INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(1703, 'Consumer risk perceptions toward agricultural biotechnology, self-protection, and food demand: The case of milk in the United States', 'This study is an econometric systems approach to modeling the factors and linkages affecting risk perceptions toward agricultural biotechnology, self-protection actions, and food demand. This model is applied to milk in the United States, but it can be adapted to other products as well as other categories of risk perceptions. The contribution of this formulation is the ability to examine how explanatory factors influence risk perceptions and whether they translate into behavior and ultimately what impact this has on aggregate markets. Hadden''s outrage factors on heightening risk perceptions are among the factors examined. In particular, the article examines the role of labeling as a means of permitting informed consent to mitigate outrage factors. The effects of attitudinal, economic, and demographic factors on risk perceptions are also explored, as well as the linkage between risk perceptions, consumer behavior, and food demand. Because risk perceptions and self-protection actions are categorical variables and demand is a continuous variable, the model is estimated as a two-stage mixed system with a covariance correction procedure suggested by Amemiya. The findings indicate that it is the availability of labeling, not the price difference, between that labeled milk and milk produced with recombinant bovine Somatotropin (rbST) that significantly affects consumer''s selection of rbST-free milk. The results indicate that greater availability of labeled milk would not only significantly increase the proportion of consumers who purchased labeled milk, its availability would also reduce the perception of risk associated with rbST, whether consumers purchase it or not. In other words, availability of rbST-free milk translates into lower risk perceptions toward milk produced with rbST.', 'en_US'),
(1704, 'Improving risk assessment for nontarget safety of transgenic crops', 'In many countries, government regulations require environmental risk assessment prior to commercial sale and widespread planting of transgenic crops. Here I evaluate the design and statistical rigor of experiments used by industry to assess the safety of transgenic plants for nontarget organisms, as required under U.S. regulations. This review reveals that a few simple improvements in experimental design could greatly increase the rigor and information content of studies required under current regulations. For example, although most experiments were conducted for 1-4 wk, some of the tested species can live a year or more and could experience much longer periods of exposure. Moreover, the number of replicates used in these studies was generally quite small (usually 2-6 replicates per treatment), resulting in experiments that had little chance of detecting real effects. Clearly, sample sizes should be bolstered, and nonsignificant results should be accompanied by an analysis of statistical power. In addition, information readily available over the Internet is insufficient for a quantitative assessment of a transgenic crop''s safety. Improved access to information regarding the details of risk assessment studies could greatly increase the public''s ability to evaluate industry''s claims of safety.', 'en_US'),
(1705, 'Influence of transgenic insecticidal crops on non-target insects: overview from the data to date.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1706, 'Intellectual property protection for plant-related inventions in Europe', 'The economic and political issues that accompany the commercial growing of genetically modified crops, as well as the risk of transgene spread, are often top of the agenda for debate. But one important aspect is frequently overlooked - the intellectual property protection of plant-related inventions. What protection does European patent law afford to such inventions, how does it compare with the United States law and what are the consequences of the differences between them?', 'en_US'),
(1707, 'The production of recombinant pharmaceutical proteins in plants', 'PrefaceImagine a world in which any protein, either naturally occurring or designed by man, could be produced safely, inexpensively and in almost unlimited quantities using only simple nutrients, water and sunlight. This could one day become reality as we learn to harness the power of plants for the production of recombinant proteins on an agricultural scale. Molecular farming in plants has already proven to be a successful way of producing a range of technical proteins. The first plant-derived recombinant pharmaceutical proteins are now approaching commercial approval, and many more are expected to follow.Summary·', 'en_US'),
(1708, 'Transgene introgression from genetically modified crops to their wild relatives', 'PrefaceTransgenes engineered into annual crops could be unintentionally introduced into the genomes of their free-living wild relatives. The fear is that these transgenes might persist in the environment and have negative ecological consequences. Are some crops or transgenic traits of more concern than others? Are there natural genetic barriers to minimize gene escape? Can the genetic transformation process be exploited to produce new barriers to gene flow? Questions abound, but luckily so do answers.Summary·', 'en_US'),
(1709, 'The GM public debate: context and communication strategies', 'Science communication is developing a new approach that promotes dialogue between scientists and the public.  A recent example is the debate on the possible introduction of genetically modified crops in the United Kingdom.  As this exercise in public engagement draws to a close, we consider the context in which this debate has taken place, and the challenges of developing such interactions between science and society.', 'en_US'),
(1710, 'A future for transgenic livestock', 'The techniques that are used to generate transgenic livestock are inefficient and expensive.  This, coupled with the fact that most agriculturally relevant traits are complex and controlled by more than one gene, has restricted the use of transgenic technology.  New methods for modifying the genome will underpin a resurgence of research using transgenic livestock.  This will not only increase our understanding of basic biology in commercial species, but might also lead to the generation of animals that are more resistant to infectious disease.', 'en_US'),
(1711, 'Effects of genetically modified plants on microbial communities and processes in soil', 'The development and use of genetically modified plants (GMPs) has been a topic of considerable public debate in recent years. GMPs hold great promise for improving agricultural output, but the potential for unwanted effects of GMP use is still not fully understood. The majority of studies addressing potential risks of GMP cultivation have addressed only aboveground effects. However, recent methodological advances in soil microbial ecology have allowed research focus to move underground to try to gain knowledge of GMP-driven effects on the microbial communities and processes in soil that are essential to key terrestrial ecosystem functions. This review gives an overview of the research performed to date on this timely topic, highlighting a number of case studies. Although such research has advanced our understanding of this topic, a number of knowledge gaps still prevent full interpretation of results, as highlighted by the failure of most studies to assign a definitively negative, positive or neutral effect to GMP introduction. Based upon our accumulating, yet incomplete, understanding of soil microbes and processes, we propose a synthesis for the case-by-case study of GMP effects, incorporating assessment of the potential plant/ecosystem interactions, accessible and relevant indicators, and tests for unforeseen effects.', 'en_US'),
(1712, 'Assessment of the allergenic potential of proteins', 'The development of novel foods, including foods derived from genetically modified plants, has generated considerable interest in the design and application of appropriate safety assurance measures. A specific focus of attention has been on allergenicity, and in particular the need to determine whether the products of novel genes introduced into food plants have the potential to cause allergic sensitization. Among the approaches applied currently are considerations of whether a new protein has structural, sequence and/or antigenic similarities with known food allergens, and whether or not it displays resistance to digestion within a simulated gastric fluid, or by pepsin. Although such data are useful in an overall hazard assessment, they are neither individually, nor collectively, able to provide a direct evaluation of inherent sensitising potential. For this reason there is a need to develop and apply appropriate animal models that will offer a more holistic view of sensitising activity. Several methods have been suggested, but as yet none has been evaluated fully or validated. Nevertheless, significant progress has been made and in this article an experimental approach using BALB/c strain mice in which animals are exposed to the test protein via systemic (intraperitoneal, or in certain circumstances, intradermal) administration is described. Inherent sensitising potential is measured as a function of induced IgE antibody responses. Experience to date is encouraging and the data available reveal that this method is able to distinguish between proteins of different allergenic potential.', 'en_US'),
(1713, 'Risk assessment of virus-resistant transgenic plants', 'Virus-resistant transgenic plants (VRTPs) hold the promise of enormous benefit for agriculture. However, over the past ten years, questions concerning the potential ecological impact of VRTPs have been raised. In some cases, detailed study of the mode of action of the resistance gene has made it possible to eliminate the source of potential risk, notably the possible effects of heterologous encapsidation on the transmission of viruses by their vectors. In other cases, the means of eliminating likely sources of risk have not yet been developed. When such residual risk still exists, the potential risks associated with the VRTP must be compared with those associated with nontransgenic plants so that risk assessment can fully play its role as part of an overall analysis of the advantages and disadvantages of practicable solutions to the problem solved by the VRTP. ', 'en_US'),
(1714, 'Considerations for conducting research in agricultural biotechnology', 'Science has shown its increased vulnerability because of two recent high-profile articles published in major journals on corn produced through biotechnology: a laboratory report suggesting profound consequences to monarch butterfly populations due to Bt corn pollen and a report suggesting transgenic introgression into Mexican maize. While both studies have been widely regarded as having flawed methodology, publishing these studies has created great consternation in the scientific community, regulatory agencies and the general public. There are roles and responsibilities of scientists, scientific journals, the public media, public agencies, and those who oppose or advocate a specific technology, and serious consequences when those roles and responsibilities go awry. Modern communication may exacerbate the flow of misinformation and easily lead to a decline in public confidence about biotechnology and science. However, common sense tells us that scientific inquiry and the publication and reporting of results should be performed with high standards of ethical behavior, regardless of one''s personal perspective on agricultural biotechnology.', 'en_US'),
(1715, 'Regulation of Bt crops in Canada', 'The Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) regulates environmental releases of plants with novel traits, which include transgenic plants such as Bt crops. Bt crops are regulated in Canada because they express insect resistance novel to their species. Commercialization of crops with novel traits such as the production of insecticidal Bt proteins requires an approval for environmental release, as well as approvals for use as feed and food. Environmental factors such as potential impacts on non-target species are considered. Insect resistance management (IRM) may be imposed as a condition for environmental release of Bt crops to delay the development of resistance in the target insect. Bt potato and European corn borer-resistant Bt corn have been released with mandatory IRM. The CFIA imposes an IRM plan consisting of appropriate refugia, education of farmers and seed dealers, and monitoring and mitigation. Industry, regulators, government extension staff and public researchers provide expert advice on IRM.', 'en_US'),
(1716, 'Precautionary risk assessment of Bt maize: what uncertainties?', 'GM crops have become a test case for the conflicting slogans of `the precautionary principle'' versus `sound science.'' The issues can be illustrated by developments in regulatory science for Bt maize in the European Union. As this case study suggests, risk assessment is always framed by some account of the relevant uncertainties. These in turn depend upon how the environment is valued and how scientific questions are posed about cause?effect pathways of potential harm. The slogan of `sound science'' hides such judgements, by representing ignorance or value-judgements as `science.'' By contrast, precaution can challenge such judgements, identify new unknowns, generate different criteria for evidence, open up new scientific questions, and make these judgements more transparent. It is doubtful whether these complexities have been fully acknowledged by specialists, and thus whether the continued risk debate is due solely to a public misunderstanding of science.', 'en_US'),
(1717, 'Regulatory and associated political issues with respect to Bt transgenic maize in the European Union', 'Legislation at the national level in Europe as well as that developed by the European Union (EU) generally permits release and commercialization of genetically modified organisms (GMOs). However, only 10 plant/event combinations were registered as of 2002: three maize events (Bt176, Mon810, and Bt11), with the other seven divided among carnation (3), oil-seed rape (2), tobacco (1), and raddiccio (1). Of these, only one maize event (Bt176) has been registered as a legal variety, and this was in Spain, where 22,000ha have been planted annually since 1998. In this paper, we first provide an overview on the complexity of EU GMO legislation. Then we discuss the minor role that results of EU-funded biosafety research have had on governmental policy. Finally, we provide information about initiatives for post-commercialization monitoring plans of Bt maize in Europe. As a result of the slow progress to date, we conclude that commercialization of GMOs will be seriously delayed in the EU for the next several years.', 'en_US'),
(1718, 'Influence of herbicide tolerant soybean production systems on insect pest populations and pest-induced crop damage.', 'Conventional soybean weed management and transgenic herbicide-tolerant management were examined to assess their effects on soybean insect pest populations in south Georgia in 1997 and 1998. Soybean variety had very little impact on the insect species observed, except that maturity group effects were observed for stink bug, primarily Nezara viridula (L.), population densities on some sampling dates. Stink bugs were more abundant on the early maturing varieties in mid-season. Velvetbean caterpillar, Anticarsia gemmatalis Hübner, potato leafhopper, Empoasca fabae (Harris), and grasshoppers Melanoplus spp. were more numerous on either conventional or herbicide-tolerant varieties on certain dates, although these differences were not consistent throughout the season. Soybean looper, Pseudoplusia includens (Walker), threecornered alfalfa hopper, Spissistilus festinus (Say), and whitefringed beetles, Graphognathus spp., demonstrated no varietal preference in this study. Few weed treatment differences were observed, but if present on certain sampling dates, then pest numbers were higher in plots where weeds were reduced (either postemergence herbicides or preplant herbicide plus postemergence herbicide). The exception to this weed treatment effect was grasshoppers, which were more numerous in weedy plots when differences were present. In postemergence herbicide plots, there were no differences in insect pest densities between the conventional herbicides (e.g., Classic, Select, Cobra, and Storm) compared with specific gene-inserted herbicide-tolerant materials (i.e., Roundup and Liberty). Defoliation, primarily by velvetbean caterpillar, was different between soybean varieties at some test sites but not different between herbicide treatments. We did not observe differences in seasonal abundance of arthropod pests between conventional and transgenic herbicide-tolerant soybean.', 'en_US'),
(1719, 'Environmental implications of gene flow from sugar beet to wild beet-current status and future research needs.', 'Gene flow via seed or pollen is a basic biological process in plant evolution. The ecological and genetic consequences of gene flow depend on the amount and direction of gene flow as well as on the fitness of hybrids. The assessment of potential risks of transgenic plants should take into account the fact that conventional crops can often cross with wild plants. The precautionary approach in risk management of genetically modified plants (GMPs) may make it necessary to monitor significant wild and weed populations that might be affected by transgene escape. Gene flow is hard to control in wind-pollinated plants like beet (Beta vulgaris). In addition, wild beet populations potentially can undergo evolutionary changes which might expand their geographical distribution. Unintended products of cultivated beets pollinated by wild beets are weed beets that bolt and flower during their first year of planting. Weed beets cause yield losses and can delay harvest. Wild beets are important plant genetic resources and the preservation of wild beet diversity in Europe has been considered in biosafety research. We present here the methodology and research approaches that can be used for monitoring the geographical distribution and diversity of Beta populations. It has recently been shown that a century of gene flow from Beta vulgaris ssp. vulgaris has not altered the genetic diversity of wild Beta vulgaris L. ssp. maritima (L.) Arcang. in the Italian sugar beet seed production area. Future research should focus on the potential evolution of transgenic wild beet populations in comparison to these baseline data. Two monitoring models are presented describing how endpoints can be measured: (1) ''Pre-post'' crop commercialization against today''s baseline and (2) ''Parallel'' to crop commercialization against GMP free reference areas/populations. Model 2 has the advantage of taking ongoing changes in genetic diversity and population dynamics into account. Model 1 is more applicable if gene flow is so strong that most areas/populations contain GMPs. Important traits that may change the ecology of populations are genes that confer tolerance to biotic and abiotic stress. An assessment of environmental effects can realistically only be based on endpoints and consequences of gene introgression, which may include economic values of biodiversity in littoral and other ecosystems containing wild beet. In general, there is still a great need to harmonize worldwide monitoring systems by the development of appropriate methods to evaluate the environmental impact of introgressed transgenes.', 'en_US'),
(1720, 'Selection of relevant non-target herbivores for monitoring the environmental effects of Bt maize pollen', 'Genes of Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki (Berliner) that encode lepidopteran-specific toxins were engineered into maize for protection against the European Corn Borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (Hbn.). Recent data suggest that Lepidoptera may be negatively affected, if maize pollen contains high amounts of Bt toxin and is diposited on host plants near maize fields. Monitoring the environmental effects of commercial Bt maize fields requires effective use of limited financial and logistical resources. The aim of this study was to develop and apply tools for selecting relevant herbivore species for the field monitoring of environmental Bt toxin effects via pollen deposition. We first present a theoretical selection tree based on ''risk index of Bt pollen for herbivores'' (I ). Our index consists of five classes from zero (not relevant) to four (highly relevant) derived from data on potential temporal and spatial coincidence of pollen exposure (A), feeding mode (B), susceptibility to lepidopteran-specific Bt toxins (C) and hazard to rare and/or endangered species (''Red List'') (D). We then screened the Macrolepidoptera database LEPIDAT to identify relevant species in Germany. Finally, we also applied the index to species found in a local biocoenotic field study (Bonn, Western Rhineland, Germany). Approximately 7% of the German Macrolepidoptera species mainly occur in farmland areas and were selected as being potentially affected by Bt pollen exposure. Of these species, 14% (= 1% of total) were found to be potentially exposed on a regional scale. The combination of I and database screening enables us to pre-select species for monitoring purposes.', 'en_US'),
(1721, 'General principles for risk assessment of living modified organisms: lessons from chemical risk assessment', 'Modern biotechnology has led to the development and use of Living Modified Organisms (LMOs) for agriculture and other purposes. Regulators at the national level are increasingly depending on risk assessment as a tool for assessing potential adverse effects of LMOs on the environment and human health. In addition, the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, an international agreement expected to enter into force in the near future, requires risk assessment as the basis for decision-making regarding import of some LMOs. While LMO risk assessment is relatively new, there are other risk assessment disciplines which have developed over longer time periods. The field of assessment of the environmental and human health risks of chemicals is particularly well developed, and is similar in application to LMO risk assessment. This paper aims to draw lessons for LMO risk assessment from the vast experience with chemical risk assessment. Seven general principles are outlined which should serve as a useful checklist to guide assessments of risks posed by LMOs.', 'en_US'),
(1722, 'Possible effects of (trans)gene flow from crops on the genetic diversity from landraces and wild relatives', 'Gene flow is a potential concern associated with the use of transgenic crops because it could affect genetic diversity of related landraces and wild relatives. This concern has taken on added importance with the looming introduction of transgenic crops in centers of crop domestication (Mexico, China) and those producing pharmaceutical compounds. For gene flow to take place among cultivars and their wild relatives, several steps have to be fulfilled, including the presence of cultivars or wild relatives within pollen or seed dispersal range, the ability to produce viable and fertile hybrids, at least partial overlap in flowering time, actual gene flow by pollen or seed, and the establishment of crop genes in the domesticated or wild recipient populations. In contrast with domestication genes, which often make crops less adapted to natural ecosystems, transgenes frequently represent gains of function, which might release wild relatives from constraints that limit their fitness. In most sexually reproducing organisms, the chromosomal region affected by selection of a single gene amounts to a small percentage of the total genome size. Because of gene flow, the level of genetic diversity present in the domesticated gene pool becomes a crucial factor affecting the genetic diversity of the wild gene pool. For some crops, such as cotton and maize, the introduction of transgenic technologies has led to a consolidation of the seed industry and a reduction in the diversity of the elite crop gene pool. Thus, diversity in improved varieties grown by farmers needs to be monitored. Several areas deserve further study, such as the actual magnitude of gene flow and its determinants in different agroecosystems, the long-term effects of gene flow on genetic diversity both across gene pools and within genomes, the expression of transgenes in new genetic backgrounds, and the effects of socio-economic factors on genetic diversity.', 'en_US'),
(1723, 'Genetically modified food crops and their contribution to human nutrition and food quality', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1724, 'Genetically modified fish and their effects on food quality and human health and nutrition', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1725, 'Genetically modified livestock and poultry and their potential effects on human health and nutrition', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1726, 'Genetically modified microorganisms and their potential effects on human health and nutrition', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1727, 'The scientific basis for risk assessment and regulation of genetically modified foods', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1728, 'Biotechnology as an alternative to chemical pesticides: a case study of Bt cotton in China', 'The overall goal of this study is to determine the extent by which genetically engineered (GE) crops in China can lead to reductions of pesticide use, the nature and source of the reductions, and whether or not there are any non-pecuniary externalities. One of the first studies of the effect of plant biotechnology on poor farmers, the study is based on a data set collected by the authors in 2000 in North China. The paper''s descriptive, budget and multivariate analysis find that Bt cotton significantly reduces the number of sprayings, the quantity of pesticides used and the level of pesticide expenditures. All Bt cotton varieties??both those produced by foreign life science companies and those created by China''s research system are equally effective. In addition to these input-reducing effects, the paper also demonstrates that such reductions in pesticides also likely lead to labour savings, more efficient overall production, as well as positive health and environmental impacts.', 'en_US'),
(1729, 'Challenges in comparing transgenic and nontransgenic soybean cultivars', 'Genetically modified soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] cultivars containing herbicide resistance have become the predominant cultivars marketed in the USA. This technology dramatically changed weed management strategies in the USA and created controversy and new challenges within various segments of the industry. This review seeks to summarize many of the issues that arose within the soybean industry surrounding the introduction of the world''s first major transgenic crop. Hopefully, the experiences gained during this transition period will benefit future efforts to commercialize transgenic crops. Initially, the new transgenics made the already difficult, yet critically important, task of cultivar selection even more arduous and confusing. Lack of university data, high cultivar turnover rates, and the added burden of factoring in technology fees, yield lag, and weed control costs into the decision of which cultivar to plant were frustrating to most producers. Industry''s early insistence on separate cultivar performance trials for Roundup Ready (RR) cultivars taxed limited testing resources and increased the size of the already massive data sets generated. Most often, the end result did not provide a direct comparison with popular conventional cultivars. As this new technology has become fully accepted and assimilated into our industry, comparisons with conventional cultivars are less important since most farmers are selecting only among RR cultivars. The current literature indicates that soybean variety test (SVT) programs with limited resources can effectively compare soybean cultivar performance using combined trials treated only with conventional herbicides with little risk of yield loss or herbicide x cultivar interactions. However, the use of a systems approach or separate RR trials to evaluate the performance of soybean cultivars is now commonplace in the USA due to the sheer dominance of RR cultivars. Many larger SVT programs will soon consider discontinuing separate trials for conventional cultivars as their numbers and importance diminish.', 'en_US'),
(1730, 'Transgenic herbicide tolerant canola - The Canadian experience', 'Canola is a Canadian development, having been derived through conventional plant breeding of rapeseed (Brassica napus L. and B. rapa L.). The acceptance of canola in the marketplace has been assisted by the proliferation of new cultivars registered under the mandate of the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA). New cultivars, whether conventional or transgenic, are evaluated and approved for registration by a national committee known as the Western Canada Canola/Rapeseed Recommending Committee (WCC/RRC). Regulatory approval for transgenics is granted by the CFIA and Health Canada, who oversee the confined and unconfined release of these products into the environment. Transgenic canola cultivars, Roundup Ready {glyphosate [N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine] tolerant}, and Liberty Link {glufosinate [2-amino-4-(hydroxymethylphosphinyl)butanoic acid] tolerant} were first registered in Canada in 1995, while Navigator [bromoxynil (3,5-Dibromo-4-hydroxybenzonitrile) tolerant] cultivars appeared later. Herbicide tolerant (HT) transgenics have enjoyed increased market share since their development, and now occupy 55% of the canola acreage in western Canada. The popularity of these cultivars appears to arise more from agronomic rather than economic advantages. Tolerance tests have failed to show any significant effect of the herbicides on the cultivars.', 'en_US'),
(1731, 'Challenges in testing transgenic and nontransgenic cotton cultivars', 'Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) cultivars transgenically enhanced to impart herbicide resistance to either bromoxynil [3,5-dibromo-4-hydroxybenzonitrile; BXN (Bayer Advanced, Peoria, IL)] or glyphosate [N-(phosphonomethyl)-glycine; Roundup Ready (Monsanto Co., St. Louis, MO)], and/or Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki [Bt; Bollgard (Monsanto)] mediated resistance to certain lepidopteran insects were planted to 77% of the 2002 U.S. cotton hectarage, yet Official Cultivar Trial (OCT) protocols remain little changed since inception. The presence of transgenic, pest-managing, and nontransgenic cultivars in OCTs poses challenges to provide unbiased cultivar performance because OCTs impose herbicide and insect management regimes appropriate for nontransgenic cultivars. Our objectives were to assess the merits of OCTs to test transgenic and nontransgenic cultivars and to recommend alternatives. Because OCTs levy common pest management on all cultivars, value-added transgenic traits are not demonstrated, cultivar variation in their expression is not shown, and main effects and interaction of cultivar and pest management regime are confounded. Examples of pest management main effects that potentially affect cultivar ranks in OCTs include yield penalties imposed on herbicide-resistant cultivars from routinely used, soil-applied herbicides and yield advantages imparted to Bt cultivars from added insect control of OCT insecticide regimes. One recommendation to more comprehensively test cultivars is to augment OCTs with trials wherein the best performing transgenic and nontransgenic cultivars in OCTs are produced with their respective pest management programs. Such trials simultaneously evaluate cultivars and transgenic traits for yield, fiber quality, and economic returns. Still, bias imposed by nontransgenic pest management regimes in OCTs can only be quantified through trials levying transgenic and OCT-type pest management treatments on transgenic cultivars', 'en_US'),
(1732, 'Opportunities for improvement of nutritive value in sorghum and pearl millet residues in South Asia through genetic enhancement', 'Cereal crop residues are important feed resources for ruminants in developing countries. However, they are poor in nutritive value because digestible energy, crude protein and mineral contents are all low. Techniques to improve the feeding value of crop residues by chemical or biological means have not been adopted widely by small farmers in developing countries. Genetic enhancement may provide an alternative and practical strategy for improvement of nutritive value in cereal straws and stovers. This paper reviews the opportunities for the improvement of nutritive value by plant breeding, with particular reference to dual-purpose cultivars of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) and pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) in South Asia.', 'en_US'),
(1733, 'A generational study of glyphosate-tolerant soybeans on mouse fetal, postnatal, pubertal and adult testicular development', 'The health safety of transgenic soybeans (glyphosate-tolerant or Roundup Ready) was studied using the mammalian testis (mouse model) as a sensitive biomonitor of potential toxic effects. Pregnant mice were fed a transgenic soybean or a non-transgenic (conventional) diet through gestation and lactation. After weaning, the young male mice were maintained on the respective diets. At 8, 16, 26, 32, 63 and 87 days after birth, three male mice and an adult reference mouse were killed, the testes surgically removed, and the cell populations measured by flow cytometry. Multi-generational studies were conducted in the same manner. The results showed that the transgenic foodstuffs had no effect on macromolecular synthesis or cell growth and differentiation as evidenced by no differences in the percentages of testicular cell populations (haploid, diploid, and tetraploid) between the transgenic soybean-fed mice and those fed the conventional diet. Additionally, there were no differences in litter sizes and body weights of the two groups.', 'en_US'),
(1734, 'Effect of Bt corn for corn rootworm control on nontarget soil microarthropods and nematodes', 'The western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), is a major pest of corn in Kansas. Planting Bt corn hybrids resistant to this pest is being tested as a method to control the larval stage of corn rootworms. These hybrids express Cry3Bb1 toxin and are expected to only directly impact chrysomelids and possibly related taxa. Soil samples were examined to evaluate the effect of Bt corn for corn rootworm control on soil microarthropods and nematodes in Kansas in 2000 and 2001. Soil samples from soil close to Bt corn and to its isoline were taken on three occasions (early, mid, and late season) from eight locations in 2000 and three locations in 2001. Soil mites and Collembola were extracted using a modified Tullgren high-gradient extractor. Nematodes were extracted using a centrifugal-flotation procedure. In general, numbers of soil mites (Prostigmata, Mesostigmata, and Oribatei), Collembola, and nematodes were similar in soil planted with Bt corn and soil planted with its isoline.', 'en_US'),
(1735, 'Towards an ecological systems approach in public research for environmental regulation of transgenic crops', 'A review of current research shows insufficient monitoring and testing have been conducted to reliably assess the degree of environmental risks posed by transgenic crops. The major risks include increased resistance to particular pesticides, gene flow into related plant species, and negative effects on non-target organisms. Significant gaps in knowledge, often stemming from missing markets for ecological services, warrant a cautious environmental regulatory approach for transgenic crops. The objective of this paper is to identify the types of ecological systems public research to implement effective biosafety controls. US biosafety regulatory processes tend to focus on controlling type I error, i.e. restricting the release of the crops when significant environmental risks do not exist, because the economic losses from denying commercialization can be estimated. However, the precautionary principle, which focuses on controlling type II errors, i.e. releasing the crops when serious ecosystem damage will occur, adds a necessary criterion given the current deficit in ecological science. The key challenge facing regulators is to find the appropriate balance of controlling type I versus type II errors. The research program should embed the lessons of evolutionary biology and ecological sciences. Viewing the plant as a production machine that can be ''brute-force'' reengineered for more efficiency is a poor analogy. Unanticipated and unintended results, positive and negative, will emerge from such engineering because plants are complex systems embedded in poorly understood, complex, and interacting ecosystems. An ideal public research program should capture the interconnectedness of ecological systems, the essential roles of ecosystem services, nonlinear and threshold responses to accumulating stresses, and global expansion of the technology. Basic elements of such a program include long-term studies of cumulative and synergistic pesticide resistance effects, potential gene flow problems for those transgenic crop trait-weed complexes with high probabilities of outcrossing and ecological disruption, and scientific protocols for assessing deleterious effects on non-target organisms. For all three effects, expanded ecosystem monitoring of the commercialized crops in varied settings is needed for improved type II error definitions and estimates. The development of improved risk analysis methodologies and protocols should also be a priority. Finally, scientific effort to stimulate precautionary research, such as the development of transgenic crops that mimic ecological systems functioning, could avert many risks. Creating information to avoid significant ecological damages and foster precautionary research and development for transgenic crops are neglected roles of public biotechnology research.', 'en_US'),
(1736, 'The use of consumption data to assess exposure to biotechnology-derived food and the feasibility of identifying effects on human health through post-market monitoring', 'The pre-market safety assessment of foods derived through biotechnology provides a scientific basis for concluding reasonable certainty of no harm and ensuring safety. At a minimum, the outcome of such an assessment provides sufficient information to estimate the likelihood of adverse effects on consumers, generally precluding the need for post-market monitoring. Post-market monitoring (PMM) may be appropriate under certain conditions where a better estimate of dietary exposure and/or nutritional consequence of a biotechnology-derived food is required, when a potential safety issue, such as allergenicity, cannot be adequately addressed through pre-market studies, or to corroborate dietary intakes of a nutritionally improved food with beneficial effects on human health. Monitoring programs must be hypothesis-driven, and are dependent upon the availability of accurate consumption data. Exposure assessment methods include both deterministic and probabilistic estimates of intakes using food supply data, individual dietary surveys, household surveys, or total diet studies. In the development of a monitoring approach, resource allocation should be dependent upon both the desired level of conservatism and the endpoint of interest. However, the cost of monitoring varies substantially, and the potential to determine causation may be limited.', 'en_US'),
(1737, 'Comparative safety assessment for transgenic crops', 'Since the first discussions on strategies to assess the food safety of genetically modified (GM) crop plants, assessment of GM plants and derived tissues has been based on comparisons with their traditionally bred counterparts. This was termed the Principle of Substantial Equivalence. However, implementation of the principle led to controversy and hampered the precision of the actual safety assessment. Here, we propose the principle be rephrased into the Comparative Safety Assessment strategy. This describes the analytical nature of the first step of the entire (GM) food safety assessment in combination with consecutive toxicological and nutritional evaluations. Further development of advanced analytical methods will help to improve the efficacy of assessment strategies.', 'en_US'),
(1738, 'Risk perceptions, endogenous demand and regulation of agricultural biotechnology', 'This paper presents a dynamic model of optimal product regulation in which consumer acceptance and the rate of product innovation are included as endogenous variables. Insights derived from the model are used to critically evaluate recent policy controversies regarding regulation of agricultural biotechnology. The results of the analysis indicate that if regulatory policy significantly affects consumer risk perceptions, more stringent regulatory requirements than those based solely on scientific risk assessment may be economically efficient. When demand is endogenously affected by regulatory policies, industry may also benefit from stronger regulations even if this results in a significant increase in product development costs.', 'en_US'),
(1739, 'Perceptions of genetically modified foods by consumers in Argentina', 'Perception of genetically modified foods (GMF) by consumers in Argentina was investigated using the repertory grid method in conjunction with generalized Procrustes analysis. The following factors were considered: type of genetic modification (microbial, plant or animal), rationale for modification (nutritional, sensory or economic), labeling or not labeling as genetically modified, controls (local or international) and associated risks (health or environment). 20 men and 20 women were recruited from a typical Argentine town. Differences in perception between men and women were not significant. Participants used a greater number of negative constructs (''risky to health'' and ''changing the environment'') than positive constructs (''beneficial'', ''improvements in nourishment''). They want these foods to be regulated and labeled as such, showing distrust in Argentine health organizations. Some participants considered GMF as ''beneficial'' if produced to improve their nutritional value, but ''superficial'' and ''whimsical'' if produced to improve sensory properties. Participants separated statements according to the rationale for modification, but not according to whether the modification was on an animal, plant or microorganism.', 'en_US'),
(1740, 'Bt-transgenic rice straw affects the culturable microbiota and dehydrogenase and phosphatase activities in a flooded paddy soil', 'There have been few investigations of the possible effects of genetically engineered plants on the microbiota and enzyme activities in flooded soil. We studied the influence of the transgenic rice KeMingDao (KMD) straw on the culturable microbiota and enzymatic activities in a flooded paddy soil under laboratory conditions. KMD contained a synthetic cry1Ab gene from Bacillus thuringiensis under the control of a maize ubiquitin promoter and linked in tandem with the gusA and hpt genes. The results showed that there were only some occasional significant differences (P<0.05) in the number of Colony forming units of aerobic bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi and in the number of anaerobic fermentative bacteria, denitrifying bacteria, hydrogen-producing acetogenic bacteria, and methanogenic bacteria between the paddy soil amended with Bt-transgenic rice straw and with the non-Bt parental rice straw during the early stages of incubation. From d14 to d84 there were significant increases (P<0.05) in soil dehydrogenase and soil neutral phosphatase activity in soils amended with rice straw compared to soil without added straw. The dehydrogenase activity was significantly greatly (almost 1.95-fold) in soil amended with Bt-transgenic straw from d7 to d14 but from d21 to d49 there was significantly greater activity (about 1.47-fold) in the soil amended with non-Bt-straw. There were no apparent differences between the activity of soil neutral phosphatase in the soils to which non-Bt-straw and Bt-straw had been added. However, both soils to which rice straws were added demonstrated significant differences in the number of microorganisms except for aerobic bacteria and enzymatic activities with respect to the control soil throughout the incubation. The above results indicated that the Bt-straw from KMD transgenic rice is not toxic to a variety of culturable microorganisms in the studied flooded paddy soil.', 'en_US'),
(1741, 'Insect resistance to transgenic Bt crops: lessons from the laboratory and field.', 'Transgenic crops that produce insecticidal toxins from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) grew on >62 million ha worldwide from 1996 to 2002. Despite expectations that pests would rapidly evolve resistance to such Bt crops, increases in the frequency of resistance caused by exposure to Bt crops in the field have not yet been documented. In laboratory and greenhouse tests, however, at least seven resistant laboratory strains of three pests (Plutella xylostella [L.], Pectinophora gossypiella [Saunders], and Helicoverpa armigera [Hübner]) have completed development on Bt crops. In contrast, several other laboratory strains with 70- to 10,100-fold resistance to Bt toxins in diet did not survive on Bt crops. Monitoring of field populations in regions with high adoption of Bt crops has not yet detected increases in resistance frequency. Resistance monitoring examples include Ostrinia nubilalis (Hübner) in the United States (6 yr), P. gossypiella in Arizona (5 yr), H. armigera in northern China (3 yr), and Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) in North Carolina (2 yr). Key factors delaying resistance to Bt crops are probably refuges of non-Bt host plants that enable survival of susceptible pests, low initial resistance allele frequencies, recessive inheritance of resistance to Bt crops, costs associated with resistance that reduce fitness of resistant individuals relative to susceptible individuals on non-Bt hosts (''fitness costs''), and disadvantages suffered by resistant strains on Bt hosts relative to their performance on non-Bt hosts (''incomplete resistance''). The relative importance of these factors varies among pest-Bt crop systems, and violations of key assumptions of the refuge strategy (low resistance allele frequency and recessive inheritance) may occur in some cases. The success of Bt crops exceeds expectations of many, but does not preclude resistance problems in the future.', 'en_US'),
(1742, 'Production, identity preservation, and labeling in a marketplace with genetically modified and non-genetically modified foods', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1743, 'Additive transgene expression and genetic introgression in multiple green-fluorescent protein transgenic crop X weed hybrid generations', 'The level of transgene expression in crop × weed hybrids and the degree to which crop-specific genes are integrated into hybrid populations are important factors in assessing the potential ecological and agricultural risks of gene flow associated with genetic engineering. The average transgene zygosity and genetic structure of transgenic hybrid populations change with the progression of generations, and the green fluorescent protein (GFP) transgene is an ideal marker to quantify transgene expression in advancing populations. The homozygous T1 single-locus insert GFP/Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) transgenic canola (Brassica napus, cv Westar) with two copies of the transgene fluoresced twice as much as hemizygous individuals with only one copy of the transgene. These data indicate that the expression of the GFP gene was additive, and fluorescence could be used to determine zygosity status. Several hybrid generations (BC1F1, BC2F1) were produced by backcrossing various GFP/Bt transgenic canola (B. napus, cv Westar) and birdseed rape (Brassica rapa) hybrid generations onto B. rapa. Intercrossed generations (BC2F2 Bulk) were generated by crossing BC2F1 individuals in the presence of a pollinating insect (Musca domestica L.). The ploidy of plants in the BC2F2 Bulk hybrid generation was identical to the weedy parental species, B. rapa. AFLP analysis was used to quantify the degree of B. napus introgression into multiple backcross hybrid generations with B. rapa. The F1 hybrid generations contained 95?97% of the B. napus-specific AFLP markers, and each successive backcross generation demonstrated a reduction of markers resulting in the 15?29% presence in the BC2F2 Bulk population. Average fluorescence of each successive hybrid generation was analyzed, and homozygous canola lines and hybrid populations that contained individuals homozygous for GFP (BC2F2 Bulk) demonstrated significantly higher fluorescence than hemizygous hybrid generations (F1, BC1F1 and BC2F1). These data demonstrate that the formation of homozygous individuals within hybrid populations increases the average level of transgene expression as generations progress. This phenomenon must be considered in the development of risk-management strategies.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(1744, 'Engineering of Bt transgenic rice for insect pest protection.', 'Stem borer is a serious pest that causes considerable yield losses of rice in Asia. Pesticides have been used broadly to control this pest. Transgenic Bt rice for a wide variety of cultivation conditions have been developed and reported on earlier. We review work done to develop Bt rice with multiple Bt genes that have different receptor binding domains, and with a fusion cry gene, cry1B/cry1Ab. Generation of Bt rice has been performed in different cultivars and recently in the hybrid ''Shanyou 63'', which gains protection against four insect pests. The Bt-rice hybrid line is free of the selectable marker gene, hph, and has been successfully field evaluated in China for 4 years. Transgene pyramiding with Bt genes alone or in combination with other genes for plant protection has been developed in rice. Bt rice in Asia has the potential to provide plant protection while curbing use of pesticides and reducing yield losses from infestation. The deployment of insect protection genes using a gene pyramiding strategy is presented as a vital strategy for maximizing crop protection and countering the development of resistant pests.', 'en_US'),
