environmental Biosafety Research supporting the scientific debate on the biosafety of genetically modified organisms (GMOs)?', 'One of the most direct routes to informing scientific debates is through the timely publication of relevant research results.  By making a comparison of the number and type of articles published by Environmental Biosafety Research (EBR) with those from other journals active in the arena of GMO biosafety, it is possible to shed light on the answer to the question posed in the title.  To do this, we have used a unique open access online tool, the Biosafety Bibliographic Database (BBD) that has been provided by ICGEB since 1990.  As of June 2007, the BBD contained 6694 records pertaining to scientific publications (full references and abstracts), and appearing in international and national scientific periodicals and books.  Based on the records in the BBD, biosafety research activity over the past 16-17 years can be summarized by analyzing basic statistics.  The BBD should prove to be a useful starting point for diverse bibliometric studies of publications in this area.', 'en_US'),
(2764, 'Environmental risk of aquatic organisms from genetic biotechnology.', 'Chapter sections include:·', 'en_US'),
(2765, 'A case example:  safety of consumption of transgenic salmon potentially containing elevated levels of growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor.', 'Chapter sections include:·', 'en_US'),
(2766, 'Government regulation of transgenic fish.', 'Chapter sections include:·', 'en_US'),
(2767, 'Social regulatory barriers.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2768, 'Agricultural biotechnology', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2769, 'Economic interests.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2770, 'Social interests.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2771, 'Field decomposition of transgenic Bt maize residue and the impact on non-target soil invertebrates.', 'Genetically modified Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner (Bt) maize (Zea mays L.) expressing Cry toxins against various target pests is now grown on more than 16 million hectares worldwide, but its potential effects on the soil ecosystem need to be further investigated. In an 8-month field study, we investigated the effects of Bt maize expressing the Cry1Ab protein on both the soil community and maize residue decomposition. We used litterbags with three different mesh sizes (20, 125, and 5,000 ìm) to investigate potential effects of different soil organism groups on the decomposition processes. Litterbags were incorporated into the soil in fall into a field that had previously been planted with non-Bt maize and subsamples were removed monthly. The dry weight of the remaining residue was measured for all bags. Bt and non-Bt maize decomposed similarly in large mesh bags, which allowed the whole soil organism community to enter and interact with each other. In contrast, Bt maize decomposed significantly faster than non-Bt maize at some sample dates in winter in bags with small and medium mesh sizes. At the end of the experiment in late spring, however, there was no significant difference in the amount of maize plant residues remaining for any of these three mesh sizes. Additionally, soil organisms from bags with the largest mesh size were identified. The most frequent taxa extracted were collembolans (Isotomidae, Tullbergiidae, Entomobryidae), mites (Gamasina, Oribatida), and annelids (Enchytraeidae). Three of these taxa were extracted in higher numbers from non-Bt than Bt residue (Tullbergiidae, Gamasina, Enchytraeidae), while there was no difference in the number of individuals extracted for the remaining three taxa. Our results do not show major changes in the decomposition of Bt maize residue and in the composition of the soil organism community. However, further studies are needed that assess the impact of the continuous release of Cry1Ab via root exudates and plant biomass on the soil ecosystem.', 'en_US'),
(2772, 'Transgenic Bt rice does not affect enzyme activities and microbial composition in the rhizosphere during crop development.', 'Use of transgenic crops, including those expressing the insecticidal Cry protein from Bt, is increasing at a rapid rate in worldwide.  Field and laboratory studies of transgenic Bt crops have been carried out to detect the persistence and activity of the Cry protein in soil and its effect on soil microorganisms to assess their risks to environment.  However, there were few studies that evaluate the seasonal effects of Bt rice on rhizosphere soil microbial communities compared to those of insecticides commonly applied in paddy soil for the control of lepidopteran insects.  In this study, seasonal effects of transgenic rice expressing the Cry1Ab insecticidal protein active against lepidoperan pests and the insecticide triazophos [3-(o,o-diethyl)-1-phenyl thiophosphoryl-1,2,4-triazol] on soil enzyme activities and microbial communities were compared under field conditions.  During a 2-year field study, rhizosphere soil samples of transgenic-Bt rice (Bt), non-Bt parental rice (Ck) and non-Bt parental rice with triazophos (Ckp) applied were taken at four stages in the rice developmental cycle: seedling, booting, heading and maturing.  Microbial processes were investigated by measuring different biochemical activities including those involved in C and P cycling.  Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) and terminal-restriction fragment length polymorphism (T-RFLP) analyses were used to compare rhizosphere microbial compositions.  Some occasional and inconsistent effects of the application of triazophos on the bacterial composition in the rhizosphere soil of rice plant were found at the booting and heading stages as compared with that of transgenic-Bt rice.  There were no statistically significant differences (P>0.05) in phosphatase activity, dehydrogenase activity, respiration, methanogenesis or fungal community composition in rhizosphere soil between Bt, Ck and Ckp over the rice cropping cycle.  However, seasonal variations in the selected enzyme activities and microbial community composition in the rhizosphere soil of Bt, Ck and Ckp were clearly detected.  These results suggested that the changes in rhizophere soil microbial community composition associated with the crop growth stage overweighed the application of triazophos and the cry1Ab gene transformation.  KMD1 (Bt) rice expressing the cry1Ab gene had no measurable adverse effect on the key microbial processes or microbial community composition in rhizophere soil over 2 years of rice cropping.', 'en_US'),
(2773, 'Effects of Bacillus thuringiensis ä-endotoxin-fed Helicoverpa armigera on the survival and development of the parasitoid Campoletis chlorideae.', 'With the deployment of transgenic crops expressing ä-endotoxins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) for pest management, there is a need to generate information on the interaction of crop pests with their natural enemies that are important for regulation of pest populations. Therefore, we studied the effects of the Bt ä-endotoxins Cry1Ab and Cry1Ac on the survival and development of the parasitoid Campoletis chlorideae Uchida (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) reared on Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) larvae fed on Bt toxin-intoxicated artificial diet. The H. armigera larvae fed on artificial diet impregnated with Cry1Ab and Cry1Ac at LC50 (effective concentration to kill 50% of the neonate H. armigera larvae) and ED50 (effective concentration to cause a 50% reduction in larval weight) levels before and after parasitization resulted in a significant reduction in cocoon formation and adult emergence of C. chlorideae. Larval period of the parasitoid was prolonged by 2 days when fed on Bt-intoxicated larvae. No adverse effects were observed on female fecundity. The observed effects appeared to be indirect in nature, because no Bt proteins were detected through enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in the C. chlorideae larvae, cocoons, or adults fed on Cry1Ab- or Cry1Ac-treated H. armigera larvae. The effects of Bt toxin proteins on C. chlorideae were due to early mortality of H. armigera larvae, that is, before completion of parasitoid larval development.', 'en_US'),
(2774, 'Assessment of the risk of inadvertently exporting from Australia a genetically modified immunocontraceptive virus in live mice (Mus musculus domesticus).', 'Controlling mouse plagues in the Australian grain-growing regions using a proposed species-specific, genetically modified, immunocontraceptive (IC) murine cytomegalovirus (icMCMV) may risk infected mice infesting export cargo and, subsequently in other countries, infecting closely related, susceptible and valued Mus species.  This paper uses simple simulation models to examine (a) how design of an IC virus and deployment strategy could affect the likelihood of inadvertent export, and (b) where intervention may minimise the likelihood of export effectively and economically.  Field efficacy is best in an IC virus with an immunocontraceptive efficacy of 75?100% and high transmissibility, and the likelihood of export is lower than for some less efficacious designs.  Greatest likelihood of export arises from using an IC virus with low (or zero) immunocontraceptive efficacy and high transmissibility.  Lower transmissibility of the IC virus relative to field strains reduces field efficacy and the likelihood of export.  Conversely, higher relative transmissibility increases field efficacy and modestly increases the likelihood of export.  Effective control of mice in the field requires the IC virus to infect a high proportion of the mouse population while numbers are very low.  Deviation from this strategy through (a) underestimation of mouse abundance, and (b) late deployment during population increase, diminishes effectiveness in the field and increases the likelihood of export.  Intervention at ports seems the most effective strategy to mitigate export risk.  Australian legislation and codes of practice specify export quarantine procedures for particular types of goods but are silent for others.  Current practices for shipping container movements also leave gaps in the export quarantine barrier.', 'en_US'),
(2775, 'Regulating innovative crop technologies in Canada: the case of regulating genetically modified crops.', 'The advent of genetically modified crops in the late 1980s triggered a regulatory response to the relatively new field of plant genetic engineering. Over a 7-year period, a new regulatory framework was created, based on scientific principles that focused on risk mitigation. The process was transparent and deliberately sought the input of those involved in crop development from non-governmental organizations, industry, academia and federal research laboratories. The resulting regulations have now been in place for over a decade, and the resilience of the risk-mitigating regulations is evident as there has been no documented case of damage to either environment or human health.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(2776, 'Beyond risk.  A more realistic risk-benefit analysis of agricultural biotechnologies.', 'Here, we argue that limiting the ethical discussion about agricultural biotechnologies to questions of risk assessments is problematic for at least two reasons.  First, doing so incorrectly assumes that the potential risks and benefits of agricultural biotechnologies, as normally understood in current risk assessments, are the sole significant normative concern.  Although risk assessments are certainly important, there are many other ethical and social concerns that must also be addressed with respect to agricultural biotechnologies.  Second, framing the debate as one that involves only technical problems effectively limits who can legitimately participate in the discussion.  Presumably, only scientific experts are trained sufficiently to determine the risks or benefits of GMOs, and non-scientists are therefore disqualified from participating in the dialogue.  But this erroneously presupposes that the evaluation of risks and benefits requires only scientific and technical analysis.  Nonetheless, risk assessments not only involve scientific values, but also ethical and social ones.  Thus, we make the case that these normative issues must not be left to scientific experts in a democratic society, but should be subjected to proper public deliberations?not ones steered by the media or pressure groups.', 'en_US'),
(2777, 'Bt corn in Spain-the performance of the EU''s first GM crop.', 'Your March issue indicates that last year 114 million hectares of farmland across the world were planted with genetically modified (GM) crops.  And yet in Europe, the cultivation of these crops remains both limited and controversial.  Indeed, scientific and policy debates in the European Union (EU) have rarely focused on the agronomic aspects of GM crops and economic impacts for EU farmers.  Currently, the only GM crop authorized for commercial cultivation in the EU is a GM corn resistant to corn borer by virtue of the transgenic expression of a gene encoding Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxin.  Spain now has over nine years of experience in commercial cultivation of this type of GM corn (and is the European member state with the highest adoption rate for this GM variety).  It is thus an opportune time to analyze ex post the agronomic and economic performance of Bt corn in Spain.  We present the results of this analysis below?the first for a GM crop cultivated in the EU.', 'en_US'),
(2778, 'Glyphosate-Resistant Weeds and Crops:  Editorial.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2779, 'Glyphosate:  a once-in-a-century herbicide.', 'Since its commercial introduction in 1974, glyphosate [N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine] has become the dominant herbicide worldwide.  There are several reasons for its success.  Glyphosate is a highly effective broad-spectrum herbicide, yet it is very toxicologically and environmentally safe.  Glyphosate translocates well, and its action is slow enough to take advantage of this.  Glyphosate is the only herbicide that targets 5-enolpyruvyl-shikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS), so there are no competing herbicide analogs or classes.  Since glyphosate became a generic compound, its cost has dropped dramatically.  Perhaps the most important aspect of the success of glyphosate has been the introduction of transgenic, glyphosate-resistant crops in 1996.  Almost 90% of all transgenic crops grown worldwide are glyphosate resistant, and the adoption of these crops is increasing at a steady pace.  Glyphosate/glyphosate-resistant crop weed management offers significant environmental and other benefits over the technologies that it replaces.  The use of this virtually ideal herbicide is now being threatened by the evolution of glyphosate-resistant weeds.  Adoption of resistance management practices will be required to maintain the benefits of glyphosate technologies for future generations.', 'en_US'),
(2780, 'Glyphosate-resistant crops:  adoption, use and future considerations.', 'BACKGROUND:  Glyphosate-resistant crops (GRCs) were first introduced in the United States in soybeans in 1996.  Adoption has been very rapid in soybeans and cotton since introduction and has grown significantly in maize in recent years.  GRCs have grown to over 74 million hectares in five crop species in 13 countries.  The intent of this paper is to update the hectares planted and the use patterns of GRC globally, and to discuss briefly future applications and uses of the technology. RESULTS:  The largest land areas of GRCs are occupied by soybean (54.2 million ha), maize (13.2 million ha), cotton (5.1 million ha), canola (2.3 million ha) and alfalfa (0.1 million ha).  Currently, the USA, Argentina, Brazil and Canada have the largest plantings of GRCs.  Herbicide use patterns would indicate that over 50% of glyphosate-resistant (GR) maize hectares and 70% of GR cotton hectares receive alternative mode-of-action treatments, while approximately 25% of GR soybeans receive such a treatment in the USA.  Alternative herbicide use is likely driven by both agronomic need and herbicide resistance limitations in certain GR crops such as current GR cotton.  Tillage practices in the USA indicate that > 65% of GR maize hectares, 70% of GR cotton hectares and 50% of GR soybean hectares received some tillage in the production system.  Tillage was likely used for multiple purposes ranging from seed-bed preparation to weed management. CONCLUSION:  GRCs represent one of the more rapidly adopted weed management technologies in recent history.  Current use patterns would indicate that GRCs will likely continue to be a popular weed management choice that may also include the use of other herbicides to complement glyphosate.  Stacking with other biotechnology traits will also give farmers the benefits and convenience of multiple pest control and quality trait technologies within a single seed.', 'en_US'),
(2781, 'New multiple-herbicide crop resistance and formulation technology to augment the utility of glyphosate.', 'Glyphosate has performed long and well, but now some weed communities are shifting to populations that survive glyphosate, and growers need new weed management technologies to augment glyphosate performance in glyphosate-resistant crops.  Unfortunately, most companies are not developing any new selective herbicides with new modes of action to fill this need.  Fortunately, companies are developing new herbicide-resistant crop technologies to combine with glyphosate resistance and expand the utility of existing herbicides.  One of the first multiple-herbicide-resistant crops will have a molecular stack of a new metabolically based glyphosate resistance mechanism with an active-site-based resistance to a broad spectrum of ALS-inhibiting herbicides.  Additionally, new formulation technology called homogeneous blends will be used in conjunction with glyphosate and ALS-resistant crops.  This formulation technology satisfies governmental regulations, so that new herbicide mixture offerings with diverse modes of action can be commercialized more rapidly and less expensively.  Together, homogeneous blends and multiple-herbicide-resistant crops can offer growers a wider choice of herbicide mixtures at rates and ratios to augment glyphosate and satisfy changing weed management needs.', 'en_US'),
(2782, 'Characterization and plant expression of a glyphosate-tolerant enolpyruvylshikimate phosphate synthase.', 'BACKGROUND:  Glyphosate tolerance is a dominant trait in modern biotech crops.RESULTS:  A gene encoding a glyphosate-tolerant EPSP synthase (aroA1398) from bacterial strain ATX1398 was cloned and characterized.  The protein is initiated at a GTG translational start codon to produce a protein that provides robust glyphosate resistance in Escherichia coli (Mig) Cast & Chalm.  The aroA1398 protein was expressed and purified from E. coli, and key kinetic values were determined (Ki = 161 µM; Km(PEP) = 11.3 µM; kcat = 28.3 s-1).  The full-length enzyme is 800-fold more resistant to glyphosate than the maize EPSP synthase while retaining high affinity for the substrate phosphoenol pyruvate.  To evaluate further the potential of aroA1398, transgenic maize events expressing the aroA1398 protein were generated.  T0 plants were screened for tolerance to glyphosate sprays at 1.3× commercial spray rates, and T1 plants were selected that completely resisted glyphosate sprays at 1×, 2× and 4× recommended spray rates in field trials.CONCLUSION:  These data suggest that aroA1398 is a suitable candidate for conferring glyphosate tolerance in transgenic crop plants.', 'en_US'),
