INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(555, 'Plant biotechnology: output traits - the second generation of plant biotechnology products in gaining momentum', 'Plant biotechnology and its commercialisation is in its blooming phase. In 1998, more than 28 million hectares of transgenic crop plants were grown worldwide. ''This 28 mil lion hectares was spread over several countries, the largest area of transgenic crops b''eing grown in the USA (22 mil lion hectares) followed by Canada (1.8 million hectares), Argentina (1.8 million hectares) and the Peoples Republic of China (estimated at 1.1 million hectares ). Equally impressive as the total area of transgenic crops planted is the market share individual crops have gained. Thus, it is estimated that in 1998 in the ITS 40% of the cotton, 24% of corn and 40% of soybean planted was transgenic. This is an absolutely dramatic figure considering the fact that the commercialisation phase of transgenic crops in the US started no earlier than 1996, at that time the total acreage being about 1.5 million hectares. Thus, in only two years the transgenic crops of three of the most important US crops (i.e. corn, soybean :and cotton) conquered a market share of more than 30% starting from virtually zero. This is by all means a truly breathtaking development.This dramatic change in the corresponding markets becomes even more impressive upon realising that the dri ving forces behind this revolution are essentially only two classes of genes. One class confers resistance to herbicides, such as glyphosate or liberty, the second class confers resis tance to the larvae of certain detrimental insects.Such a dramatic change of existing markets has had a bearing on the structure of the industry. Firstly, due to the fact that transgenic herbicideresistant plants allow the farmer to evaluate the weed pressure before he decides to use the herbicide, the total amount of herbi cide applied in cases where transgenic crops are planted is reduced by on average 3040%. Secondly, market shares in the herbicide market are changing from species specific (selective) herbicides towards broadspectrum herbicides with the subsequent consequences for the sales and profits of the corresponding industries. In the case of transgenic insectresistant plants, in an analogous way the amount of chemical insecticides used was reduced by up to 80% with the corresponding implica tions for the insecticideselling industries.', 'en_US'),
(556, 'The use of the Monsanto draft rice genome sequence in research', 'Monsanto recently produced a draft of a rice (Oryza sativa) genome in support of its ongoing internal research programs in genomics and crop improvement. The sequence data were produced primarily in the laboratories of Dr. Leroy Hood (University of Washington, Seattle) under contract for Monsanto. In addition to being one of the most important world food crops, rice serves as a useful research model. The syntenic relation between the rice genome and those of other cereal grasses has been widely recognized and the availability of detailed information about the rice genome will likely advance global efforts to improve other major food crops in the grass family, including corn (maize), wheat, barley, sorghum, millet, and others. The increased research in rice may be expected to have many direct and indirect benefits for this critical crop and its relatives, and ultimately may contribute to an improvement in food production in many world areas. The International Rice Research Institute (Los Banos, The Philippines) estimates that 1 billion new rice consumers will be added in Asia by 2020. By that date, 4 billion peoplemore than onehalf the world''s populationwill depend on rice as a staple of their diet. The Monsanto draft rice genome sequence was produced from rice cv Nipponbare, a japonica variety that has been used widely in genetic studies in ricethe same cultivar used by the International Rice Genome Sequencing Project (IRGSP; http://rgp.dna.affrc.go.jp/Seqcollab.html). Formally launched in February 1998 to complete and publish the entire genome sequence of rice, IRGSP members have agreed to use a single germplasm, to share materials and information, to immediately make public completed portions of the genome, to achieve certain accuracy standards, and to coordinate their work. In early 2000, Monsanto decided to share the draft sequence data with the IRGSP to benefit this 11member consortium in reaching its primary objective soonerthe production of a complete and finished sequence of the genome of rice cv Nipponbare. Monsanto''s sequence data and supporting materials have been made available to the IRGSP through the Japanese Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries, the lead agency in the IRGSP, which distributes the company''s data to members according to their assigned chromosome. The work of the IRGSP is expected to continue, incorporating data from Monsanto''s draft sequence, until the entire rice genome sequence has been completed. As each segment (in units of P1 artificial chromosomes or bacterial artificial chromosomes [BACs]) of the sequence is completed, it will be placed in public databases, in accordance with existing IRGSP policy. The availability of the draft sequence and the related materials is expected to reduce both time and cost for the IRGSP.', 'en_US'),
(557, 'Biotechnology and the poor', 'Eight hundred million people on earth are poor and malnourished. They live on less than a dollar a day and cannot be sure that their fields will yield enough food or that they will earn enough money to buy food. Forty thousand people die each day of malnutrition, one-half of them children. The doubling of food production enabled by the Green Revolution unfortunately did not solve the problems of malnutrition and hunger. There were about a billion hungry people some 40 years ago, and population projections show that there may still be 600 million poor people by 2025, when the earth''s population will have grown to 8 billion. The Green Revolution did many things, but it did not wipe out poverty. Not enough jobs were created in either the rural areas or the cities to generate the purchasing power that provides farmers with the incentive to grow more food. It is ironic that hunger persists while the prices for agricultural commodities are at an all-time low. Can this problem be solved?', 'en_US'),
(558, 'Feeding the world in the twenty-first century', 'This paper discusses how advances in plant biotechnology can be deployed to prevent a growing population going hungry in the 21st century, now that gains in food production provided by the Green Revolution in the last half of the 20th century appear to have reached their ceiling. Consideration is given to: the cost of biotechnology; the potential of genetic engineering; biotechnology research useful in Developing Countries; problems associated with the use of gene-protection technologies; intellectual property rights; and solutions to speed the development of biotechnology capacity.', 'en_US'),
(559, 'Transgenic plants for tropical regions: some considerations about their development and their transfer to the small farmer', 'Biotechnological applications, especially transgenic plants, probably hold the most promise in augmenting agricultural production in the first decades of the next millennium. However, the application of these technologies to the agriculture of tropical regions where the largest areas of low productivity are located, and where they are most needed, remains a major challenge. In this paper, some of the important issues that need to be considered to ensure that plant biotechnology is effectively transferred to the developing world are discussed. The subject is considered under the following headings: (1) the case for genetically engineered plants; (2) soil acidity: a problem for agriculture in the tropics; (3) tropical acid soils that could be used for agriculture; (4) aluminium toxicity; (5) an example of how transgenic plants could improve productivity in acid soils; and (6) transfer of technology to Developing Countries.', 'en_US'),
(560, 'Plant genetic resources: what can they contribute toward increased crop productivity', 'An overview of some key issues relating to the role of plant genetic resources in improving food security is presented. To feed a world population growing by up to 160 people per minute, with >90% of them in developing countries, will require an astonishing increase in food production. Forecasts call for wheat to become the most important cereal in the world, with maize close behind; together, these crops will account for approx equal to 80% of developing countries'' cereal import requirements. Access to a range of genetic diversity is critical to the success of breeding programmes. The global effort to assemble, document, and utilize these resources is enormous, and the genetic diversity in the collections is critical to the world''s fight against hunger. The introgression of genes that reduced plant height and increased disease and viral resistance in wheat provided the foundation for the ''Green Revolution'' and demonstrated the tremendous impact that genetic resources can have on production. Wheat hybrids and synthetics may provide the yield increases needed in the future. A wild relative of maize, Tripsacum, represents an untapped genetic resource for abiotic and biotic stress resistance and for apomixis, a trait that could provide developing world farmers access to hybrid technology. Ownership of genetic resources and genes must be resolved to ensure global access to these critical resources. The application of molecular and genetic engineering technologies enhances the use of genetic resources. The effective and complementary use of all of our technological tools and resources will be required for meeting the challenge posed by the world''s expanding demand for food.', 'en_US'),