(1745, 'Fulfilling the promise of Bt potato in developing countries.', 'Potato production is expanding rapidly in developing countries, particularly in Asia. For many poor farmers potatoes represent a staple food and an important cash crop. Potato insect pests have a substantial negative impact on the livelihood of farmers. Bt potatoes have been effective on a commercial scale in controlling Colorado potato beetle in North America. Small-scale tests have demonstrated Bt''s efficacy in controlling potato tuber moth. Reliance on chemical pesticides can be reduced and/or replaced by pest-protected potato, genetically engineered to express genes from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). Reductions in insecticide use would provide significant economic, health and environmental benefits. Unintentional Bt gene escape into wild relatives of cultivated potato should be rare and unlikely to persist. However, a monitoring system should be in place in areas where sexually compatible relatives of potato occur. The potential of Bt varieties to displace land races or reduce crop genetic diversity should be addressed by the creation of sanctuaries or germplasm banks. Because farmers in developing countries exchange their seeds and mandatory labeling would likely exclude small-scale farmers, Bt genes should be introduced only into varieties handled through the formal seed systems, providing the basis for a variety-based system for segregating genetically engineered (GE) and non-GE produce. We conclude that properly managed Bt potato technology offers substantial benefits for developing countries.', 'en_US'),
(1746, 'Ecological impact of Bt cotton.', 'An overview of the ecological impact of transgenic crops, especially Bt cotton, is given in this paper. Crops expressing insecticidal crystal protein (ICP) genes from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) were among the first transgenic products approved for commercial use in the USA and several other countries. The cotton farming community in the USA embraced the transgenic technology because of potential benefits such as reducing (1) costs of operation and (2) damage to the environment and ground water supply, due to the repeated use of pesticides. However, concerns about genetically modified crops and foods remain in the USA and elsewhere. The transfer of Bt genes to wild relatives and neighboring crops, impact of Bt on non-target organisms, effects on crop yield and the possibility of insect pest populations developing resistance have all been items of concern. Key aspects of these benefits and concerns are summarized here.', 'en_US'),
(1747, 'Current resistance management requirements for Bt cotton in the United States.', 'The United States Environmental Protection Agency has required an unprecedented insect resistance management (IRM) program for Bt cotton. The specific IRM strategies and requirements for Bt cotton (Bollgard? cotton) in the United States have been developed by a coalition of stakeholders including EPA, USDA, academic scientists, public interest groups, Monsanto Company, and grower organizations. There are seven basic IRM requirements: structured refuge, resistance monitoring, remedial action plan, compliance assurance, grower education, grower agreements, and annual reports. The mandatory refuge requirements for Bollgard cotton are: (1) 5% external, unsprayed refuge option, (2) 20% external, sprayed refuge option, (3) 5% embedded refuge option, or (4) a community refuge option that may utilize the 5% external, unsprayed refuge option and/or the 20% external, sprayed refuge option. Each refuge option also has specific deployment requirements. The current registration for Cry1Ac plant-incorporated protectant as expressed in cotton (known as Bollgard cotton) expires September 30, 2006, except for the 5% external, unsprayed structured refuge option, which will expire September 30, 2004. Additional research data will be integral to strengthening the existing IRM plans for Bollgard cotton and promoting greater sustainability.', 'en_US'),
(1748, 'The safety of Bacillus thuringiensis for human consumption.', 'Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) provides one of the most prominent biologically based pesticides. Bt affords a high degree of safety to the environment, non-target organisms and humans in combination with its effectiveness in controlling numerous insect pests. These features fill a pressing need to produce food and fiber for a growing population without eroding environment and health. Extensive safety testing and a history of human exposure without adverse effects have proven Bt to be one of the most important reduced risk pesticides. Not only is Bt effective against targeted pests, but it is safe enough to humans to be exempted from many of the precautions that apply to conventional synthetic chemical pesticides.', 'en_US'),
(1749, 'Effects of Bt on non-target organisms.', 'The development of Bt crops is one of the most significant advances in crop protection technology of the past fifty years. Current Bt crops are based on highly specific insecticidal Cry proteins of Bacillus thuringiensis. Foliar Bt insecticides based on the same proteins have been used for more than forty years and have a remarkable safety record, with no known detrimental effects reported on vertebrate or non-target invertebrate populations. Bt cotton and Bt corn have been widely adopted by farmers in the United States, with acreage averaging 40-50% of the area planted with cotton or corn in 2002. Concern has been raised about the safety of Bt crops. However, most evidence shows that these crops, like foliar Bt insecticides, are safe for non-target organisms, especially in comparison to chemical insecticides. Evidence for safety comes from knowledge of Cry protein mode of action as well as from studies of the effects of Cry proteins on non-target organisms tested in the laboratory and under operational growing conditions. These studies indicate that Bt crops, owing to their high degree of safety, can serve as the cornerstone for more environmentally sound integrated pest management programs.', 'en_US'),
(1750, 'The role of microbial Bt products in U.S. crop protection.', 'Microbial Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) insecticides have been used for over 40 years. In the United States, Bt formulations are primarily applied to control lepidopteran pests on fruit and vegetable crops, to control gypsy moth in forests and to control dipteran pests (mosquitoes and blackflies) that bite humans. A highly selective insecticide with activity conferred primarily by insecticidal crystal proteins (ICPs), Bt is generally not harmful to humans, non-target wildlife or beneficial arthropods. Its selectivity and unique mode of action make it an important alternative to conventional chemical insecticides, and many integrated pest management (IPM) programs for particular fruit and vegetable crops as well as certified organic production include the use of Bt. Agricultural commercialization and adoption of plant-incorporated Bt presents new opportunities to expand the use of Bt ICPs for agricultural pest control, but also raises concerns about the potential for accelerated development of pest resistance to Bt. The relative risks and benefits of microbial and plant-incorporated Bt products are introduced.', 'en_US'),
(1751, 'The utility and management of transgenic plants with Bacillus thuringiensis genes for protection from pests.', 'Recombinant DNA technology offers opportunities for widening the available gene pool for crop improvement. Genetic engineering also allows the introduction of several desirable genes in a single event, and can reduce the time to introgress novel genes into elite backgrounds. Genes conferring resistance to insects have been inserted into crop plants such as cotton, maize, potato, tobacco, rice, broccoli, lettuce, walnut, apple, alfalfa, and soybean. Genetically transformed crops with Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) genes have been deployed for cultivation primarily in the USA, China, Argentina, Canada, Mexico, South Africa, and Australia. The potential of insect-resistant transgenic plants with Bt genes can be enhanced when deployed in combination with alternate protective genes such as protease inhibitors, enzymes, and plant lectins, or in combination with insect-resistant cultivars derived through conventional breeding. While several transgenic crops with insecticidal genes have been introduced in the temperate regions, very little has been done to use this technology for improving crop production in the harsh environments of the tropics, where the need for increasing food production is most urgent. This may be due to the lack of infrastructure, biosafety regulations, intellectual property rights, or market potential. There is an urgent need to develop a scientifically sound strategy to deploy exotic and plant derived genes through transgenic plants for minimizing the extent of losses caused by insect pests. Equally important is the need for observance of biosafety regulations, a responsible public debate, and a better presentation of the benefits to sustainable crop production of a rational deployment of genetically transformed plants.', 'en_US'),
(1752, 'Current and potential role of transgenic crops in U.S. agriculture', 'Transgenic crop cultivars with resistance to insects, pathogens, and herbicides offer growers powerful new pest management tools. We reviewed the observed and potential farm-level impacts of transgenic cultivars, including those with regulatory approval and commercial availability as well as those still being researched and developed. Direct grower benefits, such as yield and production increases and decreased management costs, have led to rapid and extensive adoption of Bt corn and cotton, herbicide-resistant cotton, soybean, and canola, and virus-resistant papaya. Other transgenic crops, including Bt sweet corn and potato, and herbicide-resistant sugar beet and corn, have not been adopted despite strong agronomic and pest management performance, largely because growers fear there will be no market for their harvests. Despite inconsistent adoption of transgenic cultivars, demonstrated benefits of the technology encourage ongoing efforts to incorporate pest management traits into a wider variety of crops, including broccoli, tomato, lettuce, grape, citrus, pineapple, raspberry, peanut, wheat, barley, and rice. Potential impacts of these upcoming transgenic cultivars range from a decrease in weed management costs for lettuce and tomato growers, to the defense of stone fruit, grape, and citrus against devastating new pests.', 'en_US'),
(1753, 'Assessing the risks of insect resistant transgenic plants on entomophagous arthropods: Bt-maize expressing Cry1Ab as a case study', 'One of the primary concerns related to the adoption of insect resistant transgenic plants in the environment is the detrimental effect that these may pose on non-target organisms, including entomophagous arthropods (parasitoids and predators) which have an important function in regulating pests. Despite the fact that regulatory bodies require information regarding the potential risk of releasing transgenic plants in the environment, to date, no specific protocols have been designed for assessing the risks of insect resistant transgenic crops on entomophagous arthropods. Here a framework for risk assessment is proposed to evaluate the effects of insect resistant plants on entomophagous arthropods. Using maize expressing the Bacillus thuringiensis gene which codes for the Cry1Ab toxin, we illustrate the procedure necessary for assessing the risks. As a first step, it is required to determine which entomophagous arthropods play a major role in regulating maize pests, and which may be at risk. Because the risk which transgenic plants pose to entomophagous arthropods depends on both, their exposure, and their sensitivity to the insecticidal protein, it is essential to determine, as a second step, if and at what level organisms are exposed to the transgene compound. Exposure will be associated with the feeding behaviour of phytophagous and entomophagous arthropods together with the tissue and cell specific temporal and spatial expression of the insecticidal protein. For those organisms which could potentially be exposed to the insecticidal protein, sensitivity tests, as a third step, should be performed to assess toxicity. The testing procedure and the type of tests which should be adopted to quantify the effects of insect resistant plants on natural enemies are subsequently illustrated. Taking the green lacewing Chrysoperla carnea as an example, we propose a procedure on how to perform tests and give evidence that Bt-maize poses no risk to this predator.', 'en_US'),
(1754, 'Fate and transport of antibiotic resistance genes in soil columns', 'Interest in the fate of microorganisms (genetically modified or not) added to soil for a range of applications (e.g., biological fertilizer, bioremediation) has led to the examination of the transport and dispersion of bacteria in soil and ground water environments. The fate of added microorganisms can also be related to the fate of their DNA or any DNA found within soil or groundwater. However, studies have not examined the movement and fate of plasmids themselves in water-saturated soils. Continuous-flow water-saturated soil columns were used to examine the environmental fate and movement of antibiotic resistance genes. The genes were located on a plasmid pLEP01, which was either introduced into the soil columns directly as a mixture of supercoiled and open circular forms or after linearization by restriction enzymes. Both quantitative and qualitative measurements were done throughout the study. Quantitative measurements included the total DNA and conservative tracer concentration in the column effluent and the transformation frequencies for E. coli DH 10B and Acinetobacter sp. BD 413 in the presence of column effluent. Qualitative measurements included relative degradation of the introduced DNA by gel electrophoresis and the potential of effluent DNA to transform bacteria leading to the production of antibiotic resistant bacteria. The extent of DNA degradation was found to be proportional to its residence time in the soil column. In addition, tests on the biological activity (bacterial transformation) of the DNA demonstrated that this activity was roughly proportional to the remaining DNA after its degradation. Results suggest a potential for biologically active DNA to be transported over considerable distances in water-saturated soil and ground water.', 'en_US'),
(1755, 'Detection and decay of the Bt endotoxin in soil from a field trial with genetically modified maize', 'Genetically modified plants and their residues may have direct effects on ecosystem processes. We aimed to determine the amount in soil of the insecticidal ä-endotoxin, originally from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis, introduced into soil by root exudates and residues from genetically modified maize, to compare the short-term rates of decay of Bt-maize and non-Bt-maize, and to determine the rate at which the toxin in Bt-maize leaves decomposes in soil. Intact soil, size fractions of soil, soluble fractions from soil and fractions of organic residues from a field where Bt-maize had been cultivated for 4 years were analysed for the Bt ä-endotoxin. Traces of the ä-endotoxin were detected in the whole (unfractionated) soil, the water-soluble fractions, and some of the particle-size fractions, but it was sufficiently concentrated only in the > 2000-µm size fraction to be quantified. The ä-endotoxin concentrations in this fraction ranged between 0.4 and 4.4 ng toxin g-1 fraction, which equated to 70, 6 and 50 mg toxin m-2 in the 0-15, 15-30 and 30-60 cm depths, respectively (or 126 mg toxin m-2 over the 0-60 cm depth) in the field in June (early summer). The > 2000-µm size fraction was a mixture of light- and dark-coloured organic material and mineral material comprising sand grains and stable aggregates. For samples collected early in the growing season, most of the detected ä-endotoxin was present in the light-coloured organic material, which was comprised of primarily live roots. However, recognizable maize residues, probably from previous years'' crops, also contained ä-endotoxin. In a laboratory incubation study, Bt- and non-Bt-maize residues were added to soil and incubated for 43 days. There was no detectable difference in the decomposition of plant material from the two lines of maize, as determined by CO2 production. The quantity of ä-endotoxin in the decomposing plant material and soil mixtures declined rapidly with time during the incubation, with none being detectable after 14 days. The rapid disappearance of the ä-endotoxin occurred at a rate similar to that of the water-soluble components of the maize residues. The results suggested that much of the ä -endotoxin in crop residues is highly labile and quickly decomposes in soil, but that a small fraction may be protected from decay in relatively recalcitrant residues.', 'en_US'),
(1756, 'Predicting the spread of herbicide resistance in Australian canola fields', 'A common concern expressed about the commercial release of transgenic canola into cropping systems is the risks of unwanted gene flow between varieties. Experimental data is emerging that answers some of the theoretical questions that have been posed when considering gene flow on a landscape scale. This study developed models that utilise some of this published data in an attempt to quantify the spread of transgenes in a commercial farming system. The models, which included bootstrapping the empirical data and three mathematical simulations, were compared with each other and the published data. One of the mathematical models estimated average resistance frequency by imposing a Poisson distribution around the published mean value for a single transgenic field surrounded by conventional canola fields and the other two were derived from the theory that pollen flow decreased with distance in the form of a log decay curve. The predictions of all models suggested that the average frequency of resistance occurring from pollen flow in neighbouring canola fields, even when multiple transgenic fields are adjacent to the conventional fields, are likely to be below the current internationally accepted thresholds for contamination.', 'en_US'),
(1757, 'Safety, risk, and the precautionary principle: rethinking precautionary approaches to the regulation of transgenic plants', 'Operationalizing the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety will require resolving disputes about the meaning of the term ''precautionary approach'' in the treaty text. Although the terms precautionary approach and precautionary principle have been referred to in the regulation of transgenic plants for nearly a decade, no customary expectation of what actions either requires has developed. If specific obligations for regulators, regulated entities, or both are not established, compliance will be impossible. This essay examines various interpretations of the precautionary principle, discusses their shortcomings, and suggests a way to rethink the regulation of transgenic plants that focuses on genuine uncertainty. Transgenic plants with familiar phenotypes should be subject to considerably less regulatory scrutiny than those whose risks are genuinely unknown, or known to pose heightened risk.', 'en_US'),
(1758, 'Rationality, awe, and the demand for biotechnology', 'No abstract', 'en_US'),
(1759, 'Biotechnology: opportunities and challenges for developing countries', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1760, 'Managing resistance evolution in two pests to two toxins with refugia', 'We use a regulatory model with resistance evolution in two pests to insecticidal Bt cotton and pyrethroids (a conventional insecticide) to examine non-Bt cotton (refuge) planting requirements designed to manage Bt-resistance evolution in the midsouth. Our analysis suggests that reduced refuge requirements would enhance producer profitability, sprayed refugia are more cost effective than unsprayed refugia, and producers would receive slightly higher returns under dynamic relative to static refuge policies. Pyrethroid susceptibility in one of the pests was a renewable resource, and toxin-mixture effects associated with pyrethroid use in Bt cotton were important considerations for midsouth refuge policies.', 'en_US'),
(1761, 'Inserting GM products into the food chain: The market and welfare effects of different labeling and regulatory regimes', 'The purpose of this article is to examine the system-wide effects of the introduction of genetically modified (GM) products with and without labeling and to compare these two regimes to a third regime where GM products are not present either because they have not yet been developed or because they have been banned. For each regime, the decisions and welfare of consumers, producers, and life science companies are examined. The article explicitly incorporates the consumer response to the introduction of GM technology and considers different market structures of the life science sector.', 'en_US'),
(1762, 'Gene flow in commercial fields of herbicide tolerant canola (Brassica napus)', 'Multiple herbicide resistance to glyphosate, glufosinate, bromoxynil, or imidazolinone in volunteer plants of canola (Brassica napus) has been attributed to pollen flow among cultivars with different resistance traits. A study was conducted in Saskatchewan, Canada, in 1999 and 2000 to assess gene flow in space and time in adjacent commercial fields of glyphosate- and glufosinate-resistant canola, including (1) estimation of gene flow with distance; (2) frequency and distribution of volunteers, and effect on gene flow; (3) effect of adventitious double herbicide-resistant seed presence in seedlots planted; and (4) a comparison of various marker systems to track gene flow events. At 11 sites in 1999, gene flow was determined by sampling seeds from plants located at 0, 50, 100, 200, 400, 600, or 800 m along a transect perpendicular to the common border in the paired fields, spraying seedlings with glyphosate and glufosinate, and confirming the presence of the transgenes using commercial test strips and PCR analysis. In the spring of 2000, putative double herbicide-resistant volunteers that survived sequential herbicide applications were mapped at three of the sites using GPS and resistance in sampled plants was characterized. In 1999, gene flow between the paired fields was detected to a maximum distance of 400 m. Values ranged from 1.4% outcrossing at the border common to the paired fields to 0.04% at 400 m. In 2000, gene flow as a result of pollen flow in 1999 was detected to the limits of the study areas (800 m). Large variation in gene flow levels and patterns among the three sites was evident. Adventitious presence of double herbicide-resistant seed in glyphosate-resistant seedlots planted at two of the sites in 1999 contributed to the occurrence of double herbicide-resistant volunteers in 2000. The results of this study suggest that gene stacking in B. napus canola volunteers in western Canada may be common, and reflects pollen flow between different herbicide-resistant canola, presence of double herbicide-resistant off-types in seedlots, and/or agronomic practices typically employed by Canadian growers.', 'en_US'),
(1763, 'Survival of monarch butterfly, Danaus plexippus (Nymphalidae), larvae on milkweed near Bt cornfields.', 'Pollen from maize plants genetically modified to express endotoxins from Bacillus thuringiensis has been identified as a potential hazard to the monarch butterfly, Danaus plexippus, developing in and near maize fields. We conducted two field experiments (Minnesota, USA, in 1999) to examine the effect of Bt-maize on larval survival. A two-parameter Weibull model was used to perform detailed comparative survivorship analyses. Survival on milkweed plants near Bt-maize and non-Bt-maize was similar. The larval mortality rates were lower on milkweed plants located 0, 1, and 2 m from Bt-maize compared with larvae 8 m from the maize. The cardinal direction from Bt-maize did not influence larval survival. Multiple rain events likely resulted in the relatively low Bt-maize pollen densities on milkweed leaves. We present evidence that late instar movement may bias the estimates of survivorship in field studies.', 'en_US'),
(1764, 'Transgenics and phytoremediation: the need for an integrated risk assessment, management, and communication strategy', 'No abstract', 'en_US'),
(1765, 'Hybridization between transgenic Brassica napus L. and its wild relatives: Brassica rapa L., Raphanus raphanistrum L., Sinapis arvensis L., and Erucastrum gallicum (Willd.) O.E. Schulz.', 'The frequency of gene flow from Brassica napus L. (canola) to four wild relatives, Brassica rapa L., Raphanus raphanistrum L., Sinapis arvensis L. and Erucastrum gallicum (Willd.) O.E. Schulz, was assessed in greenhouse and/or field experiments, and actual rates measured in commercial fields in Canada. Various marker systems were used to detect hybrid individuals: herbicide resistance traits (HR), green fluorescent protein marker (GFP), species-specific amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs) and ploidy level. Hybridization between B. rapa and B. napus occurred in two field experiments (frequency approximately 7%) and in wild populations in commercial fields (approximately 13.6%). The higher frequency in commercial fields was most likely due to greater distance between B. rapa plants. All F1 hybrids were morphologically similar to B. rapa, had B. napus- and B. rapa-specific AFLP markers and were triploid (AAC, 2n=29 chromosomes). They had reduced pollen viability (about 55%) and segregated for both self-incompatible and self-compatible individuals (the latter being a B. napus trait). In contrast, gene flow between R. raphanistrum and B. napus was very rare. A single R. raphanistrum x B. napus F1 hybrid was detected in 32,821 seedlings from the HR B. napus field experiment. The hybrid was morphologically similar to R. raphanistrum except for the presence of valves, a B. napus trait, in the distorted seed pods. It had a genomic structure consistent with the fusion of an unreduced gamete of R. raphanistrum and a reduced gamete of B. napus (RrRrAC, 2n=37), both B. napus- and R. raphanistrum-specific AFLP markers, and had < 1% pollen viability. No hybrids were detected in the greenhouse experiments (1,534 seedlings), the GFP field experiment (4,059 seedlings) or in commercial fields in Quebec and Alberta (22,114 seedlings). No S. arvensis or E. gallicum x B. napus hybrids were detected (42,828 and 21,841 seedlings, respectively) from commercial fields in Saskatchewan. These findings suggest that the probability of gene flow from transgenic B. napus to R. raphanistrum, S. arvensis or E. gallicum is very low ( < 2-5 x 10-5). However, transgenes can disperse in the environment via wild B. rapa in eastern Canada and possibly via commercial B. rapa volunteers in western Canada', 'en_US'),
(1766, 'Implicit precaution, scientific inference, and indirect evidence: the basis for the US Environmental Protection Agency''s regulation of genetically modified crops.', 'In this study, we explore how the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) uses science in its overseeing of genetically modified (GM) plants producing their own pesticides (plant-incorporated protectants or PIPs). Our analysis is based on a systematic review of EPA''s product assessments, regulatory decisions and policy documents on GM plants. In regulating PIPs, product characteristics remain the fundamental basis for the agency''s risk assessment. However, a recent ruling by the EPA represents a departure from a strict ''product'' approach to risk assessment. By considering not only product characteristics, but also the process by which a GM crop was developed, the EPA may be seen as adopting a cautionary approach under conditions where current science is unable to resolve whether GM crops and foods impose unique risks by comparison with products derived through conventional breeding. The EPA''s case-by-case evaluations of GM products rely heavily on models and indirect measurements interpreted through biological and biochemical principles.', 'en_US'),
(1767, 'No detection of Cry1Ac protein in soil after multiple years of transgenic Bt cotton (Bollgard) use', 'Soil samples were collected from within and outside six fields where insect-resistant transgenic cotton (Bollgard) encoding the Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner (Bt) subsp. kurstaki cry1Ac gene had been grown and subsequently incorporated into soil by postharvest tillage for 3?6 consecutive years. The level of Cry1Ac protein in these samples (collected 3 mo after the last season''s tillage) was evaluated using both enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) and bioassays with a susceptible insect species, Heliothis virescens (F.), the tobacco budworm. Both methods revealed that no detectable Cry1Ac protein was present in any of the soil samples collected from within or outside the Bollgard fields. Based on the results from reference standards, the limit of detection for the ELISA was 3.68 ng of extractable protein per gram of soil, and that of the bioassay (measured by EC50) was 8 ng of biologically active protein per gram of soil. Together, these findings demonstrate that the amount of Cry1Ac protein accumulated as a result of continuous use of transgenic Bt cotton, and subsequent incorporation of plant residues into the soil by postharvest tillage, is extremely low and does not result in detectable biological activity.', 'en_US'),
(1768, 'Effects of transgenic herbicide-resistant soybean varieties and systems on surface-active springtails (Entognatha: Collembola)', 'The degree of abundance and diversity of springtails (order Collembola) often indicates the extent of disturbance by various agricultural practices. We examined how transgenic herbicide-tolerant soybean varieties and their associated weed management systems affect the abundance of 21 surface-active springtail species during three successive soybean growing seasons. With six soybean varieties (three transgenic, three nontransgenic), we tested three weed management systems: (1) targeted application of specific herbicides to the corresponding tolerant transgenic varieties; (2) conventional pre- and postemergence herbicide applications; and (3) mechanical cultivation. Each method posed its own potential costs and benefits to springtails. In targeted plots, springtail numbers were similar to or higher than those in conventional plots, suggesting that the later and repeated targeted applications to transgenic soybeans do not adversely affect springtail numbers in the short term. We attributed the observed treatment effect differences on springtail numbers to resultant differences in weed cover and degree of soil disturbance (indirect effects), rather than to any direct toxic effects of the herbicides. The treatments affected some species but not others; most of the affected species responded similarly to differences in weed treatment. Our results overall suggested no deleterious short-term effects of transgenic soybean targeted weed-management systems on abundance of the springtail species examined.', 'en_US'),
(1769, 'Modeling the development of resistance by stalk-boring Lepidoptera (Crambidae) in areas with irrigated transgenic corn.', 'The population dynamics and population genetics of two bivoltine species of corn borers are modeled in a hypothetical region of irrigated transgenic and nontransgenic corn. European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (Hubner), adults were assumed to disperse throughout the landscape for both mating and oviposition. Southwestern corn borer, Diatraea grandiosella Dyar, adults were assumed to have very localized dispersal behaviors. Resistance developed quickly in both species when the allele for resistance to the transgenic toxin was dominant. When the allele for resistance was not dominant and few or none of the heterozygous larvae survived the toxin, the behaviors of adult insects determined the speed of resistance development. With block refuges of 10-40% the European corn borer developed resistance within 15-38 yr, but the southwestern corn borer never developed resistance within the 100 yr simulated. A row-strip refuge configuration did not change the time for resistance to develop in the European corn borer; however, row-strip refuges cannot be recommended for the southwestern corn borer. Uncertainty about adult behaviors in irrigated corn led us to examine the potential impact of behavior on resistance development. Adult behaviors influenced resistance development more than refuge size. For instance, if the first flight of moths exhibit random mating and uniform oviposition throughout the landscape and the second flight exhibits localized mating and oviposition, resistance developed at least five times faster in the southwestern corn borer population and three times slower in the European corn borer population compared with our standard assumptions. We discuss the implications of adult behavior, refuge configuration, refuge placement within the landscape and year-to-year relocation on resistance management plans.', 'en_US'),
(1770, 'Spread of recombinant DNA by roots and pollen of transgenic potato plants, identified by highly specific biomonitoring using natural transformation of an Acinetobacter sp.', 'Transgenic potato plants with the nptII gene coding for neomycin phosphotransferase (kanamycin resistance) as a selection marker were examined for the spread of recombinant DNA into the environment. We used the recombinant fusion of nptII with the tg4 terminator for a novel biomonitoring technique. This depended on natural transformation of Acinetobacter sp. strain BD413 cells having in their genomes a terminally truncated nptII gene (nptII''; kanamycin sensitivity) followed by the tg4 terminator. Integration of the recombinant fusion DNA by homologous recombination in nptII'' and tg4 restored nptII, leading to kanamycin-resistant transformants. DNA of the transgenic potato was detectable with high sensitivity, while no transformants were obtained with the DNA of other transgenic plants harboring nptII in different genetic contexts. The recombinant DNA was frequently found in rhizosphere extracts of transgenic potato plants from field plots. In a series of field plot and greenhouse experiments we identified two sources of this DNA: spread by roots during plant growth and by pollen during flowering. Both sources also contributed to the spread of the transgene into the rhizospheres of nontransgenic plants in the vicinity. The longest persistence of transforming DNA in field soil was observed with soil from a potato field in 1997 sampled in the following year in April and then stored moist at 4°C in the dark for 4 years prior to extract preparation and transformation. In this study natural transformation is used as a reliable laboratory technique to detect recombinant DNA but is not used for monitoring horizontal gene transfer in the environment.', 'en_US'),
(1771, 'Detection of transgenic soyabean material in pollen substitute and honey samples', 'Pollen substitutes are used extensively by German beekeepers and soyabeans are a predominant ingredient in some of these products. Around 40% of global soyabean production is harvested from GM-varieties. Thus, pollen substitutes as well as the honey produced by honey bee colonies fed with them might contain GM-soyabean particles. We checked this assumption and found that 23 honeys from 389 samples contained powdered soyabeans. Eleven of the soyabean-containing honeys and four of 11 pollen substitutes tested in this study contained transgenic material. We did not elucidate the contamination pathway of the honeys, but we consider that these pollen substitutes may well be the source of the GM residues in the honeys.', 'en_US'),
(1772, 'The safety assessment of novel foods and concepts to determine their safety in use.', 'No abstract', 'en_US'),
(1773, 'Genetically engineered food labels, information or warning to consumers?', 'Since 1999, one of the major issues surrounding genetically engineered foods is a concern about mandatory food labeling. This study investigated framing effects of genetically engineered food labeling on consumers'' attitudes and purchase intentions toward genetically engineered food products. According to the results of this study, participants showed different attitudes and purchase intentions toward three different types of food labels (e.g., engineering (bio/genetic), biotechnology, and genetic modification). The framing effects of three types of labels indicated that participants exposed to ''engineering'' (i.e., ''bioengineering'' or ''genetic engineering'') labels showed higher perceived benefits, lower perceived risks, more positive attitudes, and higher purchase intentions than those who are exposed to ''biotechnology'' and ''genetic modification'' labels. Framing of food labels was found to play an important role in shaping consumers'' perceptions of, and attitudes and behavioral intentions toward, genetically engineered food products. This gives a helpful practical implication regarding how to create an effective marketing message to marketing communicators, public relations practitioners, risk communicators, and public policy makers.', 'en_US'),
(1774, 'Golden Indica and Japonica rice lines amenable to deregulation', 'As an important step toward free access and, thus, impact of GoldenRice, a freedom-to-operate situation has been achieved for developing countries for the technology involved. Specifically, to carry the invention beyond its initial ''proof-of-concept'' status in a Japonica rice (Oryza sativa) cultivar, we report here on two transformed elite Indica varieties (IR64 and MTL250) plus one Japonica variety Taipei 309. Indica varieties are predominantly consumed in the areas with vitamin A deficiency. To conform with regulatory constraints, we changed the vector backbone, investigated the absence of beyond-border transfer, and relied on Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation to obtain defined integration patterns. To avoid an antibiotic selection system, we now rely exclusively on phosphomannose isomerase as the selectable marker. Single integrations were given a preference to minimize potential epigenetic effects in subsequent generations. These novel lines, now in the T3 generation, are highly valuable because they are expected to more readily receive approval for follow-up studies such as nutritional and risk assessments and for breeding approaches leading to locally adapted variety development.', 'en_US'),
(1775, 'Evidence of contamination of pedigred canola (Brassica napus) seedlots in western Canada with genetically engineered herbicide traits', 'The objective of this study was to survey pedigreed canola (Brassica napus L.) seedlots for contaminating herbicide resistance traits because of complaints from farmers regarding glyphosate [N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine]-resistant canola volunteers occurring unexpectedly in their fields at densities and in patterns that suggested that pollen-mediated gene flow from neighboring fields in previous years was not the source of contamination. Twenty-seven unique, commercial certified canola seedlot samples were collected. Glyphosate-resistant seedlot samples were not collected. Canola samples were planted in the field, and when the canola had two to four true leaves, glyphosate, glufosinate [2-amino-4-(hydroxymethylphosphinyl)butanoic acid], and thifensulfuron {methyl 3-[[[[(4-methoxy-6-methyl-1,3,5-triazin-2-yl)amino]carbonyl]amino]sulfonyl]-2-thiophenecarboxylate} herbicides were applied. Surviving canola plants were counted. Of the 27 seedlots, 14 had contamination levels above 0.25% and therefore failed the 99.75% cultivar purity guideline for certified canola seed. Three seedlots had glyphosate resistance contamination levels in excess of 2.0%. Unexpected contamination (even at 0.25%) can cause problems for producers that practice direct seeding and depend on glyphosate for nonselective, broad-spectrum weed control. To avoid unexpected problems and costs, it is important that farmers are cognizant of the high probability that pedigreed canola seedlots are cross-contaminated with the various herbicide resistance traits. ', 'en_US'),
(1776, 'Analytical composition and rumen digestibility of isogenic and transgenic corn varieties', 'Two different corn cultivars were compared with their genetically modified counterparts containing the gene coding for the Cry1A(b) protein of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). There were no analytical differences between the conventional and transgenic genotype kernels, whereas stovers from Bt+ plants had higher sugar (148.3 g kg-1 versus 115.9 g kg-1; P < 0.01) and lower NDF (592.7 g kg-1 versus 631.5 g kg-1; P < 0.05) contents than Bt- maize. A comparison of the amino acid profiles showed higher phenylalanine content in kernels from the Bt+ plants (49.1 g kg-1 vs 47.8 g kg-1; P < 0.05) which was, however, not reflected in the protein content. The initial dry matter rumen degradability of the isogenic kernels was higher than that of Bt+ varieties (569.5 g kg-1 vs 543.7 g kg-1; P < 0.05), whereas the lower fibre content increased the dry matter (548.6 g kg-1 vs 526.6 g kg-1; P < 0.01) and protein (695.6 g kg-1 vs 647.9 g kg-1; P < 0.01) degradability after 24 h of incubation in stovers from Bt+ plants. The NDF degradability was higher in Bt- corn varieties because of the higher proportion of hemicellulose in the total fibre.', 'en_US'),
(1777, 'Safety assessment of Bt 176 maize in broiler nutrition: degradation of maize-DNA and its metabolic fate.', 'No abstract available', 'en_US'),
(1778, 'Reliability of food measurements: the application of proficiency testing to GMO analysis', 'This paper reviews the experience of the Food Analysis Performance Assessment Scheme (FAPAS®) in operating a proficiency testing scheme for the analysis of genetically modified (GM) food. Initial rounds of proficiency testing have shown a tendency for laboratories to over-estimate GM levels, results obtained by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) detection methods to be significantly different and that data are skewed and not normally distributed until log-transformed. During the initial rounds, it was found that for analysis and quantification of GM material, it was not possible to assign a target value for standard deviation external to the round data, from which performance could be assessed. However, when working in a log scale, the internally derived, robust standard deviation (?C) was found to be constant and could be used directly to predict a target value (C) for performance assessment. Results from the first four rounds have provided valuable information and a general overview of laboratory ability. Choosing a target value for standard deviation which reflects current best practice has enabled laboratory performance to be assessed. Issues surrounding the assessment of performance are discussed which highlight some of the implications raised as a result of this initial assessment, regarding the enforcement of European labelling legislation.', 'en_US'),
(1779, 'Databases on Biotechnology and Biosafety of GMOs', 'Due to the involvement of scientific, industrial, commercial and public sectors of society, the complexity of the issues concerning the safety of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) for the environment, agriculture, and human and animal health calls for a wide coverage of information. Accordingly, development of the field of biotechnology, along with concerns related to the fate of released GMOs, has led to a rapid development of tools for disseminating such information. As a result, there is a growing number of databases aimed at collecting and storing information related to GMOs. Most of the sites deal with information on environmental releases, field trials, transgenes and related sequences, regulations and legislation, risk assessment documents, and literature. Databases are mainly established and managed by scientific, national or international authorities, and are addressed towards scientists, government officials, policy makers, consumers, farmers, environmental groups and civil society representatives. This complexity can lead to an overlapping of information. The purpose of the present review is to analyse the relevant databases currently available on the web, providing comments on their vastly different information and on the structure of the sites pertaining to different users. A preliminary overview on the development of these sites during the last decade, at both the national and international level, is also provided.', 'en_US'),
(1780, 'The GMO debate.  Towards new wasy of regulating innovationand risks? (Les OGM en debat.  Vers de nouveaux modes de gouvernance de l''innovation et des risques?)', 'This paper presents four models for the governance of innovation and risks, based on different views of the public and of science. These models address two key issues in current policy debates: the question of public participation and of the management of uncertainty. These models are used to highlight the difference between the transformation of the use of scientific expertise in the US in the 70''s and ongoing developments in the European Union.', 'en_US'),
(1781, 'Transgenic plants expressing two Bacillus thuringiensis toxins delay insect resistance evolution.', 'Preventing insect pests from developing resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxins produced by transgenic crops is a major challenge for agriculture. Theoretical models suggest that plants containing two dissimilar Bt toxin genes (''pyramided'' plants) have the potential to delay resistance more effectively than single-toxin plants used sequentially or in mosaics. To test these predictions, we developed a unique model system consisting of Bt transgenic broccoli plants and the diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella. We conducted a greenhouse study using an artificial population of diamondback moths carrying genes for resistance to the Bt toxins Cry1Ac and Cry1C at frequencies of about 0.10 and 0.20, respectively. After 24 generations of selection, resistance to pyramided two-gene plants was significantly delayed as compared with resistance to single-gene plants deployed in mosaics, and to Cry1Ac toxin when it was the first used in a sequence. These results have important implications for the development and regulation of transgenic insecticidal plants.', 'en_US'),