(2783, 'Economic impacts of glyphosate-resistant crops.', 'Glyphosate-resistant crops have been widely planted since their introduction in 1996.  Growers have numerous choices for herbicide treatments and have chosen to plant glyphosate-resistant crops on the basis of economic factors.  The economic effects of the widespread planting of glyphosate-resistant crops have included reductions in herbicide expenses, increases in seed costs, increased yield and changes in the relative profitability of crops that has resulted in changes in which crops are planted.  In addition, non-pecuniary benefits have accrued as a result of the simplicity of weed management in the glyphosate-resistant crop systems.', 'en_US'),
(2784, 'The control of Asian rust by glyphosate in glyphosate-resistant soybeans.', 'BACKGROUND:  Glyphosate is a widely used broad-spectrum herbicide.  Recent studies in glyphosate-resistant (GR) crops have shown that, in addition to its herbicidal activity, glyphosate exhibits activity against fungi, thereby providing disease control benefits.  In GR wheat, glyphosate has shown both preventive and curative activities against Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici (Erikss) CO Johnston and Puccinia triticina Erikss, which cause stripe and leaf rusts respectively. RESULTS:  Laboratory studies confirmed earlier observations that glyphosate has activity against Phakopsora pachyrhizi Syd & P Syd which causes Asian soybean rust (ASR) in GR soybeans.  The results showed that glyphosate at rates between 0.84 and 1.68 kg ha-1 delayed the onset of ASR in GR soybeans.  However, field trials conducted in Argentina and Brazil under natural infestations showed variable ASR control from application of glyphosate in GR soybeans.  Further field studies are ongoing to define the activity of glyphosate against ASR. CONCLUSIONS:  These results demonstrate the disease control activities of glyphosate against rust diseases in GR wheat and GR soybeans.', 'en_US'),
(2785, 'Evolved glyphosate-resistant weeds around the world: lessons to be learnt.', 'Glyphosate is the world''s most important herbicide, with many uses that deliver effective and sustained control of a wide spectrum of unwanted (weedy) plant species.  Until recently there were relatively few reports of weedy plant species evolving resistance to glyphosate.  Since 1996, the advent and subsequent high adoption of transgenic glyphosate-resistant crops in the Americas has meant unprecedented and often exclusive use of glyphosate for weed control over very large areas.  Consequently, in regions of the USA where transgenic glyphosate-resistant crops dominate, there are now evolved glyphosate-resistant populations of the economically damaging weed species Ambrosia artemissifolia L., Ambrosia trifida L., Amaranthus palmeri S Watson, Amaranthus rudis JD Sauer, Amaranthus tuberculatus (Moq) JD Sauer and various Conyza and Lolium spp.  Likewise, in areas of transgenic glyphosate-resistant crops in Argentina and Brazil, there are now evolved glyphosate-resistant populations of Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers and Euphorbia heterophylla L. respectively.  As transgenic glyphosate-resistant crops will remain very popular with producers, it is anticipated that glyphosate-resistant biotypes of other prominent weed species will evolve over the next few years.  Therefore, evolved glyphosate-resistant weeds are a major risk for the continued success of glyphosate and transgenic glyphosate-resistant crops.  However, glyphosate-resistant weeds are not yet a problem in many parts of the world, and lessons can be learnt and actions taken to achieve glyphosate sustainability.  A major lesson is that maintenance of diversity in weed management systems is crucial for glyphosate to be sustainable.  Glyphosate is essential for present and future world food production, and action to secure its sustainability for future generations is a global imperative.', 'en_US'),
(2786, 'Glyphosate-resistant weeds of South American cropping systems:  an overview.', 'Herbicide resistance is an evolutionary event resulting from intense herbicide selection over genetically diverse weed populations.  In South America, orchard, cereal and legume cropping systems show a strong dependence on glyphosate to control weeds.  The goal of this report is to review the current knowledge on cases of evolved glyphosate-resistant weeds in South American agriculture.  The first reports of glyphosate resistance include populations of highly diverse taxa (Lolium multiflorum Lam., Conyza bonariensis L., C. canadensis L.).  In all instances, resistance evolution followed intense glyphosate use in fruit fields of Chile and Brazil.  In fruit orchards from Colombia, Parthenium hysterophorus L. has shown the ability to withstand high glyphosate rates.  The recent appearance of glyphosate-resistant Sorghum halepense L. and Euphorbia heterophylla L. in glyphosate-resistant soybean fields of Argentina and Brazil, respectively, is of major concern.  The evolution of glyphosate resistance has clearly taken place in those agroecosystems where glyphosate exerts a strong and continuous selection pressure on weeds.  The massive adoption of no-till practices together with the utilization of glyphosate-resistant soybean crops are factors encouraging increase in glyphosate use.  This phenomenon has been more evident in Argentina and Brazil.  The exclusive reliance on glyphosate as the main tool for weed management results in agroecosystems biologically more prone to glyphosate resistance evolution.', 'en_US'),
(2787, 'Resistance to glyphosate from altered herbicide translocation patterns.', 'Glyphosate-resistant weeds have evolved as a result of the intensive use of glyphosate for weed control.  An alteration in the way glyphosate is translocated within the plant has been identified as a mechanism of glyphosate resistance in populations of Lolium rigidum Gaud., L. multiflorum Lam. and Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronq.  In these resistant plants, glyphosate becomes concentrated in the leaves rather than being translocating throughout the plant.  This type of resistance is inherited as a single dominant or semi-dominant allele.  Resistance due to reduced translocation appears to be a common mechanism of resistance in L. rigidum and C. canadensis, probably because it provides a greater level of resistance than other mechanisms.  This type of glyphosate resistance also appears to reduce the fitness of plants that carry it.  This may influence how glyphosate resistance can be managed.', 'en_US'),
(2788, 'Weed species shifts in glyphosate-resistant crops.', 'The adoption of glyphosate-based crop production systems has been one of the most important revolutions in the history of agriculture.  Changes in weed communities owing to species that do not respond to current glyphosate-based management tactics are rapidly increasing.  Clearly, glyphosate-resistant crops (GRCs) do not influence weeds any more than non-transgenic crops.  For most crops, the trait itself is essentially benign in the environment.  Rather, the weed control tactics imposed by growers create the ecological selection pressure that ultimately changes the weed communities.  This is seen in the adoption of conservation tillage and weed management programs that focus on one herbicide mode of action and have hastened several important weed population shifts.  Tillage (disturbance) is one of the primary factors that affect changes in weed communities.  The intense selection pressure from herbicide use will result in the evolution of herbicide-resistant weed biotypes or shifts in the relative prominence of one weed species in the weed community.  Changes in weed communities are inevitable and an intrinsic consequence of growing crops over time.  The glyphosate-based weed management tactics used in GRCs impose the selection pressure that supports weed population shifts.  Examples of weed population shifts in GRCs include common waterhemp [Amaranthus tuberculatus (Moq ex DC) JD Sauer], horseweed (Conyza canadensis L), giant ragweed (Ambrosia trifida L) and other relatively new weed problems.  Growers have handled these weed population shifts with varying success depending on the crop.', 'en_US'),
(2789, 'US grower perceptions and experiences with glyphosate-resistant weeds.', 'BACKGROUND:  A survey of 400 growers of maize, soybeans and cotton was made in the United States to determine perceptions, experiences and management practices with glyphosate-resistant weeds.  The survey included growers in the north (corn belt) and south (cotton belt) of the USA in spring 2006. RESULTS:  Interestingly, 24 and 39% of northern and southern growers, respectively, assumed they had glyphosate weed resistance on their farm.  Of the 200 southern growers interviewed, 67% had planted continuous glyphosate-resistant (GR) crops for a period of 3-5 years.  According to the survey respondents, the key method for managing glyphosate-resistant weeds was to rotate to other herbicides. CONCLUSION:  Growers do value GR crop technology but are adopting measures to manage resistance only as needed.', 'en_US'),
(2790, 'Simulation modelling to understand the evolution and management of glyphosate resistance in weeds.', 'BACKGROUND:  A simulation model is used to explore the influence of biological, ecological, genetic and operational (management) factors on the probability and rate of glyphosate resistance in model weed species. RESULTS:  Glyphosate use for weed control prior to crop emergence is associated with low risks of resistance.  These low risks can be further reduced by applying glyphosate in sequence with other broad-spectrum herbicides prior to crop seeding.  Post-emergence glyphosate use, associated with glyphosate-resistant crops, very significantly increases risks of resistance evolution.  Annual rotation with conventional crops reduces these risks, but the proportion of resistant populations can only be reduced to close to zero by mixing two of three post-emergence glyphosate applications with alternative herbicide modes of action.  Weed species that are prolific seed producers with high seed bank turnover rates are most at risk of glyphosate resistance evolution.  The model is especially sensitive to the initial frequency of R alleles, and other genetic and reproductive parameters, including weed breeding system, dominance of the resistance trait and relative fitness, influence rates of resistance. CONCLUSION:  Changing patterns of glyphosate use associated with glyphosate-resistant crops are increasing risks of evolved glyphosate resistance.  Strategies to mitigate these risks can be explored with simulation models.  Models can also be used to identify weed species that are most at risk of evolving glyphosate resistance.', 'en_US'),
(2791, 'A risk calculator for glyphosate resistance in Lolium rigidum (Gaud.).', 'BACKGROUND:  Glyphosate resistance has been confirmed in 58 populations of Lolium rigidum (Gaud.), a major weed of crops in southern Australia.  Extensive use of glyphosate in conjunction with minimal soil disturbance has been identified as high risk for resistance to that herbicide.  Land managers need a simple method for rapid assessment of the risk of resistance occurring as a result of past and proposed future management practices.  Modelled on risk assessment nomographs, a simple calculator for indicating the risk of evolved glyphosate resistance in L. rigidum is described. RESULTS:  The calculator uses the generations since first use and the frequency of use of glyphosate in combination with historical cultivation levels as critical factors for determining the risk of glyphosate resistance evolution.  Based on the management history of a field, a land manager can graphically determine a glyphosate resistance risk for that field. CONCLUSION:  The calculator enables the farmer or the advisor to assess the risk of a weed''s population becoming resistant and modify practices accordingly to manage for sustainable glyphosate use.  The risk calculator could be modified for other herbicides and different weed species.', 'en_US'),
(2792, 'Sustainable use of glyphosate in North American cropping systems.', 'Roundup Ready (glyphosate-resistant) cropping systems enable the use of glyphosate, a non-selective herbicide that offers growers several benefits, including superior weed control, flexibility in weed control timing and economic advantages.  The rapid adoption of such crops in North America has resulted in greater glyphosate use and concern over the potential for weed resistance to erode the sustainability of its efficacy.  Computer modeling is one method that can be used to explore the sustainability of glyphosate when used in glyphosate-resistant cropping systems.  Field tests should help strengthen the assumptions on which the models are based, and have been initiated for this purpose.  Empirical evaluations of published data show that glyphosate-resistant weeds have an appearance rate of 0.007, defined as the number of newly resistant species per million acres treated, which ranks low among herbicides used in North America.  Modeling calculations and ongoing field tests support a practical recommendation for growers occasionally to include other herbicides in glyphosate-resistant cropping systems, to lower further the potential for new resistance to occur.  The presented data suggest that the sustainability of glyphosate in North America would be enhanced by prudent use of additional herbicides in glyphosate-resistant cropping systems.', 'en_US'),
(2793, 'Managing the risk of glyphosate resistance in Australian glyphosate- resistant cotton production systems.', 'BACKGROUND:  Glyphosate-resistant cotton varieties are an important tool for weed control in Australian cotton production systems.  To increase the sustainability of this technology and to minimise the likelihood of resistance evolving through its use, weed scientists, together with herbicide regulators, industry representatives and the technology owners, have developed a framework that guides the use of the technology.  Central to this framework is a crop management plan (CMP) and grower accreditation course.  A simulation model that takes into account the characteristics of the weed species, initial gene frequencies and any associated fitness penalties was developed to ensure that the CMP was sufficiently robust to minimise resistance risks. RESULTS:  The simulations showed that, when a combination of weed control options was employed in addition to glyphosate, resistance did not evolve over the 30 year period of the simulation. CONCLUSION:  These simulations underline the importance of maintaining an integrated system for weed management to prevent the evolution of glyphosate resistance, prolonging the use of glyphosate-resistant cotton.', 'en_US'),
(2794, 'Glyphosate sustainability in South American cropping systems.', 'South America represents about 12% of the global land area, and Brazil roughly corresponds to 47% of that.  The major sustainable agricultural system in South America is based on a no-tillage cropping system, which is a worldwide adopted agricultural conservation system.  Societal benefits of conservation systems in agriculture include greater use of conservation tillage, which reduces soil erosion and associated loading of pesticides, nutrients and sediments into the environment.  However, overreliance on glyphosate and simpler cropping systems has resulted in the selection of tolerant weed species through weed shifts (WSs) and evolution of herbicide-resistant weed (HRW) biotypes to glyphosate.  It is a challenge in South America to design herbicide- and non-herbicide-based strategies that effectively delay and/or manage evolution of HRWs and WSs to weeds tolerant to glyphosate in cropping systems based on recurrent glyphosate application, such as those used with glyphosate-resistant soybeans.  The objectives of this paper are (i) to provide an overview of some factors that influence WSs and HRWs to glyphosate in South America, especially in Brazil, Argentina and Paraguay soybean cropped areas; (ii) to discuss the viability of using crop rotation and/or cover crops that might be integrated with forage crops in an economically and environmentally sustainable system; and (iii) to summarize the results of a survey of the perceptions of Brazilian farmers to problems with WSs and HRWs to glyphosate, and the level of adoption of good agricultural practices in order to prevent or manage it.', 'en_US'),
(2795, 'Gene flow from glyphosate-resistant crops.', 'Gene flow from transgenic glyphosate-resistant crops can result in the adventitious presence of the transgene, which may negatively impact markets.  Gene flow can also produce glyphosate-resistant plants that may interfere with weed management systems.  The objective of this article is to review the gene flow literature as it pertains to glyphosate-resistant crops.  Gene flow is a natural phenomenon not unique to transgenic crops and can occur via pollen, seed and, in some cases, vegetative propagules.  Gene flow via pollen can occur in all crops, even those that are considered to be self-pollinated, because all have low levels of outcrossing.  Gene flow via seed or vegetative propagules occurs when they are moved naturally or by humans during crop production and commercialization.  There are many factors that influence gene flow; therefore, it is difficult to prevent or predict.  Gene flow via pollen and seed from glyphosate-resistant canola and creeping bentgrass fields has been documented.  The adventitious presence of the transgene responsible for glyphosate resistance has been found in commercial seed lots of canola, corn and soybeans.  In general, the glyphosate-resistant trait is not considered to provide an ecological advantage.  However, regulators should consider the examples of gene flow from glyphosate-resistant crops when formulating rules for the release of crops with traits that could negatively impact the environment or human health.', 'en_US'),
(2796, 'Fate of glyphosate in soil and the possibility of leaching to ground and surface waters: a review.', 'The very wide use of glyphosate to control weeds in agricultural, silvicultural and urban areas throughout the world requires that special attention be paid to its possible transport from terrestrial to aquatic environments.  The aim of this review is to present and discuss the state of knowledge on sorption, degradation and leachability of glyphosate in soils.  Difficulties of drawing clear and unambiguous conclusions because of strong soil dependency and limited conclusive investigations are pointed out.  Nevertheless, the risk of ground and surface water pollution by glyphosate seems limited because of sorption onto variable-charge soil minerals, e.g. aluminium and iron oxides, and because of microbial degradation.  Although sorption and degradation are affected by many factors that might be expected to affect glyphosate mobility in soils, glyphosate leaching seems mainly determined by soil structure and rainfall.  Limited leaching has been observed in non-structured sandy soils, while subsurface leaching to drainage systems was observed in a structured soil with preferential flow in macropores, but only when high rainfall followed glyphosate application.  Glyphosate in drainage water runs into surface waters but not necessarily to groundwater because it may be sorbed and degraded in deeper soil layers before reaching the groundwater.  Although the transport of glyphosate from land to water environments seems very limited, knowledge about subsurface leaching and surface runoff of glyphosate as well as the importance of this transport as related to ground and surface water quality is scarce.', 'en_US'),