(561, 'Biotechnology and world food supply', NULL, 'en_US'),
(562, 'Bioengineering of crops: report of the World Bank Panel on Transgenic Crops', NULL, 'en_US'),
(563, 'Green revolution: preparing for the 21st century', 'In the 1960s there were large-scale concerns about the world''s ability to feed itself. However, widespread adoption of ''green revolution'' technology led to major increases in food-grain production. Between 1966 and 1990, the population of the densely populated low-income countries grew by 80%, but food production more than doubled. The technological advance that led to the dramatic achievements in world food production over the last 30 years was the development of high-yielding varieties of wheat and rice. These varieties are responsive to fertilizer inputs, are lodging resistant, and their yield potential is 2-3 times that of varieties available prior to the green revolution. In addition, these varieties have multiple resistance to diseases and insects and thus have yield stability. The development of irrigation facilities, the availability of inorganic fertilizers, and benign government policies have all facilitated the adoption of green-revolution technology. In the 1990s, the rate of growth in food-grain production has been lower than the rate of growth in population. If this trend is not reversed, serious food shortages will occur in the next century. To meet the challenge of feeding 8 billion people by 2020, we have to prepare now and develop the technology for raising farm productivity. We have to develop cereal cultivars with higher yield potential and greater yield stability. We must also develop strategies for integrated nutrient management, integrated pest management, and efficient utilization of water and soil resources.', 'en_US'),
(564, 'Biotechnology: enhancing human nutrition in developing and developed worlds', 'While the last 50 years of agriculture have focused on meeting the food, feed, and fiber needs of humans, the challenges for the next 50 years go far beyond simply addressing the needs of an ever-growing global population. In addition to producing more food, agriculture will have to deal with declining resources like water and arable land, need to enhance nutrient density of crops, and achieve these and other goals in a way that does not degrade the environment. Biotechnology and other emerging life sciences technologies offer valuable tools to help meet these multidimensional challenges. This paper explores the possibilities afforded through biotechnology in providing improved agronomic ''input'' traits, differentiated crops that impart more desirable ''output'' traits, and using plants as green factories to fortify foods with valuable nutrients naturally rather than externally during food processing. The concept of leveraging agriculture as green factories is expected to have tremendous positive implications for harnessing solar energy to meet fiber and fuel needs as well. Widespread adaptation of biotech-derived products of agriculture should lay the foundation for transformation of our society from a production-driven system to a quality and utility-enhanced system.', 'en_US'),
(565, 'The importance of ag-biotech to global prosperity', '''In my beginning is my end, '' wrote T. S. Eliot, and as we begin this conference, we should be very clear about it''s ending. What will be the result? After the papers, panels, and posters, what will we walk away with? I hope we will walk away with greater courage to face the challenges posed by biotechnology and with a renewed investment in ideas that breach the borders between science, technology, and applications.The world of biotechnology has always moved fast, but now it''s moving even faster. More traits are emerging; more acres than ever before are being planted with genetically improved varieties of an ever-expanding number of crops. Biotechnology companies are investing billions of dollars in consolidations to ensure access to these rapidly growing markets, all the while investing billions more in further research and development. And the public debate about the future of agricultural biotechnology is more mature as the public becomes better informed and sees more clearly the benefits of biotech. The field is energized.', 'en_US'),
(566, 'Agricultural biotechnology in developing countries : towards optimizing the benefits for the poor', NULL, 'en_US'),
(567, 'Assessing the impact of banana biotechnology in Kenya', 'Nairobi - Farmers in Kenya are doubling and even tripling their banana yields through the use of tissue-cultured banana plants. Matin Qaim, an agricultural economist at the Center for Development Research (ZEF) in Bonn, Germany, predicts significant gains in income for poverty- stricken banana farmers in his new study, ''Assessing the Impact of Banana Biotechnology in Kenya.'' This is particularly important news for Kenya''s women, who produce most of the comtry''s food, including bananas.Despite favorable conditions for growing banana, Kenya''s average yields have been a meager 14 tons per hectare -less than one-third of the crop''s potential. An international collaborative biotechnology project launched in 1996, however, is proving that Kenya, including small scale and resource poor farmers, can achieve the crop''s potential yields.Kenya''s current low production levels are caused by the repeated, regular infestation of its banana stock by damaging pests and diseases: weevils, nematodes, Panama disease, and the especially virulent black sigatoka. All of these diseases are easily spread from infected plants through normal propagation techniques, which use suckers from adult banana plants to grow new ones.By switching from suckers to tissue-cultured plantlets produced from the ''cells of healthy banana plants that are grown in vitro (i.e., in a culture dish or test tube), farmers can grow clean, pathogen-free banana plants. Coupled with the adoption of good plantation management practices to reduce the incidence of nematodes and weevils, average yields climb much higher.', 'en_US'),
(568, 'The economic effects of genetically modified orphan commodities: projections for sweet potato in Kenya', 'Biotechnology has the potential to boost global agricultural productivity in a sustainable way. The prospects are particularly bright for the developing world, where the need for new farm technologies is most pronounced. Biotechnology advances, however, are predominantly taking place in the industrialized world. The research capacity in many developing countries is limited, and so these countries will have to import biotechnology in order to be able to use it. But technological requirements differ across countries, and some fear that the needs of the South will be bypassed by biotechnological research programs that are dominated by the private sector in the North. For the so-called ''orphan commodities,'' those food crops that have minor international appeal but that are of great importance to semisubsistent farmers in developing countries, this could especially prove true. In this study, however, we examine innovative undertakings that have been jointly launched by the public and private sector to develop recombinant sweetpotato technologies for use in Africa. The economic impacts of the resulting transgenic sweetpotato varieties for Kenya are scrutinized using an ex ante analytical framework. The study seeks to improve the empirical evidence about the repercussions of biotechnology in the small-farm sector of developing countries. It also seeks to enrich the knowledge base needed for formulating policies that include the poor in the biotechnology revolution.', 'en_US'),
(569, 'Genetic resources: biotechnology and world food supply - foreword', 'In 1798, Thomas Malthus warned humankind about the dire consequences of unchecked population growth. The French mathematician Marquis de Condorcet, a contemporary of Malthus, pointed out that population will stabilise itself, if children are born for happiness and not just for mere existence. Thanks to dramatic advances in preventive and curative medicine, particularly from the end of World War II, human numbers have been increasing at a rapid rate. A billion persons are now being added to the human population every 12-13 years, a number that will require an increase in annual food grain production of 250 million tons once in every 10 years. When Malthus published his essay in 1798, the global population was 980 million. The population of India alone is now 990 million. In spite of such a rapid rise in population, food production has, on the whole,kept pace with the needs of the expanding population during recent decades. How did this happen?Four important factors have helped to keep Malthusian fears at bay: (i) rapid advances in science and technology, particularly in the area of breeding new varieties and hybrids of food crops that can respond well to irrigation water and good soil fertility; (ii) services, such as the production and distribution of good seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides, as well as the organization of efficient credit and extension services; (iii) public policies in the areas of land reform, rural infrastructure development, input and output pricing, and marketing; and (iv) the hard work of farm women and men, who have demonstrated that, whether they live in industrialized or developing countries, they will respond to technological progress and opportunities for assured and remunerative marketing.', 'en_US'),