(1782, 'On the rationale and interpretation of the Farm Scale Evalutations of genetically modified herbicide-tolerant crops', 'Farmland biodiversity and food webs were compared in conventional and genetically modified herbicide-tolerant (GMHT) crops of beet (Beta vulgaris L.), maize (Zea mays L.) and both spring and winter oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.). GMHT and conventional varieties were sown in a split-field experimental design, at 60-70 sites for each crop, spread over three starting years beginning in 2000. This paper provides a background to the study and the rationale for its design and interpretation. It shows how data on environment, field management and the biota are used to assess the current state of the ecosystem, to define the typical arable field and to devise criteria for selecting, sampling and auditing experimental sites in the Farm Scale Evaluations. The main functional and taxonomic groups in the habitat are ranked according to their likely sensitivity to GMHT cropping, and the most responsive target organisms are defined. The value of the seedbank as a baseline and as an indicator of historical trends is proposed. Evidence from experiments during the twentieth century is analysed to show that large changes in field management have affected sensitive groups in the biota by ca. 50% during a year or short run of years - a figure against which to assess any positive or negative effects of GMHT cropping. The analysis leads to a summary of factors that were, and were not, examined in the first 3 years of the study and points to where modelling can be used to extrapolate the effects to the landscape and the agricultural region.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(1783, 'Weeds in fields with contrasting conventional and genetically modified herbicide-tolerant crops.  I.  Effects on abundance and diversity', 'We compared the seedbanks, seed rains, plant densities and biomasses of weeds under two contrasting systems of management in beet, maize and spring oilseed rape. Weed seedbank and plant density were measured at the same locations in two subsequent seasons. About 60 fields were sown with each crop. Each field was split, one half being sown with a conventional variety managed according to the farmer''s normal practice, the other half being sown with a genetically modified herbicide-tolerant (GMHT) variety, with weeds controlled by a broad-spectrum herbicide. In beet and rape, plant densities shortly after sowing were higher in the GMHT treatment. Following weed control in conventional beet, plant densities were approximately one-fifth of those in GMHT beet. In both beet and rape, this effect was reversed after the first application of broad-spectrum herbicide, so that late-season plant densities were lower in the GMHT treatments. Biomass and seed rain in GMHT crops were between one-third and one-sixth of those in conventional treatments. The effects of differing weed-seed returns in these two crops persisted in the seedbank: densities following the GMHT treatment were about 20% lower than those following the conventional treatment. The effect of growing maize was quite different. Weed density was higher throughout the season in the GMHT treatment. Late-season biomass was 82% higher and seed rain was 87% higher than in the conventional treatment. The difference was not subsequently detectable in the seedbank because the total seed return was low after both treatments. In all three crops, weed diversity was little affected by the treatment, except for transient effects immediately following herbicide application.', 'en_US'),
(1784, 'Weeds in fields with contrasting conventional and genetically modified herbicide-tolerant crops.  II.  Effects on individual species', 'We compared the effects of the management of genetically modified herbicide-tolerant (GMHT) and conventional beet, maize and spring oilseed rape on 12 weed species. We sampled the seedbank before and after cropping. During the season we counted plants and measured seed rain and biomass. Ratios of densities were used to calculate emergence, survival, reproduction and seedbank change. Treatments significantly affected the biomass of six species in beet, eight in maize and five in spring oilseed rape. The effects were generally consistent, with biomass lower in GMHT beet and spring oilseed rape and higher in GMHT maize. With few exceptions, emergence was higher in GMHT crops. Subsequent survival was significantly lowered for eight species in beet and six in spring oilseed rape in the GMHT treatments. It was increased for five species in maize and one in spring oilseed rape. Significant effects on seedbank change were found for four species. However, for many species in beet and spring oilseed rape (19 out of 24 cases), seed densities were lower in the seedbank after GMHT cropping. These differences compounded over time would result in large decreases in population densities of arable weeds. In maize, populations may increase.', 'en_US'),
(1785, 'Invertebrate responses to the management of genetically modified herbicide-tolerant and conventional spring crops. I. Soil-surface-active invertebrates', 'The effects of herbicide management of genetically modified herbicide-tolerant (GMHT) beet, maize and spring oilseed rape on the abundance and diversity of soil-surface-active invertebrates were assessed. Most effects did not differ between years, environmental zones or initial seedbanks or between sugar and fodder beet. This suggests that the results may be treated as generally applicable to agricultural situations throughout the UK for these crops. The direction of the effects was evenly balanced between increases and decreases in counts in the GMHT compared with the conventional treatment. Most effects involving a greater capture in the GMHT treatments occurred in maize, whereas most effects involving a smaller capture were in beet and spring oilseed rape. Differences between GMHT and conventional crop herbicide management had a significant effect on the capture of most surface-active invertebrate species and higher taxa tested in at least one crop, and these differences reflected the phenology and ecology of the invertebrates. Counts of carabids that feed on weed seeds were smaller in GMHT beet and spring oilseed rape but larger in GMHT maize. In contrast, collembolan detritivore counts were significantly larger under GMHT crop management.', 'en_US'),
(1786, 'Invertebrate responses to the management of geneticaly modified herbicide-tolerant and conventional spring crops. II. Within-field epigeal and aerial arthropods.', 'The effects of the management of genetically modified herbicide-tolerant (GMHT) crops on the abundances of aerial and epigeal arthropods were assessed in 66 beet, 68 maize and 67 spring oilseed rape sites as part of the Farm Scale Evaluations of GMHT crops. Most higher taxa were insensitive to differences between GMHT and conventional weed management, but significant effects were found on the abundance of at least one group within each taxon studied. Numbers of butterflies in beet and spring oilseed rape and of Heteroptera and bees in beet were smaller under the relevant GMHT crop management, whereas the abundance of Collembola was consistently greater in all GMHT crops. Generally, these effects were specific to each crop type, reflected the phenology and ecology of the arthropod taxa, were indirect and related to herbicide management. These results apply generally to agriculture across Britain, and could be used in mathematical models to predict the possible long-term effects of the widespread adoption of GMHT technology. The results for bees and butterflies relate to foraging preferences and might or might not translate into effects on population densities, depending on whether adoption leads to forage reductions over large areas. These species, and the detritivore Collembola, may be useful indicator species for future studies of GMHT management.', 'en_US'),
(1787, 'Invertebrates and vegetation of field margins adjacent to crops subject to contrasting herbicide regimes in the Farm Scale Evaluations of genetically modified herbicide-tolerant crops', 'The effects of management of genetically modified herbicide-tolerant (GMHT) crops on adjacent field margins were assessed for 59 maize, 66 beet and 67 spring oilseed rape sites. Fields were split into halves, one being sown with a GMHT crop and the other with the equivalent conventional non-GMHT crop. Margin vegetation was recorded in three components of the field margins. Most differences were in the tilled area, with fewer smaller effects mirroring them in the verge and boundary. In spring oilseed rape fields, the cover, flowering and seeding of plants were 25%, 44% and 39% lower, respectively, in the GMHT uncropped tilled margins. Similarly, for beet, flowering and seeding were 34% and 39% lower, respectively, in the GMHT margins. For maize, the effect was reversed, with plant cover and flowering 28% and 67% greater, respectively, in the GMHT half. Effects on butterflies mirrored these vegetation effects, with 24% fewer butterflies in margins of GMHT spring oilseed rape. The likely cause is the lower nectar supply in GMHT tilled margins and crop edges. Few large treatment differences were found for bees, gastropods or other invertebrates. Scorching of vegetation by herbicide-spray drift was on average 1.6% on verges beside conventional crops and 3.7% beside GMHT crops, the difference being significant for all three crops.', 'en_US'),
(1788, 'Responses of plants and invertebrate trophic groups to contrasting herbicide regimes in the Farm Scale Evaluations of genetically modified herbicide-tolerant crops', 'Effects of genetically modified herbicide-tolerant (GMHT) and conventional crop management on invertebrate trophic groups (herbivores, detritivores, pollinators, predators and parasitoids) were compared in beet, maize and spring oilseed rape sites throughout the UK. These trophic groups were influenced by season, crop species and GMHT management. Many groups increased twofold to fivefold in abundance between early and late summer, and differed up to 10-fold between crop species. GMHT management superimposed relatively small (less than twofold), but consistent, shifts in plant and insect abundance, the extent and direction of these effects being dependent on the relative efficacies of comparable conventional herbicide regimes. In general, the biomass of weeds was reduced under GMHT management in beet and spring oilseed rape and increased in maize compared with conventional treatments. This change in resource availability had knock-on effects on higher trophic levels except in spring oilseed rape where herbivore resource was greatest. Herbivores, pollinators and natural enemies changed in abundance in the same directions as their resources, and detritivores increased in abundance under GMHT management across all crops. The result of the later herbicide application in GMHT treatments was a shift in resource from the herbivore food web to the detritivore food web. The Farm Scale Evaluations have demonstrated over 3 years and throughout the UK that herbivores, detritivores and many of their predators and parasitoids in arable systems are sensitive to the changes in weed communities that result from the introduction of new herbicide regimes.', 'en_US'),
(1789, 'Seasonal changes in the rhizosphere microbial communities associated with field-grown genetically modified canola (Brassica napus)', 'The introduction of transgenic plants into agricultural ecosystems has raised the question of the ecological impact of these plants on nontarget organisms, such as soil bacteria. Although differences in both the genetic structure and the metabolic function of the microbial communities associated with some transgenic plant lines have been established, it remains to be seen whether these differences have an ecological impact on the soil microbial communities. We conducted a 2-year, multiple-site field study in which rhizosphere samples associated with a transgenic canola variety and a conventional canola variety were sampled at six times throughout the growing season. The objectives of this study were to identify differences between the rhizosphere microbial community associated with the transgenic plants and the rhizosphere microbial community associated with the conventional canola plants and to determine whether the differences were permanent or depended on the presence of the plant. Community-level physiological profiles, fatty acid methyl ester profiles, and terminal amplified ribosomal DNA restriction analysis profiles of rhizosphere microbial communities were compared to the profiles of the microbial community associated with an unplanted, fallow field plot. Principal-component analysis showed that there was variation in the microbial community associated with both canola variety and growth season. Importantly, while differences between the microbial communities associated with the transgenic plant variety were observed at several times throughout the growing season, all analyses indicated that when the microbial communities were assessed after winter, there were no differences between microbial communities from field plots that contained harvested transgenic canola plants and microbial communities from field plots that did not contain plants during the field season. Hence, the changes in the microbial community structure associated with genetically modified plants were temporary and did not persist into the next field season.', 'en_US'),
(1790, 'Transgenic maize and the evolution of landrace diversity in Mexico: the importance of farmers'' behavior', 'The discovery of transgenic products in maize (Zea mays) landraces planted by small-scale Mexican farmers (Quist and Chapela, 2001, 2002; Christou, 2002; Editorial Note, 2002) raised questions about how the commercial introduction of transgenic maize varieties might affect the traditional agricultural systems of small-scale farmers. A key concern is whether their introduction will have a deleterious effect on the diversity of maize landraces that these farmers maintain. Mexican agriculture, including maize production, has a bimodal structure (Bailey and Roberts, 1983; Nadal, 2000). On the one hand, a large number of small-scale farmers in rain-fed areas grow maize mainly for domestic consumption, though they may occasionally sell some surplus. On the other hand, a relatively small number of commercially oriented farmers practice large-scale maize production, mainly in irrigated areas, and their objectives and technological needs resemble those of their counter-parts in the industrialized world. These large-scale farmers are the logical market for commercial transgenic maize varieties. Although small-scale farmers, who rarely purchase commercial seed, are an unlikely market for transgenic varieties, the introduction of transgenic maize varieties may nevertheless have important consequences for them. In this paper, we identify some of those consequences and explore their implications. Specifically, we examine how transgenes may diffuse in traditional agricultural systems, describe the mechanisms that encourage their diffusion, and discuss the implications for the loss of maize diversity and for biosafety risk assessment. Finally, we indicate how the issues surrounding the diffusion of transgenic varieties in Mexico''s traditional systems may prove relevant in other countries and crop species. An important concern in assessing the risk of growing a genetically modified crop in its center of domestication (i.e. where its wild relatives are present) is gene flow between the transgenic crop and its wild relatives. Even though data on this subject are limited, the potential impact of such gene flow has been under discussion for some time (Serratos et al., 1997; Blancas et al., 2002; Gepts and Papa, 2003). In this paper, we will focus on the less-explored issue of maize-to-maize gene flow, which plays an important role in the evolution of maize populations in Mexico (Louette et al., 1997; Perales et al., 2003a, 2003b) and other countries, such as Burkina Faso (Sanou et al., 1997).', 'en_US'),
(1791, 'Gene flow from cultivated rice (Oryza sativa) to its weedy and wild relatives', 'Background and Aims: Transgene escape through gene flow from genetically modified (GM) crops to their wild relative species may potentially cause environmental biosafety problems. The aim of this study was to assess the extent of gene flow between cultivated rice and two of its close relatives under field conditions. Methods:  Experiments were conducted at two sites in Korea and China to determine gene flow from cultivated rice (Oryza sativa L.) to weedy rice (O. sativa f. spontanea) and common wild rice (O. rufipogon Griff.), respectively, under special field conditions mimicking the natural occurrence of the wild relatives in Asia. Herbicide resistance (bar) and SSR molecular finger printing were used as markers to accurately determine gene flow frequencies from cultivated rice varieties to their wild relatives. Key Results:  Gene flow frequency from cultivated rice was detected as between approx. 0·011 and 0·046% to weedy rice and between approx. 1·21 and 2·19% to wild rice under the field conditions. Conclusions: Gene flow occurs with a noticeable frequency from cultivated rice to its weedy and wild relatives, and this might cause potential ecological consequences. It is recommended that isolation zones should be established with sufficient distances between GM rice varieties and wild rice populations to avoid potential outcrosses. Also, GM rice should not be released when it has inserted genes that can significantly enhance the ecological fitness of weedy rice in regions where weedy rice is already abundant and causing great problems.', 'en_US'),
(1792, 'Sustainability of insect resistance management strategies for transgenic Bt corn', 'Increasing interest in the responsible management of technology in the industrial and agricultural sectors of the economy has been met thorough the development of broadly applicable tools to assess the ''sustainability'' of new technologies. An arena ripe for application of such analysis is the deployment of transgenic crops. The new transgenic pesticidal or plant-incorporated protectant (PIP) crops have seen widespread application in the United States based on the features of higher yield, lower applications of insecticides, and control of mycotoxin content. However, open rejection of these new crops in Europe and in other countries has been a surprising message and has limited their worldwide acceptance. The US Environmental Protection Agency''s (USEPA) Office of Pesticide Programs (OPP) has worked on the development and analysis of insect resistance management (IRM) strategies and has mandated specific IRM requirements for Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) crops since 1995 under the Food, Fungicide, Insecticide, and Rodenticide Act. Improvement of data quality and sustainability of IRM strategies have been targeted in an ongoing partnership between the USEPA Office of Research and Development and the Office of Pesticide Programs that will further enhance the agency''s ability to develop sustainable insect resistance management strategies for transgenic field corn (Bt corn) producing B. thuringiensis (Bt) insecticidal proteins.', 'en_US'),
(1793, 'Capacity building in agricultural biotechnology in Turkey', 'Turkey, situated at the junction of two continents, benefits both from its rich Asian legacy and its proximity to neighboring European countries. Although the level of socioeconomic development places the country clearly in the group of developing countries, Turkey has been a candidate country for admission to the European Union (EU) since 1999. As a result, the conditions for capacity building in agricultural biotechnology include elements from both the industrialized and developing countries. Because of its favorable climate and time-tested farming traditions dating back to ancient Mesopotamia, the country possesses one of the richest floras in the world. This review attempts to illuminate the role and importance of local actors in introducing modern biotechnology to the Turkish agricultural system. Agricultural biotechnology, specifically plant biotechnology, has a high priority in the Turkish government''s program. Public-funded research and education in this field is given due priority, but research by the private sector is relatively poorly funded. The ongoing field trials with genetically modified seeds are conducted mostly by multinational companies whose aim it is to commercialize the genetically modified organisms (GMOs) as soon as legislation concerning biotechnology is implemented. The attitude of the big farm owners to genetically modified crops is positive because they expect economic advantages from these crops. On the other hand, public awareness about genetically modified food is quite low, and neither the consumer organizations nor the media represent a particular power in this area. Thus, the power centers in agricultural biotechnology are the government and the multinational biotech companies. The local industry, the consumers, and the media have relatively less input. Moreover, communication between groups is fairly poor, and this contributes to a growing gap between the strong and the weak actors. Turkey has already decided to implement the EU regulation in contained use and the deliberate release of GMOs, which has been shaped in the European sociopolitical environment where the consumers and their organizations represent a powerful force, and where the power constellation between the actors is quite different. Nevertheless, it can be argued, that this route might still be the right choice for Turkey during the phase of introducing this high-tech method of production to its agriculture.', 'en_US'),
(1794, 'The environmental impacts of genetically modified plants: challenges to decision making', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1795, 'Consumers'' acceptance of (and resistance to) genetically modified foods in high-income countries: effects of labels and information in an uncertain environment', 'No abstract', 'en_US'),
(1796, 'Nutritional and safety assessments of foods and feeds nutritionally improved through biotechnology:  an Executive Summary.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1797, 'Horticultural biotechnology faces significant economic and market barriers', 'Technological change has driven economic progress in agriculture and will continue to play a crucial role in the 21st century. The latest wave of technological change in agriculture is based in molecular biology. Will horticulture participate? Genetically engineered crop varieties have been adopted on a wide scale in some agronomic crops, but horticultural crops face larger hurdles. High costs for research, development and regulatory approval combined with the small acreages planted and the diversity of varieties, will limit the potential for profitable applications of biotechnology to many fruits and vegetables, tree fruits and nuts, and nursery crops. In addition, there are market barriers. Like most important changes in agriculture, modern biotechnology has met with spirited political opposition from some quarters. Threats of political action may discourage food manufacturers and retailers from adopting biotech products that are wanted by some consumers and may be profitable for growers.', 'en_US'),
(1798, 'Impact of genetically-modified crops on soil- and plant-associated microbial communities.', 'Transgenic or genetically modified plants possess novel genes that impart beneficial characteristics such as herbicide resistance. One of the least understood areas in the environmental risk assessment of genetically modified crops is their impact on soil- and plant-associated microbial communities. The potential for interaction between transgenic plants and plant residues and the soil microbial community is not well understood. The recognition that these interactions could change microbial biodiversity and affect ecosystem functioning has initiated a limited number of studies in the area. At this time, studies have shown the possibility that transgenes can be transferred to native soil microorganisms through horizontal gene transfer, although there is not evidence of this occurring in the soil. Furthermore, novel proteins have been shown to be released from transgenic plants into the soil ecosystem, and their presence can influence the biodiversity of the microbial community by selectively stimulating the growth of organisms that can use them. Microbial diversity can be altered when associated with transgenic plants; however, these effects are both variable and transient. Soil- and plant-associated microbial communities are influenced not only by plant species and transgene insertion but also by environmental factors such as field site and sampling date. Minor alterations in the diversity of the microbial community could affect soil health and ecosystem functioning, and therefore, the impact that plant variety may have on the dynamics of the rhizosphere microbial populations and in turn plant growth and health and ecosystem sustainability, requires further study.', 'en_US'),
(1799, 'New biotechnological applications of coconuts', 'Coconut is a major crop of many poor nations. The present paper shows with inexpensive fluorescence microscopy of the enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP), that coconut water has the capability of synthesizing proteins from recombinant DNA vectors.  After only 4 hrs of 100 pM application of the EGFP plasmid (pEGFP), a strong fluorescent signal was detected with an off-the-shelf, low-tech CCD webcam.  Since natural coconut water is sterile, this heat-stable delivery system may be a good option for the dissemination of food supplements and pharmaceuticals in poor nations. As expensive substances could be expressed in coconut water, through bioreactor technology or micropropagation, the concepts presented here may prove invaluable to the economic and social advancement of many developing countries.', 'en_US'),
(1800, 'Cassava and the future of starch', 'The nutritive reserves of cassava is made up of starch,  which is one of the most important products synthesized by plants that is consumed as food and used in industrial processes.  The currently increasing cassava production will lead to higher amount of starch available making it cheaper for industrial processes, and opening up new markets.  There is also abundant capacity in many tropical countries such as Nigeria to increase cassava production.', 'en_US'),
(1801, 'The multinational biosafety project of the Organization of American States', 'The Organization of American States is supporting the project ''Biosafety Regulations in Latin America and The Caribbean within the framework of the International Biosafety Protocol''. The general objective is to strengthen national skills for the assessment and management of risks of biotechnology food products, and to build up public awareness about their benefits and risks in the participant countries, with the ultimate goal to promote their safe and sustainable use within a protective and trusting environment for the public. The first phase has been focused on the evaluation of the political and regulatory systems in Chile, Peru and Colombia, identification of needs, and development of a series of biosafety seminar-workshops in the three countries, with the participation of distinguished foreign experts. The second phase, which started in March 2003, has been extended to six countries of Central America and The Caribbean. The project is helping to identify the weaknesses and needs for the establishment of the biosafety protocol in each participating country. It has also establish the specific training needs and is given the bases for the design of general outlines of biosafety training plans, which will contribute to an efficient implementation of the International Biosafety Protocol. The project it is also allowing to coordinate actions between the countries for a better implementation of the protocol at a regional level. On the other hand, the project has allowed to assemble, around discussion tables, international experts with the main representatives of regulatory and academic institutions, business enterprises and NGOs, as well as with congressmen in scientific and technological matters and the protection of biodiversity. Thus, the project has permitted the establishment of cooperation linkages and has contributed to reinforce the notion of the importance of biosafety for national development and the preservation of local biodiversity.', 'en_US'),
(1802, 'Soybean natural cross-pollination rates under field conditions', 'Recent concerns regarding within-crop transgene flow stimulated this research to update natural crosspollination rates in conventional sowings of modern soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] in the Mississippi Delta.  Two experiments were conducted in 2001 and 2002 using two soybean cultivars, ''Pace'' (white-flowered) and ''DP3588'' (purple-flowered), selected for their equivalent flowering dates. The experiments utilized the dominance of purple flower color over white flower color to identify natural cross-pollinations. In the first experiment, 12 rows of Pace (white-flowered) flanked on each side by four rows of DP3588 (purple flowered) were sown on 10 May 2001. Seed were harvested by row from each of the Pace rows and examined for natural cross-pollinations in the next generation. In total, 73 512 potential hybrid plants were examined and natural cross-pollination rates ranged from 0.41% at 0.9 m from the pollen source to 0.03% at 5.4 m from the pollen source. These values were consistent with values previously reported in the literature. In the second experiment, seed of Pace and DP3588 were alternately sown 15.2 cm apart within a row in 2001. At maturity, 167 Pace plants (white-flowered) were harvested and a total of 19 151 progeny were evaluated for natural cross-pollinations in the next generation. The progeny of 56 (33.5%) of the 167 parent plants showed no evidence of natural crosspollination.  The progeny of the remaining 111 plants exhibited natural cross-pollination rates ranging from 0.65 to 6.32% and averaged 1.8%. The maximum rates reported here are considerably higher than most previously reported rates. The results of these two experiments highlight the potential for within-crop transgene flow in soybean.', 'en_US'),
(1803, 'Effect of Bt corn leaf suspension on food consumption by Chilo partellus and life history parameters of its parasitoid Cotesia flavipes under laboratory conditions', 'Laboratory scale experiments were conducted in order to assess the potential effect of Bacillus thuringiensis-corn leaf material on the parasitized herbivore Chilo partellus Swinhoe (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) and on its parasitoid Cotesia flavipes (Cameron) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). Food consumption and relative consumption rate of parasitized hosts exposed to Bt-corn leaf-material were strongly reduced compared to the control. The number of hosts allowing parasitoid larvae to complete their development was also reduced in the Bt group. Moreover, the fresh weight of parasitoid pupae and the dry weight of parasitoid adults was lower than in the control. Only in the Bt group, were strong negative correlations found between food intake by the host, and the number of parasitoid cocoons. Strong positive correlations were also only found in the Bt group, between food intake and parasitoid development time. As effects of Bt on the oviposition behaviour of C.flavipes could be excluded, differences between the Bt group and the control could only be due to the effect of Bt toxin on the parasitoid larva developing inside the host. Whenever food consumption can be measured, the methods used in this study are proposed as a model for future risk assessments on different types of insect-resistant transgenic plants, herbivores, parasitoids, and predators.', 'en_US'),
(1804, 'Relative stability of transgene DNA fragments from GM rapeseed in mixed ruminal cultures', 'The use of transgenic crops as feeds for ruminant animals has prompted study of the possible uptake of transgene fragments by ruminal micro-organisms and/or intestinal absorption of fragments surviving passage through the rumen. The persistence in buffered ruminal contents of seven different recombinant DNA fragments from GM rapeseed expressing the 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS) transgene was tracked using PCR. Parental and transgenic (i.e. glyphosphate-tolerant; Roundup Ready®, Monsanto Company, St Louis, MO, USA) rapeseed were incubated for 0, 2, 4, 8, 12, 24 and 48 h as whole seeds, cracked seeds, rapeseed meal, and as pelleted, barley-based diets containing 65 g rapeseed meal/kg. The seven transgene fragments ranged from 179 to 527 bp and spanned the entire 1363 bp EPSPS transgene. A 180 bp ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco) small subunit fragment and a 466 bp 16S rDNA fragment were used as controls for endogenous rapeseed DNA and bacterial DNA respectively. The limit of detection of the PCR assay, established using negative controls spiked with known quantities of DNA, was 12·5 pg. Production of gas and NH3 was monitored throughout the incubation and confirmed active in vitro fermentation. Bacterial DNA was detected in all sample types at all time points. Persistence patterns of endogenous (Rubisco) and recombinant (EPSPS) rapeseed DNA were inversely related to substrate digestibility (amplifiable for 48, 8 and 4 h in whole or cracked seeds, meal and diets respectively), but did not differ between parental and GM rapeseed, nor among fragments. Detection of fragments was representative of persistence of the whole transgene. No EPSPS fragments were amplifiable in microbial DNA, suggesting that transformation had not occurred during the 48 h incubation. Uptake of transgenic DNA fragments by ruminal bacteria is probably precluded or time-limited by rapid degradation of plant DNA upon plant cell lysis.', 'en_US'),
(1805, 'Immune response in mice to ingested soya protein: antibody production, oral tolerance and maternal transfer', 'While allergic reactions to soya are increasingly investigated, the normal immune response to ingested soya is scarcely described. In the present study, we wanted to characterise the soya-specific immune response in healthy mice ingesting soya protein. Mice fed a soya-containing diet (F0) and mice of the first (F1) and second (F2) offspring generation bred on a soya protein-free diet were used either directly or were transferred between the soya-containing and soya protein-free diet during pregnancy or neonatal life. The mice were compared as to levels of naturally occurring specific antibodies analysed by ELISA, and to the presence of oral tolerance detected as a suppressed antibody and cell-proliferation response upon immunisation with soya protein. F0 mice generated soya-specific antibodies, while oral tolerance to the same soya proteins was also clearly induced. When F0 dams were transferred to soya protein-free feed before mating, the F1 and F2 offspring generations showed no significantly different response, indicating that soya-specific immune components were not maternally transmitted. However, the ingestion of dietary soya protein by F1 mice during late pregnancy and lactation caused a lasting antibody response in the offspring, but in this case in the absence of oral tolerance. This indicates that, under certain conditions, factors involved in spontaneous antibody production can be transmitted from mother to offspring. Understanding the immune response to soya protein ingested under healthy conditions is important in the assessment of adverse effects of soya protein and in the use of animal allergy models. The present results add to this understanding.', 'en_US'),
(1806, 'A faunistic approach to assess potential side effects of genetically modified Bt corn on non-target arthropods under field conditions', 'A faunistic study investigating the potential side-effects of corn (Zea mays) genetically modified to express a truncated Cry1Ab protein derived from Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki, on non-target arthropods was carried out under field conditions. The communities of non-target arthropods in the soil, on the leaves and flying in the crop area were monitored throughout the growing season. Water-treated, untransformed corn served as a control, and a spray application of a bacterial Bt insecticide (Delfin WG) and a synthetic insecticide (Karate Xpress) used to control the European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis; Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) acted as positive reference treatments. Results were analyzed using a principal response curve. Significantly lower infestations by the lepidopteran target species O. nubilalis were observed in the Bt-corn plots compared to the control. No effects of Bt-corn on the communities of soil dwelling and non-target plant dwelling arthropods were observed. A trend towards a community effect on flying arthropods was observed with lower abundance of adult Lepidoptera, flies in the families Lonchopteridae, Mycetophilidae and Syrphidae, and the hymenopteran parasitoids Ceraphronidae. Effects were weak and restricted to two sampling dates corresponding to anthesis. A short but statistically significant effect of Karate Xpress and Delfin was observed on the community of plant dwellers and a prolonged effect of Karate Xpress on the soil dwellers.', 'en_US'),
(1807, 'Engineered plants with elevated vitamin E: a nutraceutical success story', 'Vitamin E has been touted as a panacea for age-related diseases, including cardiovascular disease and Alzheimer''s disease and, thus, the demand for this nutraceutical has increased dramatically in recent years. This demand has, in turn, driven research to increase vitamin E production from plant sources. We have summarized the cumulative work of several groups in this area, describing the current status of efforts to bioengineer plants for elevated vitamin E content.', 'en_US'),
(1808, 'How can genetically modified foods be made publicly acceptable?', 'A recent study by Lusk suggests that consumers might voluntarily pay more for a genetically modified (GM) food than a non-GM equivalent if made aware of the possible health benefits. However, other research indicates that the acceptability of novel hazards is affected by a variety of factors, in addition to benefits, and that making agricultural biotechnology publicly acceptable will be more complex than indicated by the results from Lusk''s study.', 'en_US'),
(1809, 'Consumer willingness to pay for genetically modified food labels in a market with diverse information: evidence from experimental auctions', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1810, 'Effects of the GM controversy on Iowa corn-soybean farmers'' acreage allocation decisions', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1811, 'Liquid phase hybridization based PCR ELISA for detection of genetically modified organisms in food', 'Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) screening for presence of transgenic components in food is becoming a routine method in modern food analysis. To develop a high throughput method for quantitation of the PCR products is needed for automatic industry analysis. Here we described an in situ liquid-phase hybridization (LPH) for PCR-enzyme linked immunoabsorbent assays (PCR-ELISA) that was widely used for quantitation of PCR products. In LPH-PCR-ELISA, the biotinylated PCR product was hybridized with digoxigenin-labeled probes in the PCR reaction mixture immediately after PCR cycles and the hybridizations was incorporated into the PCR program. Subsequent enzyme conversion of substrate gave distinct OD values when detecting samples with genetically modified organisms (GMOs) labels in the different concentrations. The described method enabled a fast, specific, and accurate detection of GMOs components in food products and thus can be developed to a full-automatic method for routine analysis of raw and processed food products in large sample number.', 'en_US'),
(1812, 'GMO and sustainable development in less favoured regions-the need for alternative paths of development', 'The risk assessment for new technologies, like the use of GMO in the agricultural production, becomes enormously complex. It cannot be limited to purely natural?scientific analysis. Socio-economic factors need to be considered as well. The active promotion of GMO-free areas is discussed as a means for an alternative path of development. Economically less favoured and at the same time ecologically sensitive areas are suitable for the territorial application of this concept. The state of discussion on the influences of the agricultural use of GMO on the regional development of less favoured and ecologically sensitive regions is presented. The social acceptance of GMO-free areas was tested in a survey, which was conducted in 1999 in Austria. The results suggest that the idea is worth being pursued. A case study for local application is presented: GMO-free areas as part of a biosphere park stimulate economically sustainable endogenous development.', 'en_US'),
(1813, 'Bacillus thuringiensis toxin (Cry1Ab) has no direct effect on larvae of the green lacewing Chrysoperla carnea (Stephens) (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae).', 'Earlier studies have shown that larvae of the green lacewing predator Chrysoperla carnea are negatively affected when preying on lepidopteran larvae that had been fed with transgenic maize expressing the cry1Ab gene from Bacillus thuringiensis. To test whether the observed effects were directly caused by the Cry1Ab toxin, we have developed a bioassay which allows us to feed high concentrations of the toxin directly to the predator. The results of these feeding studies show no direct toxic effect of Cry1Ab on C. carnea larvae. The amount of toxin ingested by first instar C. carnea in the present study was found to be a factor 10,000 higher than the concentration ingested when feeding on Bt-reared lepidopteran larvae, a treatment that was previously shown to have a negative impact on the predator. In addition, feeding first instar C. carnea with the Cry1Ab toxin did not affect the utilisation of subsequently provided prey. Furthermore, the quality of the prey provided to first instars did not affect the sensitivity of second and third instar C. carnea to the Bt-toxin. The presented results strongly suggest that C. carnea larvae are not sensitive to Cry1Ab and that earlier reported negative effects of Bt-maize were prey-quality mediated rather than direct toxic effects. These results, together with the fact that lepidopteran larvae are not regarded as an important prey for C. carnea in the field, led us to conclude that transgenic maize expressing Cry1Ab poses a negligible risk for this predator.', 'en_US'),
(1814, 'Adjusting management practices using glyphosate resistent soybean cultivars', 'Glyphosate [N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine]-resistant soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] cultivars have increased drastically in usage and acceptance. Little information exists to see how glyphosate-resistant soybean cultivars should be managed. The objective of this study was to evaluate different row-spacing and plant population systems using three weed management systems. A field study was conducted from 1997 through 1999 at six locations in Wisconsin. Soybean was planted in 19-, 38-, and 76-cm rows at a recommended (optimum), low, and high plant population for each row-spacing system with three weed management systems [glyphosate-resistant soybean cultivars with glyphosate (GRS/G), glyphosate-resistant soybean cultivars with conventional herbicides (GRS/CN), and conventional soybean cultivars with conventional herbicides (CN/CN)]. In northern Wisconsin, soybean yield in a GRS/G system did not respond to plant population while GRS/CN and CN/CN systems yielded 6% more in high than in low plant population. Additionally, soybean yield responded positively to plant population in 76-cm row CN/CN and GRS/CN systems in northern Wisconsin. In southern Wisconsin, GRS/G and GRS/CN systems yielded 6% less than the CN/CN system. No differences were observed among weed management systems in central and northern Wisconsin. Averaged across weed management systems and plant population, 19- and 38-cm rows yielded 7, 9, and 10% more than 76-cm rows in southern, central, and northern Wisconsin, respectively. No yield differences were observed between optimum and high plant population across Wisconsin, averaging 4% greater yield than the low plant population. The results demonstrated that it might be beneficial to alter management practices when using glyphosate-resistant soybean in some production environments in Wisconsin.', 'en_US'),
(1815, 'Managing the spatial and temporal location of refugia to manage resistance in Bt transgenic crops', 'The present paper explores the use of refugia in the high dose-refugia resistance management strategy for Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) transgenic crops. The model used represents a patchy population of an insect pest in which recessive resistance is conferred by a single locus with two alleles. The frequency of the resistance allele between generations in the insect population was based on the selection intensity, the fitness cost, the percentage of refugia, the percentage mortality in refugia due to insecticide sprays, the initial frequency of the resistance allele and the rate of insect movement. The simulation was run using four different spatial patterns of refugia inside the field crop (border, central, equidistant and random), four crop rotation patterns, five different sizes of refuge (5?50%), and two levels of non-Bt insecticide efficacy plus an untreated control in the refugia. It was found that: (a) the greater the size of refugia the lower the rate of increase in the frequency of resistance, (b) positioning patches of refugia at random in the field resulted in a higher rate of increase in the frequency of resistance compared with non-random positions, (c) positioning refugia in a border resulted in a lower rate of increase in the frequency of resistance compared with equidistant and central patterns, (d) the frequency of the resistance allele increased markedly when the refugium was less than 10%, (e) use of temporal refugia (rotation with a non-Bt insect host crop) led to a decline in the frequency of the resistance allele, (f) higher rates of movements increased the rate at which the frequency of resistance increased and (g) the frequency of the resistance allele also increased when the refugium was sprayed with insecticide. Possible mechanisms to optimize the use of refugia on resistance management are discussed.', 'en_US'),
(1816, 'Performance of growing-finishing pigs fed diets containing Roundup Ready corn (event NK603), a nontransgenic genetically similar corn, or conventional corn lines', 'Two studies were conducted at two locations to evaluate growth performance and carcass characteristics of growing-finishing pigs fed diets containing either glyphosate-tolerant Roundup Ready (event nk603) corn, a nontransgenic genetically similar control corn (RX670), or two conventional sources of nontransgenic corn (RX740 and DK647). A randomized complete block design (three and four blocks in Studies 1 and 2, respectively) with a 2 x 4 factorial arrangement of treatments (two genders and four corn lines) was used. Study 1 used 72 barrows and 72 gilts (housed in single-gender groups of six; six pens per dietary treatment) with initial and final BW of approximately 22 and 116 kg, respectively. Study 2 used 80 barrows and 80 gilts (housed in single-gender groups of five; eight pens per dietary treatment) with initial and final BW of approximately 30 and 120 kg, respectively. Pigs were housed in a modified open-front building in Study 1 and in an environmentally controlled finishing building in Study 2. The test corns were included at a fixed proportion of the diet in both studies. Animals had ad libitum access to feed and water. Pigs were slaughtered using standard procedures and carcass measurements were taken. In Study 1, overall ADG, ADFI (as-fed basis), and gain:feed (G:F) were not affected (P > 0.05) by corn line. In Study 2, there was no effect of corn line on overall ADFI (as-fed basis) or G:F ratio. In addition, overall ADG of barrows fed the four corn lines did not differ (P > 0.05); however, overall ADG of gilts fed corn DK647 was greater (P < 0.05) than that of pigs fed the other corn lines. There was no effect (P > 0.05) of corn line on carcass yield or fatness measurements in either study. Differences between barrows and gilts for growth and carcass traits were generally similar for both studies and in line with previous research. Overall, these results indicate that Roundup Ready corn (nk603) gives equivalent animal performance to conventional corn for growing pigs. ', 'en_US'),