(2797, 'Integrating soil conservation practices and glyphosate-resistant crops: impacts on soil.', 'BACKGROUND:  Conservation practices often associated with glyphosate-resistant crops, e.g. limited tillage and crop cover, improve soil conditions, but only limited research has evaluated their effects on soil in combination with glyphosate-resistant crops.  It is assumed that conservation practices have similar benefits to soil whether or not glyphosate-resistant crops are used.  This paper reviews the impact on soil of conservation practices and glyphosate-resistant crops, and presents data from a Mississippi field trial comparing glyphosate-resistant and non-glyphosate-resistant maize (Zea mays L.) and cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) under limited tillage management. RESULTS:  Results from the reduced-tillage study indicate differences in soil biological and chemical properties owing to glyphosate-resistant crops.  Under continuous glyphosate-resistant maize, soils maintained greater soil organic carbon and nitrogen as compared with continuous non-glyphosate-resistant maize, but no differences were measured in continuous cotton or in cotton rotated with maize.  Soil microbial community structure based on total fatty acid methyl ester analysis indicated a significant effect of glyphosate-resistant crop following 5 years of continuous glyphosate-resistant crop as compared with the non-glyphosate-resistant crop system.  Results from this study, as well as the literature review, indicate differences attributable to the interaction of conservation practices and glyphosate-resistant crop, but many are transient and benign for the soil ecosystem. CONCLUSIONS:  Glyphosate use may result in minor effects on soil biological/chemical properties.  However, enhanced organic carbon and plant residues in surface soils under conservation practices may buffer potential effects of glyphosate.  Long-term field research established under various cropping systems and ecological regions is needed for critical assessment of glyphosate-resistant crop and conservation practice interactions.', 'en_US'),
(2798, 'Herbicides, glyphosate resistance and acute mammalian toxicity: simulating an environmental effect of glyphosate-resistant weeds in the USA.', 'BACKGROUND:  With the emergence of glyphosate-resistant (GR) weeds, the environmental consequences of alternatives to GR technology are of increasing importance.  A well-known acute mammalian toxicity measure, the LD50 dose for rats, is used to assess one potential environmental impact of the loss of GR technology.  A new dataset with this index is used to estimate and simulate the effects for corn, soybeans and cotton. RESULTS:  With conventional tillage it is found that the use of GR seeds reduces the number of LD50 doses applied per hectare by 17-98% depending on crop.  With no-till, the use of GR seeds reduces LD50 doses only in corn.  If farmers switch to conventional seeds because of GR weeds but maintain the same tillage practice, the present simulations suggest that LD50 doses could increase by as much as 100 LD50 doses per hectare in soybeans, and 500 LD50 doses per hectare in cotton, or 11.4 and 19.8% respectively. CONCLUSIONS:  This is the first study to use field-level data to assess GR technology with a mammalian toxicity environmental indicator.  It has been found that GR crops have a positive environmental effect, and that alternatives to GR technology increase toxicity.', 'en_US'),
(2799, 'Comparison of herbicide regimes and the associated potential environmental effects of glyphosate-resistant crops versus what they replace in Europe.', 'While cultivation of transgenic crops takes place in seven of the EU member states, this constitutes a relatively limited part of the total acreage planted to these crops worldwide.  The only glyphosate-resistant (GR) crop grown commercially until recently has been soybean in Romania.  In addition, large-scale experimental European data exist for GR sugar and fodder beets, and, to a lesser extent, GR oilseed rape.  These GR crops are likely to have an impact both on the use of herbicides and on the environmental impact of the latter.  From the data on these GR crops, it appears that quantities of herbicides applied to GR beets are decreased while those on GR soybean are slightly increased compared with their conventional counterparts.  Depending on the parameters used for prediction or measurement of environmental impacts of GR crops, generally similar or less negative impacts were observed compared with conventional crops.  Favourable environmental effects of the glyphosate-containing herbicide regimes on GR crops appear feasible, provided appropriate measures for maintaining biodiversity and prevention of volunteers and gene flow are applied.', 'en_US'),
(2800, 'Glyphosate applied at low doses can stimulate plant growth.', 'BACKGROUND:  Glyphosate blocks the shikimic acid pathway, inhibiting the production of aromatic amino acids and several secondary compounds derived from these amino acids.  Non-target plants can be exposed to low doses of glyphosate by herbicide drift of spray droplets and contact with treated weeds.  Previous studies have reported that low doses of glyphosate stimulate growth, although these data are very limited.  The objective of this study was to determine the effects of low glyphosate doses on growth of a range of plant species. RESULTS:  Growth of maize, conventional soybean, Eucalyptus grandis Hill ex Maiden, Pinus caribea L. and Commelia benghalensis L. was enhanced by 1.8-36 g glyphosate ha-1.  Growth of glyphosate-resistant soybean was unaffected by any glyphosate dose from 1.8 to 720 g AE ha-1.  The optimum doses for growth stimulation were distinct for plant species and tissue evaluated.  The greatest stimulation of growth was observed for C. benghalensis and P. caribea. Shikimic acid levels in tissues of glyphosate-treated soybean and maize were measured and found to be elevated at growth-stimulating doses. CONCLUSION:  Subtoxic doses of glyphosate stimulate the growth of a range of plant species, as measured in several plant organs.  This hormesis effect is likely to be related to the molecular target of glyphosate, since the effect was not seen in glyphosate-resistant plants, and shikimate levels were enhanced in plants with stimulated growth.', 'en_US'),
(2801, 'Involving the public and stakeholders in the evaluation of food risks.', 'Approaches to food risk management which do not take account of the views of the public and other stakeholders have been shown to be deficient in a number of high profile cases. However, including non-expert views in the risk management process present a number of problems. Methods from risk communication, such as mental models, and work on participatory processes offer possibilities for overcoming some of these problems but there are still many challenges in developing these methods and in more fully integrating the insights from natural and social sciences into an overall framework for effective risk management.', 'en_US'),
(2802, 'Does Cry1Ab protein affect learning performances of the honey bee Apis mellifera L. (Hymenoptera, Apidae)?', 'Genetically modified Bt crops are increasingly used worldwide but side effects and especially sublethal effects on beneficial insects remain poorly studied.  Honey bees are beneficial insects for natural and cultivated ecosystems through pollination.  The goal of the present study was to assess potential effects of two concentrations of Cry1Ab protein (3 and 5000 ppb) on young adult honey bees.  Following a complementary bioassay, our experiments evaluated effects of the Cry1Ab on three major life traits of young adult honey bees: (a) survival of honey bees during sub-chronic exposure to Cry1Ab, (b) feeding behaviour, and (c) learning performance at the time that honey bees become foragers.  The latter effect was tested using the proboscis extension reflex (PER) procedure.  The same effects were also tested using a chemical pesticide, imidacloprid, as positive reference.  The tested concentrations of Cry1Ab protein did not cause lethal effects on honey bees.  However, honey bee feeding behaviour was affected when exposed to the highest concentration of Cry1Ab protein, with honey bees taking longer to imbibe the contaminated syrup.  Moreover, honey bees exposed to 5000 ppb of Cry1Ab had disturbed learning performances.  Honey bees continued to respond to a conditioned odour even in the absence of a food reward.  Our results show that transgenic crops expressing Cry1Ab protein at 5000 ppb may affect food consumption or learning processes and thereby may impact honey bee foraging efficiency.  The implications of these results are discussed in terms of risks of transgenic Bt crops for honey bees.', 'en_US'),
(2803, 'Effects of transgenic corn and Cry1Ab protein on the nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans.', 'The effects of the insecticidal Cry1Ab protein from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) on the nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans, were studied with soil from experimental fields cultivated with transgenic Bt corn (MON810) and with trypsinized Cry1Ab protein expressed in Escherichia coli. The content of Cry1Ab protein was above the detection limit of an ELISA test in only half of the soil samples obtained from transgenic plots, ranging from 0.19 to 1.31 ng g-1 dry weight. In a laboratory bioassay, C. elegans was exposed to rhizosphere and bulk soil from fields with isogenic or transgenic corn or to solutions of Cry1Ab protein (0, 24, 41, 63, 118, and 200 mg l-1) over a period of 96 h, with growth and reproduction serving as the test parameters. Nematode reproduction and growth were significantly reduced in rhizosphere and bulk soil of Bt corn compared with soil from isogenic corn and were significantly correlated with concentrations of the Cry1Ab protein in the soil samples. Moreover, the toxicity of pure Cry1Ab protein to the reproduction and growth of C. elegans was concentration-dependent. As significant inhibition occurred at relatively high concentrations of the Cry1Ab protein (41 mg l-1), the effects of the soil samples from Bt corn could not be assigned directly to the toxicity of the Cry1Ab protein. The results demonstrate that bioassays with the nematode, C. elegans, provide a promising tool for monitoring the potential effects of Bt toxins in aqueous medium and soils.', 'en_US'),
(2804, 'Niger-wide assessment of in situ sorghum genetic diversity with microsatellite markers.', 'Understanding the geographical, environmental and social patterns of genetic diversity on different spatial scales is key to the sustainable in situ management of genetic resources. However, few surveys have been conducted on crop genetic diversity using exhaustive in situ germplasm collections on a country scale and such data are missing for sorghum in sub-Saharan Africa, its centre of origin. We report here a genetic analysis of 484 sorghum varieties collected in 79 villages evenly distributed across Niger, using 28 microsatellite markers. We found a high level of SSR diversity in Niger. Diversity varied between eastern and western Niger, and allelic richness was lower in the eastern part of the country. Genetic differentiation between botanical races was the first structuring factor (Fst = 0.19), but the geographical distribution and the ethnic group to which farmers belonged were also significantly associated with genetic diversity partitioning. Gene pools are poorly differentiated among climatic zones. The geographical situation of Niger, where typical western African (guinea), central African (caudatum) and eastern Sahelian African (durra) sorghum races converge, explained the high observed genetic diversity and was responsible for the interactions among the ethnic, geographical and botanical structure revealed in our study. After correcting for the structure of botanical races, spatial correlation of genetic diversity was still detected within 100 km, which may hint at limited seed exchanges between farmers. Sorghum domestication history, in relation to the spatial organisation of human societies, is therefore key information for sorghum in situ conservation programs in sub-Saharan Africa.', 'en_US'),
(2805, 'RNA interference:  The story of gene silencing in plants and humans.', 'RNA interference is an exciting field of functional genomics that can silence viral genes.  This property of interfering RNA can be used to combat viral diseases of plants as well as animals and humans.  It is a short sequence of nucleic acid that can bind to the mRNA of the gene and interferes the process of its expression.  It is diverse in occurrence as well as in applications.  It occurs from nematodes to fungi and can cause gene silencing in plants, animals and human beings.  Small interfering RNAs are used to silence plant viral genes and in production of therapeutic drugs against Hepatitis or Immuno-deficiency viruses in human.  In this review, we will discuss the history, mechanism and applications of RNA interference in plant, animal and human research.', 'en_US'),
(2806, 'Identification of potentially hazardous human gene products in GMO risk assessment.', 'Genetically modified organisms (GMOs), e.g. viral vectors, could threaten the environment if by their release they spread hazardous gene products.  Even in contained use, to prevent adverse consequences, viral vectors carrying genes from mammals or humans should be especially scrutinized as to whether gene products that they synthesize could be hazardous in their new context.  Examples of such potentially hazardous gene products (PHGPs) are: protein toxins, products of dominant alleles that have a role in hereditary diseases, gene products and sequences involved in genome rearrangements, gene products involved in immunomodulation or with an endocrine function, gene products involved in apoptosis, activated proto-oncogenes.  For contained use of a GMO that carries a construct encoding a PHGP, the precautionary principle dictates that safety measures should be applied on a ''worst case'' basis, until the risks of the specific case have been assessed.  The potential hazard of cloned genes can be estimated before empirical data on the actual GMO become available.  Preliminary data may be used to focus hazard identification and risk assessment.  Both predictive and empirical data may also help to identify what further information is needed to assess the risk of the GMO.  A two-step approach, whereby a PHGP is evaluated for its conceptual dangers, then checked by data bank searches, is delineated here.', 'en_US'),
(2807, 'Effects of rhizodeposition of non-transgenic and transplastomic tobaccos on the soil bacterial community.', 'The effect of root-released compounds of transplastomic tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) on the soil bacterial community structure, and their potential to support horizontal gene transfer (HGT) to bacteria have been studied.  Soil microcosms were exposed to root-released compounds collected from transplastomic and non-transgenic tobacco cultivars.  Cluster analysis of automated ribosomal intergenic spacer analysis (ARISA) profiles of the soil bacterial community after 48 h incubation grouped the transgenic cultivar apart from the non-transgenic, indicating that it had a rhizodeposition pattern different from the parental plants.  However, these differences were less than between the two non-transgenic tobacco cultivars studied.  NMR characterization of the root-released compounds showed some differences in chemical fingerprinting pattern between the transplastomic and the parental cultivar.  However, the effect on bacterial community structure was transient, and tended to disappear after 96 h of incubation.  The potential of root-released compounds as a source of transforming DNA for bacteria was investigated by using four potential recipient species.  No transformants were obtained following exposure of all the recipients to the root-released compounds.  Root-released compounds amended to transgene donor DNA decreased the transformation frequency of I strain ADP1200, while Azospirillum, Agrobacterium, and Sinorhizobium strains failed to develop competence also in the presence of an external added transgene source.  Detection of plastid sequences by PCR suggested that a very low amount of fragmented plastid donor DNA was present in the root-released compounds.', 'en_US'),
(2808, 'Exploration of methods used to describe bacterial communities in silage of maize (Zea mays) cultivars', 'Different techniques to assess bacterial community structure and diversity were evaluated in silages prepared with four different maize cultivars, three conventional and one transgenic (cv. Tundra, event Bt-176).  Plants were cultivated in the greenhouse and harvested after 30 days of growth.  Silage samples were collected at successive times during fermentation and analyzed for bacterial counts and by various DNA-based fingerprinting techniques.  Bacterial counts were similar between cultivars for the total culturable bacteria, sporeforming, and mesophilic and thermophilic lactic acid bacteria (LAB).  Further analysis of the species composition of 388 LAB strains by intergenic transcribed spacer (ITS) PCR followed by sequencing of 16S rRNA gene did not reveal differences between cultivars.  In contrast, molecular fingerprinting methods targeting whole bacterial communities, such as automated ribosomal intergenic spacers analysis (ARISA) and 16S rRNA gene length heterogeneity-PCR (LH-PCR), indicated that different maize silage batches or cultivars hosted different bacterial communities.  Thus, ARISA and LH-PCR fingerprinting techniques offer a fast and sensitive method to compare bacterial communities, and to detect differences in silage bacterial communities.', 'en_US'),
(2809, 'A screening method for prioritizing non-target invertebrates for improved biosafety testing of transgenic crops.', 'We have developed a screening method that can be used during the problem formulation phase of risk assessment to identify and prioritize non-target invertebrates for risk analysis with any transgenic plant.  In previously published protocols for this task, five criteria predominated.  These criteria have been combined by our method in a simple model which assesses: (1) the possible level of risk presented by the plant to each invertebrate species (through measurements of potential hazard and exposure, the two principal criteria); (2) the hypothetical environmental impact of this risk (determined by the currently known status of the species'' population in the ecosystem and its potential resilience to environmental perturbations); (3) the estimated economic, social and cultural value of each species; and (4) the assessed ability to conduct tests with the species.  The screening method uses information on each of these criteria entered into a specially designed database that was developed using Microsoft® Access 2003.  The database holds biological and ecological information for each non-target species, as well as information about the transgenic plant that is the subject of the risk assessment procedure.  Each piece of information is then ranked on the basis of the value of the information to each criterion being measured.  This ranking system is flexible, allowing the method to be easily adapted for use in any agro-ecosystem and with any plant modification.  A model is then used to produce a Priority Ranking of Non-Target Invertebrates (PRONTI) score for each species, which in turn allows the species to be prioritized for risk assessment.  As an example, the method was used to prioritize non-target invertebrates for risk assessment of a hypothetical introduction of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Cry1Ac-expressing Pinus radiata trees into New Zealand.', 'en_US'),