(570, 'Contributions of in vitro biology to cassava improvement', 'Cassava (Manihot esculenta) is a tough and productive survival crop of smallholder farmers in the tropics. It is often grown where other crops fail. Research can make important contributions to food security and economic development in cassava-growing areas. This can be enhanced through in-vitro propagation methods for this crop, due to its slow vegetative propagation. For useful biotechnology innovations to reach smallholder cassava farmers, a combined effort is essential, with participation of farmers and other partners in research and development. The Cassava Biotechnology Network combines forces to mobilise biotechnology as a tool for enhancing cassava''s value for food security and as a means of access to economic development. In-vitro biology methods are essential to safe and efficient conservation and exchange of cassava diversity. Transgenic methods, now nearing the stage of first field trials, may offer a means of adding disease resistance or enhanced crop quality characteristics to existing preferred varieties.', 'en_US'),
(571, 'Why Africa needs agricultural biotech', 'There is urgent need for the development and use of agricultural biotechnology in Africa to help to counter famine, environmental degradation and poverty. Africa must enthusiastically join the biotechnology revolution.', 'en_US'),
(572, 'Recombinants of cucumber mosaic virus (CMV): determinants of host range and symptomatology', 'Mononuclear cells can be infected in vitro by hepatitis C virus and the viral RNA can be detected in mononuclear cells of chronically infected patients. It was suggested that the virus could persist in the mononuclear cells of some patients treated by interferon. The aim of this study was to follow the presence of viral RNA in the plasma and peripheral blood mononuclear cells of 16 chronically infected patients treated by alpha2b interferon for 1 year. The RNA was detected by reverse transcription followed by nested PCR and quantified using the branched DNA method at regular intervals for at least one year. Before PCR, the mononuclear cells were treated by RNase and trypsin in order to eliminate the viral particles that could be stuck at the cell surface. Six patients were non responders and had persistent plasmatic viral RNA during the treatment. Two patients were good responders and had persistantly negative PCR in both plasma and mononuclear cells. Eight patients had initial negativation of plasmatic hepatitis C virus RNA but showed a relapse characterized by positive plasmatic PCR. Positive PCR in mononuclear cells despite negativity of plasmatic PCR was noted 18 times in 8 patients. Persistently positive PCR in mononuclear cells in absence of detectable viraemia was followed by a virological relapse in 5 of these patients. This study confirms that hepatitis C virus RNA can be detected in mononuclear cells despite negative plasmatic PCR in patients treated by interferon. Moreover, the persistence of viral RNA in peripheral mononuclear cells could be a predictive factor of treatment failure. Our data also suggest that detection of viral RNA in mononuclear cells is probably not only due to passive virus adsorption from plasma.', 'en_US'),
(573, 'Biological properties of pseudorecombinant and recombinant strains created with cucumber mosaic virus and tomato aspermy virus', 'Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) and tomato aspermy virus (TAV) are closely related cucumoviruses. We have made pseudorecombinant viruses in which the RNAs 3 of these two viruses have been exchanged and recombinant viruses containing chimeric RNA 3 molecules, in which the coat proteins and the 3''-end regions of CMV and TAV have been exchanged, giving rise to recombinants designated RT3 and TR3. The replication properties and the cell-to-cell and long-distance movement patterns of these pseudorecombinant and recombinant viruses were examined in different hosts. All the viruses were able to replicate and accumulate RNA 4 in protoplasts. The pseudorecombinants and the R1R2RT3 recombinant infected tobacco systemically, but the R1R2TR3 recombinant was not detectable, even in the inoculated leaves. Comparison of the abilities of the viruses to replicate in protoplasts and intact cucumber plants suggests that cell-to-cell movement factors are also encoded by RNAs 1 and/or 2. Major determinants of symptom severity in Nicotiana glutinosa are localized on the 3'' part of RNA 3, and in Nicotiana benthamiana, more severe symptoms were observed with the T1T2R3 strain than with the others tested.', 'en_US'),
(574, 'Impact of Bt corn pollen on Monarch butterfly populations: a risk assessment', 'A collaborative research effort by scientists in several states and in Canada has produced information to develop a formal risk assessment of the impact of Bt corn on monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) populations. Information was sought on the acute toxic effects of Bt corn pollen and the degree to which monarch larvae would be exposed to toxic amounts of Bt pollen on its host plant, the common milkweed, Asclepias syriaca, found in and around cornfields. Expression of Cry proteins, the active toxicant found in Bt corn tissues, differed among hybrids, and especially so in the concentrations found in pollen of different events. In most commercial hybrids, Bt expression in pollen is low, and laboratory and field studies show no acute toxic effects at any pollen density that would be encountered in the field. Other factors mitigating exposure of larvae include the variable and limited overlap between pollen shed and larval activity periods, the fact that only a portion of the monarch population utilizes milkweed stands in and near cornfields, and the current adoption rate of Bt corn at 19% of North American corn-growing areas. This 2-year study suggests that the impact of Bt corn pollen from current commercial hybrids on monarch butterfly populations is negligible.', 'en_US'),
(575, 'Effects of exposure to event 176 Bacillus thuringiensis corn pollen on Monarch and black swallowtail caterpillars under field conditions', 'The widespread planting of corn genetically modified to produce Bacillus thuringiensis endotoxin has led to speculation that pollen from these fields might adversely affect nearby nontarget lepidopterans. A previous study of Bt corn engineered with Monsanto event 810 failed to detect an effect of pollen exposure on the black swallowtail, Papilio polyxenes, in either the field or the laboratory. Here, we report results of a field study investigating the impact of exposure to pollen from a Bt corn hybrid containing Novartis event 176 on two species of Lepidoptera, black swallowtails and monarch butterflies, Danaus plexippus. Nearly half of the 600 monarch larvae died within the first 24 h; this and subsequent mortality was not associated with proximity to Bt corn and may have been due in part to predation. Survivorship of black swallowtails was much higher than that of the monarchs and was also independent of proximity to the transgenic corn. However, despite five rainfall events that removed much of the pollen from the leaves of their host plants during the experiment, we observed a significant reduction in growth rates of black swallowtail larvae that was likely caused by pollen exposure. These results suggest that Bt corn incorporating event 176 can have adverse sublethal effects on black swallowtails in the field and underscore the importance of event selection in reducing environmental impacts of transgenic plants.', 'en_US'),
(576, 'Temporal and spatial overlap between Monarch larvae and corn pollen', 'To assess the likelihood that monarch larvae will be exposed to Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) pollen, we studied milkweed and monarch densities in habitats which comprise much of the land available to breeding monarchs, e.g., cornfields, cornfield edges, other agricultural fields, and nonagricultural areas, in four regions of the monarch breeding range. We found that monarchs use milkweed in cornfields throughout their breeding season, and that per plant densities are as high or higher in agricultural habitats as in nonagricultural habitats. As a result of the prevalence of agricultural land, most of the monarchs produced in the upper Midwest are likely to originate in cornfields or other agricultural habitats. There was a greater temporal overlap between susceptible monarchs and corn anthesis in the northern than the southern part of the summer breeding range, because of earlier pollen shed in the south. The importance of agricultural habitats to monarch production suggests that, regardless of the impact of genetically modified crops, agricultural practices such as weed control and foliar insecticide use could have large impacts on monarch populations.', 'en_US'),