(1817, 'Viability and longevity of pollen from transgenic and nontransgenic tall fescue', 'Pollen is an important vector of gene flow in plants, particularly for outcrossing species like tall fescue. Several aspects of pollination biology were investigated using pollen from transgenic and nontransgenic plants of tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.), the most important forage species worldwide of the Festuca genus. To effectively assess in vitro pollen viability in tall fescue, an optimized germination medium (0.8 mol/L sucrose, 1.28 mmol/L boric acid and 1.27 mmol/L calcium nitrate) was developed. Treatment with relatively high temperatures (36° and 40°C) and high doses of UV-B irradiation (900-1500 µW/cm2) reduced pollen viability, while relative humidity did not significantly influence pollen viability. Viability of pollen from transgenic progenies (T1 and T2) was similar to that from seed-derived control plants. Pollen from primary transgenics (T0) and primary regenerants (R0) had various levels of viability. Hand pollination using the primary regenerants and transgenics revealed that no seed set could be obtained when pollen viability was lower than 5%. Pollen from transgenic progenies and nontransgenic control plants could survive up to 22 h under controlled conditions in growth chamber. However, under sunny atmospheric conditions, viability of transgenic and nontransgenic pollen reduced to 5% in 30 min, with a complete loss of viability in 90 min. Under cloudy atmospheric conditions, pollen remained viable up to 240 min, with about 5% viability after 150 min. This report is the first on pollen viability and longevity in transgenic forage grasses and could be useful for risk assessment of transgenic plants', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(1818, 'Movement of coat protein genes from a commercial virus-resistant transgenic squash into a wild relative', 'We monitored pollen-mediated transgene dissemination from commercial transgenic squash CZW-3 into its wild relative Cucurbita pepo ssp. ovifera var. texana (C. texana). Transgenic squash CZW-3 expresses the neomycin phosphotransferase II (nptII) gene and the coat protein (CP) genes of Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV), Zucchini yellow mosaic virus (ZYMV), and Watermelon mosaic virus (WMV); thereby, it is resistant to these three aphid-borne viruses. The rate of NPT II and CP transgene introgression increased with overlapping flowering patterns and a high ratio of transgenic F1 hybrids (C. texana × CZW-3) to C. texana. Transgene transfer also readily occurred from transgenic F1 hybrids into C. texana over three generations in field settings where test plants grew sympatrically and viruses were not severely limiting the growth, and fruit and seed production of C. texana. In contrast, introgression of the transgenes into C. texana was not sustained under conditions of high viral disease pressure. As expected, C. texana progeny that acquired the CP transgenes exhibited resistance to CMV, ZYMV, and WMV. This is the first report on transgene dissemination from a transgenic crop that exhibits disease resistance and hybridizes with a wild plant species without loss of fertility.', 'en_US'),
(1819, 'Comparative fitness of a wild squash species and three generations of hybrids between wild × virus-resistant transgenic squash', 'We compared some fitness components of the wild squash species Cucurbita pepo spp. ovifera var. texana (C. texana) and three generations of hybrids (F1, BC1, and BC2) between C. texana and commercial transgenic squash CZW-3 over three consecutive years under field conditions of low (LDP) and high disease pressure (HDP) by Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV), Zucchini yellow mosaic virus (ZYMV) and Watermelon mosaic virus (WMV). Transgenic squash CZW-3 expresses the coat protein (CP) genes of CMV, ZYMV, and WMV, and is resistant to these three aphid-borne viruses. Across all HDP trials, transgenic BC1 and BC2 hybrids expressing the three CP genes grew more vigorously, displayed resistance to CMV, ZYMV, and WMV, and produced a greater number of mature fruits and viable seeds than nontransgenic hybrid segregants and C. texana. Transgenic F1 hybrids behaved similarly to BC1 and BC2 hybrids but grew less vigorously than C. texana. In contrast, across all LDP trials, C. texana outperformed the transgenic and nontransgenic hybrid segregants. Further, only one back cross was necessary to recover individuals with most of the C. texana characteristics and yet maintain virus resistance. Our data suggest that C. texana acquiring CP transgenes upon hybridization and introgression could have a selective advantage if CMV, ZYMV, and WMV are severely limiting the growth and reproductibility of wild squash populations.', 'en_US'),
(1820, 'Assessing some of the regulatory approaches to transgenic plants: What can we learn from the regulation of other technologies?', 'Transgenic plants result from the isolation and insertion of genes into plants by means other than conventional breeding techniques, making it possible to isolate a gene that controls a valuable trait without also inserting thousands of other genes, as can occur with other methods. Transgenic plants potentially can provide substantial benefits to humans, but they can also pose risks to ecosystems, nontarget species and even to humans. I utilize the U.S. regulatory experience with chemical substances to provide some background for locating the strengths and weaknesses of different legal structures as well as providing an opportunity to learn from them. Learning from that case study and different legal structures utilized therein, as well as from the state of the world in which transgenic plants will be introduced and the state of the relevant sciences combined with a National Research Council Report on transgenic plants, this essay assesses the regulatory procedures that the U.S. Department of Agriculture uses to evaluate the risks from transgenic plants. These legal structures, although well suited for identifying risks before there is extensive exposure, have a number of shortcomings for reviewing the products of a new and not well-understood technology. The U.S. could take some steps toward improving its reasonable, tiered, pre-market approach for reviewing the risks from transgenic plants by following the NRC recommendations and learning from shortcomings of the regulation of chemical risks. Whether it will be or not remains to be seen.', 'en_US'),
(1821, 'Inheritance of GFP-Bt transgenes from Brassica napus in backcrosses with three wild B. rapa accessions', 'Transgenes from transgenic oilseed rape, Brassica napus (AACC genome), can introgress into populations of wild B. rapa (AA genome), but little is known about the long-term persistence of transgenes from different transformation events. For example, transgenes that are located on the crop''s C chromosomes may be lost during the process of introgression. We investigated the genetic behavior of transgenes in backcross generations of wild B. rapa after nine GFP (green fluorescent protein)-Bt (Bacillusthuringiensis) B. napus lines, named GT lines, were hybridized with three wild B. rapa accessions, respectively. Each backcross generation involved crosses between hemizygous GT plants and non-GT B. rapa pollen recipients. In some cases, sample sizes were too small to allow the detection of major deviations from Mendelian segregation ratios, but the segregation of GT:non-GT was consistent with an expected ratio of 1:1 in all crosses in the BC1 generation. Starting with the BC2 generation, significantly different genetic behavior of the transgenes was observed among the nine GT B. napus lines. In some lines, the segregation of GT:non-GT showed a ratio of 1:1 in the BC2, BC3, and BC4 generations. However, in other GT B. napus lines the segregation ratio of GT:non-GT significantly deviated from 1:1 in the BC2 and BC3 generations, which had fewer transgenic progeny than expected, but not in the BC4 generation. Most importantly, in two GT B. napus lines the segregation of GT:non-GT did not fit into a ratio of 1:1 in the BC2, BC3 or BC4 generations due to a deficiency of transgenic progeny. For these lines, a strong reduction of transgene introgression was observed in all three B. rapa accessions. These findings imply that the genomic location of transgenes in B. napus may affect the long-term persistence of transgenes in B.rapa after hybridization has occurred.', 'en_US'),
(1822, 'Monitoring the impact of Bt maize on butterflies in the field: estimation of required sample sizes', 'The monitoring of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) after deliberate release is important in order to assess and evaluate possible environmental effects. Concerns have been raised that the transgenic crop, Bt maize, may affect butterflies occurring in field margins. Therefore, a monitoring of butterflies was suggested accompanying the commercial cultivation of Bt maize. In this study, baseline data on the butterfly species and their abundance in maize field margins is presented together with implications for butterfly monitoring. The study was conducted in Bavaria, South Germany, between 2000-2002. A total of 33 butterfly species was recorded in field margins. A small number of species dominated the community, and butterflies observed were mostly common species. Observation duration was the most important factor influencing the monitoring results. Field margin size affected the butterfly abundance, and habitat diversity had a tendency to influence species richness. Sample size and statistical power analyses indicated that a sample size in the range of 75 to 150 field margins for treatment (transgenic maize) and control (conventional maize) would detect (power of 80%) effects larger than 15% in species richness and the butterfly abundance pooled across species. However, a much higher number of field margins must be sampled in order to achieve a higher statistical power, to detect smaller effects, and to monitor single butterfly species.', 'en_US'),
(1823, 'Comparison of broiler performance when fed diets containing Roundup Ready (Event RT 73), nontransgenic control, or commercial canola meal.', 'A 42-d experiment compared the nutritional value of genetically modified glyphosate-tolerant (Roundup Ready event RT73) canola meal to that of conventional canola meal when fed to rapidly growing Ross × Ross 508 broilers using a randomized complete block design. Five pens of males and 5 pens of females were used in each of 8 canola meal treatments (glyphosate-tolerant, nontransgenic control, and 6 commercial varieties). Broilers (10 birds/pen) were fed approximately 25% wt/wt canola meal during the first 20 d and 20% wt/wt canola meal thereafter. In general, performance response variables for glyphosate-tolerant canola meal were not different (P > 0.05) than those for the nontransgenic and commercial canola meals. Carcass fat pad, breast meat, thighs, legs, and wings (on a percentage basis) were similar across treatments (P > 0.05). Expressed as percentage of live weight, chill weight of the broilers fed diets containing glyphosate-tolerant canola meal was not different from those fed all other diets, but some differences were observed between the nontransgenic control and commercial diets. No major differences were observed in percentage of moisture, protein, and fat in breast or thigh meat (P > 0.05) across treatments. Comparisons of the glyphosate-tolerant canola diet to the population of all other diets (combining sexes) showed no major differences (P > 0.05) in performance, carcass yields, or moisture, protein, and fat in breast and thigh meat. Broilers fed diets containing glyphosate-tolerant canola meal had similar growth performance to birds fed nontransgenic control and commercial canola diets.', 'en_US'),
(1824, 'Glyphosate biomonitoring for farmers and their families:  Results from the Farm Family Exposure Study', 'Glyphosate is the active ingredient in Roundup agricultural herbicides and other herbicide formulations that are widely used for agricultural, forestry, and residential weed control. As part of the Farm Family Exposure Study, we evaluated urinary glyphosate concentrations for 48 farmers, their spouses, and their 79 children (4-18 years of age). We evaluated 24-hr composite urine samples for each family member the day before, the day of, and for 3 days after a glyphosate application. Sixty percent of farmers had detectable levels of glyphosate in their urine on the day of application. The geometric mean (GM) concentration was 3 ppb, the maximum value was 233 ppb, and the highest estimated systemic dose was 0.004 mg/kg. Farmers who did not use rubber gloves had higher GM urinary concentrations than did other farmers (10 ppb vs. 2.0 ppb). For spouses, 4% had detectable levels in their urine on the day of application. Their maximum value was 3 ppb. For children, 12% had detectable glyphosate in their urine on the day of application, with a maximum concentration of 29 ppb. All but one of the children with detectable concentrations had helped with the application or were present during herbicide mixing, loading, or application. None of the systemic doses estimated in this study approached the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency reference dose for glyphosate of 2 mg/kg/day. Nonetheless, it is advisable to minimize exposure to pesticides, and this study did identify specific practices that could be modified to reduce the potential for exposure.', 'en_US'),
(1825, 'Cassava biology and physiology', 'Cassava or manioc (Manihot esculenta Crantz), a perennial shrub of the New World, currently is the sixth world food crop for more than 500 million people in tropical and sub-tropical Africa, Asia and Latin America. It is cultivated mainly by resource-limited small farmers for its starchy roots, which are used as human food either fresh when low in cyanogens or in many processed forms and products, mostly starch, flour, and for animal feed. Because of its inherent tolerance to stressful environments, where other food crops would fail, it is often considered a food-security source against famine, requiring minimal care. Under optimal environmental conditions, it compares favorably in production of energy with most other major staple food crops due to its high yield potential. Recent research at the Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) in Colombia has demonstrated the ability of cassava to assimilate carbon at very high rates under high levels of humidity, temperature and solar radiation, which correlates with productivity across all environments whether dry or humid. When grown on very poor soils under prolonged drought for more than 6 months, the crop reduce both its leaf canopy and transpiration water loss, but its attached leaves remain photosynthetically active, though at greatly reduced rates. The main physiological mechanism underlying such a remarkable tolerance to drought was rapid stomatal closure under both atmospheric and edaphic water stress, protecting the leaf against dehydration while the plant depletes available soil water slowly during long dry periods. This drought tolerance mechanism leads to high crop water use efficiency values. Although the cassava fine root system is sparse, compared to other crops, it can penetrate below 2m soil, thus enabling the crop to exploit deep water if available. Leaves of cassava and wild Manihot possess elevated activities of the C4 enzyme PEP carboxylase but lack the leaf Kranz anatomy typical of C4 species, pointing to the need for further research on cultivated and wild Manihot to further improve its photosynthetic potential and yield, particularly under stressful environments. Moreover, a wide range in values of Km (CO2) for the C3 photosynthetic enzyme Rubisco was found among cassava cultivars indicating the possibility of selection for higher affinity to CO2, and consequently higher leaf photosynthesis. Several plant traits that may be of value in crop breeding and improvement have been identified, such as an extensive fine root system, long leaf life, strong root sink and high leaf photosynthesis. Selection of parental materials for tolerance to drought and infertile soils under representative field conditions have resulted in developing improved cultivars that have high yields in favorable environments while producing reasonable and stable yields under stress.', 'en_US'),
(1826, 'Consumer acceptance of food biotechnology: Willingness to buy genetically modified food products', 'Using data from a national survey, this study examines public acceptance of food biotechnology by modeling consumers'' willingness to buy genetically modified foods. Empirical results suggest that younger, white, male and college educated individuals are more likely to accept food biotechnology. However, consumers'' views about scientists and biotechnology companies, and their trust and confidence in government regulators, have greater impacts on their acceptance of genetically modified foods than their economic and demographic attributes. Overall, consumers view food biotechnology as a risk-benefit issue rather than an ideological issue. There is some evidence of regional differences in the acceptance of bioengineered food products.', 'en_US'),
(1827, 'Legal liability issues in agricultural biotechnology', 'This article presents an overview of the legal liability issues in torts and patent law that arise from the use of transgenic crops produced by agricultural biotechnology. Torts-A tort is a civil legal action whereby the claimant alleges injury or wrong, arising independent of contract, to the person or property of the claimant. The article begins with legal liability claims for damage to property, damage to persons, and damage to economic interests (markets) that may arise with the use of transgenic crops. The tort theories discussed include the legal claims of trespass, strict liability, negligence, private nuisance, and public nuisance. With respect to each tort theory, the discussion points out unique legal issues that are likely to exist specifically because the litigation involves agricultural biotechnology. Patent Infringement-The article ends by focusing on four patent infringement cases that courts in Canada and the USA have decided regarding farmers who used patented seed from agricultural biotechnology without permission of the patent holder. As of May 2003, these are the only four patent infringement cases that have resulted in formal legal opinions by courts construing patent and antitrust laws in the context of farmers saving seeds protected by patents.', 'en_US'),
(1828, 'Effects of straws from Bt transgenic rice on selected biological activities  in water flooded soil', 'The biochemical properties of soil have often been described as early and sensitive indicators of ecological changes in both natural soil and agroecosystem. In the current study, the impacts of the amendment of Bt-transgenic rice (KMD) straw on biological activities in water-flooded soil were investigated under laboratory conditions and compared with non-transgenic rice (Xiushui 11) straw. The results showed that there were some differences in protease, neutral phosphatase and cellulase activities between soil amended with Bt-transgenic rice straw and non-transgenic rice straw at the early stage of incubation, and none of these differences were persistent. However, differences in dehydrogenase activity, methanogenesis, hydrogen production and anaerobic respiration between soil supplemented with Bt-transgenic rice straw and non-transgenic rice straw were persistent over the course of incubation. Dehydrogenase activity, methanogenesis and anaerobic respiration were considerably lower from sample days 7to 56, but higher after day 56in soil amended with Bt-transgenic rice straw. In comparison, the H2-production in soil containing Bt-transgenic rice straw was significantly lower after day 56. The results demonstrated that the amendment of the Bt-transgenic rice straw altered some important biological properties in water-flooded soil, indicating a shift in microbial populations or a change in the metabolic abilities of the microbial community as a result of substrate availability in soil.', 'en_US'),
(1829, 'Response of selected horseweed (Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronq.) populations to glyphosate', 'Horseweed (Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronq.) seed was collected in Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Mississippi, Missouri, and Ohio to determine susceptibility of different horseweed biotypes to glyphosate. Horseweed resistant to glyphosate was found in Mississippi, Ohio, and western Tennessee. In a separate experiment examining Tennessee biotypes, a dose response curve demonstrated that four times as much glyphosate was needed to achieve a 50% fresh weight reduction (GR(50)) in resistant biotypes when compared to a susceptible biotype. Resistant biotypes from Tennessee displayed a GR(50) of 1.6 kg/ha as compared to a GR(50) of 0.4 kg/ha in a susceptible horseweed population. Although growth was reduced, the resistant plants did not completely die and could potentially produce seed. Variation in glyphosate resistance was found among the populations tested.', 'en_US'),
(1830, 'Tansgenic Bt maize and Rhopalosiphum padi  (Hom., Aphididae) performance', '1.  The population abundance and age structure of Rhopalosiphum padi, one of the most common maize aphid species, on transgenic Bt (expressing the Cry1Ab protein) and non-Bt isogenic maize was studied in commercial plots during three crop seasons.2.  A higher density of aphids, particularly alates and young nymphs, occurred in Bt plots at very young maize development stages, corresponding to the settlement period, in the 3 years studied. Possible causes are discussed. After this period, there were no differences between Bt and non-Bt maize.3.  Mortality, development, and reproduction of the offspring of alate forms of R. padi and the offspring of different generations of apterous forms fed with Bt maize were evaluated in the laboratory under controlled conditions.4.  The developmental and pre-reproductive times of the offspring of the first generation of alatae were shorter and the intrinsic rate of natural increase (rm) higher when aphids fed on Bt maize. The opposite occurs with the offspring of the first generation of apterous mothers, which have lower nymphal and adult mortality, shorter developmental and pre-reproductive times, a higher effective fecundity rate, and greater rm, when fed on non-Bt maize. The differences in aphid development on the two cultivars may be linked to changes in host-plant quality due to pleiotropic effects of the genetic modification.5.  No differences on aphid mortality, developmental and pre-reproductive times, fecundity, and rm were found between the offspring of apterous aphids maintained on Bt or non-Bt maize for several generations.', 'en_US'),
(1831, 'Achieving successful deployment of Bt rice', 'An additional billion mouths will need feeding within the next decade. In spite of the extensive research and development that has been invested in Bt rice (rice transformed with insecticidal genes from Bacillus thuringiensis) and the success of Bt maize and Bt cotton, Bt rice is not grown commercially. Bt rice has the potential to eliminate yield losses caused by lepidopteran pests, estimated at 2?10% of Asia''s annual rice yield of 523 million tons. Cultivation of Bt rice should also lead to substantial reductions in the use of broad-spectrum chemical insecticides, with benefits for farmers'' health, environmental quality and biological control of other rice pests. The major challenges are developing appropriate resistance management strategies and resolving trade policy impediments.', 'en_US'),
(1832, 'Potential health benefits of golden rice: a Philippine case study', 'Golden Rice has been genetically modified to produce beta-carotene in the endosperm of grain. It could improve the vitamin A status of deficient food consumers, especially women and children in developing countries. This paper analyses potential impacts in a Philippine context. Since the technology is still at the stage of R&D, benefits are simulated with a scenario approach. Health effects are quantified using the methodology of disability-adjusted life years (DALYs). Golden Rice will not completely eliminate the problems of vitamin A deficiency, such as blindness or increased mortality. Therefore, it should be seen as a complement rather than a substitute for alternative micronutrient interventions. Yet the technology could bring about significant benefits. Depending on the underlying assumptions, annual health improvements are worth between US$ 16 and 88 million, and rates of return on R&D investments range between 66% and 133%. Due to the uncertainty related to key parameters, these results should be treated as preliminary.', 'en_US'),
(1833, 'Biotechnology in the developing world: a case for orphan crops', 'This article examines the opportunities for using several forms of modern biotechnology to improve orphan crops in developing countries. These crops, including tef, millets, cowpea, and indigenous vegetables, fruits, roots, and tubers, tend to be locally important, but receive little public or private investment. Recent advances in the fields of genetics and genomics provide a more unified understanding of the biology of plants. We summarize some important ways in which genetic technologies can be harnessed for orphan crops and provide examples of potential genetic and genomics research that is likely to benefit poor regions. Finally, we suggest policies that could help create incentives for application of advanced science to orphan crops.', 'en_US'),
(1834, 'Evaluation of maize as a refuge for management of resistance to Bt cotton by Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) in the Yellow River cotton-farming region of China', 'Bt cotton has been planted to the exclusion of non-Bt cotton in the Yellow River cotton-farming region of China since 2000. Alternative non-Bt hosts, such as maize, soybean, peanut, wheat, and other host plants of Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) may be acting as refuges for Bt-susceptible larvae of this pest, thereby delaying evolution of resistance to Bt cotton. Egg, larval, and adult densities of H. armigera were measured on Bt cotton, and on maize that was planted on dates that reflected local farming practices, in order to assess the role of maize as a refuge during 2001?2002 in Xinxiang County, Henan Province and Anci County, Hebei Province. The results indicated that the average egg densities for the second?fourth generation of the pest on Bt cotton in Xinxiang and the second generation in Anci County were significantly higher than those in maize fields. However, maize typically had much higher larval densities in the third and fourth generation of H. armigera than on Bt cotton. These data indicate that maize is probably serving as an effective refuge for third and fourth generation H. armigera, but is of less value for the second generation. The densities of moths produced by Bt cotton and by maize in a cage experiment confirmed the importance of maize as a refuge in the third and fourth generation.', 'en_US'),
(1835, 'Gene flow in wheat at the field scale.', 'In wheat (Triticum L.), large-scale field studies were conducted to assess the level of intra- and interspecific pollen-mediated gene movement that may exist at varying distances from a pollinator source. The objectives of this research were to measure gene flow rates from a blue-grained pollinator (T. aestivum cv. Purendo-38) to (i) red-grained spring wheat cv. CDC Teal (T. aestivum) over distances of 0.2 to 160 m, (ii) amber durum wheat cv. AC Navigator (T. turgidum L.) over distances of 0.2 to 260 m, and (iii) CDC Teal and AC Navigator over distances of 180 to 2760 m. In 2000 and 2001, 50- by 50-m blue-grained pollinator blocks were sown and surrounded by recipient fields of either CDC Teal or AC Navigator at Saskatoon, SK. At maturity, 0.5- by 4-m strips were harvested at specified distances between 0.2 and 160 m or 260 m along eight transects (N, E, S, W, NE, SE, SW, NW) radiating out from Purendo-38. In addition, random sampling was conducted in 2000 and 2001 from surrounding wheat fields to estimate gene flow rates over distances of 180 to 2760 m. Gene flow from Purendo-38 to recipient plants was identified by the expression of a light-blue pigment in the aleurone layer of F1 hybrid seed. Confirmed intra- and interspecific pollen-mediated gene flow rates remained below 0.5% and declined rapidly with distance from the pollinator. Elevated gene flow rates to the N, W, and NW of the pollinator were associated with prevalent winds in 2000, but not in 2001. In 2000, long distance intraspecific gene flow was confirmed at a frequency of 0.005% at a position 300 m northwest of the pollinator. No evidence of interspecific gene flow was observed at 40 m from the pollinator. The results suggest that gene flow occurrence in spring wheat is relatively low but that a tolerance level of 0% transgenic wheat in nontransgenic wheat grain is unrealistic.', 'en_US'),
(1836, 'Plant molecular farming: systems and products', 'Plant molecular farming is a new and promising industry involving plant biotechnology. In this review, we describe several diverse plant systems that have been developed to produce commercially useful proteins for pharmaceutical and industrial uses. The advantages and disadvantages of each system are discussed. The first plant-derived molecular farming products have reached the marketplace and other products are poised to join them during the next few years. We explain the rationale for using plants as biofactories. We also describe the products currently on the market, and those that appear likely to join them in the near future. Lastly, we discuss the issue of public acceptance of molecular farming products.', 'en_US'),
(1837, 'Compositional equivalency of Cry1F corn event TC6275 and conventional corn (Zea mays L.)', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1838, 'Safety assessment by in vitro digestibility and allergenicity of genetically modified maize with an amaranth 11S globulin', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1839, 'Pyramiding of insect- and disease-resistance genes into an elite indica, cytoplasm male restorer line of rice, ''Minghui 63''', 'The wild-rice-derived dominant gene Xa21 conferring multi-race resistance to bacterial blight and a fused Bt gene cry1Ab/cry1Ac conferring resistance to lepidopteran insects were individually introduced into the same genetic background of an elite indica cytoplasm male sterile (CMS) restorer line ''Minghui 63''. The line showed the desirable insect- and disease-resistant phenotypes. To maximize the effect, the two genes were also pyramided into the same recipient plant of ''Minghui 63'' by marker-assisted selection. After being subjected to natural infestation of leaf-folders and yellow stem borers and inoculation of Xoo strain mixtures, the pyramiding line and its derived hybrids showed high levels of resistance against both insect damage and disease. Furthermore, data from field trials demonstrated that the hybrids made by crossing this pyramiding line with the CMS lines ''Zhenshan 97A'' and ''Maxie A'' retained a similar level of yield under conditions without chemical spray, indicating that the pyramiding genes have a yield-stabilizing effect on the recipient line and its hybrids.', 'en_US'),
(1840, 'A classification of plant food allergens', 'Plant food allergens can be classified into families and superfamilies on the basis of their structural and functional properties. The most widespread groups of plant proteins that contain allergens are the cupin and prolamin superfamilies and the protein families of the plant defense system. The cupin superfamily includes allergenic seed storage proteins of the vicilin and legumin type present in soybeans, peanuts, and tree nuts. The prolamin superfamily includes several important types of allergens of legumes, tree nuts, cereals, fruits, and vegetables, such as the 2S albumin seed storage proteins, the nonspecific lipid transfer proteins, and the cereal -amylase and protease inhibitors. Plant food allergens are also found among the various groups of defense proteins that enable plants to resist biotic and abiotic stress, such as the pathogenesis-related proteins, certain proteases, and protease inhibitors. This review focuses on a classification system of plant food allergens that is emerging from the synopsis of allergology and protein evolution.', 'en_US'),
(1841, 'Starlink genetically modified corn and allergenicity in an individual (Correspondence)', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1842, 'Starlink genetically modified corn and allergenicity in an individual - reply (Correspondence)', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1843, 'A negative, double-blind placebo-controlled challenge to genetically modified corn.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1844, 'Effects of Bacillus thuringiensus potato and conventional insecticides for colorado potato beetle (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) management on the abundance of ground-dwelling arthropods in Oregon potato ecosystems', 'Field studies were conducted in 1992 and 1993 in Hermiston, Oregon, to evaluate nontarget impacts of transgenic Bt potato (Newleaf) expressing Cry3Aa protein derived from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Berliner subsp. tenebrionis and conventional insecticides for control of the Colorado potato beetle (CPB), Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say). Pitfall traps were used to estimate the abundance of nontarget ground-dwelling arthropods in different treatment plots. There were no significant differences in the trap captures of major ground-dwelling coleopteran predators such as carabids (Coleoptera: Carabidae) and staphylinids (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae) among Bt and non-Bt potato fields treated with weekly sprays of a microbial Bt-based formulation containing Cry3Aa, biweekly applications of permethrin, early and mid season in-furrow applications of systemic insecticides (phorate and disulfoton), or no insecticides. While weekly sprays of permethrin significantly reduced the trap capture of ground-dwelling spiders (Araneae), there were no significant differences in the capture of spiders between Bt and non-Bt-potato fields treated with Bt sprays, systemic insecticides, or no insecticides. Significantly more springtails (Collembola: Entomobryidae and Hypogastruridae) were captured in potato fields treated with permethrin than with any other CPB control regime (transgenic Bt potato alone, microbial Bt formulation containing Cry3Aa, applications of systemic insecticides, or no action controls), among which there were no significant differences. The relevance of these findings to field evaluation of nontarget impacts of transgenic Bt crops is discussed.', 'en_US'),
(1845, 'Consumer response to functional foods produced by conventional, organic, or genetic manipulation', 'The agro-food industry is developing a second generation of genetically modified (GM) foods that can offer functional health benefits to consumers. Many consumers, however, are turning to organic foods in order to avoid GM foods. This report attempts to differentiate consumer valuation of functional health properties in conventional, organic, and GM foods. A representative sample of 1,008 Canadian household food shoppers responded to twelve stated-choice experiments during a telephone survey. Because opinions about organic and GM foods varied greatly, random parameters logit models were used to analyze their choices. Results indicate that many Canadian consumers will avoid GM foods, regardless of the presence of functional health properties. For others, the introduction of GM functional plant foods should increase acceptance of GM production methods, but many consumers will likely avoid functional foods derived from GM animals. The organic food industry could also profit from the introduction of organic functional foods.', 'en_US'),
(1846, 'Plant biotechnology can enhance food security and nutrition in the developing world Part 1', 'The world''s demand for food production will increase markedly in the coming years. Meeting this demand will require that we employ all manner of approaches, including the use of biotechnology, to produce results that cannot be achieved using traditional methods. This 2-part article reviews ongoing experiences in developing countries where crop biotechnology is being used to enhance the availability and/or nutritional value of local crops. In part 1, the authors describe strategies that seek to enhance yields of staples and to improve the yields of indigenous nutritious foods. In Part 2 of this article, the authors describe strategies that seek to enhance the nutrient density of foods that can increase net income to resource-poor farmers in developing countries.', 'en_US'),
(1847, 'Development of papaya breeding lines with transgenic resistance to Papaya Ringspot virus', 'Papaya (Carica papaya) was transformed via Agrobacterium-mediated transformation with four constructs containing either the unmodified or modified coat protein (CP) gene of Florida isolate H1K of Papaya ringspot virus (PRSV). The CP genes were in the sense orientation (S-CP), antisense orientation (AS-CP), sense orientation with a frame-shift mutation (FS-CP), or sense orientation mutated with three-in-frame stop codons (SC-CP). In all, 256 putative transgenic lines with the CP constructs were inoculated mechanically with PRSV H1K. None of the lines was immune to PRSV; however, highly resistant lines were found in each CP transgene group. For breeding purposes, 21 PRSV-resistant lines representing the four transgene constructs were selected and crossed with six papaya genotypes. The lines from the FS-CP and SC-CP transgene groups were highly fertile, but those from the S-CP and AS-CP transgene groups were practically infertile. Plants derived from 54 crosses and representing 17 transgenic lines were planted in the field. After 1 year in the field, 293 of the 1,258 the plants (23.3%) became naturally infected with PRSV; whereas, 29 of 30 of the nontransgenic control plants (96.7%) became infected. The incidence of PRSV infection varied in the R(1) progeny depending on both the transgenic line and the nontransgenic parent.', 'en_US'),
(1848, 'Food labelling legislation in the EU and consumer''s information', 'Food labelling legislation in the EU began with Council Directive 79/112/EEC relating to the labelling, presentation and advertising of foodstuffs. It has been made more detailed, more informative and more complicated by Council Directive 2000/13/EC and its amendment 2003/89/EC. Nutrition labelling and nutrition claims are regulated in Council Directive 90/496/EEC. The discussion of health claims in the Codex Alimentarius Committee on Food Labelling has been of influence in the EU and is one of the bases of the recent Proposal on Nutrition and Health Claims Made on Foods of 2003. There is a need to investigate consumer perception of the information provided on food labels and the lessons the consumer derives from such information.', 'en_US'),
(1849, 'Breeding ''clean'' transgenic ornamental plants', 'The risk that selectable marker genes may cause damages, either to human health or to environment, is raised in public opinion, but is not documented by scientific evidences. The generation of ''marker-free'' plants would certainly contribute to the public acceptance of transgenic crops. An additional step towards ''clean'' transgenic plant production is to avoid the insertion of ancillary DNA sequences. We reported here our preliminary results to assemble Agrobacterium vectors suitable for the production of either ''marker free'' or ''clean'' transgenic plants. The plasmid pGreen rolC does not contain antibiotic resistance genes on the T-DNA and then is suitable for ''marker-free'' transgenic plant production. In a successive experiment the pGreen T-DNA was replaced with a 44 bp sequence containing exclusively multiple cloning sites (pGreen II adapter). The pGreen II adapter can be considered a ''clean'' vector, suitable for further cloning. The pGreen II rolC and the pGreen II rolABC are the first derivative. Plenty of shoots were regenerated in absence of selective antibiotic in the medium, following co-cultivation of leaf explants of O. ecklonis with A. tumefaciens AGL1 carrying pGreen rolC, pGreen II rolC or pGreen II rolABC. Six plant clones (18%), obtained following co-cultivation with A. tumefaciens pGreen rolC are expected to be of transgenic nature following PCR amplification. Two of them, showed the characteristic phenotype of plants expressing rolC. RT-PCR confirmed the rolC expression in a plant clone. The use of vectors carrying useful gene only, is proposed for the recovery of ''clean'' transgenic plants in absence of in vitro selection pressure.', 'en_US'),
(1850, 'Impact of genetically modified crops and their management on soil microbially mediated plant nutrient transformations', 'Transgenic or genetically modified plants possess novel genes that impart beneficial characteristics such as herbicide resistance. One of the least understood areas in the environmental risk assessment of genetically modified crops is their impact on soil- and plant-associated microbial communities. The potential for interaction between transgenic plants and plant residues and the soil microbial community is not well understood. The recognition that these interactions could change microbial biodiversity and affect ecosystem functioning has initiated a limited number of studies in the area. At this time, studies have shown the possibility that transgenes can be transferred to native soil microorganisms through horizontal gene transfer, although there is not evidence of this occurring in the soil. Furthermore, novel proteins have been shown to be released from transgenic plants into the soil ecosystem, and their presence can influence the biodiversity of the microbial community by selectively stimulating the growth of organisms that can use them. Microbial diversity can be altered when associated with transgenic plants; however, these effects are both variable and transient. Soil- and plant-associated microbial communities are influenced not only by plant species and transgene insertion but also by environmental factors such as field site and sampling date. Minor alterations in the diversity of the microbial community could affect soil health and ecosystem functioning, and therefore, the impact that plant variety may have on the dynamics of the rhizosphere microbial populations and in turn plant growth and health and ecosystem sustainability, requires further study.', 'en_US'),
(1851, 'Impact of glyphosate on the Bradyrhizobium japonicum symbiosis with glyphosate-resistant transgenic soybean: a mini review', 'Glyphosate-resistant (GR) soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] expressing an insensitive 5-enolpyruvylshikimic acid-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS) gene has revolutionized weed control in soybean production. The soybean nitrogen fixing symbiont, Bradyrhizobium japonicum, possesses a glyphosate-sensitive enzyme and upon exposure to glyphosate accumulates shikimic acid and hydroxybenzoic acids such as protocatechuic acid (PCA), accompanied with B. japonicum growth inhibition and death at high concentrations. In a series of greenhouse and field experiments, glyphosate inhibited nodulation and nodule leghemoglobin content of GR soybean. Glyphosate accumulated in nodules of field-grown GR soybean, but its effect on nitrogenase activity of GR soybean was inconsistent in field studies. In greenhouse studies, nitrogenase activity of GR soybean following glyphosate application was transiently inhibited especially in early growth stages, with the greatest inhibition occurring under moisture stress. Studies using bacteroid preparations showed that the level of glyphosate inhibition of bacteroid nitrogenase activity was related to in vitro glyphosate sensitivity of the B. japonicum strains. These studies indicate the potential for reduced nitrogen fixation in the GR soybean system; however, yield reductions due to this reduced N2 fixation in early stages of growth have not been demonstrated.', 'en_US'),
(1852, 'Soil microbial communities associated with Bt and non-Bt corn in three soils', 'The effects of expression of Cry endotoxin by Bt corn (transgenic corn engineered to express Bacillus thuringiensis toxin) on soil microbial community structure were assessed in a growth chamber experiment. Two lines of transgenic corn expressing different Cry endotoxins were compared with their respective non-transgenic isolines in three soil types with differing textures. Phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) profiles from bulk soil and community-level physiological profiles (CLPP) from the rhizosphere community were used to assess community structure. Differences in PLFA profiles due to soil type were significant, accounting for 73% of the total variability in the dataset. Differences in bacterial and fungal CLPP profiles due to soil type were statistically significant, but probably not biologically important, accounting for 6.3 and 3.8% of the total variability, respectively. Neither expression of Cry endotoxin nor corn line had a significant effect on microbial profiles, except in the high-clay soil where both factors significantly affected bacterial CLPP profiles (accounting for 6.6 and 6.1% of the variability in that soil, respectively). Expression of Cry endotoxin also significantly reduced the presence of eukaryotic PLFA biomarker in bulk soils, although it is unclear which groups of eukaryotes were affected. We conclude that the effects of transgenic Bt corn in this short-term experiment are small, and longer-term investigations are necessary.', 'en_US'),
(1853, 'Effect of Cry3Bb transgenic corn and Tefluthrin on the soil microbial community: biomass, activity, and diversity.', 'Transgenic Bt corn expressing the Cry3Bb insecticidal protein active against corn rootworm (CRW) (Diabrotica spp.; Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) was released for commercial use in 2003 and is expected to be widely adopted. Yet, the direct and indirect risks to soil microorganisms of growing this CRW-resistant Bt corn versus applying insecticides to control the rootworm have not been assessed under field conditions. The effects of CRW Bt corn and the insecticide tefluthrin [2,3,5,6-tetrafluoro-4-methylbenzyl (Z)-(1RS)-cis-3-(2-chloro-3,3,3-trifluoroprop-1-enyl)-2,2-dimethylcyclopropanecarboxylate] on soil microbial biomass, activity (N mineralization potential, short-term nitrification rate, and soil respiration), and bacterial community structure as determined by terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (T-RFLP) analysis were assessed over two seasons in a field experiment. Bt corn had no deleterious effects on microbial activity or bacterial community measures compared with the non-transgenic isoline. The T-RFLP analysis indicated that amplifiable bacterial species composition and relative abundance differed substantially between years, but did not differ between rhizosphere and bulk soils. The application of tefluthrin also had no effect on any microbial measure except decreased soil respiration observed in tefluthrin-treated plots compared with Bt and non-transgenic isoline (NoBt) plots in 2002. Our results indicate that the release of CRW Bt corn poses little threat to the ecology of the soil microbial community based on parameters measured in this study.', 'en_US'),
(1854, 'Evaluation of Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) corn on mouse testicular development by dual parameter flow cytometry', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1855, 'Taste modification in the biotech era', 'Advances in understanding the science of taste are allowing a biotechnological approach to the identification and development of novel taste modifiers such as bitter blockers and sweetness potentiators', 'en_US'),
(1856, 'A generational study of glyphosate-tolerant soybeans on mouse fetal, postnatal, pubertal and adult testicular development.', 'The health safety of transgenic soybeans (glyphosate-tolerant or Roundup Ready) was studied using the mammalian testis (mouse model) as a sensitive biomonitor of potential toxic effects. Pregnant mice were fed a transgenic soybean or a non-transgenic (conventional) diet through gestation and lactation. After weaning, the young male mice were maintained on the respective diets. At 8, 16, 26, 32, 63 and 87 days after birth, three male mice and an adult reference mouse were killed, the testes surgically removed, and the cell populations measured by flow cytometry. Multi-generational studies were conducted in the same manner. The results showed that the transgenic foodstuffs had no effect on macromolecular synthesis or cell growth and differentiation as evidenced by no differences in the percentages of testicular cell populations (haploid, diploid, and tetraploid) between the transgenic soybean-fed mice and those fed the conventional diet. Additionally, there were no differences in litter sizes and body weights of the two groups. It was concluded that the transgenic soybean diet had no negative effect on fetal, postnatal, pubertal or adult testicular development.', 'en_US'),