(2810, 'Risk management and risk assessment of novel plant foods:  Concepts and principles.', 'Worldwide 30 food plants deliver 95% of human daily intake of plant food calories and around 300 other plant species are delivering the last 5%. These some 300 food plants are likely to be considered traditional in Europe, while the nearly 7000 other plant species traditionally used in the human food supply in other parts of the world may be considered novel in Europe.Novel food regulation is already in force in the European Community, Australia/New Zealand and in Canada where the novel plant foods need to go through a premarket assessment procedure. This paper propose criteria and definitions to be used in determining novelty of a plant food and also propose a safety assessment approach for novel plant food with no or limited documented history of safe consumption.A 2-step management procedure is recommended for a smooth introduction of fruits and vegetables; first to establish the novelty and second to define and commit resources for the safety assessment. The procedure builds upon the use of a worldwide network of global, regional, local and ethnobotanical positive lists for food plants to guide the decision on novelty at the first step and to enable the safety assessment at the second step.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(2811, 'Comparative safety assessment of plant-derived foods.', 'The second generation of genetically modified (GM) plants that are moving towards the market are characterized by modifications that may be more complex and traits that more often are to the benefit of the consumer.  These developments will have implications for the safety assessment of the resulting plant products.  In part of the cases the same crop plant can, however, also be obtained by ''conventional'' breeding strategies.  The breeder will decide on a case-by-case basis what will be the best strategy to reach the set target and whether genetic modification will form part of this strategy.  This article discusses important aspects of the safety assessment of complex products derived from newly bred plant varieties obtained by different breeding strategies.  On the basis of this overview, we conclude that the current process of the safety evaluation of GM versus conventionally bred plants is not well balanced.  GM varieties are elaborately assessed, yet at the same time other crop plants resulting from conventional breeding strategies may warrant further food safety assessment for the benefit of the consumer.  We propose to develop a general screening frame for all newly developed plant varieties to select varieties that cannot, on the basis of scientific criteria, be considered as safe as plant varieties that are already on the market.', 'en_US'),
(2812, 'Probabilistic risk assessment model for allergens in food: sensitivity analysis of the minimum eliciting dose and food consumption.', 'Previously, TNO developed a probabilistic model to predict the likelihood of an allergic reaction, resulting in a quantitative assessment of the risk associated with unintended exposure to food allergens. The likelihood is estimated by including in the model the proportion of the population who is allergic, the proportion consuming the food and the amount consumed, the likelihood of the food containing an adventitious allergen and its concentration, and the minimum eliciting dose (MED) distribution for the allergen. In the present work a sensitivity analysis was performed to identify which parts of the model most influence the output.A shift in the distribution of the MED reflecting a more potent allergen, and an increase in the proportion of the population consuming a food, increased the number of estimated allergic reactions considerably. In contrast, the number of estimated allergic reactions hardly changed when the MEDs were based on a more severe response, or when the amount of food consumed was increased.', 'en_US'),
(2813, 'Edible safety requirements and assessment standards for agricultural genetically modified organisms.', 'This paper describes the background, principles, concepts and methods of framing the technical regulation for edible safety requirement and assessment of agricultural genetically modified organisms (agri-GMOs) for Shenzhen Special Economic Zone in the People''s Republic of China.  It provides a set of systematic criteria for edible safety requirements and the assessment process for agri-GMOs.  First, focusing on the degree of risk and impact of different agri-GMOs, we developed hazard grades for toxicity, allergenicity, anti-nutrition effects, and unintended effects and standards for the impact type of genetic manipulation.  Second, for assessing edible safety, we developed indexes and standards for different hazard grades of recipient organisms, for the influence of types of genetic manipulation and hazard grades of agri-GMOs.  To evaluate the applicability of these criteria and their congruency with other safety assessment systems for GMOs applied by related organizations all over the world, we selected some agri-GMOs (soybean, maize, potato, capsicum and yeast) as cases to put through our new assessment system, and compared our results with the previous assessments.  It turned out that the result of each of the cases was congruent with the original assessment.', 'en_US'),
(2814, 'Integron-associated gene cassettes in Halifax Harbour: assessment of a mobile gene pool in marine sediments.', 'The integron/gene cassette systems identified in bacteria comprise a class of genetic elements that allow adaptation by acquisition of gene cassettes.  Integron gene cassettes have been shown to facilitate the spread of drug resistance in human pathogens but their role outside a clinical setting has not been explored extensively.  We sequenced 2145 integron gene cassettes from four marine sediment samples taken from the vicinity of Halifax Nova Scotia, Canada, increasing the number of gene cassettes obtained from environmental microbial communities by 10-fold.  Sequence analyses reveals that the majority of these cassettes encode novel proteins and that this study is consistent with previous claims of high cassette diversity as we estimate a Chao1 diversity index of ~3000 cassettes from these samples.  The functional distribution of environmental cassettes recovered in this study, when compared with that of cassettes from the only other source with significant sampling (Vibrio genomes) suggests that alternate selection regimes might be acting on these two gene pools.  The majority of cassettes recovered in this study encode novel, unknown proteins.  In instances where we obtained multiple alleles of a novel protein we demonstrate that non-synonymous versus synonymous substitution rates ratios suggest relaxed selection.  Cassette-encoded proteins with known homologues represent a variety of functions and prevalent among these are isochorismatases; proteins involved in iron scavenging.  Phylogenetic analysis of these isochorismatases as well as of cassette-encoded acetyltransferases reveals a patchy distribution, suggesting multiple sources for the origin of these cassettes.  Finally, the two most environmentally similar sample sites considered in this study display the greatest overlap of cassette types, consistent with the hypothesis that cassette genes encode adaptive proteins.', 'en_US'),
(2815, 'Regulating the regulators:  The future prospects for transcription-factor-based agricultural biotechnology products.', 'It is now more than a decade since the first commercially successful genetically engineered agricultural crops were launched (Castle et al., 2006). These first products were based in large part on simple monogenic traits, such as herbicide tolerance or insect resistance, which did not require manipulation of complex molecular pathways in the transgenic plant. Since then, there has been a growing expectation that the biotechnology industry will deliver a second generation of transgenic products for more challenging traits relating to yield and yield stability, which are under complex polygenic control (Gutterson and Zhang, 2004; Salmeron and Herrera-Estrella, 2006). Advances in plant genomics and systems biology, including the availability of the complete genome sequences of both Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) and rice (Oryza sativa), have offered an unprecedented opportunity to identify regulatory genes and networks that control these important traits. Because transcription factors (TFs) naturally act as master regulators of cellular processes, they are expected to be excellent candidates for modifying complex traits in crop plants, and TF-based technologies are likely to be a prominent part of the next generation of successful biotechnology crops. In this article, we review the prospects for modification of these target traits by TF regulation, including some of the challenges associated with such a strategy.', 'en_US'),
(2816, 'The use of life-cycle assessment to evaluate the environmental impacts of growing genetically modified, nitrogen use-efficient canola.', 'Agriculture, particularly intensive crop production, makes a significant contribution to environmental pollution. A variety of canola (Brassica napus) has been genetically modified to enhance nitrogen use efficiency, effectively reducing the amount of fertilizer required for crop production. A partial life-cycle assessment adapted to crop production was used to assess the potential environmental impacts of growing genetically modified, nitrogen use-efficient (GMNUE) canola in North Dakota and Minnesota compared with a conventionally bred control variety. The analysis took into account the entire production system used to produce 1 tonne of canola. This comprised raw material extraction, processing and transportation, as well as all agricultural field operations. All emissions associated with the production of 1 tonne of canola were listed, aggregated and weighted in order to calculate the level of environmental impact. The findings show that there are a range of potential environmental benefits associated with growing GMNUE canola. These include reduced impacts on global warming, freshwater ecotoxicity, eutrophication and acidification. Given the large areas of canola grown in North America and, in particular, Canada, as well as the wide acceptance of genetically modified varieties in this area, there is the potential for GMNUE canola to reduce pollution from agriculture, with the largest reductions predicted to be in greenhouse gases and diffuse water pollution.', 'en_US'),
(2817, 'Validation and collaborative study of a P35S and T-nos duplex real-time PCR screening method to detect genetically modified organisms in food products.', 'In this work the intra and inter-laboratory validation of a duplex real-time PCR screening method for the detection of genetically modified (gm) plants is described.  Target DNA sequences from Cauliflower Mosaic Virus 35S promoter (P35S) and nos-terminator from Agrobacterium tumefaciens (T-nos) are amplified.  The duplex real-time PCR method is using primer and probe sequences that have already been published for the individual (''single'') detection of both target sequences.  The validation showed sensitivity comparable to the single PCR standard methods.  In addition, combined with a reference gene and using reference standard material, the method can be used to semiquantitatively estimate the amount of gm plants in an unknown sample.', 'en_US'),
(2818, 'The application of post-market monitoring to novel foods.', 'The role of post-market monitoring (PMM) in the safety assessment of novel foods is critically discussed in order to derive guidelines as to in which situations the application of PMM might be warranted.  Available data sources on food consumption and health status, and the methodologies for generating such data are reviewed.  The paper suggests improvements to make them more applicable for PMM purposes.  It is concluded that any PMM programme must be a hypothesis-driven scientific exercise.  PMM can have a role as a complement to, but not as a replacement for, a comprehensive pre-market safety assessment.  Its use may be appropriate to confirm that product use is as predicted in the pre-market assessment; to provide reassurance that effects observed in the pre-market assessment occur with no greater frequency or intensity in the post-market phase than anticipated; and to investigate the significance of any adverse effects reported by consumers after market-launch.  However PMM is insufficiently powerful to test the hypothesis that any effects seen in the pre-market assessment are absent in the post-market phase.  Current methodologies place limitations on what PMM can achieve.  PMM should only be used when triggered by or when the focus is on specific evidence-based questions.', 'en_US'),
(2819, 'Gene flow from transgenic glufosinate or glyphosate-tolerant oilseed rape to wide rape.', 'Aims:  Wild rape (Brassica juncea var. gracilis), a wild relative of oilseed rape (B. napus), was chosen for a case study because gene flow from herbicide-resistant oilseed rape to wild rape rarely has been explored.  We asked a) are transgenic herbicide-resistant oilseed rape and wild rape sexually compatible, b) is the fitness of their F1 improved and c) is gene flow possible?Methods:  We used hand pollination to test sexual compatibility and examined resistance of the F1 by applying herbicide of 2 000 ìg a.i.&#8226;kg-1 with 0.1 L&#8226;m-2 volume at 3-4 leaf stage twice and by PCR and examining vegetative growth, pollen viability and seed setting rate.  Crossing from herbicide-resistant oilseed rape to wild rape also was tested under open pollination.Important findings:  Indexes of sexual compatibility of wild rape×glufosinate-tolerant oilseed and wild rape×glyphosate-tolerant oilseed were 13.87 and 13.83, respectively, under hand pollination, and these indexes were not significantly different from that of the female parent under self pollination and open pollination.  All F1 were significantly resistant to the corresponding herbicide.  Moreover, herbicide-resistant gene of F1 was confirmed by PCR and F1 of wild rape× glufosinate-resistant oilseed and wild rape×glyphosate-resistant oilseed produced 426 bp and 931 bp identical special band, respectively.  The fitness of the F1 changed compared with that of the female parent.  The germination rate of the F1 was similar with that of the female parent, >98%.  Due to taller individuals and larger leaves, the vegetative growth of the F1 was much better than that of the female parent.  However, pollen viabilities of both kinds of F1 were only half that of the female parent.  Furthermore, the seed number per silique of the F1 was very low, only 0.59 and 0.58 seeds per silique, respectively.  The cross rate of wild rape ×glufosinate-resistant and wild rape×glyphosate-resistant was 0.02% and 0.01 %, respectively, under open pollination.  Our study suggests the possibility of gene flow from transgenic rape to wild rape. The possibilities of gene flow from the two herbicide-resistant transgenic oilseed rapes to wild rape were similar under hand pollination or open pollination.  However, the effect of gene flow from transgenic herbicide-resistant oilseed to wild rape needs further research.', 'en_US'),
(2820, 'Consumer attitudes and policy directions for GM labeling and pollen drift regulation:  Evidence from the 2006 Vermonter poll.', 'Given the uncertainty of the use of genetic engineering in production of genetically modified (GM) foods, it remains the subject of one of the most vitriolic scientific debates throughout the globe.  Newer facets of the debate include regulation of GM seed labeling as well as liability pertaining to GM pollen spread to non-GM plants.  This study analyzes Vermonter Poll data of 656 respondents for relationships between demographics and opinions about seed labeling and GM pollen drift legislation.  Preliminary results demonstrate general trends that the majority of respondents are in support of labeling for GM seeds, and opine that the US government, GM seed producers and GM farmers should be held liable for GM pollen spread, but also reflect some incongruity in attitudes.  The article concludes with a discussion of the implications of these results and how they can best inform policy formation regarding this controversial issue.', 'en_US'),
(2821, 'Insect resistance management plans:  The farmers'' perspective.', 'Farmers are required to implement insect resistance management (IRM) plans for all Bt crops in order to reduce the probability that insects susceptible to Bt will develop resistance.  These IRM plans require farmers to plant at least 20% of the corn acreage to a non?Bt hybrid, and in specific configurations.  In order for IRM plans to be effective, farmers must correctly implement these refuge requirements both in terms of acreage and configuration.  This article reports survey results which show that farmers believe refuges will be effective in managing resistance, but that they would not implement them if they were not required.  The article also reports survey and focus group data on farmers'' perceptions of each refuge configuration.  These data show that farmers who have experience with implementing refuges report less time and effort associated with refuges, which is partly due to having learned how to implement refuges more efficiently.', 'en_US'),
(2822, 'A review of international labeling policies of genetically modified food to evaluate India''s proposed rule', 'This paper provides a comprehensive review of existing international labeling policies of genetically modified (GM) food and associated relevant international agreements in order to evaluate India''s proposed mandatory labeling rule.  Existing evidence from developed countries shows that mandatory labeling regulations have resulted in no additional consumer choice or information.  Among the few developing countries with labeling policies, most have not effectively implemented their regulations.  We show that India''s proposed labeling rules for GM food would be among the most stringent globally and could potentially result in low consumer benefits at a high cost both domestically and internationally.  India''s proposed regulation also lacks a number of elements to be implemented.  However, these conclusions are based on experiences from other countries and limited available information from India.  More studies are needed to evaluate the potential economic effects of GM food labeling in India.', 'en_US'),
(2823, 'A genetically engineered crop''s impact on pesticide use:  A revealed-preference index approach.', 'A revealed-preference-based method is proposed for assessment of the environmental and human health impact of genetically engineered (GE) crops. This method employs the relative pesticide toxicity information from farmers'' pesticide choices combined with volume of pesticides as an alternative to previous methods which are based on volume only, on number of pesticide applications, or on stated preferences. The method is applied to estimate the changes in the impact of herbicides after environmental and health perspective. The results indicate that, on average, a reduction in herbicide human heath and environmental impacts occurs when farmers adopt RR soybean varieties.', 'en_US'),