(577, 'Assessing the impact of Cry1Ab - expressing corn pollen on Monarch butterfly larva in field studies', 'Survival and growth of monarch larvae, Danaus plexippus (L.), after exposure to either Cry1Ab-expressing pollen from three Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) corn (Zea mays L.) events differing in toxin expression or to the insecticide, -cyhalothrin, were examined in field studies. First instars exposed to low doses (22 grains per cm2) of event-176 pollen gained 18% less weight than those exposed to Bt11 or Mon810 pollen after a 5-day exposure period. Larvae exposed to 67 pollen grains per cm2 on milkweed leaves from within an event-176 field exhibited 60% lower survivorship and 42% less weight gain compared with those exposed to leaves from outside the field. In contrast, Bt11 pollen had no effect on growth to adulthood or survival of first or third instars exposed for 5 days to 55 and 97 pollen grains per cm2, respectively. Similarly, no differences in larval survivorship were observed after a 4-day exposure period to leaves with 504-586 (within fields) or 18-22 (outside the field) pollen grains per cm2 collected from Bt11 and non-Bt sweet-corn fields. However, survivorship and weight gain were drastically reduced in non-Bt fields treated with -cyhalothrin. The effects of Bt11 and Mon810 pollen on the survivorship of larvae feeding 14 to 22 days on milkweeds in fields were negligible. Further studies should examine the lifetime and reproductive impact of Bt11 and Mon810 pollen on monarchs after long-term exposure to naturally deposited pollen.', 'en_US'),
(578, 'Monarch larvae sensitivity to Bacillus thuringiensis - purified proteins and pollen', 'Laboratory tests were conducted to establish the relative toxicity of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxins and pollen from Bt corn to monarch larvae. Toxins tested included Cry1Ab, Cry1Ac, Cry9C, and Cry1F. Three methods were used: (i) purified toxins incorporated into artificial diet, (ii) pollen collected from Bt corn hybrids applied directly to milkweed leaf discs, and (iii) Bt pollen contaminated with corn tassel material applied directly to milkweed leaf discs. Bioassays of purified Bt toxins indicate that Cry9C and Cry1F proteins are relatively nontoxic to monarch first instars, whereas first instars are sensitive to Cry1Ab and Cry1Ac proteins. Older instars were 12 to 23 times less susceptible to Cry1Ab toxin compared with first instars. Pollen bioassays suggest that pollen contaminants, an artifact of pollen processing, can dramatically influence larval survival and weight gains and produce spurious results. The only transgenic corn pollen that consistently affected monarch larvae was from Cry1Ab event 176 hybrids, currently <2% corn planted and for which re-registration has not been applied. Results from the other types of Bt corn suggest that pollen from the Cry1Ab (events Bt11 and Mon810) and Cry1F, and experimental Cry9C hybrids, will have no acute effects on monarch butterfly larvae in field settings.', 'en_US'),
(579, 'Corn pollen deposition on milkweeds in and near cornfields', 'The density of corn pollen on leaves of milkweed plants inside and outside of cornfields was measured in several studies from different localities. The purpose was to obtain a representative picture of naturally occurring pollen densities to provide a perspective for laboratory and field studies of monarch larvae feeding on milkweed leaves with Bt corn pollen. Pollen density was highest (average 170.6 grains per cm2) inside the cornfield and was progressively lower from the field edge outward, falling to 14.2 grains per cm2 at 2 m. Inside the cornfield, and for each distance from the field edge, a frequency distribution is presented showing the proportion of leaf samples with different pollen densities. Inside cornfields, 95% of leaf samples had pollen densities below 600 grains per cm2 and the highest pollen density observed was 1400 grains per cm2, which occurred in a study with a rainless anthesis period. All other studies had rainfall events during the anthesis period. A single rain event can remove 54-86% of the pollen on leaves. Leaves on the upper portion of milkweed plants, where young monarch larvae tend to feed, had only 30-50% of the pollen density levels of middle leaves.', 'en_US'),
(580, 'Revised risks and benefits sections Bacillus thuringiensis plant-pesticides', 'A. Executive Summary EPA is currently engaged in a comprehensive reassessment of the time-limited registrations for all existing Bt corn and cotton plant-pesticides. This reassessment has been designed to assure that the decisions on the renewal of these registrations are based on the most current health and ecological data. Current registrations are set to expire September 30,200 1. As part of EPA''s reassessment, the Agency will decide whether to extend the registrations and whether to include any additional terms and conditions of such registrations for issues including insect resistance management, the protection of non-target organisms, strengthened compliance programs, and other measures necessary to ensure full public and environmental safety. Although Bt potato does not have an expiring registration, EPA has also included information on this plant-pesticide in this document.During this reassessment, EPA is conducting an open and transparent public process that incorporates sound and current science, public involvement, and balanced decision making. The major components of the process and time frames for action are as follows: Comprehensive risk and benefit assessments. This review incorporated all available scientific information on Bt products, including results of recent scientific studies and recommendations from various individuals and organizations. (Summer/Fall 2000) Completed.Scientific Peer Review and public comment. After completing our scientific risk and benefit assessment, the Agency provided the registrants of the products an opportunity to review the assessment and suggest technical corrections to the Agency. After technical corrections were made, EPA released the risk and benefit assessments and invited public comment and scientific peer review. That release included EPA''s regulatory assessment and the underlying data, along with registrants'' technical error correction comments and the corrective actions taken by the Agency. All of these materials were placed in the Bt crop reassessment docket. (Fall 2000) Completed.Recommendations from the Scientific Advisory Panel, National Academy of Sciences. public comments, and the Administration-wide review. Since there are many organizations providing regulatory and scientific recommendations, EPA used the time since the SAP report in March to consider and incorporate as appropriate recommendations into our revised risk and benefits assessments. This included recommendations from the public and the Scientific Advisory Panel on insect resistance management, ecological and public health aspects of our regulatory program, along with consideration of issues identified in the report released by the National Academy of Sciences titled: ''Genetically Modified Pest-Protected Plants, Science and Regulation'' and the Administration-wide review on the regulation of biotechnology products. (Fall 2000, Winter 2000/l, Spring/Summer 2001) Completed. SAP Meeting Held October l&19, and 20, 2000. SAP Report Released March 12, 2001.Revised risk assessments and proposed regulatory options. EPA has considered all of the public comments and the recommendations from the SAP in revising the risk and benefits assessments, and in developing elements to be included in risk mitigation and the potential options for regulatory decisions. EPA will hold a technical briefing to describe the revised scientific reassessment and take comments on potential regulatory options. (Summer 2001) Ongoing.Final decisions on Bt registrations. This will complete the scientific and public process. EPA will continue to take public comments for 45 days from the publication of the technical briefing Federal Register Notice before announcing any registration decisions for future growing seasons on or before September 30,200 1. Summer/Fall 2001 The complete reassessment document is fashioned after the Agency''s traditional Reregistration Eligibility Document (RED). This format was selected to present the data and findings in a format that is familiar to the registrants, the users and the general public. The Bt Plant-Pesticides Biopesticides Registration Action Document (BRAD) Revised Risk and Benefits Sections document has five major sections: 1. Product Characterization 2. Human Health Assessment 3. Ecological Assessment 4. Insect Resistance Management 5. Benefits.The Executive Summary includes one additional section, Other Considerations. A Risk Mitigation and Regulatory Decision section is currently being developed. A risk mitigation and regulatory decisions section will be added when the final decisions are made.', 'en_US'),
(581, 'A prospective evaluation of biotechnology in semi-subsistence agriculture', 'The paper analyses ex ante the economic implications of transgenic virus- and weevil-resistant sweet potatoes in Kenya. These technologies are being developed within international projects, involving public and private organisations. It is expected that the resistant varieties will significantly reduce the crop losses in farmers'' fields. Model calculations show that both innovations are likely to bring about substantial growth in economic surplus. The projected annual gross benefit is 5.4 mUS$ (million US$) for virus resistance and 9.9 mUS$ for weevil resistance. Due to the semi-subsistence nature of sweet potato, the producing households will be the main beneficiaries. However, market consumers will also capture about one-fourth of the aggregate welfare gains. The high profitability of the projects is confirmed by significantly positive returns on research investments. The examples demonstrate the viability of successful research partnerships between the public and private sectors. As most of the basic biotechnology tools available to date are patented by private companies in the North, which often do not have sufficient market incentives to develop end-technologies for the South, more interactions of this kind are required from a development policy perspective. Working with typical semi-subsistence crops is particularly appealing because it immediately targets the poor and avoids conflicts with the private sector''s commercial interests.', 'en_US'),