(1857, 'Assessment of the safety of foods derived from genetically modified (GM) crops', 'This paper provides guidance on how to assess the safety of foods derived from genetically modified crops (GM crops); it summarises conclusions and recommendations of Working Group 1 of the ENTRANSFOOD project. The paper provides an approach for adapting the test strategy to the characteristics of the modified crop and the introduced trait, and assessing potential unintended effects from the genetic modification. The proposed approach to safety assessment starts with the comparison of the new GM crop with a traditional counterpart that is generally accepted as safe based on a history of human food use (the concept of substantial equivalence). This case-focused approach ensures that foods derived from GM crops that have passed this extensive test-regime are as safe and nutritious as currently consumed plant-derived foods. The approach is suitable for current and future GM crops with more complex modifications. First, the paper reviews test methods developed for the risk assessment of chemicals, including food additives and pesticides, discussing which of these methods are suitable for the assessment of recombinant proteins and whole foods. Second, the paper presents a systematic approach to combine test methods for the safety assessment of foods derived from a specific GM crop. Third, the paper provides an overview on developments in this area that may prove of use in the safety assessment of GM crops, and recommendations for research priorities. It is concluded that the combination of existing test methods provides a sound test-regime to assess the safety of GM crops. Advances in our understanding of molecular biology, biochemistry, and nutrition may in future allow further improvement of test methods that will over time render the safety assessment of foods even more effective and informative.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(1858, 'Unintended effects and their detection in genetically modified crops', 'The commercialisation of GM crops in Europe is practically non-existent at the present time. The European Commission has instigated changes to the regulatory process to address the concerns of consumers and member states and to pave the way for removing the current moratorium. With regard to the safety of GM crops and products, the current risk assessment process pays particular attention to potential adverse effects on human and animal health and the environment. This document deals with the concept of unintended effects in GM crops and products, i.e. effects that go beyond that of the original modification and that might impact primarily on health. The document first deals with the potential for unintended effects caused by the processes of transgene insertion (DNA rearrangements) and makes comparisons with genetic recombination events and DNA rearrangements in traditional breeding. The document then focuses on the potential value of evolving ''profiling'' or ''omics'' technologies as non-targeted, unbiased approaches, to detect unintended effects. These technologies include metabolomics (parallel analysis of a range of primary and secondary metabolites), proteomics (analysis of polypeptide complement) and transcriptomics (parallel analysis of gene expression). The technologies are described, together with their current limitations. Importantly, the significance of unintended effects on consumer health are discussed and conclusions and recommendations presented on the various approaches outlined.', 'en_US'),
(1859, 'The relevance of gene transfer to the safety of food and feed derived from genetically modified (GM) plants', 'In 2000, the thematic network ENTRANSFOOD was launched to assess four different topics that are all related to the testing or assessment of food containing or produced from genetically modified organisms (GMOs). Each of the topics was linked to a European Commission (EC)-funded large shared cost action (see http://www.entransfood.com). Since the exchange of genetic information through horizontal (lateral) gene transfer (HGT) might play a more important role, in quantity and quality, than hitherto imagined, a working group dealing with HGT in the context of food and feed safety was established. This working group was linked to the GMOBILITY project (GMOBILITY, 2003) and the results of the deliberations are laid down in this review paper. HGT is reviewed in relation to the potential risks of consuming food or feed derived from transgenic crops. First, the mechanisms for obtaining transgenic crops are described. Next, HGT mechanisms and its possible evolutionary role are described. The use of marker genes is presented in detail as a special case for genes that may pose a risk. Furthermore, the exposure to GMOs and in particular to genetically modified (GM) deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is discussed as part of the total risk assessment. The review finishes off with a number of conclusions related to GM food and feed safety. The aim of this paper is to provide a comprehensive overview to assist risk assessors as well as regulators and the general public in understanding the safety issues related to these mechanisms.', 'en_US'),
(1860, 'Detection and traceability of genetically modified organisms in the food production chain', 'Both labelling and traceability of genetically modified organisms are current issues that are considered in trade and regulation. Currently, labelling of genetically modified foods containing detectable transgenic material is required by EU legislation. A proposed package of legislation would extend this labelling to foods without any traces of transgenics. These new legislations would also impose labelling and a traceability system based on documentation throughout the food and feed manufacture system. The regulatory issues of risk analysis and labelling are currently harmonised by Codex Alimentarius. The implementation and maintenance of the regulations necessitates sampling protocols and analytical methodologies that allow for accurate determination of the content of genetically modified organisms within a food and feed sample. Current methodologies for the analysis of genetically modified organisms are focused on either one of two targets, the transgenic DNA inserted- or the novel protein(s) expressed- in a genetically modified product. For most DNA-based detection methods, the polymerase chain reaction is employed. Items that need consideration in the use of DNA-based detection methods include the specificity, sensitivity, matrix effects, internal reference DNA, availability of external reference materials, hemizygosity versus homozygosity, extrachromosomal DNA, and international harmonisation. For most protein-based methods, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays with antibodies binding the novel protein are employed. Consideration should be given to the selection of the antigen bound by the antibody, accuracy, validation, and matrix effects. Currently, validation of detection methods for analysis of genetically modified organisms is taking place. In addition, new methodologies are developed, including the use of microarrays, mass spectrometry, and surface plasmon resonance. Challenges for GMO detection include the detection of transgenic material in materials with varying chromosome numbers. The existing and proposed regulatory EU requirements for traceability of genetically modified products fit within a broader tendency towards traceability of foods in general and, commercially, towards products that can be distinguished from each other. Traceability systems document the history of a product and may serve the purpose of both marketing and health protection. In this framework, segregation and identity preservation systems allow for the separation of genetically modified and non-modified products from ''farm to fork''. Implementation of these systems comes with specific technical requirements for each particular step of the food processing chain. In addition, the feasibility of traceability systems depends on a number of factors, including unique identifiers for each genetically modified product, detection methods, permissible levels of contamination, and financial costs. In conclusion, progress has been achieved in the field of sampling, detection, and traceability of genetically modified products, while some issues remain to be solved. For success, much will depend on the threshold level for adventitious contamination set by legislation.', 'en_US'),
(1861, 'Societal aspects of genetically modified foods', 'This paper aims to examine some of the reasons behind public controversy associated with the introduction of genetically modified foods in Europe the 1990s. The historical background to the controversy is provided to give context. The issue of public acceptance of genetically modified foods, and indeed the emerging biosciences more generally, is considered in the context of risk perceptions and attitudes, public trust in regulatory institutions, scientists, and industry, and the need to develop communication strategies that explicitly include public concerns rather than exclude them. Increased public participation has been promoted as a way of increasing trust in institutional practices associated with the biosciences, although questions still arise as to how to best utilise the outputs of such exercises in policy development. This issue will become more of a priority as decision-making systems become more transparent and open to public scrutiny. The results are discussed in the context of risk assessment and risk management, and recommendations for future research are made. In particular, it is recommended that new methods are developed in order to integrate public values more efficaciously into risk analysis processes, specifically with respect to the biosciences and to technology implementation in general.', 'en_US'),
(1862, 'Development and use of an ELISA test to detect IgE antibody to Cry9c following possible exposure to bioengineered corn', 'Background: Starlink?, a variety of corn genetically engineered to contain the insecticidal protein Cry9c, had not been approved for human consumption because it possessed some characteristics associated with allergenic proteins. However, in the fall of 2000 cry9c DNA was detected in several corn-containing products, suggesting that Starlink corn had entered the human food supply. Subsequently, consumers, following consumption of corn products, reported a number of adverse health events, possibly consistent with allergic reaction. Methods: To investigate the possibility of allergic reactions due to Cry9c in these consumers an ELISA test was developed for the purpose of detecting IgE antibodies to Cry9c and blood samples were taken from a total of 18 people who self-reported allergic reactions. Sera collected prior to the 1996 development of Starlink were used as negative controls. Results: None of the adverse event sera were found to be reactive with recombinant Cry9c antigen, based on comparison with normal controls. Although a known human positive control serum containing IgE specific for Cry9c was not available, other controls were incorporated into the ELISA protocol, including the use of sera from subjects allergic to other allergens and their homologous antigens (cat, grass, peanut) to validate the IgE detection reagents. Conclusions: While the results do not support the likely occurrence of allergic reactions to Cry9c, such reactions cannot be ruled out, nor can the possibility that sera might react with unique glycosylated epitopes of Cry9c that may be expressed in the corn plant/seed.', 'en_US'),
(1863, 'The use of genetically modified crops in agriculture and food production, and their impacts on the environment - a developing world perspective', 'The scientific basis for predicting substantially higher yields from genetically modified (GM) than non-GM crops is not strong. They may yield specialized products, but they are also likely to create problems for human health and to the environment unless they are rigorously tested before use. Even assuming that they will give higher yields, they may not solve the problem of food shortage in the South. This is because the causes of the shortage are many, complex, and primarily not technological but structural. What is needed is good national governance and a fair North-South trading and financial relationship.', 'en_US'),
(1864, 'Gene flow from oilseed rape to weedy species', 'The assessment of the likelihood of transgene spread from cultivated species to their wild relatives is relevant for oilseed rape (Brassica napus, AACC, 2n=38) as it is partially allogamous and presents numerous wild relatives growing nearby in cultivated areas and having an overlapping of the flowering period. We have assessed the probability of F1 interspecific hybrid formation between oilseed rape and three main weeds encountered in France, wild mustard (Sinapis arvensis, SarSar, 2n=18), hoary mustard (Hirschfeldia incana, AdAd, 2n=14) and wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum, RrRr, 2n=18), under optimal conditions. Because of the higher frequency of interspecific hybrids observed with this latter weed, complementary field experiments were carried out under normal agronomic conditions. The F1 hybrids obtained showed different genomic structures, either 2n=28, or 2n=37, or 2n=56. These different hybrids were cultivated in the presence of wild radish and the succeeding generations were studied.', 'en_US'),
(1865, 'GM crops: A Potential for Pest Mismanagement', 'In the absence of equivalent research on genetically modified (GM) pest-resistant crops, their impact in pest management can be predicted from experience with traditionally bred varieties which share with GM crops the characteristic that the resistance is based on high expression of a single toxin. Such varieties lead to the rapid selection of tolerant pest strains, damage biological control and induce tolerance to synthetic pesticides. By contrast, polygenic and more broadly based resistant varieties will maintain their resistance for longer, and often synergise beneficially with biological control. The pests also become more susceptible to insecticides, giving the opportunity for applications which are selective in favour of natural enemies. However, although GM crops compare badly with traditional pest-resistant varieties, they compare favourably with insecticides, the technology they are most likely to replace.', 'en_US'),
(1866, 'GM plants and protection against insects - alternative strategies based on gene technology', 'Insect resistant genetically modified (GM) crops may provide a partial substitution technology for chemical pesticides. Those which are available commercially are all based on modified Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxins. It is desirable to have a pool of alternative genes that encode insect control proteins (ICPs) having entirely different modes of action. Various classes of compound have been suggested although most have one or more disadvantages compared with Bt toxins. A pool of alternative ICPs would allow pyramiding of resistance genes, which should have a number of advantages: multifactorial resistance is expected to be more durable, to increase the spectrum of pests targeted and to be more effective. Some of these compounds address concerns about durability, spectrum of activity, reliability, environmental impact and public acceptability of GM crops. More speculative alternative approaches which might remove other key constraints on the transgenic approach to crop protection are discussed. The fundamental research necessary for their development is unlikely to be funded from commercial sources.', 'en_US'),
(1867, 'Resistance management: slowing pest adaptation to transgenic crops', 'Transgenic crops that are genetically modified to produce insecticidal proteins from the common bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) can help to control pests while reducing reliance on insecticide sprays. So far, no insects have evolved resistance in the field to Bt transgenic crops. However, diamondback moth populations have evolved resistance to Bt sprays in the field and many pests have evolved resistance to Bt toxins in the laboratory. To delay resistance, the refuge strategy provides host plants that do not produce Bt toxins, thereby promoting survival of susceptible pests. In Arizona, Bt cotton has been extremely effective in controlling the pink bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella), a major pest. Despite a surprisingly high frequency of resistance in 1997, resistance did not increase in Arizona field populations of pink bollworm from 1997 to 1999. Nonetheless, pink bollworm and other insects will eventually evolve resistance, so any particular transgenic crop variety is not a permanent solution to pest problems. Instead, transgenic crops can be used in harmony with other tactics as part of integrated pest management. Evaluations of transgenic crops should consider their advantages and disadvantages compared with alternatives. If transgenic crops can greatly reduce use of hazardous insecticides, as achieved in Arizona cotton, great benefits may occur.', 'en_US'),
(1868, 'Genetically modified crops: a US farmer''s versus an EU citizen''s point of view', 'Genetically modified (GM) crops have been widely adopted by American farmers. Mainly two traits, herbicide resistance and insect resistance, constitute the area of GM crops. The commercial success of these crops derives from benefits in farm management and more generally from greater efficiency in production. European population surveys continue to show widespread opposition to GM crops and other applications of gene technology in food production. Danish focus group interviews reveal general concerns that seem to form the basis for the negative perception of GM crops. The aim of the paper is to explain why American farmers and European citizens adopt opposing attitudes to GM crops. It is argued that there is a clear conflict of interest between the two groups. At present GM crops provide no genuine benefits to the consumer, who is therefore unwilling to run even very small risks arising from the use of gene technology in food production. European citizens also connect GM crops with intensive agricultural practices, which are perceived as unsustainable. Here values may diverge, but discussion about sustainable agriculture is not primarily about GM crops: it is much broader.', 'en_US'),
(1869, 'Functional genomics from a plant biochemist''s perspective', 'The lipids derived from plant seeds provide approximately 20% of dietary calories in developed nations. The fatty acid composition of these dietary oils can influence several components of long-term health. Almost all the genes involved in producing dietary oils are now isolated, allowing rational modifications in saturated and polyunsaturated fatty acid content in foods. Several of these genes have been identified using genomic approaches. However, many questions about the regulation of plant lipid metabolism seem difficult to solve using conventional biochemical or molecular approaches. For example, we have little understanding of why or how some seeds produce >50% oil whereas other seeds store largely carbohydrate or protein. Major control over complex plant biochemical pathways may only become possible by understanding regulatory networks which provide ''global'' control over these pathways. To begin to discover such networks and provide a broad analysis of gene expression in developing oilseeds, we have taken two genomic approaches: 1) We have sequenced 10,500 expressed sequence tags (EST) from developing Arabidopsis seeds and analyzed these using different bioinformatics tools. Approximately 30% of the ESTs have no match in dbEST, suggesting many represent mRNAs derived from genes that are specifically expressed in seeds. ''Electronic northern'' analysis of EST abundance data has provided insights into the import of photosynthate into developing embryos, its conversion into seed oil and the regulation of this pathway. 2) We have produced microarrays which display ca. 4000 seed-expressed Arabidopsis genes. Sensitivity of the arrays is estimated at 1-2 copies mRNA/cell. The arrays have been hybridized with probes derived from seeds, leaves, and roots and analysis of expression ratios between the different tissues has allowed the tissue-specific expression patterns of many hundreds of genes to be described for the first time. Approximately 10% of the genes were expressed at ratios S10-fold higher in seeds than leaves or roots. We also identified several transcription factors, as well as kinases and phosphatases, whose expression changed during the seed development, and which may be involved in the regulation of the storage compound synthesis. Moreover, cluster analysis of the expression profiles established distinct groups of co-regulated genes.', 'en_US'),
(1870, 'The present status of the use of genetically modified crops in the EU - the current situation and a vision for the future', 'Since the beginning of the mandate of the present European Commission in September 1999, genetically modified organisms (GMOs) have been high up on the political agenda and presented an important political and legal challenge. Considerable work has been invested in tackling the present situation of public concern for GMOs and the current standstill in the authorization process of GM products. The challenge is to find ways and means to meet the current consumer concerns, and to restore public and market confidence in the authorization procedure for GMOs. In order to upgrade the legislative framework, a new Directive has been adopted in 2001, establishing that GMOs cannot be released into the environment without a prior assessment of any potential risks to human health or the environment and without explicit approval from the authorities. The Directive has been complemented by draft legislation on traceability and labelling of GM products, which are currently debated in the Council and in the Parliament. However, a new, more stringent, regulatory framework might not be sufficient to restore public confidence in terms of the purchase and consumption of genetically modified food products. It will be necessary for all stakeholders, Member States, the European institutions, industry and research as well as NGOs and the media, to reflect upon their responsibilities and provide a balanced response to public concerns.', 'en_US'),
(1871, 'Monitoring glyphosate residues in transgenic glyphosate-resistant soybean.', 'The availability of Roundup Ready (RR) varieties of soybean has increased the use of glyphosate for weed control in Argentina. Glyphosate [(N-phosphonomethyl)glycine] is employed for the eradication of previous crop vegetation and for weed control during the soybean growing cycle. Its action is effective, and low environmental impact has been reported so far. No residues have been observed in soil or water, either of glyphosate or its metabolite, AMPA (aminomethylphosphonic acid). The objective of this work was to monitor glyphosate and AMPA residues in soybean plants and grains in field crops in Santa Fe Province, Argentina. Five sites were monitored in 1997, 1998 and 1999. Individual soybean plants were sampled from emergence to harvest, dried and ground. Analysis consisted in residue extraction with organic solvents and buffers, agitation, centrifugation, clean-up and HPLC with UV detection. In soybean leaves and stems, glyphosate residues ranged from 1.9 to 4.4 mg kg-1 and from 0.1 to 1.8 mg kg-1 in grains. Higher concentrations were detected when glyphosate was sprayed several times during the crop cycle, and when treatments approached the flowering stage. AMPA residues were also detected in leaves and in grains, indicating metabolism of the herbicide.', 'en_US'),
(1872, 'Long-term selection for resistance to transgenic cotton expressing Bacillus thuringiensis toxin in Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)', 'Selection experiments for resistance to transgenic Bt cotton expressing Cry1Ac toxin in Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) were conducted using a leaf-feeding method with 42 selection episodes over 45 generations. The cotton bollworm developed resistance to transgenic Bt cotton after 12 generations (F12) of selection. The survival rate of F12 neonates feeding on leaves of seedling stage for 4 days and boll-opening stage for 5 days of R19 line were ca 34 and 72%, respectively, compared with ca 0 and 40% for a non-selected sister strain (NYCS), but lower than or similar to that of F12 feeding on leaves of non-Bt cotton, Sumian 12 (ca 87 or 76%). Resistance to B thuringiensis HD-1 Dipel in neonates (F12) was ca 6-fold. After 42 generations of selection, the strain developed a very high level of resistance to Cry1Ac protoxin, 210 g kg-1 MVPII wettable powder and 200 g litre-1 MVPII liquid formulation, the resistance ratios being 1680-, 1780- and ca 1200-fold, respectively, compared with a laboratory susceptible strain (HZS). When compared with the non-selected NYCS, the resistance ratios to the above toxins were ca 540-, 580- and 510-fold, respectively, but to Dipel only ca 16-fold. The results indicated that it is very important to develop and implement effective resistance-management strategies and to detect early resistance to Bt cotton in field populations.', 'en_US'),
(1873, 'Stable Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxin content in interspecific F1 and backcross populations of wild Brassica rapa after Bt gene transfer', 'Stable expression of a transgene may lead to increased fitness for wild plants after acquiring the transgene via crop-weed hybridization. Here, we investigate the stability of Bt toxin content in wild Brassica rapa acquiring the Bt gene from Bt Brassica napus. The Bt toxin content in nine Bt-expressing B. napus lines was 0.80-1.70 µg/g leaf tissue throughout the growing season. These nine lines were crossed with three accessions of wild B. rapa and the Bt gene was successfully transferred to interspecific hybrids (F1) and successive backcross generations (BC1 to BC4). The Bt toxin level in F1 and BC progenies containing the Bt gene remained at 0.90-3.10µg/g leaf tissue. This study indicates that the Bt gene can persist and be stably expressed in wild B. rapa.', 'en_US'),
(1874, 'Amelioration of biodiversity impacts of genetically modified crops: predicting transient versus long-term effects.', 'It has been suggested that genetically modified herbicide-tolerant crops may benefit biodiversity because spraying of crops may be delayed until later in the growing season, allowing weeds to grow during the early part of the year. This provides an enhanced resource for arthropods, and potentially benefits birds that feed on these. Thus, this technology could enhance biodiversity. Using a review of weed phenologies and a population model, we show that many weeds are unlikely to benefit because spraying is generally delayed insufficiently late in the season to allow most to set seed. The positive effects on biodiversity observed in trials lasting one or two seasons are thus likely to be transient. For one weed of particular significance (Chenopodium album, fat hen) we show that it is unlikely that the positive effects observed could be maintained by inputs of seed during other parts of the rotation. However, we find preliminary evidence that if spraying can be ceased earlier in the season, then a viable population of late-emerging weeds could be maintained. This strategy could benefit weeds in both genetically modified (GM) and non-GM crops, but would probably lead to reduced inputs in GM systems compared with conventional ones.', 'en_US'),
(1875, 'Selectable marker genes in transgenic plants: applications, alternatives and biosafety', 'Approximately fifty marker genes used for transgenic and transplastomic plant research or crop development have been assessed for efficiency, biosafety, scientific applications and commercialization. Selectable marker genes can be divided into several categories depending on whether they confer positive or negative selection and whether selection is conditional or non-conditional on the presence of external substrates. Positive selectable marker genes are defined as those that promote the growth of transformed tissue whereas negative selectable marker genes result in the death of the transformed tissue. The positive selectable marker genes that are conditional on the use of toxic agents, such as antibiotics, herbicides or drugs were the first to be developed and exploited. More recent developments include positive selectable marker genes that are conditional on non-toxic agents that may be substrates for growth or that induce growth and differentiation of the transformed tissues. Newer strategies include positive selectable marker genes which are not conditional on external substrates but which alter the physiological processes that govern plant development. A valuable companion to the selectable marker genes are the reporter genes, which do not provide a cell with a selective advantage, but which can be used to monitor transgenic events and manually separate transgenic material from non-transformed material. They fall into two categories depending on whether they are conditional or non-conditional on the presence of external substrates. Some reporter genes can be adapted to function as selectable marker genes through the development of novel substrates. Despite the large number of marker genes that exist for plants, only a few marker genes are used for most plant research and crop development. As the production of transgenic plants is labor intensive, expensive and difficult for most species, practical issues govern the choice of selectable marker genes that are used. Many of the genes have specific limitations or have not been sufficiently tested to merit their widespread use. For research, a variety of selection systems are essential as no single selectable marker gene was found to be sufficient for all circumstances. Although, no adverse biosafety effects have been reported for the marker genes that have been adopted for widespread use, biosafety concerns should help direct which markers will be chosen for future crop development. Common sense dictates that marker genes conferring resistance to significant therapeutic antibiotics should not be used. An area of research that is growing rapidly but is still in its infancy is the development of strategies for eliminating selectable marker genes to generate marker-free plants. Among the several technologies described, two have emerged with significant potential. The simplest is the co-transformation of genes of interest with selectable marker genes followed by the segregation of the separate genes through conventional genetics. The more complicated strategy is the use of site-specific recombinases, under the control of inducible promoters, to excise the marker genes and excision machinery from the transgenic plant after selection has been achieved. In this review each of the genes and processes will be examined to assess the alternatives that exist for producing transgenic plants.', 'en_US'),
(1876, 'Population genetics of transgene containment', 'Several strategies have been proposed for creating transgenic cultivars from which transgene escape to wild relatives would seem unlikely; for example, to impede escape through pollen, a transgene could be inserted into chloroplast DNA (cpDNA), which in many crops is rarely transmitted through pollen. None of these strategies would be failsafe; for example, the rate of cpDNA transmission through pollen may be low but non-zero in many crops. Here, we study how the probability distribution of escape time depends on the rates of pollen and seed flow from the crop to wild populations, the number and sizes of the wild populations, the selection coefficient for the transgene, and a leakage parameter characteristic of the strategy, for example, the rate of cpDNA transmission through pollen. We find that even with a leakage parameter as small as 103, the probability of escape within as few as 10 generations could be appreciable.', 'en_US'),
(1877, 'Crop transformation and the challenge to increase yield potential', 'Molecular transformation is commonly offered as a hope to overcome the apparent stagnation in crop yield potential. A basic understanding of the resource limits imposed on crops and the yield hierarchy going from gene expression to harvestable yield leads to a rather negative view that transformations of a few, or even of a complex of genes will result directly in major yield increases. Forty years of biochemical and physiological research illustrate the great difficulty in translating research at the basic level into improvements in crop yield. However, there are a few cases where physiological research has led to improved crop cultivars with increased yield. These successes are instructive in highlighting key elements required to achieve success in developing crop cultivars for increased yield.', 'en_US'),
(1878, 'Concentration in ownership of plant variety rights: some implications for developing countries', 'This paper explores concentration levels in the ownership of intellectual property rights over plant varieties worldwide. An analysis of data for 30 UPOV member-countries shows a high degree of concentration in the ownership of plant variety rights for six major crops at the national level in the developed world. Much of this concentration has arisen owing to the rapid consolidation of the seed industry through mergers and acquisitions, especially in the 1990s. A high degree of concentration in the ownership of plant variety rights, in combination with recent efforts to strengthen plant variety protection regimes, is likely to have significant effects on the prospects for future innovation in plant breeding and the distribution of market power between companies. For developing countries, concentration in intellectual property right ownership may have important implications for the structure of domestic seed industries and access to protected varieties and associated plant breeding technologies. These implications for developing countries are likely to become apparent in the context of the rapid spread of plant variety protection and access legislation, emerging changes in the international exchange regime for plant material and liberalised investment policies permitting foreign investment in the seeds sector.', 'en_US'),
(1879, 'Dual resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Ac and Cry2Aa toxins in Heliothis virescens suggests multiple mechanisms of resistance', 'One strategy for delaying evolution of resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis crystal (Cry) endotoxins is the production of multiple Cry toxins in each transgenic plant (gene stacking). This strategy relies upon the assumption that simultaneous evolution of resistance to toxins that have different modes of action will be difficult for insect pests. In B. thuringiensis-transgenic (Bt) cotton, production of both Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab has been proposed to delay resistance of Heliothis virescens (tobacco budworm). After previous laboratory selection with Cry1Ac, H. virescens strains CXC and KCBhyb developed high levels of cross-resistance not only to toxins similar to Cry1Ac but also to Cry2Aa. We studied the role of toxin binding alteration in resistance and cross-resistance with the CXC and KCBhyb strains. In toxin binding experiments, Cry1A and Cry2Aa toxins bound to brush border membrane vesicles from CXC, but binding of Cry1Aa was reduced for the KCBhyb strain compared to susceptible insects. Since Cry1Aa and Cry2Aa do not share binding proteins in H. virescens, our results suggest occurrence of at least two mechanisms of resistance in KCBhyb insects, one of them related to reduction of Cry1Aa toxin binding. Cry1Ac bound irreversibly to brush border membrane vesicles (BBMV) from YDK, CXC, and KCBhyb larvae, suggesting that Cry1Ac insertion was unaffected. These results highlight the genetic potential of H. virescens to become resistant to distinct Cry toxins simultaneously and may question the effectiveness of gene stacking in delaying evolution of resistance.', 'en_US'),
(1880, 'Tracking genes from seed to supermarket: techniques and trends', 'Analytical techniques to track plant genes in the environment and the food chain are essential for environmental risk assessment, government regulation and production and trade of genetically modified (GM) crops. Here, I review laboratory techniques to track plant genes during pre-commercialization research on gene flow and post-commercialization detection, identification and quantification of GM crops from seed to supermarket. At present, DNA- and protein-based assays support both activities but the demand for fast, inexpensive, sensitive methods is increasing. Part of the demand has been generated by stringent food labeling and traceability regulations for GM crops. The increase in GM crops, changes in GM crop design, evolution of government regulations and adoption of risk-assessment frameworks will continue to drive development of analytical techniques.', 'en_US'),
(1881, 'On risk and plant-based biopharmaceuticals', 'Research into plant-based expression of pharmaceutical proteins is proceeding at a blistering pace. Indeed, plants expressing pharmaceutical proteins are currently being grown in field environments throughout the USA. But how are these plants and proteins being assessed for environmental risk and how are they being regulated? Here, we examine the applicability of the risk assessment paradigm for assessing human and ecological risks from field-grown transgenic plants that express pharmaceutical proteins.', 'en_US'),
(1882, 'Detection of transgenic and endogenous plant DNA in rumen fluid, duodenal digesta, milk, blood, and feces of lactating dairy cows', 'The objective was to determine the presence or absence of transgenic and endogenous plant DNA in ruminal fluid, duodenal digesta, milk, blood, and feces, and if found, to determine fragment size. Six multiparous lactating Holstein cows fitted with ruminal and duodenal cannulas received a total mixed ration. There were two treatments (T). In T1, the concentrate contained genetically modified (GM) soybean meal (cp4epsps gene) and GM corn grain (cry1a[b] gene), whereas T2 contained the near isogenic non-GM counterparts. Polymerase chain reaction analysis was used to determine the presence or absence of DNA sequences. Primers were selected to amplify small fragments from single-copy genes (soy lectin and corn high-mobility protein and cp4epsps and cry1a[b] genes from the GM crops) and multicopy genes (bovine mitochondrial cytochrome b and rubisco). Single-copy genes were only detected in the solid phase of rumen and duodenal digesta. In contrast, fragments of the rubisco gene were detected in the majority of samples analyzed in both the liquid and solid phases of ruminal and duodenal digesta, milk, and feces, but rarely in blood. The size of the rubisco gene fragments detected decreased from 1176 bp in ruminal and duodenal digesta to 351 bp in fecal samples.', 'en_US'),
(1883, 'Prospects and benefits of biotechnology in agriculture', 'Recombinant DNA technology has significantly augmented the conventional crop improvement, and has a great promise to assist plant breeders to meet the increased food demand predicted for the 21st century. Progress has been made in manipulating genes from diverse and exotic sources, and inserting them into crop plants to confer resistance to insect pests and diseases, tolerance to herbicides, drought and soil salinity; improved post-harvest quality; enhanced nutrient uptake and nutritional quality and increased effectiveness of biocontrol agents. The development, testing and release of agricultural products generated through biotechnology-based processes should continuously be optimized based on the most recent experiences. This will require a dynamic and streamlined regulatory structure, clearly supportive of the benefits of biotechnology, but highly sensitive to the well being of humans and environment.', 'en_US'),
(1884, 'Population dynamics of volunteer oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) affected by tillage.', 'Volunteer plants of oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) from persistent seeds in soil can affect subsequent crops. Apart from the agricultural disadvantages, the environment and the marketing of the seeds may also be affected, particularly if plants with special ingredients or genetically modified (gm) plants are grown. In order to investigate the influence of soil cultivation and genotype on seed persistence and gene flow via volunteers, a field experiment was set up testing four tillage treatments and two cultivars in a split-plot design. The cultivars tested were near-isogenic to two gm cultivars. To simulate harvesting losses, 10000 seeds m-2 were broadcast on a soil in July. The subsequent tillage treatments were combinations of immediate or delayed stubble tillage by a rotary tiller, primary tillage with plough or cultivator, or zero tillage. Over the following year, the fate of the seeds was determined. Immediate stubble tillage with following cultivator or plough resulted in 586 resp. 246 seeds m-2 in the soil seed bank. After delayed stubble tillage with following plough, 76 seeds m-2 were found, and no soil seed bank was built up in the zero tillage treatment. Nevertheless, in the zero tillage treatment, several robust volunteer plants survived the herbicide application before the direct drilling in autumn until following spring. In the zero tillage treatment and in the cultivator treatment, 0.19 volunteers m-2 resp. 0.06 volunteers m-2 flowered simultaneously to ordinarily sown oilseed rape in the following crop of winter wheat and produced 73 resp. 18 seeds m-2. Delayed stubble tillage reduced the risk of gene escape via the soil seed bank, while zero tillage resulted in the highest risk of gene escape by pollen and by production of a new generation of seeds. In terms of a labelling threshold for gm food this number of seeds would be below the threshold of 0.9% of transgenic parts in conventially bred food or feed.', 'en_US'),
(1885, 'Ecological impact of GM potatoes', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1886, 'Persistence of DNA studied in different ex vivo and in vivo rat models simulating the human gut situation.', 'This study aimed to evaluate the possibility of DNA sequences from genetically modified plants to persist in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. PCR analysis and transformation assays were used to study DNA persistence and integrity in various ex vivo and in vivo systems using gnotobiotic rats. DNA studied was either plasmid DNA, naked plant DNA or plant DNA embedded in maize flour. Ex vivo experiments performed by incubating plant DNA in intestinal samples, showed that DNA is rapidly degraded in the upper part of the GI tract whereas degradation is less severe in the lower part. In contrast, plasmid DNA could be recovered throughout the GI tract when intestinal samples were taken up to 5 h after feeding rats with plasmid. Furthermore, DNA isolated from these intestinal samples was able to transform electro-competent Escherichia coli, showing that the plasmid was still biologically active. The results indicate that ingested DNA may persist in the GI tract and consequently may be present for uptake by intestinal bacteria.', 'en_US'),
(1887, 'Transgenic male mating advantage provides opportunity for Trojan gene effect in a fish', 'Genetically modified (GM) strains now exist for many organisms, producing significant promise for agricultural production. However, if these organisms have some fitness advantage, they may also pose an environmental harm when released. High mating success of GM males relative to WT males provides such an important fitness advantage. Here, we provide documentation that GM male medaka fish modified with salmon growth hormone possess an overwhelming mating advantage. GM medaka offspring possess a survival disadvantage relative to WT, however. When both of these fitness components are included in our model, the transgene is predicted to spread if GM individuals enter wild populations (because of the mating advantage) and ultimately lead to population extinction (because of the viability disadvantage). Mating trials indicate that WT males use alternative mating tactics in an effort to counter the mating advantage of GM males, and we use genetic markers to ascertain the success of these alternative strategies. Finally, we model the impact of alternative mating tactics by WT males on transgene spread. Such tactics may reduce the rate of transgene spread, but not the outcome.', 'en_US'),
(1888, 'Strategies for the detection of potential Beet necrotic yellow vein virus genome recombinations which might arise as a result of growing A type coat protein gene-expressing sugarbeets in soil containing B type virus.', 'We have searched for beet necrotic yellow vein virus (BNYVV) populations with a recombined genome which could possibly arise when transgenic sugarbeets expressing the coat protein gene of A type BNYVV are grown in soil containing Polymyxa betae carrying B type BNYVV, in soil samples from previous field release experiments and in a greenhouse model experiment. In order to accelerate the potential evolution of virus populations with recombined genomes in the model experiment, eight successive crops of sugarbeet plantlets were grown in the same soil samples over a period of 3 years. For the sensitive detection of recombined BNYVV genomes, we used nested PCRs with sense primers that are preferentially extended on the A type BNYVV sequence in the region of the coat protein gene and antisense primers which are preferentially extended on the B type BNYVV sequence in a region downstream of the coat protein gene which is not present in the transgene. Controls with mixtures of sap from plants which were singly infected with A or with B type BNYVV only revealed that, unless proper precautions are taken, PCR-mediated recombination artifacts may readily be produced. A method was developed that is able to detect A type/B type recombinant RNA molecules up to dilutions of one to a million in pure B type RNA molecules. Inspite of this high sensitivity we failed to detect any BNYVV with a recombined genome in the transgenic plants of the model experiment or at the sites of the previous field release experiments.', 'en_US'),
(1889, 'Regulating transgenic crops: a comparative analysis of different regulatory processes.', 'Transgenic crops have the potential to benefit both developed and developing countries. To ensure safe crops to humans and the environment, a strong, but not stifling, regulatory system needs to be established and properly implemented. This paper explores some essential components of a strong regulatory structure for transgenic crops. First, five different regulatory systems for transgenic crops ? the United States, the European Union, South Africa, Taiwan, and Argentina ? are described and explained. The major components of those systems are then compared to components necessary to a regulatory system that ensures safe products and engenders public trust. The key components discussed include: (1) mandatory pre-market approval; (2) established safety standards; (3) transparency; (4) public participation; (5) use of outside scientists for expert scientific advice; (6) independent agency decisions; (7) post-approval activities; and (8) enforcement authority and resources. Although no one of the existing systems analyzed adequately achieves all the necessary components of a strong regulatory system, those systems serve as models for deciding which regulatory procedures should be emulated and which should be avoided. A mandatory pre-market approval system that applies established safety standards in procedures that are transparent and allows for public participation with no pre-conceived notions or biases will best achieve both safe products and consumer trust.', 'en_US'),
(1890, 'Controversy about agricultural technology lessons from the green revolution', 'The development and introduction of transgenically modified organisms to enhance crop and animal production has generated considerable controversy about potential food safety and environmental impacts. The introduction, in tropical Latin America and Asia, of high yielding varieties of wheat, maize and rice beginning in the late 1960s was also controversial. Critics argued that the new technology was biased against the poor - it would make the rich richer and the poor poorer. In this paper, I review the equity and productivity impacts of the ''''green revolution'''' technology and draw several inferences about evaluation of the effects of the new biotechnologies in agricultural production.', 'en_US'),
(1891, 'Regulating biotechnology: GM food labels', 'Discussions of appropriate regulatory norms for foods derived through modern biotechnology date back to the early 1980s. Almost 20 years later, agreement among key trading countries on what such norms should be remains elusive.  Some countries, including the United States and Canada, consider biotech or genetically modified (GM) foods substantially equivalent to conventional counterparts and regulate them similarly. Others, including the European Union (EU) and Japan, scrutinize and require mandatory labeling of GM foods.Opponents of mandatory labeling have argued that it is unwarranted and costly. Proponents have argued that it is necessary to safeguard the informed consumer choice. Both such arguments have found acceptance in different parts of the world, raising questions about the optimal regulatory approach to GM food labels and the factors that influence regulatory decisions. I address these questions in this paper.', 'en_US'),