(2824, 'Modelling the seed bank evolution and emergence of oilseed rape volunteers for managing co-existence of GM and non-GM varieties.', 'Gene flow in oilseed rape is a process occurring over the years and large distances and has been the object of several models for evaluating the co-existence of GM and non-GM crops.  Oilseed rape volunteers play a major role and the survival, dormancy and emergence of the volunteer seeds left after oilseed rape crops are key processes for gene flow.  In the present paper, these processes were analysed and modelled in detail for integration into the GENESYS model, which quantifies the effects of cropping systems on spatio-temporal gene flow.  In this model, seed bank dynamics are the result of seed survival, dormancy induction, dormancy cycles, germination processes and pre-emergent shoot growth in soil.  These biological processes depend on tillage tools and dates, in interaction with temperature and soil moisture.  The model was evaluated by comparing its simulations to independent field data on volunteer emergence after different tillage strategies and in different cropping systems.  Finally, the model was used to simulate the effect of tillage strategies on volunteer densities in winter cereals and the adventitious presence of GM seeds in non-GM oilseed rape crops in case of temporal and/or spatial co-existence of GM and non-GM oilseed rape varieties.', 'en_US'),
(2825, 'Effects of transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis corn and permethrin on nontarget arthropods.', 'Planting of insect-resistant transgenic corn has led to concerns about potential effects on nontarget arthropods.  Various sampling methods (visual counts, yellow sticky cards, pitfall traps) were used at 7-to 10-day intervals to test for possible changes in abundance for common nontarget arthropods caused by transgenic or insecticide-based pest management.  Large-scale field studies arranged in randomized complete blocks were conducted in 2001 and 2002 in central Iowa.  Treatments included Bt corn (Pioneer 34M95, event MON810), a nonBt isoline (Pioneer 34M94), and the nonBt isoline treated with permethrin (Pounce 1.5G®).  There was high variation in population estimates for the majority of the arthropods collected.  Consequently, only data from taxa with coefficients of variation =75 using a particular sampling method were used in statistical analysis.  Insecticide applications negatively impacted populations of arachnids (Araneae and Opiliones), Cantharidae, Elateridae and Macrocentrus cingulum (Hymenoptera: Braconidae).  In the transgenic treatment, fewer M. cingulum and Nitidulidae were present, presumably because of a lack of Ostrinia nubilalis (Lepidoptera: Crambidae), which serve as hosts for M. cingulum and provide habitat for Nitidulidae, which are known to frequent O. nubilalis tunnels.  However, application of a conventional insecticide for O. nubilalis control had a broader impact on populations of various nontarget arthropods.  These results are consistent with other studies that suggest nontarget impacts resulting from insecticides may be greater than those caused by Bt corn.', 'en_US'),
(2826, 'An empirically derived model of field-scale gene flow in winter wheat.', 'The potential introduction of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cultivars with transgenic traits has generated increased interest in pollen-mediated gene flow (PMGF).  The objectives of this study were to estimate wheat PMGF between commercial fields across multiple years and locations, and to compare estimates from large fields to those from smaller experimental plots.  The study was conducted in a total of 56 commercial field locations in eastern Colorado in 2003, 2004, and 2005.  We measured PMGF by tracking the movement of an imidazolinone herbicide resistance gene from resistant to susceptible cultivars, sampled at distances of 0.23 to 61 m.  At least one sample from all 56 fields and from all 18 evaluated cultivars had detectable PMGF.  The highest observed PMGF was 5.3% at 0.23 m.  The farthest distance at which PMGF was detected was 61 m and the highest PMGF at that distance was 0.25%.  Higher levels and greater distances of PMGF were detected in commercial fields than in experimental plots.  Based on estimates from a generalized linear mixed model with a random location effect, the distance required to ensure 95% confidence that 95% of locations have PMGF less than 0.9% is 41.1 m for cultivars heading earlier than the pollen source and 0.7 m for cultivars heading later than the pollen source.  These confidence limits should represent the highest levels of PMGF expected to occur in winter wheat in the west-central Great Plains and will be useful for wheat biotechnology regulation.', 'en_US'),
(2827, 'The impact of agricultural biotechnology on yields, risks, and biodiversity in low-income countries.', 'This paper shows that the current generation of transgenic crop varieties has significant potential to improve economic welfare in low-income countries.  These varieties might increase crop yields in low-income countries in cases when pesticides have not been used.  They will reduce negative health effects of chemicals when they replace them.  With low transaction costs, appropriate infrastructure, and access to intellectual property, multiple varieties of transgenics will be introduced.  The gain from transgenics will be reduced, and crop biodiversity may be lost when only a small set of varieties is transgenetically modified.  The adoption of transgenics will also be affected by risk and credit considerations.', 'en_US'),
(2828, 'An ecological assessment of transgenic crops.', 'Since the first commercial release of a transgenic crop in 1994, the land area planted to these crops has expanded to over 90 million ha worldwide, with approximately 8.5 million farmers in 21 countries cultivating transgenic crops.  Public apprehension has mounted apace.  Concerns include: (i) the potential for gene flow into wild plant populations or soil organisms; (ii) adverse effects on non-target organisms; (iii) gene products or crop residues persisting in the environment with deleterious effects and, for insecticidal crops; (iv) resistance developing in target pest populations.  Numerous studies on the environmental risks of transgenic crops are published.  Gene flow to a crop''s wild relatives has been demonstrated in the field; hence, the use of these crops is restricted to regions where wild relatives are not endemic.  Gene flow to soil organisms is yet to be demonstrated under field conditions and is unlikely given the safeguards employed, but not impossible.  The weight of the evidence suggests that there is little risk to non-target soil organisms, but reduced numbers of non-target beneficial insects have been reported with the use of insecticidal crops in some systems.  Population effects on non-target insects associated with the use of insecticidal crops are significantly less extensive than those experienced using chemical pesticides, and it has yet to be determined if observed population changes are ecologically significant in these cropping systems.  Resistance of target pests to insecticidal crops is possible and eventually likely, but after nearly a decade of use has yet to be detected under field conditions.  Several strategies to reduce potential ecological impacts are either under development or near release.  Ecological risks posed by new technologies under development and the need for in-country risk assessment and post-release monitoring are discussed.', 'en_US'),
(2829, 'Evaluation of potential risks associated with recombination in transgenic plants expressing viral sequences.', 'Virus-resistant transgenic plants have been created primarily through the expression of viral sequences.  It has been hypothesized that recombination between the viral transgene mRNA and the RNA of an infecting virus could generate novel viruses.  As mRNA/viral RNA recombination can occur in virus-resistant transgenic plants, the key to testing this risk hypothesis is to compare the populations of recombinant viruses generated in transgenic and non-transgenic plants.  This has been done with two cucumoviral systems, involving either two strains of cucumber mosaic virus (CMV), or CMV and the related tomato aspermy virus (TAV).  Although the distribution of the sites of recombination in the CMV/CMV and TAV/CMV systems was quite different, equivalent populations of recombinant viruses were observed in both cases.  These results constitute the first comparison of the populations of recombinants in transgenic and non-transgenic plants, and suggest that there is little risk of emergence of recombinant viruses in these plants, other than those that could emerge in non-transgenic plants.', 'en_US'),
(2830, 'Local DNA features affect RNA-directed transcriptional gene silencing and DNA methylation.', 'Transcription of a nopaline synthase promoter (pNOS) inverted repeat provides an RNA signal that can trigger transcriptional gene silencing and methylation of pNOS promoters in?trans.  The degree of silencing is influenced by the local DNA features close to the target promoter integration sites.  Among 26 transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana lines harbouring single copies of a T-DNA including a pNOS-NPTII reporter gene at different chromosomal loci, NPTII RNA levels showed limited variation.  When challenged by the silencer transgene providing the pNOS RNA signal, reduction of the NPTII RNA levels in the F1 generation varied by more than 100-fold, ranging from no reduction to reduction to <1% of the non-silenced level.  Silencing was generally correlated with proportional DNA methylation in the pNOS region, except for one target transgene showing substantial DNA methylation without adequate silencing.  Silencing was progressive through generations.  Differences in the degree of silencing among the target transgenes were transmitted at least to the F3 generation, and seemed to be influenced by transgene-flanking sequences.Apparently, close-by repeats promoted, whereas close-by functional genes diminished, the response to the silencing signal.', 'en_US'),
(2831, 'Sicurezza alimentare e responsabilità del produttore.  [Food safety and the responsibility of the producer.]', 'A farm producer, according to product liability legislation is obliged to sell non-defective products which are safe for consumers: he is responsible if the product causes damage even though the defect did non exist when the product was put on the market, because the principle of precaution requires the evaluation of any possible risks.  He is also responsible when the state of scientific and technical knowledge at the time was uncertain and required the adoption of measures for risk management (e.g., GM food).  The liability of the producer exists even though the defect derives from a rule concerning food safety legislation.With increase of food safety measures and the introduction of tracing and labelling systems the farmer must comply with the rules for food safety.  In this contest it is necessary for the farm producers to belong to organizations of producers and/or to supply chains.', 'en_US'),
(2832, 'Quantification and persistence of recombinant DNA of Roundup Ready corn and soybean in rotation.', 'The presence of the recombinant cp4 epsps gene from Roundup Ready (RR) corn and RR soybean was quantified using real-time PCR in soil samples from a field experiment growing RR and conventional corn and soybean in rotation.  RR corn and RR soybean cp4 epsps persisted in soil for up to 1 year after seeding.  The concentration of recombinant DNA in soil peaked in July and August in RR corn and RR soybean plots, respectively.  A small fraction of soil samples from plots seeded with conventional crops contained recombinant DNA, suggesting transgene dispersal by means of natural process or agricultural practices.  This research will aid in the understanding of the persistence of recombinant DNA in agricultural cropping systems.', 'en_US'),
(2833, 'Evaluation of protein safety in the context of agricultural biotechnology.', 'One component of the safety assessment of agricultural products produced through biotechnology is evaluation of the safety of newly expressed proteins.  The ILSI International Food Biotechnology Committee has developed a scientifically based two-tiered, weight-of-evidence strategy to assess the safety of novel proteins used in the context of agricultural biotechnology.  Recommendations draw upon knowledge of the biological and chemical characteristics of proteins and testing methods for evaluating potential intrinsic hazards of chemicals.  Tier I (potential hazard identification) includes an assessment of the biological function or mode of action and intended application of the protein, history of safe use, comparison of the amino acid sequence of the protein to other proteins, as well as the biochemical and physico-chemical properties of the proteins.  Studies outlined in Tier II (hazard characterization) are conducted when the results from Tier I are not sufficient to allow a determination of safety (reasonable certainty of no harm) on a case-by-case basis.  These studies may include acute and repeated dose toxicology studies and hypothesis-based testing.  The application of these guidelines is presented using examples of transgenic proteins applied for agricultural input and output traits in genetically modified crops along with recommendations for future research considerations related to protein safety assessment.', 'en_US'),
(2834, 'The fate of Cry1Ac Bt toxin during oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) cultivation on transgenic Bt cottonseed hulls.', 'BACKGROUND:  In China, mushrooms are often cultivated on cottonseed hulls, and spent substrates from their cultivation are used as cattle feed.  As the area planted to Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) cotton in China increases, hulls from transgenic Bt cottonseed are being increasingly used as a substrate for edible mushroom cultivation.  The objective of this research was to determine whether Bt toxin was transmitted to mushrooms cultivated on transgenic Bt cottonseed hulls or retained in the spent substrate.  RESULTS:  Bt toxin was still present in transgenic Bt cottonseed hulls after chemical (carbendazol) treatment but not after heat (100 °C) treatment before mushroom fungus inoculation.  When mushroom was cultivated on carbendazol-treated substrates, Bt toxin level in the substrates fell below the detection limit (1.5 ng Cry1Ac per g fresh weight) in 15 days.  CONCLUSION:  Bt toxin was not transmitted to mushrooms during cultivation on transgenic Bt cottonseed hulls.', 'en_US'),
(2835, 'Movement of transgenic plant-expressed Bt Cry1Ac proteins through high trophic levels.', 'The movement of Bacillus thuringiensis (Berliner) (Bt) Cry1Ac endotoxin through high trophic levels was assessed to help elucidate the effects of Bt toxin on non-target insects. The diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella L., Lepidoptera: Plutellidae), the parasitic wasp (Cotesia vestalis Haliday, Hymenoptera: Braconidae) and the predatory green lacewing Chrysoperla carnea (Stephen) (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) were used as a model system in this laboratory study. Bt-resistant P. xylostella larvae fed Cry1Ac-expressing transgenic oilseed rape (OSR, Brassica napus L., Cruciferae), before and after parasitization by C. vestalis, consumed Cry1Ac with the ingested plant material but only a proportion of Cry1Ac consumed was recovered from the bodies and faeces of P. xylostella larvae. Cry1Ac was not detected in newly emerged parasitoid larvae. In contrast, Cry1Ac was detected in C. carnea larvae fed on resistant P. xylostella larvae reared on Bt OSR. However, no Cry1Ac could be detected in C. carnea larvae when the lacewings were transferred to P. xylostella larvae reared on conventional OSR and tested 24-48?h. The metabolizing ability of Cry1Ac is discussed for the larvae of P. xylostella and C. carnea.', 'en_US'),
(2836, 'The role of genetic engineering in livestock production.', 'In this paper we discuss the use of genetic engineering in livestock production.  We examine the main two different aspects of genetic engineering: cloning and transgenesis.  After commenting what has been expected from both techniques in livestock production in the last 25 years, the practical difficulties for implementing cloning and transgenesis are examined.  Apart from technical difficulties, problems derived from the detection of genetically superior animals and evaluation of the clones and the transgenic animals make these techniques less interesting than they appear to be.  Most of the observed variability of the economically interesting traits is not genetic, genetic evaluation needs a large number of animals and cloning success will represent a serious loss of genetic variability and the loss of the flexibility needed for markets in constant evolution.  There is a risk in transgenic animals of production of new intermediate biochemical products that may be toxic, allergenic or carcinogenic.  The benefits produced by transgenic animals hitherto hardly justify this risk.  The expectations that genetic engineering produced 25 years ago should be re-examined, considering the risks and the high investment required.', 'en_US'),
(2837, 'Toxicological evaluation of transgenic rice flour with an Escherichia coli phytase gene appA by sub-chronic feeding study in Wistar rats.', 'BACKGROUND:  Phytase is increasingly used as an ingredient in swine and poultry feeds to improve the bioavailability of phytate-bound phosphorus and reduce the supplement of elemental phosphorus in feeds.  Recently, a transgenic rise (TGR) with phytase appA gene from E. coli has been developed in Taiwan.  To assure the food safety of this TGR, we performed a sub-chronic whole-food feeding study with Wistar rats. RESULTS:  Weaned feeding male and female rats were divided into TGR and non-TGR (NTGR) groups (20 rats per group), and fed diets containing 76.8% rice flour of TGR and NTGR, respectively.  After 93 days feeding, although some hematological findings and blood chemistry values differed significantly between the TGR and NTGR groups, all values were still within the normal range for rats of this age and sex.  No adverse effects of TGR were observed in terms of animal behavior, weight gain, or feed utilization rate.  Necropsy at the end of the experiment indicated that neither pathological lesions nor histopathological abnormalities were present in organs such as liver, kidney, intestines and testes of rats in TGR and NTGR groups.  In addition, no significant differences (P > 0.05) were observed in relative organ weights, hemograms and blood indices of rats between the two groups. CONCLUSION:  These results demonstrated that in a 93-day feeding study with Wistar rats a diet containing 76.8% of TGR flour having a phytase activity of about 1500 U kg-1 body weight per day has no adverse effects.', 'en_US'),