(582, 'Gene technology and future foods', 'Molecular biology is revolutionizing biology. agriculture and medicine. It is now possible to isolate and sequence the basic genetic material (DNA) from any organism and techniques have been developed to copy and ''cut and paste'' DNA molecules to produce new combinations. This has led to the development of genetically modified (GM) plants by the targeted introduction of a small number of well-defined genes directly into the cells of an existing plant variety to improve its quality or performance. Early efforts concentrated on major field crops. such as corn, soybeans and canola. Products from these plants, such as oil and flour, are components of many processed foods, so the rapid adoption of GM commodity crops in the United States has led to widespread appearance of GM plant material in foods. The initial traits targeted, such as herbicide tolerance and pest resistance. provide improved production efficiency with benefits for agrochemical and seed producers, farmers and the environment. but little obvious benefit to consumers. The second generation of GM plants will provide consumer benefits and will extend beyond bulk commodity crops. Genetically modified plants with improved flavour, nutritional composition and shelf life are currently being developed in a range of grains, fruits and vegetables. Genetically modified plants pose no risks for human health beyond those that we readily accept in other foods. In most developed countries. GM plants undergo thorough testing and evaluation, well beyond that required for a conventionally bred new variety, and this should ensure that the current high safety and quality of foods is maintained.', 'en_US'),
(583, 'Regulation and exploitation of genetically modified crops.', 'Plants may serve as new hosts for the production of recombinant nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals. Nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals can be distinguished at best on the basis of their aim. Nutraceuticals on the one hand aim to maintain the health situation of principally healthy humans or animals. They are single compounds that are naturally present in, or (purified) added to foods for daily consumption. Such foods are called ''functional foods'' (and in the case of animal application: ''functional feed''). They can be supplied with a health claim. Pharmaceuticals on the other hand aim to cure (human, animal) patients, to mitigate, or to serve in diagnostics. They are purified, well defined medicinal and/or therapeutic preparations that have passed the clinical tests and that are supplied with a medicinal claim. Plants, transgenically producing nutraceuticals or pharmaceuticals, should meet the general requirements for genetically modified organisms, and, additionally, the specific requirements related to the production of the specific medicinal or health compounds. To guarantee safety, to proper regulate the production processes, and for the sake of consumers trust, in the EU and USA, an extensive variety of (often regionspecific) guidelines and regulations encircle both categories of activities, the GM technology, and the production of health foods and medicinal articles: For the cultivation, import, marketing and animal feeding of a genetically modified crop approval must be sought from the EU. A distinction is made by Dutch legislation between the in-doors- and out-doors- cultivation of genetically modified plants. The in-doors cultivation, will require a less elaborate risk assessment than the out-doors cultivation. Production of pharmaceuticals and nutraceuticals in GMOs in greenhouses is bound by special rules related to the transgenic status of the plants and should occur according to the guidelines for ''good agricultural practice'' (GAP). GAP guidelines apply to the production of all plant materials used in the food, feed , medicinal , flavoring and perfume industries. GAP conditions must also be met concerning processing of the harvested transgenic plant material. The type of greenhouse (PK-I, PK-II or PK-III) that needs to be used depends on the the specific case and is related to the characteristics of the inserted gene, the biological and agronomic characteristics, and the treatments of the crop plant involved. Food applications include whole foods and food ingredients on one side and food additives on the other side. Both categories are differently regulated. In the EU, genetically modified organisms are regulated as a specific category for use as novel foods or novel- food ingredients but not for use as food additives, colourants, or flavourings.', 'en_US'),
(584, 'Biotechnology and development: a balance between IPR protection and benefit-sharing', NULL, 'en_US'),
(585, 'Efficacy of seed mixes of transgenic Bt and nontransgenic cotton against bollworm, Helicoverpa zea Boddie', 'The 1996 advent of Monsanto''s transgenic Bt cotton, commercially available as ''NuCOTN'' with the Bollgard Bt gene, provided growers with a new tool for controlling caterpillar pests in cotton. A delta-endotoxin protein (Cry1Ac) from Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner var. kurstaki (Bt) expressed in these transgenic cotton plants is toxic to many lepidopteran larval pests of cotton. Monsanto initially claimed that Bollgard cotton would meet the needs of a high-dose resistance-management strategy by providing an adequately high toxin concentration. Studies confirmed the high-dose toxin level for tobacco budworm, Heliothis virescens F.; however, bollworm, Helicoverpa zea Boddie, was observed to be much less susceptible than tobacco budworm to the Cry1Ac endotoxin. Because a proportion of bollworm larvae were found to survive on Bollgard cotton, the prospect for rapid development of bollworm resistance to Cry1Ac was a general concern. Therefore, development of deployment strategies was necessary to delay resistance.', 'en_US'),
(586, 'Effects of ingestion of a Bacillus thuringiensis toxin and a trypsin inhibitor on honey bee flight activity and longevity', 'To assess potential impacts of transgenic pest-resistant plants, newly-emerged adult honey bees from ten colonies were tagged, placed in cages at 33 oC, and fed with 625 ìg/g Cry1Ba Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxin or 2.5 mg/g aprotinin proteinase inhibitor in pollen-food (equivalent to 0.25% or 1% of total soluble protein). Control bees were given similar food without additive. All foods were consumed at similar rates. After seven days, all bees were returned to their hives. Subsequent observations showed that Cry1Ba-fed bees did not differ significantly from control bees in the timing of their first flight, the period during which flights took place or in estimated longevity. However, aprotinin-fed bees began to fly and also died about three days sooner than Cry1Ba-fed or control bees. Their flight periods were similar to those of the other bees. The effects of transgenic aprotinin-plants on honey bees will thus depend on gene expression levels in pollen.', 'en_US'),
(587, 'Validation of biopharmaceutical purification processes for virus clearance evaluation', 'Any biopharmaceutical product that has involved the use of animal-derived material during the manufacturing process has the potential to be contaminated with animal viruses. To ensure safety of these products, extensive testing is performed on the starting materials, such as the cell banks, and on the raw materials used in manufacture. Additional testing is also performed at various stages of production and, in some cases, on the final product as well. Because of inherent limitations in direct testing methods, the capacity of the downstream purification process to remove/inactivate potential viral contaminants is also studied to give an extra degree of assurance that the final product will be free of infectious viruses.', 'en_US'),
(588, 'Experience with environmental issues in GM crop production and the likely future scenarios', 'In the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, standards for risk assessment of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) have been set. The criteria and information basis for the risk assessment of GMOs have been modified by the EU Directive 2001/18/EC. Various approaches to further improve the criteria for environmental risk assessment of GMOs are described in this study. Reports on the ecological impacts of the cultivation of certain non-transgenic crop plants with novel or improved traits as analogy models to transgenic plants showed that the effects of agricultural practice can be at least equally important as the effects of gene transfer and invasiveness, although the latter currently play a major role in risk assessment of transgenic crops. Based on these results the applicability of the methodology of ''Life Cycle Analysis (LCA)'' for genetically modified plants in comparison with conventionally bred and organically grown crop plants was evaluated. The methodology was regarded as applicable with some necessary future improvements. In current projects, the assessment of toxicology and allergenicity of GM crops are analysed, and suggestions for standardization are developed. Based on results and recommendations from these efforts there are still the challenges of how to operationalize the precautionary principle and how to take into account ecologically sensitive ecosystems, including centres of origin and centres of genetic diversity', 'en_US'),