(1892, 'Insect resistant maize for Africa: Lab to field and challenges along the way', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1893, 'Detection of genetically modified soya in a range of organic and health food products: implications for the accurate labelling of foodstuffs derived from potential GM crops.', 'A selection of organic/health foods containing soya beans was tested for the presence of genetically modified (GM) material. Out of 25 samples of food products containing unrefined soya ingredients, ten tested positively for the presence of GM material. This was surprising because eight out of the ten GM-positive samples were either labelled as ''GM free'' and/or were labelled as ''organic'', both of which imply the absence of GM ingredients. In no case did any of the foods tested reach the mandatory 1 per cent threshold required for positive labelling as GM products under current European Union legislation, although one product was close to this limit. However, there was considerable batch-to-batch variation in the GM soya content of some of the food products, depending on the purchase date and retailer. The paper discusses the implications of these results regarding international regulations on food labelling and use of ''GM free'' labels or their equivalent.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(1894, 'Tracing residual recombinant feed molecules during digestion and rumen bacterial diversity in cattle fed transgenic maize', 'The aim of this study was to trace selected nucleic acid and protein components of isogene versus Bt transgene maize within the bovine gastrointestinal tract (GIT). After feeding 22 cattle for 4 weeks with Bt176 maize, different plant genes and the recombinant protein CryIAb were quantified during digestion. Furthermore, a first initial characterization of rumen bacteria was approached, using 16rDNA gene sequencing comparing isogene- against transgene-fed animals. Ingesta samples of different GIT sections (rumen, abomasum, jejunum, colon) were analysed for chloroplast, maize invertase, zein and Bt toxin (CryIAb) gene fragments using quantitative real-time PCR. First, the initial gene dose of these maize genes was detected in maize silage. During digestion, a significant reduction of high-to-medium abundant plant gene fragments was shown depending on the dwell-time and the initial gene copy number. Immunoreactive CryIAb protein was quantified by ELISA in intestinal samples indicating a significant loss of that protein. Remarkable amounts of Bt toxin were found in all contents of the GIT and the protein was still present in faeces. For the first time, the influence of CryIAb transgene maize on rumen bacterial microflora was investigated compared to isogene material through analysis of 497 individual bacterial 16S rDNA sequences. In principle, specific bacterial leader-species could be identified in all bovine rumen extracts, but no significant influence of Bt176 maize feed was found on the composition of the microbial population. This investigation provides supplementing data to further evaluate the fate of novel recombinant material originating from transgene feed or food within the mammalian GIT.', 'en_US'),
(1895, 'Interaction of Bacillus thuringiensis toxins with larval midgut binding sites of Helicoverpa armigera (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)', 'In 1996, Bt-cotton (cotton expressing a Bacillus thuringiensis toxin gene) expressing the Cry1Ac protein was commercially introduced to control cotton pests. A threat to this first generation of transgenic cotton is the evolution of resistance by the insects. Second-generation Bt-cotton has been developed with either new B. thuringiensis genes or with a combination of cry genes. However, one requirement for the ''stacked'' gene strategy to work is that the stacked toxins bind to different binding sites. In the present study, the binding of 125I-labeled Cry1Ab protein (125I-Cry1Ab) and 125I-Cry1Ac to brush border membrane vesicles (BBMV) of Helicoverpa armigera was analyzed in competition experiments with 11 nonlabeled Cry proteins. The results indicate that Cry1Aa, Cry1Ab, and Cry1Ac competed for common binding sites. No other Cry proteins tested competed for either 125I-Cry1Ab or 125I-Cry1Ac binding, except Cry1Ja, which competed only at the highest concentrations used. Furthermore, BBMV from four H. armigera populations were also tested with 125I-Cry1Ac and Cry1Ab to check the influence of the insect population on the binding results. Finally, the inhibitory effect of selected sugars and lectins was also determined. 125I-Cry1Ac binding was strongly inhibited by N-acetylgalactosamine, sialic acid, and concanavalin A and moderately inhibited by soybean agglutinin. In contrast, 125I-Cry1Ab binding was only significantly inhibited by concanavalin A. These results show that Cry1Ac and Cry1Ab use different epitopes for binding to BBMV.', 'en_US'),
(1896, 'Genetically modified organisms: the side not revealed by science.', 'The efforts on the part of Monsanto to introduce Roundup Ready (RR) soybeans into Brazil have been impeded since 1998 by court action by IDEC (a consumer rights organisation) and Greenpeace. The lack of toxicological studies concerning the specific environmental impact on Brazil is the main argument against the marketing of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in the country. Being unable to carry out such a rapid diffusion of GMOs in Brazil, which is the world''s second largest exporter of soybeans, has caused great uncertainty regarding the outlook for further investment in this kind of technology. The objective of this paper is to analyse the process of regulation of GMOs as an explanatory variable of the pace and the direction of technical progress. It is used as an element for the analysis of Monsanto''s strategies for obtaining fast approval of GMOs in Brazil, as well as the tactics of resistance adopted by Brazilian pressure groups. This dispute reveals a fundamental aspect of the firm selection environment that has not been sufficiently tackled in economic literature. Emphasis is given to the relationship between political power and economic power in the creation and implementation of laws and norms affecting the pace and direction of technical progress.', 'en_US'),
(1897, 'The StarLink controversy: the competing frames of risk disputes', 'The controversy over the containment of StarLink corn, a genetically modified product, is in many ways similar to risk disputes that have surrounded new technologies in the past. More than technical debates about the extent of risk, they are shaped by conflicting socio-political perspectives about the nature of risks, the ability of regulators to predict and control the effects of new technologies, and the appropriate ways to contain them so as to protect the public interest. In the biotechnology context of global markets, transnational corporations, and free trade regimes, these issues are amplified, and they have assumed new dimensions. This paper examines the containment issues revealed by the StarLink episode in the context of past disputes over new technologies; for these offer insights into the social and political dynamics ofcontroversies today.', 'en_US'),
(1898, 'Resistance monitoring of field popultaions of the corn borers Sesamia nonagrioides and Ostrinia nubilalis after 5 years of Bt maize cultivation in Spain', 'Approximately 22000 hectares (5% of the total maize growing area) of transgenic maize expressing the Cry1Ab toxin from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt maize) have been planted annually in Spain since 1998. Changes in the susceptibility to Cry1Ab of Spanish populations of the Mediterranean corn borer (MCB), Sesamia nonagrioides (Lefebvre) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), and the European corn borer (ECB), Ostrinia nubilalis (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae), were assessed by annual monitoring on Bt maize fields. No increase in resistance was detected in the MCB populations from Ebro, Albacete, and Badajoz, nor in the ECB populations from Ebro and Badajoz during the period 1999?2002. The susceptibility of the MCB population from Madrid fluctuated from year to year, but a gradual trend towards higher levels of tolerance was not observed. Laboratory selection assays for eight generations yielded selected strains of MCB and ECB that were 21- and 10-fold significantly more tolerant to Cry1Ab than the corresponding unselected strains, respectively. Nevertheless, none of the field-collected or laboratory-selected larvae were able to survive on Bt maize. Considering these data, no consistent shifts in susceptibility were found for Spanish populations of MCB nor ECB after 5years of Bt maize cultivation, but systematic field monitoring needs to be continued.', 'en_US'),
(1899, 'Accumulation, assembly and digestilibility of amarantin expressed in transgenic tropical maize.', 'An amaranth (Amaranthus hypochondriacus) 11S globulin cDNA, encoding one of the most important storage proteins (amarantin) of the seed, with a high content of essential amino acids, was used in the transformation of CIMMYT tropical maize genotype. Constructs contained the amarantin cDNA under the control of a tissue-specific promoter from rice glutelin-1 (osGT1) or a constitutive (CaMV 35S) promoter with and without the first maize alcohol dehydrogenase intron (AdH). Southern-blot analysis confirmed the integration of the amarantin cDNA, and copy number ranged from one to more than ten copies per maize genome. Western-blot and ultracentrifugation analyses of transgenic maize indicate that the expressed recombinant amarantin precursors were processed into the mature form, and accumulated stably in maize endosperm. Total protein and some essential amino acids of the best expressing maize augmented 32% and 8?44%, respectively, compared to non-transformed samples. The soluble expressed proteins were susceptible to digestion by simulated gastric and intestinal fluids, and it is suggested that they show no allergenic activity. These findings demonstrate the feasibility of using genetic engineering to improve the amino acid composition of grain crops.', 'en_US'),
(1900, 'Commercial plant breeding: what is in the biotech pipeline?', 'Of all of humankind''s endeavours, agriculture has led to the most pressure on land, its resources and biodiversity. Over the past 50 years, the need to increase food production has resulted in the loss of one-fifth of the world''s topsoil, one-fifth of its agricultural land and one-third of its forests. To slow down, and ideally reverse, this trend in the face of a predicted population increase of 50 per cent, a water shortage and climate change, new approaches will be needed. In this context, crop biotechnology and genomics have a major contributory role to play in the sustainable improvement of crop and livestock productivity, human and animal health and the development of renewable resources such as fibres, plastics, biofuels and plant-made pharmaceuticals. Manifestly, this will require both political will and international agreement.', 'en_US'),
(1901, 'The field-scale evaluations of herbicide-tolerant genetically modified crops conducted in the UK (1998-2003)', 'In 1998 the UK Government, in conjunction with Supply Chain Initiative on Modified Agricultural Crops (SCIMAC, a cross-industry group representing the supply chain), established a large-scale programme to examine the impact of genetically modified herbicide-tolerant crops on farmland biodiversity. The trials programme lasted three years and was conducted by a consortium of scientists who were responsible to an independent scientific subcommittee. The background to the establishment of these trials is described and the political pressures facing the Government at that time and the reactions of key stakeholders are discussed.The field-scale evaluations were a pioneering project to examine the impact of genetically modified crops on farmland biodiversity. The exercise was one of the largest experiments ever carried out to measure the environmental impact of specific farming practices, and shows that robust results can be obtained, while the resultant database represents a wealth of ecological information on three important arable crops ? beet, maize and oilseed rape. It is clear that other such trials could be carried out to test other variables as part of a longer-term effort to steer farm management systems in ways more acceptable to society. However, in view of their costs (both to the UK Government and the technology providers) together with the adverse response by the environmental campaign groups, and the length of time needed to carry out the work, it seems unlikely that an exercise of similar scale will be undertaken in the near future.', 'en_US'),
(1902, 'The regulatory system in the EU and further afield', 'The regulation of modern biotechnology began almost as soon as the potential benefits and risks became clear. In some countries a decision was made to use current law to address the new technologies, arguing that the changes that are able to be introduced into new products are not substantially different from those introduced by other techniques. In other jurisdictions new law was enacted to ensure that the products are at least as safe (or as some would have it, safer) than those currently on the market.New treaties that have attracted widespread support among ''consumer'' countries and indifference or hostility among ''producer'' countries have just come into force, requiring countries to address the regulation of biotechnology and assess the risks to biological diversity and to human health of introducing living modified organisms into their territory.Public perception of genetic engineering has led to changes in the regulatory system, which may not be justified by the risks posed by this technology. In particular, the national and international requirements that have been currently agreed require an analysis of risk only rather than a balancing of risk with the benefits that may accrue.', 'en_US'),
(1903, 'Genetically modified crops: broader environmental issues', 'Looking back over the five years since a similar review of the field, this paper considers some of the research designed to address those uncertainties that, in part, led to the delay in the commercial-scale release of genetically modified (GM) crops in the UK. This research has included studies of the impact of transgenes on crop biology and invasiveness, the frequency and consequences of hybridisation between crops and their wild relatives and, in two costly large-scale investigations in the USA and UK respectively, attempts to assess the environmental impact of GM crops grown on a commercial scale. The first, on the effects of Bt corn on the Monarch butterfly, has important lessons for the risk assessment process. The second, farm-scale evaluations of GM herbicide-tolerant crops, should provide a blueprint for the management of the crops within an agricultural landscape delivering both food and biodiversity.', 'en_US'),
(1904, 'Recent developments in the regulatory system in the UK', 'Regulatory frameworks are the mechanisms to ensure that both genetically modified (GM) crops, which are to be released into the environment, and GM foods and feeds, which need to be approved before consumption, are evaluated from both environmental and human health viewpoints. Regulatory committees, comprising independent experts, carefully examine the detailed dossiers of information that accompany the applications and also review the current relevant scientific background information in coming to their decisions. This paper explains the work of two key GM advisory committees and describes progressive developmental regulatory changes, which have followed incremental increases in science knowledge, and have also been influenced by the needs of the society they serve. The paper does not attempt to detail the specific assessment stages of the processes ? these are described adequately elsewhere and for those the reader is referred to committee annual reports or websites.', 'en_US'),
(1905, 'GM food: the risk-assessment of immune hypersensitivity reactions covers more than allergenticity', 'Allergenicity of genetically modified food ( GM food ) has become a public concern and international expert panels e.g. WHO/FAO have depicted decision trees for a rigorous assessment and testing for GM foods, especially where no history of safe use is available. The way to use patient sera for the assessment of allergenicity is still under discussion in cases of proteins where stability and protein sequences may not be conclusive or for potential new allergies. The risk assessment of immune hypersensitivity reactions induced potentially by GM food needs also to consider effects on other type of immune responses e.g. activation of specific immune cell populations. The role of antigen presenting cells of the gut is now understood to direct immune responses resulting in humoral, cellular or IgE predominant characteristics. For GM microorganisms potential effects on the immune system need to be assessed.', 'en_US'),
(1906, 'Resistance management to Bt engineered crops', 'The goal of resistance management to insecticides is to slow the rate of resistance evolution in the pest population. The evolution of resistance involve the interaction of many genetic, biological, and agronomical factors like pest movements, functional dominance of resistance genes or number of toxin deployed. Since 1996, million of acres have been planted with Bt transgenic crops. The novelty for the resistance management is that in the Bt crop we have a controlled and constant dose expression of the insecticide. We review the population genetics, ecological and operational factors related with this strategy.', 'en_US'),
(1907, 'Pollen flow of cultivated rice measured under experimental conditions.', 'The pollen flow pattern of a cultivated rice variety, Minghui-63, was studied at horizontal and vertical levels under experimental conditions. Data obtained from pollen traps for six designed populations (as pollen sources) at different intervals showed that the dispersal of rice pollen decreased with the increase of distance from pollen sources and that the rice pollen flow was significantly influenced by weather conditions, particularly by wind direction and speed. For a mean wind speed of 2.52 m/s in a downwind direction, the observed distance of rice pollen dispersal was 38.4 m, indicating that rice pollen grains normally disperse at a relatively small range. However, the maximum distance of rice pollen flow could be up to 110 m, using regression analysis of pollen flow and wind speed, when the wind speed reached 10 m/s in this study. The frequency of pollen flow was positively correlated with pollen source size within a given range, suggesting that pollen flow will occur effectively at a considerable rate in rice fields with sufficiently large pollen sources. In addition, many more pollen grains were detected at the height of 1.0?1.5 m than at 2.0 m, indicating that rice pollen mainly disperses at relatively low heights. Results from this study are useful both for minimizing transgene escape from transgenic rice and in situ conservation of wild relatives of rice, as well as for hybrid seed production, where an effective isolation buffer zone needs to be established.', 'en_US'),
(1908, 'Assessing the survival of transgenic plant DNA in the human gastrointestinal tract', 'The inclusion of genetically modified (GM) plants in the human diet has raised concerns about the possible transfer of transgenes from GM plants to intestinal microflora and enterocytes. The persistence in the human gut of DNA from dietary GM plants is unknown. Here we study the survival of the transgene epsps from GM soya in the small intestine of human ileostomists (i.e., individuals in which the terminal ileum is resected and digesta are diverted from the body via a stoma to a colostomy bag). The amount of transgene that survived passage through the small bowel varied among individuals, with a maximum of 3.7% recovered at the stoma of one individual. The transgene did not survive passage through the intact gastrointestinal tract of human subjects fed GM soya. Three of seven ileostomists showed evidence of low-frequency gene transfer from GM soya to the microflora of the small bowel before their involvement in these experiments. As this low level of epsps in the intestinal microflora did not increase after consumption of the meal containing GM soya, we conclude that gene transfer did not occur during the feeding experiment.', 'en_US'),
(1909, 'Targeting transgene expression in research, argicultural, and environmental applications: promoters used in plant transformation.', 'Plant genetic engineering has contributed substantially to the understanding of gene regulation and plant development, in the generation of transgenic organisms for widespread usage in agriculture, and has increased the potential uses of crops for industrial and pharmaceutical purposes. As the application of genetically engineered plants has widened, so has the need to develop methods to fine-tune control of transgene expression. The availability of a broad spectrum of promoters that differ in their ability to regulate the temporal and spatial expression patterns of the transgene can dramatically increase the successful application of transgenic technology. Indeed, a variety of promoters is necessary at all levels of genetic engineering in plants, from basic research discoveries, concepts and questions, to development of economically viable crops and plant commodities, to addressing legitimate concerns raised about the safety and containment of transgenic plants in the environment. This review covers the characterization and usage of a broad range of promoters employed in plant genetic engineering, including the widespread use of plant promoters with viral and plant origin that drive constitutive expression. Also covered are selected tissue-specific promoters from fruit, seed and grain, tubers, flowers, pistils, anther and pollen, roots and root nodules, and leaves and green tissue. Topics also include organellar promoters, and those found in specific cell types, as well as the development and evaluation of inducible (endogenous and exogenous origin) and synthetic plant promoter systems. Discussions on the relevance and potential pitfalls within specific applications are included.', 'en_US'),
(1910, 'A model of pollen-mediated gene flow for oilseed rape.', 'The development of genetically modified (GM) crops has precipitated the need for risk assessment and regulation of pollen-mediated gene flow. In response to this need we present a mathematical model to predict the spatial distribution of outcrossing between progenitor populations of oilseed rape. The model combines the processes of pollen dispersal and pollination, resulting from wind and insect activity. It includes the effects of post-pollination reproductive processes by relating the number of progeny to both pollen deposition and competition at the stigma. Predictions compare well with a range of experimental results for different-sized GM source crops (i.e. 0.0064-0.8 ha) and non-GM target crops with different fertilities (i.e. self-fertile to 80% male-sterile). For these comparisons, we represent the variation caused by wind and insect exposure as a constrained set of random functions and limit the range of insect transport to typical plant-scale distances. In addition, the model is used to examine the relative sensitivity to the factors that determine gene flow. Target-crop fertility and source-crop size are shown to be more important than other factors, including background pollen and the natural range of insect activity. The concept of isolation distance to regulate gene flow is most effective for self-fertile target crops, but is ineffective for male-sterile target crops with low background pollen.', 'en_US'),
(1911, 'A field study of pollen-mediated gene flow from Mediterranean GM rice to conventional rice and the red rice weed.', 'The objective of this study was to assess the frequency of pollen-mediated gene flow from a transgenic rice line, harbouring the gusA and the bar genes encoding respectively, â-glucuronidase and phosphinothricin acetyl transferase as markers, to the red rice weed and conventional rice in the Spanish japonica cultivar Senia. A circular field trial design was set up to investigate the influence of the wind on the frequency of pollination of red rice and conventional rice recipient plants with the transgenic pollen. Frequencies of gene flow based on detection of herbicide resistant, GUS positive seedlings among seed progenies of recipient plants averaged over all wind directions were 0.036 ± 0.006% and 0.086 ± 0.007 for red rice and conventional rice, respectively. However, for both red rice and conventional rice, a clear asymmetric distribution was observed with pollination frequency favoured in plants placed under the local prevailing winds. Southern analyses confirmed the hemizygous status and the origin of the transgenes in progenies of surviving, GUS positive plants. Gene flow detected in conventional rice planted at 1, 2, 5 and 10 m distance revealed a clear decrease with increasing distance which was less dramatic under the prevailing wind direction. Consequences of these findings for containment of gene flow from transgenic rice crops to the red rice weed are discussed. The precise determination of the local wind conditions at flowering time and pollination day time appear to be of primary importance for setting up suitable isolation distances.', 'en_US'),
(1912, 'Multitrophic interactions involving genetically modified potatoes, nontarget aphids, natural enemies and hyperparasitoids.', 'Genetically modified (GM) potatoes expressing a cysteine proteinase inhibitor (cystatin) have been developed as an option for the management of plant parasitic nematodes. The relative impact of such plants on predators and parasitoids (natural enemies) of nontarget insects was determined in a field trial. The trial consisted of GM plants, control plants grown in soil treated with a nematicide and untreated control plants. The quantity of nontarget aphids and their quality as hosts for natural enemies were studied. Aphid density was significantly reduced by nematicide treatment and few natural enemies were recorded from treated potatoes during the study. In contrast, similar numbers of aphids and their more adundant predators were recorded from the untreated control and the GM potatoes. The size of aphids on GM and control plants was recorded twice during the study. During the first sampling period (2?9 July) aphids clip-caged on GM plants were smaller than those on control plants. During the second sampling period (23?30 July) there was no difference in aphid size between those from the GM and control plants. Host size is an important component of host quality. It can affect the size and fecundity of parasitoid females and the sex ratio of their offspring. However, neither the fitness of females of Aphidius ervi, the most prevalent primary parasitoid, nor the sex ratio of their progeny, were affected when the parasitoids developed on aphids feeding on GM plants. Two guilds of secondary parasitoid were also recorded during the study. The fitness of the most abundant species, Aspahes vulgaris, was not affected when it developed on hosts from GM plants. The transgene product, OC IDD86, was not detected in aphids that had fed on GM plants in the field, suggesting that there is minimal secondary exposure of natural enemies to the inhibitor. The results indicate that transgenic nematode resistance is potentially more compatible with aphid biological control than is current nematicide use.', 'en_US'),
(1913, 'Tandem constructs to mitigate transgene persistence: tobacco as a model', 'Some transgenic crops can introgress genes into other varieties of the crop, to related weeds or themselves remain as ''volunteer'' weeds, potentially enhancing the invasiveness or weediness of the resulting offspring. The presently suggested mechanisms for transgene containment allow low frequency of gene release (leakage), requiring the mitigation of continued spread. Transgenic mitigation (TM), where a desired primary gene is tandemly coupled with mitigating genes that are positive or neutral to the crop but deleterious to hybrids and their progeny, was tested as a mechanism to mitigate transgene introgression. Dwarfism, which typically increases crop yield while decreasing the ability to compete, was used as a mitigator. A construct of a dominant ahasR (acetohydroxy acid synthase) gene conferring herbicide resistance in tandem with the semidominant mitigator dwarfing Dgai (gibberellic acid-insensitive) gene was transformed into tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum). The integration and the phenotypic stability of the tandemly linked ahasR and Dgai genomic inserts in later generations were confirmed by polymerase chain reaction. The hemizygous semidwarf imazapyr-resistant TM T1 (=BC1) transgenic plants were weak competitors when cocultivated with wild type segregants under greenhouse conditions and without using the herbicide. The competition was most intense at close spacings typical of weed offspring. Most dwarf plants interspersed with wild type died at 1-cm, >70% at 2.5-cm and 45% at 5-cm spacing, and the dwarf survivors formed no flowers. At 10-cm spacing, where few TM plants died, only those TM plants growing at the periphery of the large cultivation containers formed flowers, after the wild type plants terminated growth. The highest reproductive TM fitness relative to the wild type was 17%. The results demonstrate the suppression of crop?weed hybrids when competing with wild type weeds, or such crops as volunteer weeds, in seasons when the selector (herbicide) is not used. The linked unfitness would be continuously manifested in future generations, keeping the transgene at a low frequency.', 'en_US'),
(1914, 'Absence of non-target effects of two Bacillus thuringiensis coleopteran active delta-endotoxins on the bulb mite, Rhizoglypus robini (Claparede) (Acari, Acaridae)', 'Transgenic crops with plant-incorporated protectants are often more specific than synthetic insecticides and have the potential to reduce impacts on non-target organisms. In this study we assessed the impact of Cry3Aa and Cry3Bb1 coleopteran-active d-endotoxins on the bulb mite, Rhizoglypus robini. The effect of Cry3Aa prototoxin in solutions of the biopesticide Novodor® on mite survival was assessed in laboratory studies. Survival of R. robini exposed to Cry3Aa in a short-term contact and ingestion experiment was not affected, although R. robini was significantly affected by the insecticide Fipronil® used as a positive control. Similarly, R. robini exposed in a longer duration feeding trial to the Cry3Aa toxin in artificial diet were also not significantly affected. When Cry3Aa was tested on the positive control insect, Leptinotarsa decemlineata, reduced weight of larvae and increased mortality was recorded. The effect of Cry3Bb1 toxin in transgenic corn tissues on R. robini food choice was assessed in a laboratory study. In no-choice tests a greater proportion of R. robini were found on garlic roots than on Cry3Bb1 transgenic corn and a near-isogenic non-transgenic corn. In a choice test, more R. robini was recovered on garlic roots than on either corn variety, and on Cry3Bb1 corn than on non-transgenic corn. In large field plots using specific mite traps across the growing season, R. robini mite populations were not significantly different between Cry3Bb1 corn and non-transgenic corn alone or non-transgenic corn treated with different combinations of two insecticides. Our results, combined with results from other studies, suggest that transgenic plants expressing the Cry3Aa or Cry3Bb1 Bacillus thuringiensis toxins are likely to have negligible impact on R. robini mite populations.', 'en_US'),
(1915, 'Insect transgenesis and its potential in agriculture and human health', 'The ability to genetically engineer insects other than Drosophila melanogaster has further extended modern genetic techniques into important insect pest species ranging from fruit fly pests of horticulture to mosquito vectors of human disease. In only a relatively short period of time, a range of transgenes have been inserted into more than 10 insect pest species. Genetic transformation of these pest species has proven to be a very important laboratory tool in analyzing gene function and effects on phenotype however the full extension of this technology into the field is yet to be realized. Here we briefly review the development of transgenic technology in pest insect species and discuss the challenges that remain in this applied area of insect genetics and entomology.', 'en_US'),
(1916, 'Understanding and improving transgene stability and expression in insects for SIT and conditional lethal release programs', 'Genetically transformed insect pests provide significant opportunities to create strains for improved sterile insect technique and new strategies based on conditional lethality. A major concern for programs that rely on the release of transgenic insects is the stability of the transgene, and maintenance of consistent expression of genes of interest within the transgene. Transgene instability would influence the integrity of the transformant strain upon which the effectiveness of the biological control program depends. Loss or intra-genomic transgene movement would result in strain attributes important to the program being lost or diminished, and the mass-release of such insects could significantly exacerbate the insect pest problem. Instability resulting in intra-genomic movement may also be a prelude to inter-genomic transgene movement between species resulting in ecological risks. This is less of a concern for short-term releases, where transgenic insects are not expected to survive in the environment beyond two or three generations. Transgene movement may occur, however, into infectious agents during mass-rearing, and the potential for movement after release is a possibility for programs using many millions of insects. The primary methods of addressing potential transgene instability relate to an understanding of the vector system used for gene transfer, the potential for its mobilization by the same or a related vector system, and methods required to identify transformants and determine if unexpected transgene movement has occurred. Methods also exist for preventing transposon-mediated mobilization, by deleting or rearranging vector sequences required for transposition using recombination systems. Stability of transgene expression is also a critical concern, especially in terms of potential epigenetic interactions with host genomes resulting in gene silencing that have been observed in plants and fungi, and it must be determined if this or related phenomena can occur in insects.', 'en_US'),
(1917, 'Bt crops: predicting effects of escaped transgenes on the fitness of wild plants and their herbivores.', 'One prominent concern about genetically modified crops is the possibility of environmental impacts from the movement of fitness-enhancing traits to wild plant populations. Decisions to deregulate Bt crops in the USA have relied strongly on arguments that these crops will not interbreed with wild relatives in the permitted growing regions. Limited attention therefore has been directed to analyses of the consequences of gene flow. To provide a transparent evaluation process for risks associated with insecticidal transgene escape, we crafted a series of questions designed to guide this aspect of the risk assessment. We then explored the current knowledge base available for answering such risk-related questions for three Bt crops (cotton, rapeseed, and rice). First, we generated a list of wild relatives of these crops. A definitive list of potential transgene recipients is not yet possible for some crops. Sufficient data are not available for some crops to eliminate certain related plant species from consideration of fertile hybrid formation, thus making lists for these crops subject to speculation. Second, we queried the HOSTS database (UK) to obtain a worldwide listing of lepidopteran species that feed on these crops and their wild relatives, and to determine the host range of the larvae. To our knowledge, this list of 502 lepidopteran species is the first such list published for these crops and wild crop relatives. Third, we used a data set maintained by the Canadian Forest Service to assess Bt toxin susceptibility for these lepidopterans. Only 3% of those species have been tested for susceptibility; and the literature suggests that generalizations about susceptibility among taxa are difficult due to the variability within families. Fourth, we consulted the literature to interpret what is known about the ability of lepidopterans to regulate plant fitness or invasiveness. We could not eliminate the possibility of ecological release due to plant resistance against lepidopterans. In fact, there is strong experimental evidence that lepidopteran herbivores do limit the distribution and/or abundances of at least some wild plant species. Neither could we eliminate the possibility that non-target lepidopterans might have important functions in the ecosystem as pollinators or alternate hosts to natural enemies of pest species. This study suggests that crucial data are lacking for the development of a credible scientific basis to confirm or deny environmental risks associated with the escape of Bt transgene constructs to wild relatives. Given the absence of information on the identity, level of susceptibility, and ecological roles of lepidopterans exploiting specific wild relatives of Bt crops, we suggest that new efforts be directed to assessing possible consequences of lepidopteran mortality on resistant wild relatives.', 'en_US'),
(1918, 'Major heretofore intractable biotic constraints to African food security that may be amenable to novel biotechnological solutions', 'The input costs of pesticides to control biotic constraints are often prohibitive to the subsistence farmers of Africa and seed based solutions to biotic stresses are more appropriate. Plant breeding has been highly successful in dealing with many pest problems in Africa, especially diseases, but is limited to the genes available within the crop genome. Years of breeding and studying cultural practices have not always been successful in alleviating many problems that biotechnology may be able to solve. We pinpoint the major intractable regional problems as: (1) weeds: parasitic weeds (Striga and Orobanche spp.) throughout Africa; grass weeds of wheat (Bromus and Lolium) intractable to herbicides in North Africa; (2) insect and diseases: stem borers and post-harvest grain weevils in sub-Saharan Africa; Bemesia tabaci (white fly) as the vector of the tomato leaf curl virus complex on vegetable crops in North Africa; and (3) the mycotoxins: fumonisins and aflatoxins in stored grains. Abiotic stresses may exacerbate many of these problems, and biotechnological alleviations of abiotic stress could partially allay some predicaments. Some of these constraints are already under study using biotechnological procedures, but others may require longer-term research and development to alleviate the problems. Despite the huge impacts of post-harvest weevils and of mycotoxins in grains, these issues had not been given high priority in national biotechnological programs, possibly due to a lack of knowledge of their immensity. The need for public sector involvement is accentuated for cases where immediate profits are not perceived (e.g. lowering mycotoxin levels in farmer utilized grain, which does not increase yield) but where the public weal will gain, and will be invaluable, especially where the private sector supplies genes already isolated. ', 'en_US'),
(1919, 'Science policy and society: the British debate over GM agriculture', 'The outcome of ''GM Nation?'' ? a public debate on genetic modification and the commercial growing of GM crops in Britain ? was published in 2003. The objective of this public consultation was ''to promote an innovative, effective and deliberative programme of debate, against the background of the possible commercial production of GM crops in the UK ? [and] provide meaningful information to Government about the nature and spectrum of the public''s views, particularly at the grass roots level, to inform decision making''. Complementing an independent evaluation of GM Nation?, this article puts the debate into context, comments on the legitimacy of this, and similar exercises in public consultation, and develops some ideas on the future of public consultation on technological innovation.', 'en_US'),
(1920, 'Antennal response of cotton bollworm ( Heliocoverpa armigera) to volatiles in transgenic Bt cotton', 'Volatile compositions in transgenic Bt cotton variety ''GK-97'' and its parental variety ''Simian No. 3'' were analysed, and antennal response of cotton bollworm (Heliocoverpa armigera) to the volatiles were investigated. Volatile components in Bt cotton and regular cotton were almost same, except for absence of a sesquiterpene and a minor unknown compound in regular cotton. The results of gas chromatography-electroantennographic detection (GC-EAD) experiments showed that cotton bollworm antennae responded to seven compounds and two minor unknown compounds in Bt volatiles, among which concentrations of a -pinene and b-pinene in Bt cotton were relatively higher than those in regular cotton, and one minor unknown compound was absent in regular cotton.', 'en_US'),
(1921, 'Extent of cross-fertilization in maize by pollen from neighbouring transgenic hybrids', 'There is an increasing concern about the preservation of genetic identity of conventional maize (Zea mays L.) and of distance required to segregate non-genetically modified (non-GM) from GM grain production since the introduction of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) and other transgenic events into commercial hybrids. Field experiments were conducted at three sites in Ottawa, Canada, for 3 yr to determine (i) the extent of cross-fertilization of a maize genotype by foreign pollen of neighboring hybrids and (ii) the practical distance required to isolate conventional maize hybrids from neighboring GM maize fields. At each site, yellow-kernel Bt maize was planted in the center (27 by 27 m) of a field surrounded in all directions by the distance equivalent to 24 or 48 rows (37 m) of white-kernel maize, and a 200-m non-maize crop was maintained in all directions. Phenology and weather conditions were closely monitored during the tasseling and silking period. At maturity, a thorough examination on the cross-fertilization was conducted in the white maize population. Our results showed that the rate of cross-fertilization in maize was dependent upon the distance from the pollen source, wind direction and synchronization of silking and pollen shedding of the two genotypes involved. Up to 82% out-cross was measured in the first row adjacent to the Bt maize. The level of out-cross was <1% beyond the 37th border row (28 m) downwind and the 13th row (10 m) upwind in all site-years. An exponential decline model was fitted well (P < 0.01) to the cross-fertilization data as a function of distance from the yellow maize pollen source with R2 up to 0.64. Our data suggested that it is possible to produce non-GM maize grains by removing the outside rows of non-GM maize plants (about 30 m) neighboring the GM maize field in concern if the acceptance level is set at 1% out-cross. The generally recommended 200-m distance between two genotypes (inbreds, populations, hybrids, and wild relatives) appears to be appropriate for Bt or other GM maize, as well. Abbreviations: Bt, Bacillus thuringiensis ? CHU, crop heat unit ? GM, genetically modified', 'en_US'),
(1922, 'Hybridization and introgression between bread wheat and wild and weedy relatives in North America', 'Introgression between cultivars and wild relatives is common in several angiosperm taxa including the grass family Poaceae. Bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is a domesticated allohexaploid species (genome formula BBAADD) without any known wild hexaploid relative in the genus Triticum. Bread wheat is also related to the genus Aegilops L., which has probably contributed two of the three genomes of bread wheat. A few tetraploid Aegilops species, including Ae. cylindrica Host. and Ae. triuncialis L., occur as weeds both in the Mediterranean basin and in West Asia. Introduced populations of these weeds are also known to occur in North America. These species have been known to introgress occasionally with bread wheat when grown near wheat fields. Similarly, rye (Secale cereale L.), a species from a distant genus, has a potential to introgress with bread wheat. A few natural introgressive hybrids between herbicide resistant wheat and Ae. cylindrica and between wheat and rye have been created or recovered in North America. Natural hybrids between wheat and Ae. triuncialis have not been observed in North America. The available data do not suggest the prevalence of large-scale introgression between bread wheat and its wild relatives in North America. Nevertheless, with modern bread wheat cultivars being developed with novel traits, such as herbicide and disease resistance, an in-depth evaluation of the extent and nature of introgression between weedy Aegilops or Secale species and bread wheat is useful both for assessing potential ecological risks that may be associated with trait presence in hybrids and for formulating strategies to manage gene transfer to hybrids. In this review, we discuss the existing literature on reproductive ecology of bread wheat and on introgression between bread wheat and its wild relatives in the genera Aegilops and Secale that occur in North America. We also discuss the implications of introgression in consideration of the current and possible future development of transgenic wheat.', 'en_US'),
(1923, 'Enumerating lepidopteran species associated with maize as a first step in risk assessment in the USA', 'Pest management can have substantial impacts on non-target species both within and outside the units being managed. Assessment of these impacts is hampered by the lack of even the most basic checklist of the species present in most systems. The maize agroecosytem is of particular interest because of the large area covered and the intensity of widely varying forms of pest management. In this study a database of lepidopteran species that occur within the maize agroecosystem in the United States was compiled. The process was initiated by developing a list of plants present in maize using published sources and the first-hand knowledge of ''weed'' experts. This list of plant species associated with maize was then cross-listed with lepidopteran host feeding records using published sources. Finally, phenological profiles and conservation rankings were added. Although our list is not exhaustive, we found 132 plant species in 33 families associated with maize, and 229 lepidopteran species in 21 families that feed on these plants. The database of plants and lepidopteran species can be a starting point for assessment of risk to non-target Lepidoptera in maize from chemical control, biological control, and the use of transgenic Bt maize. The lepidopteran species associated with maize were found to be significantly less imperiled, as measured by their conservation rankings, than lepidopteran species as a whole in all habitats. This finding suggests that rare or endangered lepidopteran species are unlikely to be impacted by pest management in maize. Based on the likely lack of impact of pest management in maize on individual species, future studies should focus on potential impacts on the ecological services that lepidopteran species provide.', 'en_US'),
(1924, 'Transgenic Bt-producing Brassica napus: Plutella xylostella selection pressure and fitness of weedy relatives.', 'Release of transgenic insect-resistant crops creates the potential not only for the insect pest to evolve resistance but for the escape of transgenes that may confer novel or enhanced fitness-related traits through hybridization with their wild relatives. The differential response of diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella) populations in eastern and western Canada to Bt-producing (GT) Brassica napus and the potential for enhanced fitness of GT B. napus and weedy GT Brassica rapa  X B. napus hybrid populations (F 1, BC 1, BC 2) were studied. Comparative bioassays using neonates and 4th instars showed that GT B. napus and GT B. rapa X B. napus hybrids are lethal to larvae from both populations. No measurable plant fitness advantage (reproductive dry weight) was observed for GT B. napus (crop) and GT B. rapa X B. napus hybrid populations at low insect pressure (1 larva per leaf). At high insect densities ( >10 larvae per leaf), vegetative plant weight was not significantly different for GT B. napus and non-GT B. napus, whereas reproductive plant weight and proportion of reproductive material were significantly higher in GT B. napus. Establishment of the Bt trait in wild B. rapa populations may also increase its competitive advantage under high insect pressure.', 'en_US'),