(2838, 'Impact of insecticidal proteins expressed in transgenic plants on bumblebee microcolonies.', 'In order to assess the risk that insecticidal transgenic plants may pose for bumblebees, we tested whether Bombus terrestris (L.) (Hymenoptera: Apidae) workers are able to detect insecticidal proteins dissolved in sucrose solution and whether consumption of these proteins will affect survival and offspring production. Feeders containing either Bacillus thuringiensis toxin (Cry1Ab), Kunitz soybean trypsin inhibitor (SBTI), or Galanthus nivalis agglutinin (GNA) were offered to bumblebee colonies at low (0.01% wt/vol for SBTI and GNA, 0.001% for Cry1Ab) and high concentrations (0.1% for SBTI and GNA, 0.01% for Cry1Ab) together with a control (pure sucrose solution) in a glasshouse chamber. No difference was found in the number of visits and the duration of visits among the different concentrations for each of the insecticidal proteins, indicating that bumblebees do not discriminate the compounds. To investigate the impact of the different insecticidal proteins on B. terrestris, microcolonies were established by placing three newly emerged bumblebee workers in wooden boxes. Within a few days, a hierarchy in each microcolony was established and the dominant worker developed its ovaries and laid haploid eggs. Bumblebees were fed with Cry1Ab (0.01%), SBTI, or GNA (both at 0.01 and 0.1%) dissolved in sucrose solution and also fed mixed floral pollen for a maximum period of 80 days. Additionally, microcolonies with three drones each were established to measure individual bee longevity. While the Cry1Ab did not affect microcolony performance, the consumption of SBTI and especially GNA affected survival of B. terrestris workers and drones and caused a significant reduction in the number of offspring. The use of microcolonies appears to be well-suited to measure lethal and sublethal effects of insecticidal proteins expressed in transgenic plants on bumblebees.', 'en_US'),
(2839, 'Will the Biosafety Protocol hinder or protect the developing world: Learning from China''s experience.', 'Uncertainties about the effect of Biosafety Protocol (BSP) on global agricultural trade have caused concern among those with a stake in agrifood imports and exports.  The primary goal of this paper is to analyze the potential economic impacts of the BSP on both importing countries with a specific emphasis on China and exporting countries of soybean and maize.  The results show that in absolute terms the BSP will require large investments internationally and will induce compliance costs.  The BSP will increase the international price and domestic production in importing countries, and lower international trade and domestic production in the exporting countries.  In absolute terms the impacts are large, amounting for each commodity into the tens of millions of dollars and varying largely among different scenarios.  But in the percentage the impacts are small.  Much smaller impacts are found in China because China has already invested in a system that provides almost all of the services that could be required by the BSP.  Other developing nations may need more help; and that it will be more costly.', 'en_US'),
(2840, 'Modeling seed dispersal distances:  Implications for transgenic Pinus Taeda.', 'Predicting forest-tree seed dispersal across a landscape is useful for estimating gene flow from genetically engineered (GE) or transgenic trees. The question of biocontainment has yet to be resolved, although field-trial permits for transgenic forest trees are on the rise. Most current field trials in the United States occur in the Southeast where Pinus taeda L., an indigenous species, is the major timber commodity. Seed dispersal distances were simulated using a model where the major determinants were: (1) forest canopy height at seed release, (2) terminal velocity of the seeds, (3) absolute seed release, and (4) turbulent-flow statistics, all of which were measured or determined within a P. taeda plantation established from seeds collected from wild forest-tree stands at the Duke Forest near Durham, North Carolina, USA. In plantations aged 16 and 25 years our model results showed that most of the seeds fell within local-neighborhood dispersal distances, with estimates ranging from 0.05 to 0.14 km from the source. A fraction of seeds was uplifted above the forest canopy and moved via the long-distance dispersal (LDD) process as far as 11.9?33.7 km. Out of 105 seeds produced per hectare per year, roughly 440 seeds were predicted to be uplifted by vertical eddies above the forest canopy and transported via LDD. Of these, 70 seeds/ha traveled distances in excess of 1 km from the source, a distance too great to serve as a biocontainment zone. The probability of LDD occurrence of transgenic conifer seeds at distances exceeding 1 km approached 100%.', 'en_US'),
(2841, 'Gene flow and multiple herbicide resistance in escaped canola populations.', 'Gene flow among herbicide-resistant (HR) canola varieties can lead to the development of multiple HR canola plants, creating volunteer canola management challenges for producers.  In western Canada, escaped populations of HR canola are ubiquitous outside of cultivated fields, yet the extent of gene flow resulting in herbicide resistance trait stacking in individuals within these populations remains unknown.  The objectives of this study were to document the presence of single and multiple herbicide resistance traits and assess the extent of gene flow within escaped canola populations.  Seed was collected from 16 escaped canola populations along the verges of fields and roadways in four agricultural regions in southern Manitoba from 2004 to 2006.  Glyphosate resistance was found in 14 (88%) of these populations, glufosinate resistance in 13 (81%) populations, and imidazolinone resistance in five (31%) populations.  Multiple herbicide resistance was observed at levels consistent with previously published canola outcrossing rates in 10 (62%) of the tested populations.  In 2005 and 2006, maternal plants from two escaped populations were tested using trait indicator test strips for glyphosate and glufosinate resistance to confirm outcrossing events.  In 2005, two of 13 tested maternal plants with single herbicide resistance traits produced progeny with both glyphosate and glufosinate resistance.  In 2006, of 21 tested plants, 10 single HR maternal plants produced multiple HR progeny, and five nonresistant maternal plants produced resistant offspring.  This is the first report indicating that intraspecific gene flow results in stacking of herbicide resistance traits in individuals within escaped canola populations, confirming that multiple HR canola volunteers are not confined to agricultural fields.  Results of this study suggest that escaped populations of crop plants can contribute to the spread of genetically engineered novel traits, which has important implications for containment, especially for highly controversial pharmaceutical and industrial traits in crop plants.', 'en_US'),
(2842, 'No sub-lethal toxicity to bumblebees, Bombus terrestris, exposed to Bt-corn pollen, captan and novaluron.', 'Queenless microcolonies of Bombus terrestris were fed either mixed floral pollen, non-transgenic sweet corn pollen, transgenic Bt-sweet corn pollen, or pollen mixed with either the fungicide captan or the insect growth regulator novaluron.  None of the treatments significantly affected survival of worker bees, rates at which they consumed pollen or sugar syrup, their ability to produce offspring, or the timing of events in the development of their offspring, compared with the appropriate controls.  Drones from microcolonies fed 0.135 mg/kg?1 a.i. novaluron were significantly shorter-lived than controls fed floral pollen.  Drones from microcolonies fed corn pollen were significantly smaller than the controls, regardless of whether the corn pollen was transgenic or not.  These pest control technologies are unlikely to affect B. terrestris bumblebees significantly in the field.', 'en_US'),
(2843, 'Intracellular localization of dietary and naked DNA in intestinal tissue of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L. using in situ hybridization.', 'There is a continuing interest in the fate of DNA from genetically modified organisms (GMO) in the food chain including the uptake of DNA by intestinal cells from dietary sources containing GM feed ingredients.  The objective of this study was to elucidate the uptake and persistence of foreign DNA in the intestinal tract of Atlantic salmon Salmo salar L. using in situ hybridization (ISH) that enables the intracellular localization of the DNA, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to verify the ISH results qualitatively.  Two salmon intestinal models were employed for the investigations; intestinal tissues were sampled in two models namely (a) in vivo from salmon-fed diets containing 30% GM soybeans or 30% nonGM (nGM) soybeans, and (b) ex vivo from intestinal sleeves incubated using different concentrations of PCR-amplified test DNAs (211 and 305 bp) designed from the 35S promoter/plant DNA junction of the RoundupReady soybean (RRS) genome.  Additionally, for the incubation study, the effect of a mucolytic agent dithiothreitol (DTT) and a permeability enhancer sodium deoxycholate (SDA) on DNA uptake were investigated.  Both treatments were found to enhance DNA uptake ex vivo.  Dietary DNA and PCR-amplified DNA could be visualized by ISH in the salmon intestine with more frequently observed signals in the ex vivo model compared to the in vivo model.  All results could be verified by PCR.  Dietary DNA was localized in the cell vacuolar system and in lamina propria of the mid intestine.  Thus, based on the investigated DNA fragment lengths, this study shows that foreign DNA, can be taken up by Atlantic salmon intestinal tissue.', 'en_US'),
(2844, 'Nutritional and safety assessments of foods and feeds nutritionally improved through biotechnology:  Case studies.', 'During the last two decades, the public and private sectors have made substantial international research progress toward improving the nutritional value of a wide range of food and feed crops.  Nevertheless, significant numbers of people still suffer from the effects of undernutrition.  In addition, the nutritional quality of feed is often a limiting factor in livestock production systems, particularly those in developing countries.  As newly developed crops with nutritionally improved traits come closer to being available to producers and consumers, we must ensure that scientifically sound and efficient processes are used to assess the safety and nutritional quality of these crops.  Such processes will facilitate deploying these crops to those world areas with large numbers of people who need them.  This document describes five case studies of crops with improved nutritional value.  These case studies examine the principles and recommendations published by the Intl.  Life Sciences Ins. (ILSI) in 2004 for the safety and nutritional assessment of foods and feeds derived from nutritionally improved crops (ILSI 2004).  One overarching conclusion that spans all five case studies is that the comparative safety assessment process is a valid approach.  Such a process has been endorsed by many publications and organizations, including the 2004 ILSI publication.  The type and extent of data that are appropriate for a scientifically sound comparative safety assessment are presented on a case-by-case basis in a manner that takes into account scientific results published since the 2004 ILSI report.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(2845, 'Applications and implications of nanotechnologies for the food sector.', 'A review of current and projected nanotechnology-derived food ingredients, food additives and food contact materials is presented in relation to potential implications for consumer safety and regulatory controls.  Nanotechnology applications are expected to bring a range of benefits to the food sector, including new tastes, textures and sensations, less use of fat, enhanced absorption of nutrients, improved packaging, traceability and security of food products.  The review has shown that nanotechnology-derived food and health food products are set to grow worldwide and, moreover, a variety of food ingredients, additives, carriers for nutrients/supplements and food contact materials is already available in some countries.  The current level of applications in the European food sector is at an elementary stage; however, it is widely expected that more and more products will be available in the EU over the coming years.  The toxicological nature of hazard, likelihood of exposure and risk to consumers from nanotechnology-derived food/food packaging are largely unknown and this review highlights major gaps in knowledge that require further research.  A number of uncertainties and gaps in relevant regulatory frameworks have also been identified and ways of addressing them proposed.', 'en_US'),
(2846, 'Environmental RNA interference.', 'The discovery of RNA interference (RNAi), the process of sequence-specific gene silencing initiated by double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), has broadened our understanding of gene regulation and has revolutionized methods for genetic analysis. A remarkable property of RNAi in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans and in some other multicellular organisms is its systemic nature: silencing signals can cross cellular boundaries and spread between cells and tissues. Furthermore, C. elegans and some other organisms can also perform environmental RNAi: sequence-specific gene silencing in response to environmentally encountered dsRNA. This phenomenon has facilitated significant technological advances in diverse fields including functional genomics and agricultural pest control. Here, we describe the characterization and current understanding of environmental RNAi and discuss its potential applications.', 'en_US'),
(2847, 'Potential hybridization of flax with weedy and wild relatives:  An avenue for movement of engineered genes?', 'Flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) is being evaluated as a crop platform for the production of bio-industrial and nutraceutical products.  An important consideration for the release of any novel trait is the potential for gene flow to wild or weedy relatives and the impact it may have on their populations.  The potential for gene introgression from transgenic flax to wild relatives, the occurrence, the phylogeny of flax wild relatives and reported interspecific hybridization was reviewed to initiate the evaluation of environmental risk of novel flax in Canada.  The genus Linum contains approximately 230 species which are distributed in many parts of the world and may grow in sympatry with cultivated flax.  Interspecific hybridization and cytogenetic studies between flax and congeneric species demonstrated that cultivated flax has the ability to hybridize and form viable F1 plants with at least nine species of Linum (L. africanum, L. angustifolium, L. corymbiferum, L. decumbens, L. floccosum, L. hirsutum, L nervosum, L. pallescens, and L. tenue).  Hybridization of flax with many other wild relatives has either not been studied or reported.  However, based on the evidence of reported hybridization with wild or weedy relatives, gene flow from flax to wild or weedy relatives is possible in several species native to North America, depending on species distribution, sympatry, concurrent flowering, ploidy level, and sexual compatibility.', 'en_US'),
(2848, 'The economic impacts of second generation Bt-cotton in West Africa:  Empirical evidence from Burkina Faso.', 'West Africa has been slow in adopting agricultural biotechnology.  The most progressive stance has been taken by Burkina Faso, which began field testing Bt cotton in 2003.  This paper reports the first three years of Bt cotton field trials, which found that Bt cotton increased cotton yields by an average of 20% and reduced insecticide applications by two-thirds.  While the technical success of Bt cotton is encouraging, the tests were confined to small scale plots and unit returns found on the experiment station.  This paper extrapolates the field test results to the national scale using an economic model, which predicts the economic impacts of introducing Bt cotton in the Burkina Faso cotton sector.  The model results found that Bt cotton would generate benefits of $106 per year under typical pest density conditions.', 'en_US'),
(2849, 'Gene flow, risk assessment and the environmental release of transgenic plants.', 'The release of genetically modified plants is governed by regulations that aim to provide an assessment of potential impact on the environment. One of the most important components of this risk assessment is an evaluation of the probability of gene flow. In this review, we provide an overview of the current literature on gene flow from transgenic plants, providing a framework of issues for those considering the release of a transgenic plant into the environment. For some plants gene flow from transgenic crops is well documented, and this information is discussed in detail in this review. Mechanisms of gene flow vary from plant species to plant species and range from the possibility of asexual propagation, short- or long-distance pollen dispersal mediated by insects or wind and seed dispersal. Volunteer populations of transgenic plants may occur where seed is inadvertently spread during harvest or commercial distribution. If there are wild populations related to the transgenic crop then hybridization and eventually introgression in the wild may occur, as it has for herbicide resistant transgenic oilseed rape (Brassica napus). Tools to measure the amount of gene flow, experimental data measuring the distance of pollen dispersal, and experiments measuring hybridization and seed survivability are discussed in this review. The various methods that have been proposed to prevent gene flow from genetically modified plants are also described. The current ''transgenic traits'' in the major crops confer resistance to herbicides and certain insects. Such traits could confer a selective advantage (an increase in fitness) in wild plant populations in some circumstances, were gene flow to occur. However, there is ample evidence that gene flow from crops to related wild species occurred before the development of transgenic crops and this should be taken into account in the risk assessment process.', 'en_US'),
(2850, 'Sampling and modeling for the quantification of adventitious genetically modified presence in maize.', 'The coexistence of genetically modified (GM) and non-GM crops is an important economic and political issue in the European Union. We examined the GM content in non-GM maize crops in Spain in 2005. Both the standing crop and the harvest were tested, and the %GM DNA was quantified by real-time polymerase chain reaction. We compared the level of GM as a function of distance from known GM source fields in a 1.2 km2 landscape. The distribution of GM was compared to predictions from previous studies, and good agreement was found. Control and monitoring of adventitious GM presence in non-GM crops can only be achieved by fit-for-purpose sampling and testing schemes. We used a GM dispersal function to simulate non-GM crops in the studied zone and tested the accuracy of five different sampling schemes. Random sampling was found to be the most accurate and least susceptible to bias by GM spatial structure or gradients. Simulations showed that to achieve greater than 95% confidence in a GM labeling decision of a harvest (when treated as a single marketed lot), 34 samples would be needed when the harvest was outside 50% of the GM threshold value. The number of samples required increased rapidly as the harvest approached the GM threshold, implying that accurate labeling when the harvest is within ±17% of the threshold may not be possible with high confidence.', 'en_US'),