(589, 'Biosafety in the international context--the Cartagena protocol', NULL, 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(590, 'Effects of T4 lysozyme release from transgenic potato roots on bacterial rhizosphere communities are negligible relative to natural factors', 'Rhizosphere bacterial communities of two transgenic potato lines which produce T4 lysozyme for protection against bacterial infections were analyzed in comparison to communities of wild-type plants and transgenic controls not harboring the lysozyme gene. Rhizosphere samples were taken from young, flowering, and senescent plants at two field sites in three consecutive years. The communities were characterized in a polyphasic approach. Cultivation-dependent methods included heterotrophic plate counts, determination of species composition and diversity based on fatty acid analysis of isolates, and community level catabolic profiling. Cultivation-independent analyses were based on denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) of 16S rRNA gene fragments amplified from rhizosphere DNA using primers specific for Bacteria, Actinomycetales, or - or ß-Proteobacteria. Several bands of the DGGE patterns were further characterized by sequence analysis. All methods revealed that environmental factors related to season, field site, or year but not to the T4 lysozyme expression of the transgenic plants influenced the rhizosphere communities. For one of the T4 lysozyme-producing cultivars, no deviation in the rhizosphere communities compared to the control lines was observed. For the other, differences were detected at some of the samplings between the rhizosphere community structure and those of one or all other cultivars which were not attributable to T4 lysozyme production but most likely to differences observed in the growth characteristics of this cultivar.', 'en_US'),
(591, 'Heterologous movement protein strongly modifies the infection phenotype of cucumber mosaic virus', 'A hybrid virus (CMVcymMP) constructed by replacing the movement protein (MP) of cucumber mosaic cucumovirus (CMV) with that of cymbidium ringspot tombusvirus (CymRSV) was viable and could efficiently spread both cell to cell and long distance in host plants. The hybrid virus was able to move cell to cell in the absence of functional CP, whereas CP-deficient CMV was restricted to single inoculated cells. In several Chenopodium and Nicotiana species, the symptom phenotype of the hybrid virus infection was clearly determined by the foreign MP gene. In Nicotiana debneyi and Nicotiana tabacum cv. Xanthi, the hybrid virus could move systemically, contrary to CymRSV.', 'en_US'),
(592, 'Applications of quantitative PCR in the biosafety and genetic stability assessment of biotechnology products', 'High throughput screening, increased accuracy and the coupling of real-time quantitative PCR (Q-PCR) to robotic set-up systems are beginning to revolutionise biotechnology. Applications of Q-PCR within biotechnology are discussed with particular emphasis on the following areas of biosafety and genetic stability testing: (a) determination of the biodistribution of gene therapy vectors in animals; (b) quantification of the residual DNA in final product therapeutics; (c) detection of viral and bacterial nucleic acid in contaminated cell banks and final products; (d) quantification of the level of virus removal in process validation viral clearance studies; (e) specific detection of retroviral RT activity in vaccines with high sensitivity; and (f) transgene copy number determination for monitoring genetic stability during production. Methods employed for Q-PCR assay validation as required in ICH Topic Q2A Validation of Analytical Methods: Definitions and Terminology (1st June 1995) are also reviewed.', 'en_US'),
(593, 'Genetic differentiation between sympatric populations of Bacillus cereus and Bacillus thuringiensis', 'Little is known about genetic exchanges in natural populations of bacteria of the spore-forming Bacillus cereus group, because no population genetics studies have been performed with local sympatric populations. We isolated strains of Bacillus thuringiensis and B. cereus from small samples of soil collected at the same time from two separate geographical sites, one within the forest and the other at the edge of the forest. A total of 100 B. cereus and 98 B. thuringiensis strains were isolated and characterized by electrophoresis to determine allelic composition at nine enzymatic loci. We observed genetic differentiation between populations of B. cereus and B. thuringiensis. Populations of a given Bacillus species-B. thuringiensis or B. cereus-were genetically more similar to each other than to populations of the other Bacillus species. Hemolytic activity provided further evidence of this genetic divergence, which remained evident even if putative clones were removed from the data set. Our results suggest that the rate of gene flow was higher between strains of the same species, but that exchanges between B. cereus and B. thuringiensis were nonetheless possible. Linkage disequilibrium analysis revealed sufficient recombination for B. cereus populations to be considered panmictic units. In B. thuringiensis, the balance between clonal proliferation and recombination seemed to depend on location. Overall, our data indicate that it is not important for risk assessment purposes to determine whether B. cereus and B. thuringiensis belong to a single or two species. Assessment of the biosafety of pest control based on B. thuringiensis requires evaluation of the extent of genetic exchange between strains in realistic natural conditions.', 'en_US'),
(594, 'Influence of the production of antibacterial and antifungal proteins by transgenic plants on the saprophytic soil microflora', 'To obtain durable and broad-spectrum resistance against plant pathogens, plants are transformed with genes coding for antimicrobial proteins from plant, animal or microbial origin. An obvious concern is that increased levels of these antimicrobial compounds affect not only the target pathogen, but also beneficial micro-organisms such as mycorrhizae. rhizobia and other micro-organisms involved in plant health, litter decomposition and nutrient cycling. This literature study focuses on effects of these transgenic plants on the non-target saprophytic soil microflora. Transgenic plants that constitutively express proteins with potential antifungal and/or antibacterial activity, can reduce activities of specific soil-borne plant pathogens in the rhizosphere. Reports on non-target effects on the saprophytic soil microflora are scarce and incomplete. and mainly focused on mycorrhizal symbiosis. Constitutive expression of antifungal pathogenesis-related proteins in tobacco in most cases did not affect root colonization by the mycorrhizal fungus Glomus mosseae. However, increased levels of a class II tobacco p-1,3-glucanase reduced the colonization potential, indicating that non-target effects can occur. Concerning other members of the plant-beneficial rhizosphere microflora, it can be assumed that they will come into contact with the transgenic product. By natural wounding, senescence and sloughing-off of root cells, at least some of the antimicrobial protein(s) will be released in the rhizosphere. Despite proteolytic activity of the rbizosphere microflora, part of the protein can remain active due to protective adsorption to clay minerals or humic components.', 'en_US'),
(595, 'Assessment of the food safety issues related to genetically modified foods.', 'International consensus has been reached on the principles regarding evaluation of the food safety of genetically modified plants. The concept of substantial equivalence has been developed as part of a safety evaluation framework, based on the idea that existing foods can serve as a basis for comparing the properties of genetically modified foods with the appropriate counterpart. Application of the concept is not a safety assessment per se, but helps to identify similarities and differences between the existing food and the new product, which are then subject to further toxicological investigation. Substantial equivalence is a starting point in the safety evaluation, rather than an endpoint of the assessment. Consensus on practical application of the principle should be further elaborated. Experiences with the safety testing of newly inserted proteins and of whole genetically modified foods are reviewed, and limitations of current test methodologies are discussed. The development and validation of new profiling methods such as DNA microarray technology, proteomics, and metabolomics for the identification and characterization of unintended effects, which may occur as a result of the genetic modification, is recommended. The assessment of the allergenicity of newly inserted proteins and of marker genes is discussed. An issue that will gain importance in the near future is that of post-marketing surveillance of the foods derived from genetically modified crops. It is concluded, among others that, that application of the principle of substantial equivalence has proven adequate, and that no alternative adequate safety assessment strategies are available', 'en_US'),