(1925, 'A modelling approach of the sustainability of Bt Cotton grown by small farmers in West Africa.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1926, 'Post-market surveillance of novel foods: enhancing food safety assurance in a changing marketplace', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1927, 'Monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) larvae and Bt maize pollen: a review of ecological risk assessment for non-target species', NULL, 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(1928, 'Environmental and human health impacts of growing genetically modified herbicide-tolerant sugar beet: a life cycle assessment', 'There is ongoing debate concerning the possible environmental and human health impacts of growing genetically modified (GM) crops. Here, we report the results of a life-cycle assessment (LCA) comparing the environmental and human health impacts of conventional sugar beet growing regimes in the UK and Germany with those that might be expected if GM herbicide-tolerant (to glyphosate) sugar beet is commercialized. The results presented for a number of environmental and human health impact categories suggest that growing the GM herbicide-tolerant crop would be less harmful to the environment and human health than growing the conventional crop, largely due to lower emissions from herbicide manufacture, transport and field operations. Emissions contributing to negative environmental impacts, such as global warming, ozone depletion, ecotoxicity of water and acidification and nutrification of soil and water, were much lower for the herbicide-tolerant crop than for the conventional crop. Emissions contributing to summer smog, toxic particulate matter and carcinogenicity, which have negative human health impacts, were also substantially lower for the herbicide-tolerant crop. The environmental and human health impacts of growing GM crops need to be assessed on a case-by-case basis using a holistic approach. LCA is a valuable technique for helping to undertake such assessments.', 'en_US'),
(1929, 'Field performance and starch characteristics of high-amylose potatoes obtained by antisense gene targetting of two branched enzymes', 'Potato is an important crop for starch production, but there are limitations regarding the genetic variation of starch quality. In maize, starches with various properties have been available for a long time by mutational breeding. Amylose starch from potatoes differs from cereal amyloses in several functionally important aspects, such as a higher degree of polymerization. Areas of application in which the degree of polymerization is of importance include film forming and the polymeric properties of bioplastics. High-amylose potato lines have been achieved by inhibiting the two known branching enzyme forms of potato. A single inserted gene construct for the inhibition of both forms resulted in structural changes of the starch to levels of branching that were below the commercially available amylose standards of potato. The high-amylose potato lines were tested in multiple year field trials of agronomic performance and were used for the pilot plant production of starch. The introduced trait was confirmed to be stable over multiple years. The consequences of the modification were found to be an increased tuber yield, reduced starch content, smaller granule size and an increase in reducing sugars.', 'en_US'),
(1930, 'Diffusion of agricultural biotechnology and intellectual property rights: emerging issues in India', 'Agriculture in developing economies is rural based with a majority of poor people dependent on it. Hence, any new technology that would result in improving the crop yield or reducing the cost will be highly useful. Particularly, biotechnology innovations have several useful applications in agriculture and are useful for developing countries. However, when such new technologies are protected by intellectual property the implications are different. The plant protection system available in India enables the farmer to save, use, sow, resow, exchange, or share the seeds of protected variety, besides offering protection on farmers'' variety, extant variety and essentially derived variety. Such a system has scope for adoption of new technology as well as diffusion of the same. Whereas plant protection could boost research in the area of plant biotechnology by both public and private bodies, it could also result in higher prices for seeds, thus naturally excluding the small and marginal farmers from accessing such new technology.', 'en_US'),
(1931, 'Composition of grain and forage from corn rootworm-protected corn event MON863 is equivalent to that of conventional corn (Zea mays L.)', 'Insect-protected corn hybrids containing event MON 863 protect corn plants against feeding damage from corn rootworm (Diabrotica), a major North American insect pest. Corn event MON 863 contains a gene that expresses an amino acid sequence variant of the wild-type Cry3Bb1 insecticidal protein from Bacillus thuringiensis. The purpose of this study was to compare the composition of corn containing event MON 863 with that of conventional nontransgenic corn. Compositional analyses were conducted to measure proximates, fiber, amino acids, fatty acids, minerals, folic acid, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin E, antinutrients, and certain secondary metabolites in grain and proximates and fiber content in forage collected from a total of eight field sites in the U.S. and Argentina. Compositional analyses demonstrated that the grain and forage of event MON 863 are comparable in their nutritional content to the control corn hybrid and conventional corn. These comparisons, together with the history of the safe use of corn as a common component of animal feed and human food, support the conclusion that corn event MON 863 is compositionally equivalent to, and as safe and nutritious as, conventional corn hybrids grown commercially today. ', 'en_US'),
(1932, 'Effect of glyphosate on fruit retention, yield and fiber quality of glyphosate resistant cotton', 'Glyphosate-resistant cotton allows growers greater .exibility in timing herbicide applications, as well as a broader spectrum of weed control, than that offered by other herbicide systems. Despite overwhelming adoption of glyphosate-resistant cotton, concern for reproductive tolerance to glyphosate in glyphosate-resistant cotton has been raised.  Field and greenhouse studies were conducted to investigate the effect of labeled and off-label glyphosate treatments on fruiting patterns, abnormal boll abscission, and yield of glyphosate-resistant cotton. Two separate .eld studies were conducted in 2000 and 2001 in Greene County, and Clayton, NC. In Greene County, NC, fruit reductions of .rst position sympodial bolls on node 1 through 10 were evident in 2000 and 2001 at the cutout and mid-bloom stages, respectively, when glyphosate was applied postemergence after the 4-leaf stage.  These same treatments reduced seed cotton by 160 kg ha-1 compared with plants treated within label guidelines. In Clayton, NC (2000), and in a controlled environment greenhouse, reductions in total, .rst position, and sympodial bolls located on nodes 1 through 10 occurred when glyphosate was applied at the 4-leaf stage postemergence and at the 8-leaf stage postemergence-directed compared with the non-treated control. Abnormal boll abscission, when a deceased boll remains attached to plant, was increased with off-labeled glyphosate treatments in Greene County, NC. Overall, differences in fruit retention due to glyphosate applications were not evident in all locations, environments, or years.', 'en_US'),
(1933, 'Review of data on possible toxicity of GM potatoes', 'The Royal Society published a review of what was known scientifically about the suitability of GM plants for food use in September 1998. Because of the current controversy, we are looking again at several issues, and in particular we have reviewed all available data related to work at the Rowett Research Institute on the possible toxicity of genetically modifiedpotatoes. Our main conclusions are as follows.', 'en_US'),
(1934, 'Transgenic birds for the production of recombinant proteins', 'Transgenic birds were expected to be an excellent transgenic bioreactor for the production of recombinant pharmaceutical proteins. However, the only successful transgenic bioreactors have been based on mammals. We have developed two key techniques for obtaining transgenic birds. For bird embryo culture, we identified that the low rate of hatchability of cultured embryos is caused by limited oxygen and calcium availability. In quail embryo culture using a chicken eggshell as a culture vessel, hatchability increased to 80% by the supplement of calcium lactate in addition to oxygen aeration. A fully artificial vessel for quail embryo culture using a gas-permeable Teflon membrane was also designed. Although the hatchability was lower than that of cultures using a surrogate eggshell, we succeeded in hatching of bird embryos using a fully artificial vessel. For transgene introduction, a replication-defective pantropic retroviral vector based on Moloney murine leukemia virus (MoMLV) pseudotyped with vesicular stomatitis virus G protein (VSV-G) was injected to laid embryos at the blastodermal stage, and the embryos were hatched in vitro to generate G0 birds. The viral vector sequence was detected in the tissues of all G0 birds. The germ-line transmission efficiency was more than 80%. Plural copies of the transgene were inserted into the genome of G1 transgenic progeny.', 'en_US'),
(1935, 'Asymmetric gene flow between traditional and hybrid rice varieties (Oryza sativa) indicated by nuclear simple sequence repeats and implications for germplasm conservation', '?Mixed-planting of traditional and hybrid rice (Oryza sativa) varieties is an ecological approach for rice disease control and yield increase, in addition to its effective role in in situ conservation of traditional rice varieties. To estimate gene flow between traditional and hybrid rice varieties, an experiment involving Huangkenuo and Shanyou-63 was conducted to allow free gene flow by mixed-planting of the two varieties in different cultivation patterns.?A simple sequence repeat (SSR) marker RM167 was used to detect natural hybrids between the two varieties by examining seeds collected randomly from both varieties in the experiment.?The result showed an extremely low number of hybrids between the two varieties with an average frequency of 0.04% in Huangkenuo and 0.18% in Shanyou-63.?It is concluded that no significant gene flow occurs naturally between Huangkenuo and Shanyou-63, and that crop diversity management is a proper means for in situ conservation of traditional rice varieties. It is also implied that the potential transgene flow from transgenic hybrid rice to traditional rice variety would be extremely low.', 'en_US'),
(1936, 'The potential of genetically enhanced plants to address food insecurity', 'Food insecurity is one of the most important social issues faced today, with 840 million individuals enduring chronic hunger and three billion individuals suffering from nutrient deficiencies. Most of these individuals are poverty stricken and live in developing countries. Strategies to address food insecurity must aim to increase agricultural productivity in the developing world in order to tackle poverty, and must provide long-term improvements in crop yields to keep up with demand as the world''s population grows. Genetically enhanced plants provide one route to sustainable higher yields, either by increasing the intrinsic yield capability of crop plants or by protecting them from biotic and abiotic constraints. The present paper discusses a range of transgenic approaches that could increase agricultural productivity if applied on a large scale, including the introduction of genes that confer resistance to pests and diseases, or tolerance of harsh environments, and genes that help to lift the intrinsic yield capacity by increasing metabolic flux towards storage carbohydrates, proteins and oils. The paper also explores how the nutritional value of plants can be improved by genetic engineering. Transgenic plants, as a component of integrated strategies to relieve poverty and deliver sustainable agriculture to subsistence farmers in developing countries, could have a significant impact on food security now and in the future.', 'en_US'),
(1937, 'Cloned plasmid DNA fragments as calibrators for controllingGMOs: different real-time duplex quantitative PCR methods.', 'Analytical real-time PCR technology is a powerful tool for implementation of the GMO labeling regulations enforced in the EU. The quality of analytical measurement data obtained by quantitative real-time PCR depends on the correct use of calibrator and reference materials (RMs). For GMO methods of analysis, the choice of appropriate RMs is currently under debate. So far, genomic DNA solutions from certified reference materials (CRMs) are most often used as calibrators for GMO quantification by means of real-time PCR. However, due to some intrinsic features of these CRMs, errors may be expected in the estimations of DNA sequence quantities. In this paper, two new real-time PCR methods are presented for Roundup Ready soybean, in which two types of plasmid DNA fragments are used as calibrators. Single-target plasmids (STPs) diluted in a background of genomic DNA were used in the first method. Multiple-target plasmids (MTPs) containing both sequences in one molecule were used as calibrators for the second method. Both methods simultaneously detect a promoter 35S sequence as GMO-specific target and a lectin gene sequence as endogenous reference target in a duplex PCR. For the estimation of relative GMO percentages both delta CT and standard curve approaches are tested. Delta CT methods are based on direct comparison of measured CT values of both the GMO-specific target and the endogenous target. Standard curve methods measure absolute amounts of target copies or haploid genome equivalents. A duplex delta CT method with STP calibrators performed at least as well as a similar method with genomic DNA calibrators from commercial CRMs. Besides this, high quality results were obtained with a standard curve method using MTP calibrators. This paper demonstrates that plasmid DNA molecules containing either one or multiple target sequences form perfect alternative calibrators for GMO quantification and are especially suitable for duplex PCR reactions.', 'en_US'),
(1938, '5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase of glyphosate-tolerant soybean expressed in Escherichia coli shows no severe allergenicity', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1939, 'Dynamics of insect resistance in Bt-corn', 'The development of genetically modified Bt-corn, incorporating various toxin genes from Bacillus thuringiensis that act as a chemical defense against insect pests, such as the European Corn Borer, provides farmers with a new pest management option. However, the emergence of insect resistance is a threat to the continued use of Bt-corn. The United States Environment Protection Agency (US EPA) has developed planting strategies, for preventing insect resistance by planting a mixture of Bt- and non-Bt-corn. Decisions about the exact proportion of Bt- and non-Bt-corn are based on complex spatially explicit mathematical models using detailed biological assumptions about the population genetics and life history of the European Corn Borer. We develop an alternative simpler model for the spread of resistance based on the logistic growth model, which we believe has utility in situations where it is impossible or impractical to estimate the different life history and genetics parameters required by more detailed models. We use our model to investigate the US EPA''s planting rules for Bt-corn and find that short-term economic behavior is likely to lead to these rules not being followed. Our results add weight to existing work on this problem. We also investigate the economics of planting Bt-corn in markets where consumers do and do not differentiate between the modes of production for the corn. We find that Bt-corn appears to be economic in markets that do not differentiate and uneconomic in markets where consumers do differentiate.', 'en_US'),
(1940, 'Food and agricultural biotechnology policy: how much autonomy can developing countires exercise?', 'Some commentators assumed the rules of the World Trade Organization and provisions of the Cartagena Biosafety Protocol could facilitate the establishment of uniform global regulatory procedures and standards covering food and agricultural biotechnology, which could be based on scientific risk assessments. However, the science is often uncertain and equivocal, and assessments of the environmental impact of GM crops should be local rather than global. Consequently the tendency towards convergence is severely attenuated. Analysis of judgements of WTO''s Dispute Panel and Appellate Body indicates that developing countries might lawfully be able to exercise considerable autonomy when setting regulatory standards if several conditions are met but, given their limited financial and human resources, they may require multilateral collaboration.', 'en_US'),
(1941, 'Consumer attitudes towards GM food in Ireland and the USA', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1942, 'Attitudes towards GM food in Colombia', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1943, 'Factors explaining opposition to GMOs in France and the rest of Europe', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1944, 'Introducing novel protein foods in the EU: economic and environmental impacts', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1945, 'Consumer purchasing behaviour towards GM foods in the Netherlands', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1946, 'The welfare effects of implementing mandatory GM labelling in the USA', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1947, 'Using simulated test marketing to examine purchase interest in food products that are positioned as GMO-free.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1948, 'Willingness to pay for GM labelling in New Zealand', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1949, 'Consumer acceptance and labelling of GMOs in food products: a study of fluid milk demand.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1950, 'Proteomics as a tool to improve investigation of substantial equivalence in genetically modified organisms: the case of a virus-resistant tomato.', 'At present, the so-called substantial equivalence is the only widely accepted criterion for deciding whether or not a transgenic food is, from an alimentary point of view, to be considered totally correspondent to the traditional one from which it derives. Although never exactly defined, it deals with a comparison between the chemical composition of the two foods. A more in-depth analysis can be performed by one of the most suitable methods that allows for the simultaneous screening of many components without prior identification, the analysis of the proteome. As a model for testing this kind of approach, we compared protein expression of two types of tomato plants, having the same genetic background, except for a virus resistance trait introduced by genetic engineering. When proteins extracted from seedlings of the two types were analyzed by two-dimensional electrophoresis, no significant differences, either qualitative or quantitative, were detected, indicating that in this case the expression of major proteins was unmodified by the genetic manipulation. Fifteen proteins were identified by peptide mass fingerprinting.', 'en_US'),
(1951, 'Safe and acceptable strategies for producing foreign molecules in plants.', 'The ability to express foreign genes using transgenic technologies has opened up options for producing large quantities of commercially important industrial or pharmaceutical products in plants. These technologies have made it possible to use well-developed systems of commercial agriculture that were developed principally to produce raw material for large-scale food, feed or processing applications for the production of foreign molecules. The possibility of the novel industrial or pharmaceutical molecules produced in such plants, or components derived from them, contaminating the environment and food chains has become especially controversial. This potential contamination has prompted detailed consideration of how such crops and the molecules that they produce can be effectively isolated and contained. First, the crop can be completely isolated physically from its food or feed counterpart during every aspect of its development and commercialization. Second, genetic isolation systems or genetic barriers that prevent normal reproduction can be used to reduce the likelihood of the industrial or pharmaceutical crop entering the food chain.', 'en_US'),
(1952, 'Plant-based production of biopharmaceuticals', 'Plants are now gaining widespread acceptance as a general platform for the large-scale production of recombinant proteins. The first plant-derived recombinant pharmaceutical proteins are reaching the final stages of clinical evaluation, and many more are in the development pipeline. Over the past two years, there have been some notable technological advances in this flourishing area of applied biotechnology, as shown by the continuing commercial development of novel plant-based expression platforms. There has also been significant success in tackling some of the limitations of plant bioreactors, such as low yields and inconsistent product quality, that have limited the approval of plant-derived pharmaceuticals.', 'en_US'),
(1953, 'Posttranslational modification of therapeutic proteins in plants', 'Plants have emerged as an alternative to current systems for the production of therapeutic proteins. The advantages of plants for the low-cost and large-scale production of safe and biologically active mammalian proteins have been documented recently. A major advantage of transgenic plants over production systems that are based on yeast or Escherichia coli is their ability to perform most of the posttranslational modifications (PTMs) that are required for the bioactivity and pharmacokinetics of recombinant therapeutic proteins. Furthermore, recent advances in the control of PTMs in transgenic plants have made it possible for plants to perform, at least to some extent, human-like modifications of recombinant proteins. Hence, plants have become a suitable alternative to animal cell factories for the production of therapeutic proteins.', 'en_US'),
(1954, 'Genetic approaches to reducing losses of stored grain to insects and diseases', 'Insects and diseases devour or damage a fifth or more of stored food grains each year in many parts of the world. Modern breeding and genomics promise progress in characterizing the resistance to the pests responsible for these losses that is present in the vast and diverse gene pool of cereals, as well as advances in incorporating this resistance into productive and acceptable crop varieties. The impact of such varieties could be dramatic in developing countries, where grain infestations are most common and harmful, and where surging populations require affordable food.', 'en_US'),
(1955, 'Adsorption of the Bacillus thuringiensis toxin (Cry1Ab) on Na-montmorillonite and on the clay fractions of different soils.', 'The adsorption of the toxin from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt-toxin), which is synthesized in genetically modified maize, on sterilized Na-montmorillonite and on H2O2-treated and untreated clay fractions of three soils from different sites were studied. All adsorption isotherms can be described by a linear isotherm. Although all clay fractions from the different soils show nearly the same mineralogical composition, we found different affinities ranging from k = 47.7 to k = 366.7 of the adsorbates for the Bt-toxin. The H2O2-treated clay fractions show no correlation between the adsorption affinity and the amount of soil organic matter. On the other hand, there is a correlation between the content of organic carbon and the adsorption affinity of the untreated clay fractions. This can be explained by the fact that due to the coatings of soil organic matter on aggregates, the Bt-toxin polymers are not able to adsorb within the clay aggregates.', 'en_US'),
(1956, 'Transgenic rootworm corn: assessing potential agronomic, economic, and environmental benefits.', 'The potential benefits of transgenic rootworm corn are expected to include: increased root protection; economic and intangible benefits to farmers; reduced corn stalk rot; and increased yield protection. If transgenic rootworm corn is widely planted, the impact will be a reduction of insecticide use; increased resource and water conservation; conservation of aviation fuel; reduced farm waste; increased planting efficiency; and improved safety to wildlife and other nontarget organisms.', 'en_US'),
(1957, 'Small-grain cover crop interaction with glyphosate-resistant corn (Zea mays)', 'A 2-yr field study was conducted in Blackville, SC, to assess the potential for using small- grain cover crops and glyphosate as a means of reducing or eliminating the need for atrazine in irrigated Southeastern corn production. Oats, rye, and wheat were no-till, drill seeded each fall and subsequently desiccated in early spring before corn planting. A bareground conventional tilled treatment also was included. Within each cover crop system, the herbicides evaluated included (1) no herbicide; (2) 1.68 kg ai/ha atrazine plus 1.08 kg ai/ha S-metolachlor at corn planting followed by 0.84 kg ae/ha glyphosate; or (3) two applications of 0.84 kg/ha glyphosate alone, applied sequentially. All systems were compared with conventional tillage without a cover crop with 1.68 kg/ha atrazine plus 1.08 kg/ha S-metolachlor at planting followed by 1.12 kg/ha atrazine. Biomass of rye, oats, and wheat at dessication was 497, 369, and 340 g/m2, respectively. All cover crops delayed early-season corn growth. Detrimental effects on early-season corn growth from the oats cover crop were still apparent 7 wk after emergence (WAE), with corn height and biomass reduced 8 and 19%, respectively. Weed biomass in nontreated plots was reduced 84, 68, and 21% by oats, rye, and wheat, respectively, 3 WAE. Oats were more inhibitory of corn and weed growth than rye, although rye produced greater surface residue, indicating possible allelopathy affects. In the presence and absence of each cover crop, atrazine plus S-metolachlor followed by glyphosate or sequential glyphosate applications alone were effective in providing season-long control of pitted morningglory, entireleaf morningglory, Palmer amaranth, Florida pusley, large crabgrass, and common bermudagrass. Corn yields and gross profit margins in sequential glyphosate-treated plots were equivalent or superior to the standard atrazine-based program, which indicates that effective and economical alternatives to atrazine are available.', 'en_US'),
(1958, 'Weed control and species shift in bromoxynil- and glyphosate-resistant cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) rotation systems.', 'A field study was conducted from 1999 through 2001 at Stoneville, MS, to determine the effects of bromoxynil-resistant (BR) and glyphosate-resistant (GR) cotton rotation systems under ultranarrow- (25-cm spacing) and wide- (102-cm spacing) row planting on weed control, weed density and shift, and cotton yield. The four rotations during 3 yr included BR-BR-BR, GR-GR-GR, BR-GR-BR, and GR-BR-GR, all with bromoxynil or glyphosate postemergence (POST) only or following fluometuron plus pendimethalin preemergence (PRE). Control of hemp sesbania, pitted morningglory, prickly sida, and hyssop spurge was 97% regardless of row width, rotation, and herbicide program. Control of common purslane, sicklepod, and smooth pigweed was higher with glyphosate POST in GR cotton than with bromoxynil POST in BR cotton. Broadleaf and yellow nutsedge weed biomass were higher with bromoxynil POST in BR cotton than with glyphosate POST in GR cotton. Continuous BR cotton system resulted in higher densities of common purslane, sicklepod, and yellow nutsedge (15.3, 1.5, and 373 plants/m2, respectively) compared with continuous GR cotton (0.7, 0.1, and 1.0 plant/m2, respectively). Seed cotton yield was consistently higher in wide- than in ultranarrow-row cotton. Seed cotton yield was lower in continuous BR cotton than in the other three rotation systems, and yields greatly improved when BR cotton was rotated with GR cotton. During a 3-yr period, seed cotton yields with glyphosate POST only (4,000 to 4,890 kg/ha) or after PRE herbicides (4,480 to 4,860 kg/ha) were similar in GR cotton, whereas in BR cotton, bromoxynil POST only (1,390 to 4,280 kg/ha) resulted in lower yield than did bromoxynil POST after PRE herbicides (2,550 to 4,480 kg/ha). The results indicated that the shift in spectrum of weeds toward more tolerant species and yield decline in continuous BR cotton can be prevented by rotating BR with GR cotton.', 'en_US'),
(1959, 'Stability of the expression of Acy-ACP thioesterase transgene in oilseed rape doubled haploid lines.', 'Transgene stability in doubled haploid (DH) lines is an important consideration for transgenic cultivar development programs. The objective of this study was to assess the expression stability of acyl-acyl carrier protein (ACP) thioesterase (TE) transgenes in oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) DH lines. The DH lines were developed from microspores of F1 plants from the crosses between transgenic parents carrying the bay-TE (Uc FatB1), elm-TE (Ua FatB1), nutmeg-TE (Mf FatB1), or cuphea-TE (Ch FatB1) transgenes and three nontransgenic cultivars having distinct seed oil fatty acid compositions. Of 333 DH1 plants developed from microspore-derived embryos that had undergone selection for kanamycin resistance (the selectable marker) with bay-TE F1 and cuphea-TE F1 plants as the microspore donors, 20 plants did not show TE transgene expression. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and Southern blotting analyses confirmed that the absence of TE transgene expression in these 20 DH1 plants was due to escape of embryos from kanamycin selection or existence of an incomplete T-DNA copy without the TE transgene. No DH1 plant with completely silenced TE transgenes was detected. Thirty of 34 transgenic DH lines showed a stable level of the target fatty acid, lauric acid (C12:0) for the bay-TE and palmitic acid (C16:0) for the other three TE transgenes, over the two or three consecutive generations tested (DH2, DH3, and/or DH4 plants). Target fatty acids were significantly affected by temperature during seed development. DH lines carrying the elm-TE or the cuphea-TE transgene grown under high temperature conditions (25/20°C, day/night) during seed development showed higher levels of palmitic acid than under lower temperatures (20/15°C). These results support the application of the DH procedure in breeding programs for transgenic cultivars and indicate the important influence of environment.', 'en_US'),
(1960, 'Food allergy: what do we learn from animal models?', 'Purpose of review: This review summarizes selected articles on animal models of food allergy published in 2003. The research areas that are covered include mechanistic studies, the search for new therapies, as well as screening models for hazard identification of potential allergens. Recent findings: Novel treatment options of both prevention and therapeutic strategies have been reported with promising results. The induction of de-sensitization to food proteins was achieved by exposure to a mixture of recombinant food allergens and T helper 1 (Th1)-skewing bacterial components. Furthermore, research in animal models has provided new insights into the role of protein structure, digestion, and gut permeability in sensitization and tolerance induction to food proteins. The Th2 hypothesis of food allergy was tested in mouse strains, linking genetic susceptibility to sensitization with differential Th1-Th2 responses. In this context, the role of the liver in development of food antigen-specific Th2 cells, and the importance of costimulatory molecules in Th2 skewing were demonstrated. Finally, rodent models to predict potential allergenicity of novel foods have been further developed using different routes of sensitization. Summary: Currently, several animal models of food allergy are used, including mouse, rat, swine, and dog. Continuing research in these models may elucidate the immunological mechanisms that underlie the sensitization and challenge phase of food allergy and may result in improved therapeutic options. Furthermore, the development of animal models to predict relative allergenicity of novel foods remains an important topic.', 'en_US'),
(1961, 'Food processing: effects on allergenicity', 'Purpose of review: There has been an increase in the prevalence of food allergy, asthma and severe reactions to foods in the past decade. The reason for this increase is unknown and despite the potential for a lethal outcome, no treatments or therapies are available. Many areas are being explored to understand the increase in food allergy and the role of modern processing techniques is one of them. Recent findings: The fact that processing influences allergenicity is not a new concept, but due to some definitive studies in the last few years the topic has been revitalized. Not only is the processed form of a particular allergen important in assessment of allergenicity, but the role of the food matrix in which an allergen is processed must also be evaluated. The issue of allergenicity of particular foods is therefore highly complex, and even with our existing knowledge we have just begun to understand some of the contributions of processing to allergenic properties of proteins and foods. Summary: Researchers and medical personnel have begun to weigh the benefits and potential disadvantages of assessing the allergenicity of foods in unprocessed forms. In this review, the known effects of processing on the allergenicity of various foods will be discussed along with the implications of the most recent studies on the future direction of research in this area.', 'en_US'),
(1962, 'Clinical importance of cross-reactivity in food allergy', 'Purpose of review: Review of recent developments in the field of cross-reactivity in food allergy and the clinical relevance of these developments. Recent findings: New foods have been added to the list of Bet v 1 and profilin-related food allergies. Clinical relevance of cross-reactions based on recognition of carbohydrate determinants and profilin is limited for the population of pollen-allergic patients as a whole. For selected food allergic patients, however, N-glycans and particularly profilin are potentially of clinical relevance. Lipid transfer proteins have further been established as clinically more severe allergens in several foods. This severity is attributed to their stability to proteolysis and processing. Storage proteins of several nuts and seeds have been identified as important allergens, but cross-reactivity between storage proteins of different foods appears to be limited. Using cross-reactivity as the basis for immunotherapy in food allergy seems promising but needs confirmation by double-blind, placebo-controlled trials. Summary: The continued identification and characterization of cross-reactive allergens facilitates the study of factors determining clinical relevance of cross-reactivity and of possible efficacy of immunotherapy in food allergy.', 'en_US'),
(1963, 'Lack of detection of ampicillin resistance gene transfer from Bt176 corn to culturable bacteria under field conditions', 'Population levels of total and ampicillin-resistant culturable bacteria and the putative horizontal bla gene acquirement from Bt-corn were studied in commercial fields of transgenic corn in Spain during the years 2000-2003. Commercial fields consisting of conventional corn (Dracma) and Bt176 transgenic corn (Compa CB) were located in three climatic regions. The effect of corn type, plant material, field location, stage of sampling and year of study were studied on total and ampicillin resistant bacterial population levels, on median effective dose and on the slope of the dose-response curve to ampicillin. None of the parameters measured were significantly different (P<0.01) between transgenic and non-transgenic cornfields under the diverse conditions studied. However, in population levels of ampicillin resistant bacteria, the minimum difference between sample means to be significant with a likelihood of 80% was 8.9%. Specific detection of putative bacteria harbouring bla TEM-1 ampicillin resistance genes acquired from Bt176 corn was performed with a method based on the extraction of DNA from the culturable bacterial fraction and with PCR. Primers for PCR were targeted to the bla gene and the corresponding flanking regions present in the pUC18 cloning vector or the Bt176 construct. The culturable bacterial fraction of 144 field samples (up to 864 analysis, including ampicillin enrichments) was analysed by PCR. The estimated total number of bacteria analysed was 108. The level of detection of a transfer event according to the sensitivity of the methods used was 10-6. Four samples of transgenic and five of non-transgenic corn gave positive signals. However, the amplification products did not correspond to the ones expected from Bt176 or pUC18. The limitations of the sampling design and of the methods used are discussed.', 'en_US'),
(1964, 'Results of a 13 week safety assurance study with rats fed grain from glyphosate tolerant corn.', 'The current study presents the results of a 13 week feeding study in rats with grain from Roundup Ready® corn which is tolerant to the herbicide glyphosate. Herbicide tolerance was accomplished through the introduction of cp4 epsps coding sequences into the corn genome for in planta production of CP4 EPSPS enzymes. Unlike related corn EPSPS enzymes, CP4 EPSPS enzymes are not inhibited by the herbicide glyphosate. Purina TestDiets formulated Roundup Ready corn grain into rodent diets at levels of 11 and 33% (w/w). The responses of rats fed diets containing Roundup Ready corn grain were compared to that of rats fed diets containing non-transgenic grain (controls). All diets were nutritionally balanced and conformed to Purina Mills, Inc. specifications for Certified LabDiet 5002. There were 400 rats in the study divided into 10 groups of 20 rats/sex/group. Overall health, body weight, food consumption, clinical pathology parameters (hematology, blood chemistry, urinalysis), organ weights, gross and microscopic appearance of tissues were comparable between groups fed diets containing Roundup Ready and control corn grain. This study complements extensive agronomic, compositional and farm animal feeding studies with Roundup Ready corn grain, confirming it is as safe and nutritious as existing commercial corn hybrids.', 'en_US'),
(1965, 'Governing against the grain?  Part I: Overseas perspectives on the UK government''s impending decision on the commercialization of GM crops.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1966, 'Greenhouse evaluation of fitness-related reproductive traits in Roundup(R)-tolerant transgenic creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stononifera L.)', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1967, 'Assessment of experimental Bt events against fall armyworm and corn earworm in field corn.', 'Performance of experimental Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) MON events alone and pyramided with MON810 were evaluated over 3 yr in Georgia and Alabama. Ability of events to prevent whorl defoliation by the fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith), and natural ear feeding damage by the corn earworm, Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) was assessed. In each year, near-isogenic hybrids with novel single transformation events and crosses pyramided with the MON810 event were compared with the standard single MON810 event and nontransformed susceptible control. Events were tested for resistance to whorl damage by manual infestations of fall armyworm and ear damage by natural infestations of corn earworm. All Bt events tested reduced fall armyworm whorl damage ratings per plant compared with the susceptible hybrid. All Bt treatments also had considerably less ear infestation and damage by corn earworm compared with the nontransgenic isoline. The MON841, MON849, and MON851 events reduced ear damage by H. zea but were not as effective as other novel events and were not advanced for further testing after the 1999 season. Pyramiding events compared with single events did not improve control of fall armyworm whorl damage, but they generally did prevent more ear damage by corn earworm. The MON84006 event singly and pyramided with MON810 had superior control of whorl-stage damage by S. frugiperda and ear damage by H. zea compared with MON810. Deployment of new events and genes could provide additional tools for managing the potential for insect resistance to Bt toxins. Furthermore, improved control of whorl and ear infestations by H. zea and S. frugiperda would increase the flexibility of planting corn, Zea mays L., and permit double cropping of corn in areas where these pests perennially reach damaging levels.', 'en_US'),
(1968, 'Effects of pollen-synthesized green florescent protein on pollen grain fitness.', 'Genetically engineered pollen with a visible marker gene could be useful to monitor the movement of transgenic pollen provided there are no negative physiological or fitness effects of expressing such a gene. In this study, we measured the fitness of Nicotiana tabacum cv. Xanthi pollen expressing the marker gene green fluorescent protein (GFP). Average pollen tube germination frequencies and pollen tube growth rates in vitro were measured in three different types of plants: (1) plants producing GFP in pollen cells only (LAT59-GFP), (2) plants synthesizing GFP under the control of a constitutive promoter (CaMV 35S) in which no GFP was produced in pollen, and (3) non-transgenic plants. Pollen synthesizing the GFP protein did not differ significantly in average pollen germination frequencies from pollen without GFP (P=0.65). Average pollen tube growth rates over a 5-h period did not differ significantly between transgenic and non-transgenic types (R2=0.89, 0.98, and 0.95, respectively, for GFP-tagged, 35S-GFP, and wild type). Overall, GFP expression in pollen grains of tobacco was not found to have an effect on pollen fitness under the controlled experimental conditions of this study.', 'en_US'),
(1969, 'Testing of genetically modified organisms in foods', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1970, 'Assessment of gene flow using tetraploid genotypes of perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.)', 'Ryegrass species are among the most important species in sown pastures, turf settings, and weed populations worldwide. Perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) is an outcrossing, wind-pollinated grass. Recent research has demonstrated the feasibility of developing transgenic perennial ryegrass varieties. In order to model the consequences of gene flow from transgenic grass genotypes in a field situation, the model non-transgenic trait of fertility among autotetraploid genotypes was chosen. Gene flow over distance and direction from a donor plot to surrounding sexually compatible recipient plants was studied. Reproductive isolation was achieved through the fertility barrier that arises between tetraploid and diploid ryegrass genotypes, despite the presence of diploid plants in a meadow situation. Fertility was used as an indication of effective gene flow over distance and direction. Measures of the fertility of recipient plants included total seed production (TSP), floret site utilisation (FSU), and relative fertility of recipient plants as a percentage of those within the donor plot (RF%). A leptokurtic distribution for gene flow was identified, with differences in the rate of decline over distance depending on direction. Simple sequence repeat (SSR) polymorphism was used to identify the paternity of progeny plants. The proportional representation of parents among the progeny was not significantly different from that expected due to the numerical representation of the different donor parent genotypes. The results of this research will have important implications for risk analysis prior to the field release of transgenic ryegrasses, fescues, and other pasture grass species, and for seed production in terms of cultivar purity and optimum isolation distance.', 'en_US'),
(1971, 'Prima facie evidence that a phytocystatin for transgenic plant resistance to nematodes is not a toxic risk in the human diet', 'A protein-engineered rice cystatin (OcID86) provides transgenic, partial crop resistance to plant nematodes. This study determined whether its oral uptake has adverse effects on male Sprague-Dawley rats when they are administered by oral gavage 0.1?10 mg OcID86/kg body weight daily for 28 d. Body weight and water and food intakes were unaltered for most of the study. The only significant changes in fresh weight of nine organs were for the liver (4% decrease; P < 0.05) and the empty cecum (14% increase; P < 0.05) at the two lowest doses and the highest dose of OcID86, respectively. No abnormalities in either organ were detected by histochemistry. There were no changes in the urine or in hematological variables measured, and blood serum revealed no dose-dependent responses for any of 17 variables measured. OcID86 was degraded by boiling with a 50% loss of its inhibition of papain after 9.2 ± 8.0 min. It also showed >95% loss of such inhibition after 15 s in simulated gastric fluid. The results suggest that the no effect level (NOEL) for OcID86 is >10 mg/(kg ? d). This provides a range of dietary exposure >200?2000 fold depending upon the promoter used to control its expression in potato.', 'en_US'),
(1972, 'Barnase gene inserted in the intron of GUS - a model for controlling transgene flow in host plants', 'Public concern on possible risk of transgene flow from GM plants calls for development of reliable molecular techniques to control transgene escape from target plant into the natural and cultural environment. Reliability of the molecular systems controlling the transgene flow can however, be affected by potential rearrangements of genomic DNA. To address this problem, we introduce here an enhanced reliability Recoverable Block of Function (RBF) system where the blocking construct is inserted in a large artificial intron of a transgene of interest. This arrangement minimizes chances of transgene escape by increasing the genetic linkage between the lethal blocking gene and the gene of interest. We used barnase gene as a model of the blocking gene and GUS gene as a model of the transgene of interest. Blocking construct was inseparably linked to the transgene of interest by optimizing the coding sequence and polyadenylation signal of barnase for a high AT content and placing it in the artificial second intron of the GUS gene in such way that the transcription of GUS and barnase proceeds in opposite directions. Expression of barnase is regulated by the embryo specific cysteine endopeptidase promoter placed outside the third exon of GUS. The artificially designed splicing and polyadenylation signals were precisely recognized by the plant mRNA processing machinery. Expression levels and biological activities of both the genes matched the levels of respective native genes. Simultaneous expression of barnase and GUS led to silencing of the genes, possibly due to dsRNA formation. We suggest that the silencing effect can be avoided by placing the blocking gene and the transgene of interest in same orientation and using a mutual polyadenylation signal for the blocking gene and the transgene of interest. We have demonstrated here that it is possible to develop an artificial intron encoding another functional gene that is unknown in natural plant genome.', 'en_US'),