(2851, 'Impact of Bacillus thuringiensis toxin Cry1Ab on rumen epithelial cells (REC) - A new in vitro model for safety assessment of recombinant food compounds.', 'The growing use of genetically modified crops necessitates viable screening methods for safety evaluation of recombinant feed, particularly for ruminants. A new sheep rumen epithelial cell culture is introduced as an in vitro cell system for safety evaluation especially focussing on feed and food compounds. We used lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release, WST-1 conversion, ATP content and caspase 3/7 activity to evaluate cytotoxicity of Cry1Ab, one of the newly expressed Bt-proteins in transgene maize. The results were compared to the effects of valinomycin, a potassium ionophore known to induce cytotoxic effects on a wide range of cells. Whereas no toxicity of Cry1Ab was observed in short as well as in long term experiments, even at non-physiological high concentrations, exposure to valinomycin induced apoptosis and a significant response of all viability parameters after a number of hours. The ATP content and the WST-1 conversion reflecting the energy metabolism of the cells appear to be more sensitive indicators of valinomycin toxicity than the LDH release, a parameter which reflects the membrane integrity. This study presents an in vitro model system, that may be useful as a supplementary tool in toxicity screening before testing substances on animals in vivo.', 'en_US'),
(2852, 'GM crops on trial:  Technological development as a real-world experiment.', 'Through the European controversy over agricultural biotechnology, genetically modified (GM) crops have been evaluated for an increasingly wide range of potential effects.  As the experimental phase has been extended into commercial practices, the terms for product approval have become more negotiable and contentious.  To analyse the regulatory conflicts, this paper links three theoretical perspectives: issue-framing, agri-environmental discourses, and technological development as a real-world experiment.Agri-biotechnological risks have been framed by contending discourses, which attribute moral meanings to the agricultural environment.  Agri-biotech proponents have emphasised eco-efficiency benefits, which can remedy past environmental damage, while critics have framed ''uncontrollable risks'' in successively broader ways through ominous metaphors of environmental catastrophe.  Regulatory authorities have translated those metaphors into measurable biophysical effects.  They anticipate and design commercial use as a ''real-world experiment'', by assigning greater moral-legal responsibility to agro-industrial operators who handle GM products.Expert-regulatory debate reflexively considers the social discipline necessary to prevent harm, now more broadly defined than before.  Official procedures undergo tensions between predicting, testing and prescribing operator behaviour.  In effect, GM crops have been kept continuously ''on trial''.', 'en_US'),
(2853, 'Governing the co-existence of GM crops:  Ex-ante regulation and ex-post liability under uncertainty and irreversibility.', 'The future institutional environment for the co-existence of genetically modified (GM) crops, conventional crops and organic crops in Europe combines measures of ex-ante regulation and ex-post liability rules.  Against this background we ask the following two questions: How does ex-ante regulation and ex-post liability under irreversibility and uncertainty affect the adoption of GM crops? What are the implications for regional agglomeration of GM and non-GM crops? Ex-ante regulations and ex-post liabilities for using GM crops will induce additional costs.  These costs are modelled in a classical way.  The model is advanced by including irreversibility and uncertainty and taking into account transaction costs of negotiating possible solutions with neighbouring farmers which are assumed to be partially irreversible.  The results show that the design of ex-ante regulation and ex-post liability increases the value of waiting and results in less immediate adoption of the GM technology.  Additionally, the rules and regulations in the EU do provide incentives for the regional agglomeration of GM and non-GM crops that are mainly driven by the irreversibility effect of the ex-ante regulatory and ex-post liability costs.', 'en_US'),
(2854, 'Comparison and validation of methods to quantify Cry1Ab toxin from Bacillus thuringiensis for standardization of insect bioassays.', 'Standardization of toxin preparations derived from Bacillus thuringiensis (Berliner) used in laboratory bioassays is critical for accurately assessing possible changes in the susceptibility of field populations of target pests. Different methods were evaluated to quantify Cry1Ab, the toxin expressed by 80% of the commercially available transgenic maize that targets the European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (Hübner). We compared three methods of quantification on three different toxin preparations from independent sources: enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and densitometry (SDS-PAGE/densitometry), and the Bradford assay for total protein. The results were compared to those obtained by immunoblot analysis and with the results of toxin bioassays against susceptible laboratory colonies of O. nubilalis. The Bradford method resulted in statistically higher estimates than either ELISA or SDS-PAGE/densitometry but also provided the lowest coefficients of variation (CVs) for estimates of the Cry1Ab concentration (from 2.4 to 5.4%). The CV of estimates obtained by ELISA ranged from 12.8 to 26.5%, whereas the CV of estimates obtained by SDS-PAGE/densitometry ranged from 0.2 to 15.4%. We standardized toxin concentration by using SDS-PAGE/densitometry, which is the only method specific for the 65-kDa Cry1Ab protein and is not confounded by impurities detected by ELISA and Bradford assay for total protein. Bioassays with standardized Cry1Ab preparations based on SDS-PAGE/densitometry showed no significant differences in LC50 values, although there were significant differences in growth inhibition for two of the three Cry1Ab preparations. However, the variation in larval weight caused by toxin source was only 4% of the total variation, and we conclude that standardization of Cry1Ab production and quantification by SDS-PAGE/densitometry may improve data consistency in monitoring efforts to identify changes in insect susceptibility to Cry1Ab.', 'en_US'),
(2855, 'APHIS policy on responding to the low-level presence of regulated genetically engineered plant materials.', 'This statement describes the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service''s (APHIS) policy for responding to low-levels of regulated genetically engineered (GE) plant materials which may occur in commercial seeds or grains.  This statement is intended to provide clarification for the public and developers of GE plants on APHIS'' response to such situations.  It does not confer any rights upon or create any rights for any person and does not operate to bind APHIS or the public nor does it address how other federal agencies might respond to such situations.', 'en_US'),
(2856, 'Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and the future of rural spaces.', 'The introduction of genetically modified seeds and crops has given rise to substantial public debate, with proponents and opponents taking increasingly fixed positions over the advantages and disadvantages of GM introduction.  Public controversies over the introduction of GMOs in the form of seeds and crops continue to ebb and flow, with an uneasy stand-off between the two sides.  Despite the obvious fact that GM crops are, by definition, grown in rural areas, there has been relatively little research work that examines the implications of this new technological development for rural spaces.  Some commentators have posited an explicit tension between the type of high tech, intensive agriculture epitomised by the adoption of GMOs and alternative rural development/multifunctional land uses examined in a large range of studies on organics, short-food chains, quality food production, etc. (e.g., Buller and Morris, 2004; Marsden, 2003; Marsden and Sonnino, 2005; Maye et al., 2007; McCarthy, 2005; Renting et al., 2003; Sonnino and Marsden, 2006).  However, an argument could also be made that GMOs are not inherently inconsistent with the latter form of the rural development model.  The session at the Royal Geographical Society-Institute of British Geographers (RGS-IBG) Conference in 2005, where the six papers in this special issue were originally presented, sought to explore the impact that GMOs are having on rural spaces and to examine whether the adoption of GM technology helps to secure or undermine rural futures.', 'en_US'),
(2857, 'Beyond techno-science:  Transgenic maize in the fight over Mexico''s future.', 'Disputes about genetically engineered crops are linked to wider debates about the globalization of agro-food systems and its consequences for food security, social equity, and rural life.  Biotechnology expert discourse rarely addresses these wider issues.  An exception is the assessment of transgenic maize by the NAFTA Commission on Environmental Cooperation (CEC), which recommended a moratorium on Mexican imports of US-grown maize.  Controversy about ''contamination'' of indigenous maize varieties by US-grown transgenic corn has been intensified by rising Mexican discontent with the terms of regional economic integration.  In this context, scientists and officials were pressured to consider not only risks to maize biodiversity but also the ecological, and cultural characteristics of maize in its Mexican settings and the implications of asymmetric power in North American agricultural trade.  In contrast to most narrowly-framed biotechnology risk assessments, the review took account of interventions by rural social movements.  While the new moratorium was not adopted by the state, continuing conflicts over GMOs in Mexico have blocked introduction of transgenic maize and have enlarged the political space for debate over Mexico''s development direction.  These conflicts reflect the differing interests of various state actors and economic sectors with regard to trade liberalization.  They also reveal contrasting food-system paradigms: further agricultural modernization, export competition, and food-import dependence versus an alternative vision of revitalized rural life, farmers'' rights, and national food sovereignty.', 'en_US'),
(2858, 'Competitiveness versus ''clean and green''?  The regulation and governance of GMOs in Australia and the UK.', 'It is increasingly argued that we are entering into a ''biotech century'', in which biotechnology promises major advances in agricultural productivity.  The development of biotechnology is not a straightforward affair, however, and the advent of GMOs has led to public protest and consumer resistance.  This paper draws upon a comparative Australian-UK project concerned with the role of regulation and governance in mediating the debates and managing the associated risks.  Regulatory responses and the mediation of conflicts by the Australian and UK governments have been shaped by the institutional and policy environments in these two countries.  The implications of these public debates and regulatory responses for the capture of competitive opportunities are considered.  The fact that the two countries have broadly similar systems of governance and regulation reveals how alike the circumstances are in many respects.  But at the same time there are important differences in both the style and the content of the policy debates.  In both the UK and Australia, the respective central governments remain committed to a ''biotechnology future''.  Against this background, there is little doubt that the choices about biotechnology will play a defining role in shaping the future of rural places.', 'en_US'),
(2859, 'Coexistence or contradiction?  GM crops versus alternative agricultures in Europe.', 'Agricultural biotechnology (agbiotech) has intersected with a wider debate about ''sustainable agriculture'', especially in Europe.  Agbiotech was initially promoted as an alternative which would avoid or remedy past problems of intensive agriculture, but such claims were soon challenged.  Agbiotech has extended the dominant agri-industrial paradigm, while critics have counterposed alternatives corresponding to an agrarian-based rural development paradigm.  Amid controversy over environmental and health risks in the late 1990s, an extra issue emerged - the prospect that genetically modified (GM) material would become inadvertently mixed with non-GM crops.  In response the European Commission developed a policy framework for ''coexistence'' between GM, conventional and organic crops.  This policy has aimed to ensure that farmers can freely choose among different production systems, which would develop side by side, yet specific proposals for coexistence rules favour some choices over others.  Such rules have been contested according to different policy agendas, each promoting their model of future agriculture.  Moreover, a Europe-wide network of regional authorities has promoted ''GM-free zones'' as a territorial brand for green, localised, high-quality agri-food production, whose diverse qualities depend upon symbolic, immaterial characteristics.  This alternative has been counterposed to the agri-industrial production of global commodities - symbolised by the European Union, especially its product authorisation procedure for the internal market.  ''Coexistence'' policy was intended to mediate policy conflicts over GM crops, yet it has become another arena for contending agricultural systems, which may not so readily co-exist in practice.  Wherever an agrarian-based rural development paradigm gains local support, its alternative agricultures are in contradiction rather than coexistence with GM crops.', 'en_US'),
(2860, 'Agri-food contestations in rural space: GM in its regulatory context.', 'Why are genetic technologies necessary in the agri-food sector and why have they created such opposition in the rural domain? The paper attempts to place GM in its contested regulatory context, situated as part of three different and competing paradigms of agri-food and rural development: the agri-industrial, post-productivist and rural development models. Conceptually, it is argued that GM is currently positioned as a relatively new variant and component of the mutating and dominant agri-industrial paradigm. This sets the context and development of GM at a global level. The paper explores in its first part how the spread of GM relates to the maintenance of the unsustainable. Whilst this remains a driving force we see, in the second part, with reference to the unfolding nature of European regulation since 2000, the ways in which this agri-industrial imperative is shaped by particular State actions which blend this agri-industrial model with a wider set of consumer, private sector and environmental concerns. Overall, the EU has managed to translate a global agri-industrial imperative, despite significant external pressure, into a highly regulated ''post-productionist'' framework in which both private and public interests are given responsibility for delivering consumer rights. This may, or may not allow room for rural sustainable development alternatives to take hold. At least it provides something of an opportunity.', 'en_US'),
(2861, 'Identifying farmer attitudes towards genetically modified (GM) crops in Scotland:  Are they pro- or anti-GM?', 'The GM debate in the European Union has been consistently presented as being conflictual and contentious, characterised as being polarised into those who are pro-GM and those who are anti-GM.  This is largely based on the positions adopted by the public (consumers), non-governmental organisations (NGOs), and industry and corporate bodies.  One group largely lacking from this debate is farmers, and yet their decisions about whether or not to cultivate GM crops will be crucial to the future of the technology in European agriculture.  This paper reports findings from a study investigating farmers'' attitudes to GM crops in Scotland using Q methodology.  Results reveal three discourses, one inclined to be positive towards the idea of GM and demonstrating an expectation of benefits, the second representing a more uncertain position, wary of the potential risks of the technology but likely to be reluctant adopters, and the third describing a group who demonstrate a somewhat fatalistic attitude towards the issue of GM technology adoption and impact.  These findings contribute to the GM debate by elaborating the views of this important stakeholder group and suggest that they may be less profoundly pro- or anti-GM than other groups involved in the debate.  This is significant if they represent the ''middle ground'' between the biotechnology industry and the public.', 'en_US'),
(2862, 'GMOs and their contexts:  A comparison of potential and actual performance of GM crops in a local agricultural setting.', 'In this paper, I argue that genetically modified organisms (GMOs) have inherent potential to contribute to socially and environmentally sustainable agriculture by virtue of their ''biological embeddedness''.  Their actual ''performance'' and how this contributes to sustainability depends on the ''mutual shaping'' of technology and context.  While much attention has been given to the design context of GMOs, this paper considers the influence of the application context and of users.  A case study investigating the use of insect-resistant and herbicide-tolerant GM cotton in the cotton-growing region of New South Wales in Australia is presented.  The study was based on focus groups with farmers and other stakeholders in a cotton-growing community.  It demonstrated a range of direct and indirect effects of GM cotton use, both positive and negative for sustainability, and the ways in which these effects were influenced by the local social context.  The influences of the biotechnology industry context, in limiting the contributions that gene technologies can make to sustainability, were also considered, and remedies suggested.  I argue that the polarity of the GM debate is hindering progress on these issues, and that a more balanced approach to our analysis of GMOs is necessary in order to fully understand, and to influence, their role in the future of rural spaces.', 'en_US'),