(596, 'Health and safety issues pertaining to genetically modified foods', 'Genetic modification involves the insertion of genes from other organisms (within or between species) into host cells to select for desirable qualities. Potential benefits of GM foods include increased nutritional value; reduced allergenicity; pest and disease-resistance; and enhanced processing value. Possible detrimental outcomes include producing foods with novel toxins, allergens or reduced nutritional value, and development of antibiotic resistance or herbicide-resistant weeds. Benefits to individuals or populations need to be weighed against adverse health and environmental risks, and may differ between developing and Westernised countries. Whether testing and monitoring should exceed requirements for conventional foods is under debate. While not necessarily scientifically justifiable, consumer concerns have resulted in Australian and New Zealand requirements to label foods containing GM-produced proteins. Dissatisfied consumer advocacy groups are calling for all foods involving GM technology to be labelled, irrelevant of whether the final product contains novel protein. Goals to improve the quantity, quality and safety of foods are laudable; however, the primary aim of the bio-food industry is financial gain. GM foods may be as safe as conventional foods but public distrust runs high. It is important that discussion is informed by science and that claims of both benefits and risks are evidence-based, to ensure that the process is driven neither by the vested interest of the bio-technical multinational companies on the one hand, nor ill-informed public fears on the other', 'en_US'),
(597, 'Will genetically modified foods be allergenic?', 'Foods produced through agricultural biotechnology, including such staples as corn, soybeans, canola, and potatoes, are already reaching the consumer marketplace. Agricultural biotechnology offers the promise to produce crops with improved agronomic characteristics (eg, insect resistance, herbicide tolerance, disease resistance, and climatic tolerance) and enhanced consumer benefits (eg, better taste and texture, longer shelf life, and more nutritious). Certainly, the products of agricultural biotechnology should be subjected to a careful and complete safety assessment before commercialization. Because the genetic modification ultimately results in the introduction of new proteins into the food plant, the safety, including the potential allergenicity, of the newly introduced proteins must be assessed. Although most allergens are proteins, only a few of the many proteins found in foods are allergenic under the typical circumstances of exposure. The potential allergenicity of the introduced proteins can be evaluated by focusing on the source of the gene, the sequence homology of the newly introduced protein to known allergens, the expression level of the novel protein in the modified crop, the functional classification of the novel protein, the reactivity of the novel protein with IgE from the serum of individuals with known allergies to the source of the transferred genetic material, and various physicochemical properties of the newly introduced protein, such as heat stability and digestive stability. Few products of agricultural biotechnology (and none of the current products) will involve the transfer of genes from known allergenic sources. Applying such criteria provides reasonable assurance that the newly introduced protein has limited capability to become an allergen', 'en_US'),
(598, 'Safety evaluation of genetically modified foods', 'The concept of substantial equivalence has been accepted as the cornerstone of the health hazard assessment of genetically modified (GM) foods (OECD 1993). Substantial equivalence is the most practical approach to address the safety of foods or food components derived from GM crops and is based on comparison of the phenotypic and compositional characteristics of the parent crop and the GM crop. Basically, three categories of GM crops can be considered (FAO/WHO 1996; EU 1997): (a) GM crops which have the same composition as the parent crop, (b) GM crops which have the same composition as the parent crop with the exception of a well-defined trait, and (c) GM crops which are different from the parent crop. For the safety assessment of the first category of GM foods only a molecular characterisation of the genetic insert is sufficient, whereas for the second category a safety assessment of the expressed protein(s) is also required. For the last category an extensive evaluation including bioavailability and wholesomeness studies are required, beside the molecular characterisation and safety assessment of the expressed protein(s) and their products. By molecular characterisation is meant the position, nature, stability and number of copies of the inserted DNA. Substantial equivalence is established by the determination of the phenotypic characteristics (e.g. resistance against diseases, agronomic properties) and the complete chemical composition of the plant including nutrients, toxicants, antinutrients, and allergens. The toxicity of the expressed protein(s) is assessed by their homology with known protein toxins, degradation in the gastro-intestinal tract, stability to food processing and acute toxicity in rodents. The possible allergenicity of the expressed proteins is evaluated by comparison of their amino acid sequence with that of known allergens and determination of their stability to digestion and food processing. If the source of the genetic insert is allergenic then the use of solid-state immunoassays, skin prick tests and even food challenge tests can be considered', 'en_US'),
(599, 'Assessment of allergic potential of (novel) foods', 'In safety assessment of novel foods such as functional foods, allergy is a special issue on which particular emphasis has been placed. The reason for such concern is that incidence of food allergies is constantly and rapidly increasing. The severity of the reported incidents and the number of foods incriminated are also on the rise. The outstanding challenge is to understand what makes a common innocuous protein or peptide behave as an allergen for some groups of people, or why it may suddenly or progressively become a much more potent allergen than usual. It is therefore necessary to consider the risks of creating or unmasking new immunoreactive structures, or of overexposure to already reactive substances, as a result of new food-production and processing technologies. No test such as the use of animal models, the analysis of structure, function and physico-chemical properties is as yet available to evaluate or predict the allergenicity of a ''novel'' protein in a wholly reliable and objective manner. No indication has yet suggested that novel foods, and particularly recombinant proteins or genetically modified foods, would be more (or less) allergenic than the corresponding conventional foods. No particular structure can be described as being solely and intrinsically allergenic. The predictive approaches to determining the allergenic potential of NFs should therefore be subject to case-by-case critical appraisal allied to mandatory implementation of monitoring of the potential postmarketing impact of these new foodstuffs on public health', 'en_US'),
(600, 'The use of amino acid sequence alignments to assess potential allergenicity of proteins used in genetically modified foods', NULL, 'en_US'),
(601, 'Development and deployment of transgenic plants: Biosafety considerations', 'Recombinant DNA technology has great potential to enhance and extend the advantages of conventional plant breeding, and increase the production and productivity of crops to meet the increasing demand for food and food products in the future. Judicious application of this technology provides opportunities for alleviating some of the major constraints to crop productivity under subsistence farming conditions in the developing countries. Considerable progress has been made in developing strategies for the production and deployment of transgenic crops. However, biosafety concerns have been raised regarding the deployment and release of genetically engineered plants. This debate has divided the farming and consumer communities over acceptability of genetically modified foods. There is a need for a thorough investigation regarding the fate of transgenic plants in the environment, and their interaction with wild relatives and non-target organisms. The production and release of transgenic plants should be based on experience and sound scientific reasoning. The regulatory requirements for deployment of transgenic crops should be streamlined and harmonized, in order to achieve sustainable food production, poverty reduction, and environmental protection in resource-poor countries in the semi-arid tropics.', 'en_US'),
(602, 'Biosafety in agricultural biotechnology: balancing social and environmental impacts', NULL, 'en_US'),
(603, 'The Cartagena (Biosafety) Protocol', NULL, 'en_US'),
(604, 'Engineering the provitamin A (b-Carotene) biosynthetic pathway into (carotenoid-free) rice endosperm', 'Rice (Oryza sativa), a major staple food, is usually milled to remove the oil-rich aleurone layer that turns rancid upon storage, especially in tropical areas.  The remaining edible part of rice grains, the endosperm, lacks several essential nutrients, such as provitamin A.  Thus, predominant rice consumption promotes vitamin A deficiency, a serious public health problem in at least 26 countries, including highly populated areas of Asia, Africa and Latin America.  Recombinant DNA technology was used to improve its nutritional value in this respect.  A combination of transgenes enabled biosynthesis of provitamin A in the endosperm.', 'en_US'),