(1973, 'Vertical position reflects increased feeding motivation in growth hormone transgenic Coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch)', 'Growth hormone (GH) gene transgenesis has allowed the production of salmon with an inherently increased growth potential, on average two to threefold higher compared with daily specific growth rates observed in normal, non-transgenic fish. This difference quickly results in animals of very different sizes at age, and is associated with specific morphological effects and enhanced appetites in transgenic animals. However, less is known of the feeding and antipredator behaviour of GH-transgenic fish, information that can help with predictions of potential ecological consequences of release or escape of transgenic fish into the wild. In a series of experiments, transgenic (T) and normal (N) coho salmon of varying age and size (from 0.5 to 40g, 3.5?21mo) were studied singly, in pairs, and in groups during feeding and simulated predation threat. Vertical position generally did not differ between T and N fry, but at larger size (>4g) T fish remained closer to the surface than N fish both during feeding and predatory attacks, probably as a consequence of inherent differences in feeding motivation and later reinforcement by associative learning. This difference in vertical position was not the result of competition as it remained even after either fish in the pair had been removed. In nature, where predators may attack from above (birds) or below (fish), this kind of behaviour may translate into higher risk of predation, which could increase mortality and lower the fitness of transgenic fish, unless their increased growth rate can compensate for the increased risk-taking.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(1974, 'Assessment of possible ecological risks and hazards of transgenic fish with implications for other sexually reproducing organisms', 'Transgenic technology is developing rapidly; however, consumers and environmentalists remain wary of its safety for use in agriculture. Research is needed to ensure the safe use of transgenic technology and thus increase consumer confidence. This goal is best accomplished by using a thorough, unbiased examination of risks associated with agricultural biotechnology. In this paper, we review discussion on risk and extend our approach to predict risk. We also distinguish between the risk and hazard of transgenic organisms in natural environments. We define transgene risk as the probability a transgene will spread into natural conspecific populations and define hazard as the probability of species extinction, displacement, or ecosystem disruption given that the transgene has spread. Our methods primarily address risk relative to two types of hazards: extinction which has a high hazard, and invasion which has an unknown level of hazard, similar to that of an introduced exotic species. Our method of risk assessment is unique in that we concentrate on the six major fitness components of an organism''s life cycle to determine if transgenic individuals differ in survival or reproductive capacity from wild type. Our approach then combines estimates of the net fitness parameters into a mathematical model to determine the fate of the transgene and the affected wild population. We also review aspects of fish ecology and behavior that contribute to risk and examine combinations of net fitness parameters which can lead to invasion and extinction hazards. We describe three new ways that a transgene could result in an extinction hazard: (1) when the transgene increases male mating success but reduces daily adult viability, (2) when the transgene increases adult viability but reduces male fertility, and (3) when the transgene increases both male mating success and adult viability but reduces male fertility. The last scenario is predicted to cause rapid extinction, thus it poses an extreme risk. Although we limit our discussion to aquacultural applications, our methods can easily be adapted to other sexually reproducing organisms with suitable adjustments of terminology.', 'en_US'),
(1975, 'Field safety assessment of recombination in transgenic grapevines expressing the coat protein gene of Grapevine Fanleaf Virus', 'One of the major environmental safety issues over transgenic crops containing virus-derived genes relates to the outcome of recombination events between viral transgene transcripts and RNAs from indigenous virus populations. We addressed this issue by assessing the emergence of viable Grapevine fanleaf virus (GFLV) recombinants in transgenic grapevines expressing the GFLV coat protein (CP) gene. Test plants consisted of nontransgenic scions grafted onto transgenic and nontransgenic rootstocks that were exposed over 3 years to nematode-mediated GFLV infection in two distinct vineyard sites. The CP gene of challenging GFLV isolates was amplified from scions by IC-RT-PCR, and characterized by RFLP and nucleotide sequencing using strain F13 as reference since it provided the CP transgene. Analysis of EcoRI and StyI RFLP banding patterns from 347 challenging GFLV isolates and sequence data from 85 variants revealed no characteristics similar to strain F13 and no difference in the molecular variability among isolates from 190 transgenic and 157 nontransgenic plants, or from plants within (253 individuals) or outside (94 individuals) of the two sites. Interestingly, five GFLV recombinants were identified in three nontransgenic plants located outside of the two field settings. This survey indicates that transgenic grapevines did not assist the emergence of viable GFLV recombinants to detectable levels nor did they affect the molecular diversity of indigenous GFLV populations during the trial period. This is the first report on safety assessment of recombination with a transgenic crop expressing a CP gene under field conditions of heavy disease pressure but low, if any, selection pressure against recombinant viruses.', 'en_US'),
(1976, 'Genetic interactions between marine finfish species in European aquaculture and wild conspecifics.', 'The principal species of marine aquaculture in Europe are Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and sea bream (Sparus auratus). For Atlantic salmon and sea bass, a substantial part of total genetic variation is partitioned at the geographical population level. In the case of sea bream, gene flow across the Azores/Mediterranean scale appears to be extensive and population structuring is not detected. For Atlantic salmon and sea bass, natural population structure is at risk from genetic interaction with escaped aquaculture conspecifics. The locally adaptive features of populations are at risk from interbreeding with non-local aquaculture fish. Wild populations, generally, are at risk from interactions with aquaculture fish that have been subject to artificial selection or domestication. Atlantic salmon is the main European aquaculture species and its population genetics and ecology have been well-studied. A general case regarding genetic interactions can be based on the information available for salmon and extended to cover other species, in the appropriate context. A generalized flow chart for interactions is presented. Salmon escape from aquaculture at all life stages, and some survive to breed among wild salmon. Reproductive fitness in the escaped fish is lower than in native, wild fish because of behavioural deficiencies at spawning. However, as the number of salmon in aquaculture greatly exceeds the number of wild fish, even small fractional rates of escape may result in the local presence of large numbers, and high frequencies, of escaped fish. At present, policy and legislation in relation to minimizing genetic interactions between wild and aquaculture fish is best developed for Atlantic salmon, through the recommendations of the Oslo Agreement developed by the North Atlantic Salmon Conservation Organization and subsequent agreements on their implementation. In future, the potential use of genetically modified fish in aquaculture will make additional policy development necessary. Improved containment is recommended as the key to minimizing the numbers and therefore the effects of escaped fish. Emergency recovery procedures are recommended as a back-up measure in the case of containment failure. Reproductive sterility is recommended as a future key to eliminating the genetic potential of escaped fish. The maintenance of robust populations of wild fish is recommended as a key to minimizing the effects of escaped fish on wild populations.', 'en_US'),
(1977, 'Transgenic arthropods for pest management programs: Risks and realities', 'The ability to genetically engineer arthropods using recombinant DNA meopens new opportunities for improving pest management programs but also creates new responsibilities, including evaluation of the potential risks of releasing transgenic arthropods into the environment. It is now becoming easier to transform diverse species of arthropods by a variety of recombinant DNA methods. Useful genes and genetic regulatory elements are being identified for pest arthropods, but less effort is being expended to identify genes that could improve the efficacy of beneficial arthropods. A transgenic strain of the natural enemy Metaseiulus (= Typhlodromus or Galendromus) occidentalis (Acari: Phytoseiidae) was developed using a method termed maternal microinjection. This transgenic strain was released into an experimental site on the campus of the University of Florida in 1996 after extensive reviews by the University of Florida Biosafety Committee, Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, United States Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, and the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. The short term releases established a precedent for releasing a transgenic arthropod but, at present, no guidelines are available that would allow transgenic arthropods to be released permanently into the environment. Several scientific, environmental, and policy issues must be resolved before transgenic pests or beneficial arthropods can be deployed in practical pest management programs.', 'en_US'),
(1978, 'Gene transfer technology in aquaculture', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1979, 'Utilization of transgenic fish in developing countries: Potential benefits and risks', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1980, 'Predator avoidance of transgenic channel catfish containing salmonid growth hormone genes', 'Transgenic channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) containing salmonid growth hormone genes can grow 33% faster than normal channel catfish under aquaculture conditions. However, before transgenic catfish are released and utilized by the private sector, their genetic impact on the natural environment must be examined. Predator avoidance is one of the major fitness traits determining potential environmental risk. To determine the predator avoidance ability and growth performance of transgenic catfish in a natural habitat, various densities of transgenic and nontransgenic channel catfish were communally stocked in 0.04-ha earthen ponds without supplemental feeding. Largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) and green sunfish (Lepomis cyanellus) were stocked as predators. Nontransgenic fry had better predator avoidance than transgenic channel catfish when data were pooled (p < .01). When data were not pooled, nontransgenic catfish had better predator avoidance in six trials and transgenic individuals had better predator avoidance in four trials. There was no difference in predator avoidance in three trials. Overall predator avoidance was also better for nontransgenic individuals (p < .01) when the fish were evaluated as 3.5-g fingerlings, more clearly than as fry, as transgenic individuals were more vulnerable in 3 of 4 trials at this life stage. There was no significant difference in growth performance between transgenic and nontransgenic channel catfish in ponds without supplemental feeding. These findings indicate that transgenic channel catfish could be used for commercial aquaculture without affecting the natural environment. Although transgenic channel catfish may be released to nature by accident, any ecological effect would be unlikely because the increased susceptibility of transgenic channel catfish to predators would most likely decrease or eliminate the transgenic genotype', 'en_US'),
(1981, 'Possible ecological risks of transgenic organism release when transgenes affect mating success: Sexual selection and the Trojan gene hypothesis', 'Widespread interest in producing transgenic organisms is balanced by concern over ecological hazards, such as species extinction if such organisms were to be released into nature. An ecological risk associated with the introduction of a transgenic organism is that the transgene, though rare, can spread in a natural population. An increase in transgene frequency is often assumed to be unlikely because transgenic organisms typically have some viability disadvantage. Reduced viability is assumed to be common because transgenic individuals are best viewed as macromutants that lack any history of selection that could reduce negative fitness effects. However, these arguments ignore the potential advantageous effects of transgenes on some aspect of fitness such as mating success. Here, we examine the risk to a natural population after release of a few transgenic individuals when the transgene trait simultaneously increases transgenic male mating success and lowers the viability of transgenic offspring. We obtained relevant life history data by using the small cyprinodont fish, Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes) as a model. Our deterministic equations predict that a transgene introduced into a natural population by a small number of transgenic fish will spread as a result of enhanced mating advantage, but the reduced viability of offspring will cause eventual local extinction of both populations. Such risks should be evaluated with each new transgenic animal before release.', 'en_US'),
(1982, 'Field release and environmental fate of a transgenic entomopathogenic nematode', 'A strain of the entomopathogenic nematodeHeterorhabditis bacteriophora,genetically enhanced for thermotolerance by introduction of a heat-shock protein gene from the free-living nematodeCaenorhabditis elegans,was released in turfgrass field microplots in the spring, summer, and fall of 1996. As predicted, transgenic and wildtype strains did not differ in their ability to persist. We document the regulatory procedures at the federal, state, university, and local levels needed before field release, none of which posed any significant difficulties. Our risk assessment study supports the regulatory view that the transgenic nematode strain is an unlikely environmental threat. Subsequent regulatory reviews in the United States appear likely to continue to be decided on a case-by-case basis according to organism phenotype rather than the techniques used to generate them. This is the first report of a nonmicrobial, genetically engineered insect natural enemy being released into the environment.', 'en_US'),
(1983, 'Risk from genetically engineered and modified marine fish', 'In support of the emerging industries of warmwater marine fish mariculture, genetic engineering and classical genetic improvement programmes have been initiated for a variety of exclusively marine fish. These programmes have the potential to perturb allele and genotype frequencies, or introduce novel alleles and genes into conspecific wild populations. Despite concerns to the contrary, the following hypothesis remains to be falsified: ''laboratory induced allele frequency/genotype changes and novel alleles or genes have a negligible probability of being selectively favoured in wild populations under natural selection, and accordingly, without sustained large scale releases, have little potential for ecological impact''', 'en_US'),
(1984, 'Persistence and containment of Metaseiulus occidentalis (Acari: Phytoseiidae) in Florida: Risk assessment for possible release of transgenic strains', 'Metaseiulus occidentalis (Nesbitt) is a phytoseiid mite which is commercially available as a biological control agent of spider mites. Genetic manipulation of this phytoseiid species has yielded transgenic strains, but none have been released into the environment. Previous data suggested that M. occidentalis could not survive the wet, humid summers in Florida. A non-transgenic strain of M. occidentalis was released into field plots in Gainesville on soybean plants infested with the two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch. Populations were monitored from April-October 1994, and weather data were gathered at the release site. Permethrin-treated barrier rows were monitored to determine if the mites dispersed outside the plots, and aerial dispersal was monitored with sticky traps. Predator and spider-mite populations repeatedly crashed during the summer months, and population growth was negatively correlated with rainfall. CLIMEX, a population growth model which uses climatic factors to determine whether a given poikilothermic species can colonize and persist in new geographic areas, also indicated that M. occidentalis cannot persist through the wet season in Florida, although it may be able to establish and persist through the fall, winter and spring months.', 'en_US'),
(1985, 'Environmental safety issues for genetically-modified animals', 'Organisms modified by the techniques of modern biotechnology may differ significantly from normal organisms or organisms modified by other methods. Before transgenic organisms are introduced into the environment, the potential environmental effects should be assessed. In general, modification of ecologically important traits in undomesticated species presents the greatest environmental risk. Transgenic livestock probably pose low risk to the environment. Transgenic fish and live virus-based vaccines pose greater risks and present challenging questions for environmental risk assessment', 'en_US'),
(1986, 'Implications of introduction of transgenic fish into natural ecosystems', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1987, 'Spatially structured population dynamics in feral oilseed rape', 'We studied the population dynamics of feral oilseed rape (Brassica napus) for 10 years (1993-2002) in 3658 adjacent permanent 100 m quadrats in the verges of the M25 motorway around London, UK. The aim was to determine the relative importance of different factors affecting the observed temporal patterns of population dynamics and their spatial correlations. A wide range of population dynamics was observed (downward or upward trends, cycles, local extinctions and recolonizations), but overall the populations were not self-replacing (? < 1). Many quadrats remained unoccupied throughout the study period, but a few were occupied at high densities for all 10 years. Most quadrats showed transient oilseed rape populations, lasting 1-4 years.There were strong spatial patterns in mean population density, associated with soil conditions and the successional age of the plant community dominating the verge, and these large-scale spatial patterns were highly consistent from year to year. The importance of seed spilled from trucks in transit to the processing plant at Erith in Kent was confirmed: rape populations were significantly higher on the ''to Erith'' verge than the ''from Erith'' verge (overall mean 2.83-fold greater stem density). Quadrats in which ? > 1 were much more frequent in the ''to Erith'' verge, indicating that seed immigration can give the spurious impression of self-replacing population dynamics in time-series analysis.There was little evidence of a pervasive Moran effect, and climatic forcing did not produce widespread large-scale synchrony in population dynamics for the motorway as a whole; just 23% of quadrats had significant rank correlations with the mean time-series. There was, however, significant local spatial synchrony of population dynamics, apparently associated with soil disturbance and seed input. This study draws attention to the possibility that different processes may impose population synchrony at different scales. We hypothesize that synchrony in this system is driven by at least three processes: small-scale, local forcing caused by soil disturbance, intermediate-scale forcing as a result of seed input, and large-scale climatic forcing (e.g. winter rainfall) that affects the motorway as a whole.', 'en_US'),
(1988, 'Evidence for gene flow via seed dispersal from crop to wild relatives in Beta vulgaris (Chenopodiaceae): consequences for the release of genetically modified crop species with weedy lineage', 'Gene flow and introgression from cultivated to wild plant populations have important evolutionary and ecological consequences and require detailed investigations for risk assessments of transgene escape into natural ecosystems. Sugar beets (Beta vulgaris ssp. vulgaris) are of particular concern because: (i) they are cross-compatible with their wild relatives (the sea beet, B. vulgaris ssp. maritima); (ii) crop-to-wild gene flow is likely to occur via weedy lineages resulting from hybridization events and locally infesting fields. Using a chloroplastic marker and a set of nuclear microsatellite loci, the occurrence of crop-to-wild gene flow was investigated in the French sugar beet production area within a ''contact-zone'' in between coastal wild populations and sugar beet fields. The results did not reveal large pollen dispersal from weed to wild beets. However, several pieces of evidence clearly show an escape of weedy lineages from fields via seed flow. Since most studies involving the assessment of transgene escape from crops to wild outcrossing relatives generally focused only on pollen dispersal, this last result was unexpected: it points out the key role of a long-lived seed bank and highlights support for transgene escape via man-mediated long-distance dispersal events.', 'en_US'),
(1989, 'Corn pollen dispersal: Quasi-mechanistic models and field experiments', 'To make quantitative predictions about the pollen dispersal of a plant species under different environmental conditions, it is necessary to determine its individual pollen dispersal function, i.e., the two-dimensional density function describing the probability that a pollen grain emitted in (0, 0) fertilizes an ovule in (x, y). This function will depend on biological and climate parameters. We present models for the individual dispersal function of corn. These models are based on Brownian motion with drift and integrate biological (difference of height between male and female flowers) and aerodynamic (settling velocity, wind speed, air turbulence) parameters. The models presented differ in the importance of vegetation in stopping the paths of pollen grains. The models were fitted to data from two large field experiments of corn using the color of kernels as a phenotypic marker for pollen dispersal. The resulting estimations for the parameters of the models and comparisons between models indicate that (1) these models can provide good predictions of the observed data, (2) vegetation is not the major obstacle that stops pollen paths, and (3) there is a benefit in considering the difference in height between male and female flowers. Furthermore, values of the parameters estimated from dispersal data appear consistent with meteorological and biological data acquired independently.', 'en_US'),
(1990, 'Can transgenic rice cause ecological risks through tranegene escape?', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1991, 'Using empirical data to model transgene dispersal', 'One element of the current public debate about genetically modified crops is that gene flow from transgenic cultivars into surrounding weed populations will lead to more problematic weeds, particularly for traits such as herbicide resistance. Evolutionary biologists can inform this debate by providing accurate estimates of gene flow potential and subsequent ecological performance of resulting hybrids. We develop a model for gene flow incorporating exponential distance and directional effects to be applied to windpollinated species. This model is applied to previously published data on gene flow in experimental plots of Agrostis stolonifera L. (creeping bentgrass), which assessed gene flow from transgenic plants resistant to the herbicide glufosinate to surrounding non-transgenic plants. Our results show that although pollen dispersal can be limited in some sites, it may be extensive in others, depending on local conditions such as exposure to wind. Thus, hybridization under field conditions is likely to occur. Given the nature of the herbicide resistance trait, we regard this trait as unlikely to persist in the absence of herbicide, and suggest that the ecological consequences of such gene flow are likely to be minimal.', 'en_US'),
(1992, 'Current knowledge of gene flow in plants: implications for transgene flow', 'Plant evolutionary biologists'' view of gene flow and hybridization has undergone a revolution. Twenty-five years ago, both were considered rare and largely inconsequential. Now gene flow and hybridization are known to be idiosyncratic, varying with the specific populations involved. Gene flow typically occurs at evolutionarily significant rates and at significant distances. Spontaneous hybridization occasionally has important applied consequences, such as stimulating the evolution of more aggressive invasives and increasing the extinction risk for rare species. The same problems have occurred for spontaneous hybridization between crops and their wild relatives. These new data have implications for transgenic crops: (i) for most crops, gene flow can act to introduce engineered genes into wild populations; (ii) depending on the specific engineered gene(s) and populations involved, gene flow may have the same negative impacts as those observed for traditionally improved crops; (iii) gene flow''s idiosyncratic nature may frustrate management and monitoring attempts; and (iv) intercrop transgene flow, although rarely discussed, is equally worthy of study.', 'en_US'),
(1993, 'Qualitative theory of the spread of a new gene into a resident population', 'This work addresses the problems that arise in the estimation of the risk of invader/unwanted GMO spread and the optimal release of desired genes into a population through the release of transgenic individuals. On the basis of a general model of the propagation of an advantageous allele through a population we analyze the thresholds and critical aggregations in gene frequency necessary for the spread of new gene carriers. It is shown that if the invader appears at one place in the ecosystem then it will not spread throughout the ecosystem unless it exceeds some critical threshold, where the critical threshold is defined in terms of both the amount and distribution of the invader. The value of the critical threshold will depend on the fitness of the invader relative to the fitness of the resident organisms in the ecosystem and the mechanism of its dispersion. It is also shown that typically an invader will not spread symmetrically, even if the environment is isotropic, but rather develops clusters that form filaments within the ecosystem. We also demonstrate that if the invader aggregation is sufficiently large then after an initial period the advance of the invader into the resident population takes the form of a traveling wave. The speed of this wave tends to a speed characteristic of the relative fitness and dispersive mechanisms of the invader.', 'en_US'),
(1994, 'Gene flow from cultivated rice to the wild species Oryza rufipogon under experimental field conditions.', '?Here, the gene flow from a cultivated rice variety (Minghui-63) to common wild rice (Oryza rufipogon) was investigated to assess the biosafety risk associated with the environmental release of transgenic varieties.?Four experimental designs differing in the spatial arrangement of the Minghui-63 and O. rufipogon plants were used in experiments conducted in an isolated rice field in Hunan Province, southern China, where O. rufipogon occurs naturally.?Natural hybridization events between the two species were detected by scoring a simple sequence repeat (SSR) molecular marker. A total of 296 hybrids were identified from 23776 seedlings that were randomly germinated from >80000 seeds collected from O. rufipogon. The occurrence of the crop-to-wild gene flow was significantly associated with wind direction and frequencies of the gene flow, which decreased significantly with distance from the pollen sources. The maximum observed distance of gene flow was 43.2m.?The results indicated that gene flow from cultivated rice to O. rufipogon occurred at a considerable rate. Therefore, isolation measures should be considered when deploying transgenic rice in the sympatric regions of the wild rice, and when establishing in situ conservation of O. rufipogon. The experimental system in this study can be used for biosafety assessment of transgene escape of other wind-pollinated crops.', 'en_US'),
(1995, 'Homology-dependent DNA transfer from plants to a soil bacterium under laboratory conditions: implications in evolution and horizontal gene transfer', 'DNA transfer was demonstrated from six species of donor plants to the soil bacterium, Acinetobacter spp. BD413, using neomycin phosphotransferase (nptII) as a marker for homologous recombination. These laboratory results are compatible with, but do not prove, DNA transfer in nature. In tobacco carrying a plastid insertion of nptII, transfer was detected with 0.1 g of disrupted leaves and in oilseed rape carrying a nuclear insertion with a similar quantity of roots. Transfer from disrupted leaves occurred in sterile soil and water, without the addition of nutrients. It was detected using intact tobacco leaves and intact tobacco and Arabidopsis plants in vitro. Transfer was dose-dependent and sensitive to DNase, and mutations in the plant nptII were recovered in receptor bacteria. DNA transfer using intact roots and plants in vitro was easily demonstrated, but with greater variability. Transfer varied with plant genome size and the number of repeats of the marker DNA in the donor plant. Transfer was not detected in the absence of a homologous nptII in the receptor bacteria. We discuss these results with reference to non-coding DNA in plant genomes (e.g., introns, transposons and junk DNA) and the possibility that DNA transfer could occur in nature.', 'en_US'),
(1996, 'A model of pollinator-mediated gene flow between plant populations with numerical solutions for bumblebees pollinated oilseed rape', 'We present a model that predicts the level of gene flow mediated by animal pollinators from a source population to a sink population.  The model requires specification of three elements: (1) the paternity that originates from a single flower, the paternity shadow; (2) the mean number of flowers that pollinators visit during stays in the sink population, the residence; (3) the proportion of pollinators arriving at the sink that carry pollen from the source population.  Provided that pollinators visit enough flowers in the sink to exhaust the paternity shadows from the source, the general results are that gene flow is inversely proportional to the mean pollinator residence in the sink population, and is proportional to the fraction of pollinators arriving with pollen from the source.  These results are used to propose explanations for two of the widely observed patterns in gene flow among plant populations.  Numerical solutions to the model are derived using experimentally determined values of elements (1) and (2) that represent bumblebees, Bombus spp., visiting agricultural fields of oilseed rape, Brassica napus L.   In B. napus, the paternity shadow attenuates rapidly over approximately 20 recipient flowers.  Mean bumblebee residences in the fields studied varied between 490 and 720 flowers.  In the absence of a direct measurement of element (3), we calculated the maximum level of bumblebee-mediated gene flow by assuming that all bees arrived at the sink saturated with pollen from extrinsic sources.  In this case, the model predicts that bumblebee-mediated gene flow accounted for between 0.1% and 0.5% of the progeny in the agricultural fields studied.  A likelihood analysis of our observations is unable to reveal convincingly the proportion of bees arriving at the sink via a source population, but the literature suggests that bumblebees have high site fidelity, which implies that bee-mediated gene flow may be substantially less than our estimated maximum.  We consider the role of various factors, including wind pollination, in accounting for the differences between the model''s predictions and the generally higher levels of gene flow observed in previous studies of oilseed rape.', 'en_US'),
(1997, 'First impact of biotechnology in the EU: Bt maize adoption in Spain', 'In the present paper a bio-economic model was constructed to estimate the impact of a biotechnology innovation in EU agriculture. Transgenic Bt maize offers the potential to efficiently control corn borers that cause economically important losses in maize growing in Spain. Since 1998, Syngenta has commercialised the variety Compa CB, equivalent to an annual maize area of about 25 000 ha. During the 6-year period 1998-2003, a total welfare gain of 15.5 million euros was estimated from the adoption of Bt maize, of which Spanish farmers captured two thirds, the rest accruing to the seed industry.', 'en_US'),
(1998, 'Gene Flow: What does it mean for biodiversity and centers of origin', NULL, 'en_US'),
(1999, 'The 1st European Conference on the Co-existence of Genetically Modified Crops with Conventional and Organic Crops', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2000, 'Genetic application of an inverse polymerase chain reaction', 'A method is presented for the rapid in vitro amplification of DNA sequences that flank a region of known sequence.  The method uses the polymerase chain reation (PCR), but it has the primers oriented in the reverse direction of the usual orientation.  The template for the reverse primers is a restriction fragment that has been ligated upon itself to form a circle.  This procedure of inverse PCR (IPCR) has many applications in molecular genetics, for example, the amplification and identification of sequences flanking transposable elements.  In this paper we show the feasibility of IPCR by amplifying the sequences that flank an ISI element in the genome of a natural isolate of Escherichia coli.', 'en_US'),
(2001, 'Population ecology of wild sunflowers: effects of seed density and post-dispersal vertebrate seed predators', 'Assessing the effects of seed density on the population dynamics of wild plant species with crop relatives will be vital in determining the potential effects of introducing traits into wild populations as a result of crop-to-wild gene flow. We examined experimental sunflower (Helianthus annuus) patches in eastern Kansas to determine the effects of seed density and predation on seedling recruitment and seed production in the next generation. High seed density treatment plots had significantly more seedlings and adult plants than did low seed density treatment plots. Overwinter vertebrate seed predator exclusion treatments resulted in increases in plant density compared to plots in which vertebrates were not excluded. Control patches (no seeds added) contained virtually no plants. Head production and estimated total seed production for a patch were not statistically different among treatments (excluding control plots). Although initial seed density and vertebrate post-dispersal seed predation do appear to have effects on seedling recruitment, neither appear to be limiting seed production of competing adult plants. Therefore, variation in seed densities (over the range examined) may have limited effects on local population dynamics. It is important to note that the choice of seed densities may affect the results obtained: the seed densities used in this study may, in retrospect, be higher than in the small roadside populations typical in eastern Kansas, yet other natural sites have much larger densities. Further, the effects of increased seed density at a local site may have other important effects such as altering metapopulation dynamics through increased long-distance dispersal or increased local seed bank size.', 'en_US'),
(2002, 'Fecundity selection in a sunflower crop-wild study: Can ecological data predict crop allele changes?', 'Genes that spread from transgenic crops to populations of weedy relatives can be a cause of concern if fitness-related, transgenic traits persist and enhance weed invasiveness. Studies of the prevalence of crop-specific genetic markers in wild populations can provide data on such introgression. We conducted a field experiment in eastern Kansas to measure changes in frequencies of crop-specific genetic markers in wild sunflower (Helianthus annuus). Three allozyme markers were monitored in three artificial populations that each initially consisted of 100 wild and 100 F1 hybrid plants. Survival, flowering time, and average seed production per plant were quantified during the first year of the study (1997). Hybrid plants produced only 1-2% as many seeds per plant as wild plants but did not differ in survivorship. Simple selection models incorporating fecundity differences between wild and F1 hybrids accurately predicted crop allele frequencies in the 1998 seedlings. We predicted that frequencies of crop alleles in 1998 would average 0.03 for the three populations. Crop-specific allele frequencies dropped from the initial level of 0.25 to a mean of 0.03 in the 1998 seedlings and averaged 0.05 in the next generation of seeds. Accounting for differences in flowering phenology and predispersal seed predation did not improve the accuracy of our predictions for 1998 seedlings. Our results suggest that ecological data can be useful for estimating the frequencies of crop genes following episodes of crop-wild hybridization in sunflowers. This approach can be applied to other study systems in which data on survivorship and fecundity are used to estimate a genotype''s evolutionary fitness.', 'en_US'),
(2003, 'Diversity in free-living populations of Cucurbita pepo (Cucurbitaceae) as assessed by random amplified polymorphic DNA', 'One area of risk assessment for transgenic crops concerns cross-compatible wild and weedy relatives. In squash (Cucurbita pepo), free-living populations are diverse in their distributions, ecologies, histories, and genetic and phenotypic compositions. As part of the effort to understand this diversity, random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) data were collected from 37 wild or weedy populations and 16 cultivars, which together represented all infraspecific taxa of C. pepo. Twenty-six primers yielded 70 scorable and variable markers. The presence/absence of bands for these markers produced a data matrix which was analyzed using cluster analysis. The analysis confirmed the relationships among infraspecific taxa that had been revealed, in part, in previous genetic analyses (e.g., isozymes, chloroplast DNA restriction-site mutations, inter simple sequence repeats). Also supported were findings of varying degrees of gene flow from cultivars into free-living populations. Some of the RAPD variation in subsp.ovifera var.ozarkana populations was found to be correlated with the distribution of the drainage systems along which these populations are dispersed. Finally, the RAPD results support the idea that transgenic gene flow experiments with free-living populations should consider using representatives from each of the three free-living taxa, as well as from genetically or ecologically distinct populations within these taxa.', 'en_US'),
(2004, 'Fitness of backcross six of hybrids between transgenic oilseed rape (Brassica napus) and wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum)', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2005, 'Assessment of functional transgene flow in tomato fields', 'As the flow of pollen-carrying transgenes is considered to be one of the main problems associated with the release of genetically modified plants, the impact on the environment of transgenic tomato plants highly resistant to cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) was evaluated. The frequency of spontaneous crossing between homozygous transgenic tomato, cv. UC82B, and untransformed controls was assessed in two Italian growing areas. Transformed plants expressed the CMV coat protein (CP), inducing resistance to the virus, and neomycin phosphotransferase II (NPTII), used as an in vitro selectable marker. For each field, a sample of at least 2000 progeny plants of the `wild-type'' UC82B control was screened to search for `hybrids'' expressing the transgenic proteins. Kanamycin sprayed on seedling leaves and DAS-ELISA were used to detect NPTII and CMV-CP, respectively. Plants expressing the transgenic proteins were then analysed by PCR using CMV-CP gene-specific primers. Two plants from each field were found to express the transgenes. These plants, however, proved to be homozygous for transgenes, indicating that they did not originate by cross-pollination between transgenic and `wild-type'' parents, but probably derived from transgenic seeds that accidentally contaminated untransformed seed stocks during harvesting. These results show that under our conditions, no transgene flow was detected in cv. UC82B tomatoes in the two fields.', 'en_US'),
(2006, 'Barriers to gene flow from oilseed rape (Brassica napus) into populations of Sinapis arvensis', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2007, 'Development of simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers for the assessment of gene flow and genetic diversity in pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan)', 'Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan) is an important subsistence crop in India where traditional landraces and improved hybrids are grown alongside each other. Gene flow may result in genetic erosion of these landraces and their wild relatives, whilst transgene escape from future genetically engineered varieties is another potential hazard. To assess the impact of these factors gene flow needs to be measured. A set of 10 simple sequence repeat markers have been developed, which exhibit polymorphism across a range of pigeonpea varieties. Use of these markers also offers an efficient system for the assessment of genetic diversity within populations of pigeonpea.', 'en_US'),
(2008, 'RAPD-PCR analysis of the genetic origin of sea beet (Beta vulgaris ssp maritima) at Germany''s Baltic sea coast.', 'The spread of plant populations into new habitats and their establishment there is an important object of ecological research, particularly for those plant species consisting of cultivated, weedy and wild forms. One of these species is Beta vulgaris L., which is taxonomically divided into the subspecies vulgaris (sugar beet, Swiss chard, red beet, some weedy beet forms) and maritima (sea beet). In northeastern Europe, the distribution range of the different Beta subspecies is not well known. The aim of this study was to investigate the origin of sea beet populations at the Baltic Sea coast of Germany by collecting seed samples and performing RAPD-PCR analysis. Theoretically, the spread and the establishment of beet populations in the wild could be the result of various different processes: (1) introduction of seeds from wild populations, (2) naturalization of cultivated or weedy types after introduction into wild habitats, and (3) a combination of (1) and (2) with subsequent hybridisation and evolution into an intermediate genotype. Genetic analysis suggests that the Baltic Sea coast populations are pure wild beets (1) and not weedy or escaped sugar beets (2 or 3). In a UPGMA phenogram, the wild and the cultivated beets could be clearly distinguished from one another. In addition to the strong evidence that German sea beet originated from Danish sea beet, the possibility of seed dispersal between these groups via seawater was demonstrated. Beta vulgaris seeds survived a long period in seawater and up to 2% of the seeds still germinated after 28 weeks. The fact that sea beet populations can now be found sympatrically to flowering sugar beets and weed beets in coastal agricultural areas offers new possibilities of gene flow. This is important fundamental knowledge for the risk assessment of gene flow from transgenic sugar beet.', 'en_US'),
(2009, 'Search for evidence of introgression of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) traits into sea barley (Hordeum marinum s.str.Huds.) and bearded wheatgrass (Elymus caninus L.) in central and northern Europe using isozymes, RAPS and microsatellite markers', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2010, 'Polymorphism for interspecific hybridisation within a population of wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum) pollinated by oilseed rape (Brassica napus)', 'The within-population polymorphism of wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum) for interspecific hybridisation with two cultivars of oilseed rape (Brassica napus) was investigated by hand crossing experiments and fluorescence microscopy. Wide variability among plants was observed in the ability of oilseed rape pollen to germinate on the wild radish stigma; the frequency of pistils showing pollen tubes ranged from 0 to 1, depending on the female plant. The ratio of fertilised ovules to the total number of ovules in ovaries where pollen tubes arrived ranged from 0.02 to 0.51. Overall, the results provide evidence for the presence of different phenotypes. In 40% of the plants, pistils had no or very few pollen tubes and few fertilised ovules. In 23%, the foreign pollen tubes grew through the style towards the ovary, but had low ovule fertilisation efficiency. The remaining 37% showed a large number of pollen tubes in the style and frequent ovule fertilisation, and two plants showed no difference between foreign and conspecific pollen. With regard to post-zygotic barriers, pollen germination and ovule fertilisation represent minor barriers to interspecific hybridisation between oilseed rape and wild radish. It is suggested that the effectiveness of these barriers could be improved through plant breeding; this could reduce the risk of gene flow from transgenic oilseed rape to populations of wild relatives.', 'en_US'),
(2011, 'Introgression between oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) and its weedy relative B. rapa L in a natural population', 'We investigated introgression in a mixed weedy population of oilseed rape (Brassica napus) and its relative B. rapa using species-specific AFLP-markers. The population was situated in a field relayed from conventional to organic cultivation 11 years ago. One-hundred-and-two B. napus or B. rapa-like plants were collected in a 3 m2 plot. Of these, one was a first generation hybrid (F1) and nearly half (44 plants) were introgressed, having both B. napus and B. rapa specific markers. The remaining plants apparently corresponded to pure species, with 50 having only B. rapa- and seven having only B. napus-specific markers. We compared the number of markers in the plants from the weedy population with the numbers in controlled backcross generations (BC1 and BC2). The marker distribution in the weedy population resembled the distribution in the second backcross generation most closely. Together with the cultivation history of the field, this suggests that the introgression process in the weedy mixed population has been in progress for some time. This study is the first to show introgression between B. napus and B. rapa under natural conditions.', 'en_US'),
(2012, 'Search for spontaneous hybridization between oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) and wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum L.) in agricultural zones and evaluation of the gentic diversity of the wild species', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2013, 'The fertility of wheat X jointed goatgrass hybrid and its backcross progenies', 'The spontaneous flow of genes from wheat to jointed goatgrass is of great concern to breeders intending to release herbicide-resistant wheat. The objectives of this research were to study how genes could flow from wheat to jointed goatgrass through crossing and backcrossing between these two species and, based on this knowledge, to propose possible ways to minimize the chance of gene flow between them. Results showed that the wheat × jointed goatgrass hybrid can only serve as a female parent to produce the BC1 generation. The BC1 generation was found to have 1.8% male fertility and 4.4% female fertility, indicating that it could serve as either the male or female parent to produce a BC2 generation. The fertility of the resultant BC2 generation further increased. The average male, female, and self-fertility was 8.9, 18.0, and 6.9%, respectively. After the BC2 generation, the backcross progeny has three possible ways to reproduce: to pollinate jointed goatgrass, to be pollinated by jointed goatgrass, or to pollinate itself. Restoration of the chromosome number of jointed goatgrass continues as the BC2 generation is selfed, but some plants can contain an alien chromosome over generations. The possible ways to reduce the chance of gene flow between these two species are (1) prevent the production of hybrids, (2) prevent the production of the BC1 generation, and (3) put a herbicide-resistant gene on the A- or B-genome of wheat.', 'en_US'),
(2014, 'Quantifying gene movement from oilseed rape to its wild relatives using remote sensing', 'The potential environmental risks due to gene flow from genetically modified (GM) crops into wild plant populations are currently of great concern. Of particular interest is gene flow from GM oilseed rape (Brassica napus) into its wild parental species B. rapa and B. oleracea, with which it forms spontaneous hybrids. The rate of hybridization is best determined empirically under a wide variety of field conditions. A procedure for quantifying hybrid formation using remote sensing over a large area of southern England is described. Satellite sensor images were used to identify localities where gene flow was most likely by searching for oilseed rape fields adjacent to regions where the parent plants occur, namely rivers and cliff-tops. These sites were visited and screened for hybrids. A single hybrid was observed in an area of over 16 000 km2. We use these data to suggest a strategy to minimise gene flow following commercial scale release of GM B. napus across Europe and propose a procedure that may allow post-release containment.', 'en_US');