(2863, 'Planning environmental risk assessment for genetically modified crops:  Problem formulation for stress-tolerant crops.', 'A scientifically sound environmental risk assessment is required for crops derived from modern biotechnology (also referred to as genetically modified [GM]) prior to unrestricted release into the environment.  The scientific principles underlying the environmental risk assessments completed for herbicide-tolerant and insect-protected GM crops commercialized to date are now being applied to crops currently under development that are modified for improved tolerance to abiotic stresses.  These principles, and the processes built upon them, have been shown to be sufficiently robust to provide the appropriate information for regulatory decision making and to ensure an adequate level of environmental protection.  This article describes the initial steps in the environmental risk assessment process and illustrates an approach that could be taken for GM crops tolerant to an abiotic stress (e.g., water, salt, cold, and heat).  The discussion below begins with an overview of the initial steps in an environmental risk assessment, known as problem formulation (US EPA, 1998 ).  A general overview describing how problem formulation has been applied for the first GM crops is presented next.  Finally, the approach is applied to a hypothetical drought-tolerant maize (Zea mays) product as an example of how problem formulation can guide the environmental risk assessment for a specific abiotic stress tolerant crop. Recent advances in functional genomics have led to the discovery of genes associated with tolerance to abiotic stresses such as cold, heat, water, and salt (Vij and Tyagi, 2007 ).  Some of these genes show promise in major crops like maize (Nelson et al., 2007 ) and rice (Oryza sativa; Hu et al., 2006 ).  As such, a discussion on planning an environmental risk assessment of GM abiotic stress-tolerant crops is timely.  Regulators are now confronting the challenges involved in evaluating data from these new and potentially beneficial products.  Products expressing stress tolerance phenotypes are now being widely tested in field trials around the world.  Very soon, technology providers will submit data and information on GM crops with stress-tolerant phenotypes to regulatory authorities for review that will include an environmental risk assessment as part of a request for commercial release.', 'en_US'),
(2864, 'Applying insect transgenic technology:  Scientific and regulatory experiences.', 'Biotechnology affords opportunities to develop new tools to treat pest and disease problems.  When a given pest or disease problem has no satisfactory cure or treatment, usually only a technological breakthrough can provide one, but the process whereby this happens can be undefined and unpredictable.  Furthermore, it is difficult to predict which methods will work at the outset, meaning that it is also difficult for funding agencies to determine which proposals to support.  When a proposed solution is new and may involve genetic manipulation, it may also be hard for the public, as represented by regulatory agencies, to accept.  In addition, when the application market is small, funding is modest.  When the problem is major but periodic, as in the case of migratory locusts, funding, interest and attention cannot be easily found, focused or sustained.  It is only when a problem is severe and economically compelling, such as Pierce''s Disease of grapevine in southern California, that it is possible to concentrate funding, attention and sustained interest long enough to have a chance of finding a lasting solution.', 'en_US'),
(2865, 'Resistance warning given for GM herbicide-tolerant crops.', 'The Cooperative Research Centre for Australian Weed Management (Weeds CRC) recently cautioned that Australia must observe Canada''s approach to integrated weed management if it is to introduce herbicide-tolerant crops and manage them in a way that does not increase the risk of herbicide-resistant weeds.', 'en_US'),
(2866, 'Development of an analytical tool to assess national biosecurity legislation.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2867, 'Can transgenic mosquitoes afford the fitness cost?', 'In a recent study, SM1-transgenic Anopheles stephensi, which are resistant partially to Plasmodium berghei, had higher fitness than non-transgenic mosquitoes when they were maintained on Plasmodium-infected blood.  This result should be interpreted cautiously with respect to malaria control using transgenic mosquitoes because, despite the evolutionary advantage conferred by the transgene, a concomitant cost prevents it from invading the entire population.  Indeed, for the spread of a resistance transgene in a natural situation, the transgene''s fitness cost and the efficacy of the gene drive will be more crucial than any evolutionary advantage.', 'en_US'),
(2868, 'Development and validation of a sensitive enzyme immunoassay for surveillance of Cry1Ab toxin in bovine blood plasma of cows fed Bt-maize (MON810).', 'The increasing global adoption of genetically modified (GM) plant derivatives in animal feed has provoked a strong demand for an appropriate detection method to evaluate the existence of transgenic protein in animal tissues and animal by-products derived from GM plant fed animals. A highly specific and sensitive sandwich enzyme immunoassay for the surveillance of transgenic Cry1Ab protein from Bt-maize in the blood plasma of cows fed on Bt-maize was developed and validated according to the criteria of EU-Decision 2002/657/EC. The sandwich assay is based on immuno-affinity purified polyclonal antibody raised against Cry1Ab protein in rabbits. Native and biotinylated forms of this antibody served as capture antibody and detection antibody for the ELISA, respectively. Streptavidin-horseradish peroxidase conjugate and TMB substrate provided the means for enzymatic colour development.The immunoassay allowed Cry1Ab protein determination in bovine blood plasma in an analytical range of 0.4?100 ng mL-1 with a decision limit (CCá) of 1.5 ng mL-1 and detection capability (CCâ) of 2.3 ng mL-1. Recoveries ranged from 89 to 106% (mean value of 98%) in spiked plasma.In total, 20 plasma samples from cows (n = 7) fed non-transgenic maize and 24 samples from cows (n = 8) fed transgenic maize (collected before and, after 1 and 2 months of feeding) were investigated for the presence of the Cry1Ab protein. There was no difference amongst both groups (all the samples were below 1.5 ng mL-1; CCá). No plasma sample was positive for the presence of the Cry1Ab protein at CCá and CCâ of the assay.', 'en_US'),
(2869, 'Risks of herbicide-resistant rice in India:  A review.', 'Herbicide-resistant (HR) rice has the potential to improve the efficiency of weed management and facilitate adoption of resource conservation technologies (RCTs) in India.  However, several important risks associated with HR rice should be examined before its widespread adoption is encouraged.  The greatest risk in the commercialization of HR crops is the potential for transfer of the gene conferring the HR trait to related wild and weedy relatives.  This could lead to increased weediness or invasiveness.  Gene transfer between cultivated and wild or weedy rice is known to occur and existing scientific literature confirms that HR genes can move from HR rice to wild and weedy relatives forming hybrids.  The likelihood of such gene transfer is especially high in India, where cultivated rice and its relatives are sympatrically distributed and their flowering times overlap.  Such gene flow can impact crop invasiveness, fitness of wild species, and the loss of native biodiversity.  Additionally, HR rice may contribute to the problems of crop volunteers and evolution of herbicide resistance.  Based on existing scientific literature, it appears that these risks are low, but that additional studies are needed to fully assess the potential adverse consequences of widespread adoption of HR rice in India.', 'en_US'),
(2870, 'Toxicity to the cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera, of some Cry1Ac toxins expressed in cotton in India.', 'Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) transgenic cotton, grown over about 3.8 million hectare in 2006 in India, is essentially a mosaic of different cry1 genes, predominantly based on Monsanto''s 531 event carrying the cry1Ac gene, and to some extent JK AgriGenetics''s event 1 with native modified cry1Ac, Nath Seeds''s GFM event with fusion genes of cry1Ab and cry1Ac, and cry1Ab and cry1C in single-stacked hybrids, and the Monsanto''s 15985 event with two cry1Ac and cry2Ab genes.  In view of different cry1Ac genes used for transformation, toxicity (96° h LC50) of some Cry1Ac proteins to the neonates of the cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera, varied, with a range of 0.158?5.42° ìg/g for BGSC Cry1Ac (23 populations), 0.076?5.76° ìg/g for JK Cry1Ac (24 populations) and 0.0085?0.822° ìg/g for MVP Cry1Ac (21 populations).  There are significant differences in the toxicity of these Cry1Ac proteins; despite the use of genetically diverse insect populations, suggesting a need of evolving a consensus on Cry1Ac resistance monitoring of the larvae of H. armigera.', 'en_US'),
(2871, 'Geographical susceptibility of Louisiana and Texas populations of the sugarcane borer, Diatraea saccharalis (F.) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) to Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Ab protein.', 'The susceptibilities of 18 field populations of the sugarcane borer, Diatraea saccharalis (F.), to two sources of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Cry1Ab protein were determined using laboratory bioassays.  Fifteen of the 18 field populations were collected from seven locations across Louisiana and the other three populations were sampled from the Gulf Coast area of Texas during 2004?2006.  Neonates of D. saccharalis were exposed to a meridic diet treated with selected concentrations of Cry1Ab protein.  Larval mortality was measured at 7 days after inoculation.  Statistically significant differences in median lethal concentrations (LC50s) were detected among insect populations from different geographical locations, but the field populations remained as susceptible as a laboratory strain of D. saccharalis that had been maintained in the laboratory for >20 years without exposure to any chemical insecticides or Bt toxins.  The LC50s of Cry1Ab protein, which was extracted from DKC69-70 Bt corn hybrid, ranged from 0.03 to 0.32° ìg/g for the seven field populations collected during 2004.  The LC50 values based on bioassays with purified, trypsin-activated Cry1Ab protein from a recombinant Escherichia coli culture were 0.03?0.17° ìg/g for the 11 field populations collected during 2005?2006.  Small changes in Cry1Ab susceptibility were detected among crops, years of sampling, or locations.  All field-collected insect populations, except one, exhibited lower LC50 values than the laboratory strain.  The results of this study suggest that field populations of D. saccharalis remain generally susceptible to the Cry1Ab protein after 8 years use of transgenic Bt corn in Louisiana and the Gulf Coast area of Texas.', 'en_US'),
(2872, 'Strategic approaches to informing the public about biotechnology in Latin America.', 'The benefits of today''s biotechnology products are not evident to consumers. The public will accept biotechnology only when individuals decide for themselves that biotec products will contribute to their personal well-being. To make such a decision, people will need greater awareness and understanding of how biotechnology will affect the environment, human health, local and national economies, and the well-being of society. A low level of awareness and understanding about biotechnology is characteristic of Latin America and the Caribbean countries, as elsewhere, efforts to remedy poor public perception often seem inadequate and do not reflect a well-designed strategy.In order to improve the understanding of the biotechnology and their human applications, a strategic plan for public communications is required. Specific objectives for this initiative may include: (1) to make evident to decision makers that modern biotechnology can be an effective tool for increasing agricultural productivity, and thereby economic growth, without imposing unacceptable risk to the environment or human and animal health; (2) to enable members of the public to make informed decisions about appropriate uses of biotechnology by providing accurate information about benefits, risks and impacts; or (3) to incorporate modern biotechnology into science curricula for secondary schools, university and college students, and agriculture extension officers.A variety of specialized expertise, including communication specialists, technical writers, graphic artists and illustrators to design information materials and conduct training is needed to implement this. Ideally, members bring expertise in biotechnology and biosafety, public communications and project management. The plan will need to identify scientists and technical experts who can provide expertise in science writing for general audiences, advertising, graphic arts, public opinion polling and media communications. These people can provide basic information about the techniques of modern biotechnology; the products now available and those being developed; what is known about the nature, probability and consequences of potential risks. Governments, industry, universities and media must play an important role to improve public perception about biotechnology, this is a requirement to develop biotechnology in the Region.', 'en_US'),
(2873, 'Insect resistance and risk assessment studies of advanced generations of basmati rice expressing two genes of Bacillus thuringiensis.', 'Advanced generations of different transgenic lines of indica basmati rice (Basmati-370) expressing two unrelated Bt genes, cry1Ac and cry2A were evaluated for resistance to Yellow Stem Borer (YSB) and Rice Leaf Folder (RLF) under field conditions compared to control lines over three years (2003-2005).  Homozygous lines were selected and analyzed for insect resistance, morphological, physiochemical properties and risk assessment studies.  After artificial infestation of target insects, the transgenic plants showed significant resistance.  Data were recorded in terms of dead hearts and white heads at vegetative and flowering stage respectively.  Transgenic lines showed up to 100 and 96% resistance against yellow stem borer at vegetative and flowering stages, respectively.  Natural damage of rice leaf folder was also observed during the year 2005.  The transgenic plants were 98% more resistant as compared to untransformed control plants.  Variations in some morphological characteristics, e.g., the average number of tillers, plant height and maturity were also observed.  Transgenic lines produced 40% more grains than control plants.  All these characteristics were stably inherited in advanced generations.  The transgenic lines had no significant effect on non-target insects (insects belonging to orders other than Lepidoptera and Diptera) in field or under storage conditions.  Chances of pollen-mediated gene flow were recorded at a rate of 0.14%.', 'en_US'),
(2874, 'Do escaped transgenes persist in nature?  The case of an herbicide resistance transgene in a weedy Brassica rapa population.', 'The existence of transgenic hybrids resulting from transgene escape from genetically modified (GM) crops to wild or weedy relatives is well documented but the fate of the transgene over time in recipient wild species populations is still relatively unknown. This is the first report of the persistence and apparent introgression, i.e. stable incorporation of genes from one differentiated gene pool into another, of an herbicide resistance transgene from Brassica napus into the gene pool of its weedy relative, Brassica rapa, monitored under natural commercial field conditions. Hybridization between glyphosate-resistant [herbicide resistance (HR)] B. napus and B. rapa was first observed at two Québec sites, Ste Agathe and St Henri, in 2001. B. rapa populations at these two locations were monitored in 2002, 2003 and 2005 for the presence of hybrids and transgene persistence. Hybrid numbers decreased over the 3-year period, from 85 out of ~200 plants surveyed in 2002 to only five out of 200 plants in 2005 (St Henri site). Most hybrids had the HR trait, reduced male fertility, intermediate genome structure, and presence of both species-specific amplified fragment length polymorphism markers. Both F1 and backcross hybrid generations were detected. One introgressed individual, i.e. with the HR trait and diploid ploidy level of B. rapa, was observed in 2005. The latter had reduced pollen viability but produced ~480 seeds. Forty-eight of the 50 progeny grown from this plant were diploid with high pollen viability and 22 had the transgene (1:1 segregation). These observations confirm the persistence of the HR trait over time. Persistence occurred over a 6-year period, in the absence of herbicide selection pressure (with the exception of possible exposure to glyphosate in 2002), and in spite of the fitness cost associated with hybridization.', 'en_US'),
(2875, 'Use of a novel nonantibiotic triple marker gene cassette to monitor high survival of Pseudomonas fluorescens SBW25 on winter wheat in the field.', 'Pseudomonas fluorescens SBW25 was tagged with a triple marker gene cassette containing gfp, encoding green fluorescent protein; luxAB, encoding luciferase; and telABkilA, encoding tellurite resistance, and the tagged strain was monitored in the first Swedish field release of a genetically modified microorganism (GMM).  The cells were inoculated onto winter wheat seeds and the GMM cells (SBW25tgl) were monitored in the field from September 2005 to May 2006 using plating, luminometry and microscopic analyses.  Cell numbers were high on all sampling occasions and metabolically active cells were detected on all plant parts.  Field results were similar to those obtained in a parallel phytotron study, although the amount of SBW25tgl detected on shoots was significantly higher in the phytotron than in the field.  After winter, cell counts were 100-fold higher on the roots and root-associated soil compared with prewinter measurements, although the cells had a lower relative metabolic activity.  The wheat seeds were naturally infested with Microdochium nivale, but no treatment resulted in reduction of disease symptoms.  No SWB25tgl cells were ever found in bulk soil or uninoculated plants.  The Swedish field trial results complement and contrast with prior field studies performed with the same parent organism in the United Kingdom under different soil, plant and climatic conditions.', 'en_US'),
(2876, 'Differences in allergenic potential of food extracts following oral exposure in mice reflect differences in digestibility:  Potential approaches to safety assessment.', 'An animal model for food allergy is needed to assess genetically modified food crops for potential allergenicity.  The ideal model must produce allergic antibody (IgE) to proteins differentially according to known allergenicity before being used to accurately identify potential allergens among novel proteins.  The oral route is the most relevant for exposure to food antigens, and a protein''s stability to digestion is a current risk assessment tool based on this natural route.  However, normal laboratory animals do not mount allergic responses to proteins administered orally due to oral tolerance, an immunologic mechanism which specifically suppresses IgE.  To circumvent oral tolerance and evoke differential IgE responses to a panel of allergenic and nonallergenic food extracts, female C3H/HeJ mice were exposed subcutaneously or orally with cholera toxin as an adjuvant.  All foods elicited IgE by the subcutaneous route.  Oral exposure, however, resulted in IgE to allergens (peanut, Brazil nut, and egg white) but not to nonallergens (spinach and turkey), provided that the dose and exposures were limited.  Additionally, in vitro digestibility assays demonstrated the presence of digestion-stable proteins in the allergenic food extracts but not in the nonallergenic foods.  Our results suggest that the subcutaneous route is inadequate to distinguish allergens from nonallergens, but oral exposure under the appropriate experimental conditions will result in differential allergic responses in accordance with known allergenicity.  Moreover, those foods containing digestion-resistant proteins provoke allergic responses in this model, supporting the current use of pepsin resistance in the decision tree for potential allergenicity assessment.', 'en_US');