(605, 'The green revolution strikes gold', 'Engineering plants to improve their nutritional value would be of great benefit to developing countries. As Guerinot explains in a Perspective, half of the world''s population consume rice as a staple food, yet rice is devoid of many essential nutrients such as vitamin A and iron. Now Ye et al. report that they have successfully engineered rice plants to produce b-carotene (from which vitamin A is made) in the endosperm of the rice grain. As soon as true-breeding lines of this engineered rice are established, seeds will be freely available to farmers in developing countries. This should help to ameliorate vitamin A deficiency, which is widespread in poor parts of the world. ', 'en_US'),
(606, 'A note on the relationship between outcrossing rate and gene flow in plants', 'The relationship between outcrossing rates, t, and the gene flow parameter, Nm, was studies in 32 species of plants.  As expected,  a significant positive relationship was found between these variables.  The low coefficient of determination, however, suggested that outcrossing rate may underestimate gene flow levels in plant populations.', 'en_US'),
(607, 'Variation in gene flow levels among predominantly self-pollinated plants', 'Levels of gene flow, Nm, were calculated for 34 predominantly self-pollinated plants, using information on differentiation among populations, Gst.  Gene flow levels varied from 0.01 to 6.55, and departed significantly from a uniform distribution.  High, medium and low levels of gene flow were found among 15, 38, and 47 percent of the species, respectively.  The average heterozygosity (H)  and the Nm values showed a positively significant association.  These results were compared to gene flow levels obtained with a limited number of predominantly outcrossed plants.  Gene flow levels in several self-pollinated species were comparable to those characteristic of some outcrossed species.  Pollen flow, combined with long distance dispersal of propagules through various vectors may be responsible for the high levels of gene flow observed in self-pollinated species.  High gene flow may provide the genetic flexibility required for successful colonization, which is an essential feature of self-pollinated plants.', 'en_US'),
(608, 'Novel food products from genetically modified crop plants: methods and future prospects', 'Using a variety of in vitro techniques, it is now possible to isolate a selected gene sequence from any source and introduce it into any major crop plant.  Millions of hectares of such genetically modified (GM) or transgenic plants are already being grown commercially, mostly in North America.  To date, the most widely grown GM crops (soybean and maize) are those with modified agronomic traits (herbicide or insect tolerance); the products from these commodity crops are now included in a wide range of processed foods.  This review describes the methods used to generate these GM crops and then discusses the range of modified food products that can be generated using this new technology.  Such products include those with altered protein, starch or oil quality, as well as examples of improved micronutrient or vitamin content.  Much of this work, particularly that aiming to develop food with specific health benefits, is still at the experimental stage, but there is no doubt that many GM foodstuffs, with an increasing variety of qualitative changes, will reach the market in the coming years.  The rate at which such products are developed commercially depends to a large extent on the public reaction to a technology still poorly understood by most consumers.', 'en_US'),
(609, 'Biodiversity conservation and use: local and global considerations', 'Leading sustainable development discourses construct biodiversity as a global resource intended to fit into intellectual property systems and world markets.  Large biomedical and agricultural research ventures claim a central role in advancing worldwide development and valuing biodiversity.  Intellectual property rights over life forms and processes spread as the mechanism to support such large biotechnological endeavours, which promise agricultural and medical development for all humankind.  However, field research in the Andes and Amazonia discloses that biodiversity is a crucial local process, rather than a global resource.  Local ecological practices construct collective biodiversity flows that care for food security, health care, and ecosystem resilience alike.  By constructing biodiversity as a global resource predetermined to both markets and intellectual property systems, the global developmentalism neglects and therefore undermines important local regimes of biodiversity.  Many native ecosystems that fulfill a crucial role as spaces of contextualised management and research on biodiversity are just regarded as biodiversity marketplaces.  This paper questions the ability of global intellectual property rights over life forms to improve the livelihood and development of the powerless indigenous and peasant people.  Instead, the cross-cultural expansion of the public domain over biodiversity flows and biotechnological processes seems a critical task.', 'en_US'),
(610, 'Sharing the benefits of biodiversity: access regimes and intellectual property rights', 'Two types of legal regime have emerged to regulate the allocative aspects of the trade in biogenetic resources and products derived from them.  These are access and benefit sharing laws and intellectual property rights IPRs).  This paper describes both, but IPRs are emphasized because: (1) the acquisition by firms of patent and plant variety right portfolios appears to influence the unequal allocations of benefits obtained from industrial use of biogenetic resources; (2) the number of countries allowing strong IPR protection for life-science products and technologies is increasing rapidly.  The effect may be to reinforce this asymmetry of benefit allocations; (3) patents and plant breeders'' rights have been accused of encouraging biodiversity-erosive breeding and cultivation practices; and (4) just as inappropriate IPRs may harm the interests of developing countries, well-designed IPR systems could conceivably be highly beneficial, helping such countries to add value to their biogenetic wealth.  Unfourtunately, the global IPR system has become increasingly inflexible in recent years, reducing such opportunities for developing countries.', 'en_US'),
(611, 'Transgenic virus resistant potatoes in Mexico: potential socioeconomic implications of North-South biotechnology transfer', 'Despite the rapid international development of biotechnology, we still lack knowledge and information about how low- and middle-income countries can best access this promising technology.  Nor are the socio-economic repercussions of applying biotechnology in these countries'' agricultural sectors well understood.  this study seeks to fill in some of the gaps in our knowledge by analyzing a biotechnology transfer project that provided proprietary recombinant potato technology to Mexico.', 'en_US'),
(612, 'Evolutionary aspects of recombination in RNA viruses', 'Two distinct but not mutually exclusive types of genetic exchange operate in RNA viruses.  The first, reassortment, occurs only in multipartite viruses and involves swapping one or more of the discrete RNA molecules that make up the segmented viral genome.  Antigenic shift in influenza A virus is an example of this sort of genetic exchange and serves as a good illustration of the potential evolutionary significance of such events.  A second process, recombination, can occur in either segmented or unsegmented viruses when ''donor'' nucleotide sequence is introduced into a single, contiguous ''acceptor'' RNA molecule to produce a new RNA containing genetic information from more than one source.  In this paper we focus on this type of  genetic exchange.  First, we briefly review current knowledge of RNA virus recombination and describe new methods for detecting its occurrence using gene sequence data.  We then discuss some of the constraints that may shape the variety of RNA virus recombination.', 'en_US'),
(613, 'Recombination in RNA viruses and in virus-resistant transgenic plants', 'Recombination in RNA viruses is a general phenomenon, and is considered to play a major role as a driving force in virus variability and thus in virus evolution.  An ever increasing number of RNA viruses have been shown to undergo RNA recombination, whether under natural or experimental conditions.  More than 30 years after its discovery, the mechanisms of viral RNA recombination are only now beginning to be elucidated.  Recent reports strongly suggest that RNA recombination is linked to virus replication, and that it occurs by a copy-choice mechanism.  The detection of recombination between host transcripts and infecting viral RNA genomes has given rise to new concerns about the release of virus-resistant transgenic crops, since recombination could generate viruses with properties different from the infecting strain.  We will describe here current knowledge of recombination in RNA viruses, and then will present results showing recombination in transgenic virus-infected plants, and finally will discuss to what extent this may lead to increased variability in plant RNA viruses.', 'en_US'),
(614, 'Insecticidal activity and biodegredation of the toxin from Bacillus thuringiensis ssp. kurstaki bound to humic acids from soil', 'The equilibrium absorption and binding of the active toxin from B. thuringiensis, toxic to lepidopteran larvae, to humic acids extracted from two forest and two cultivar soils, as well as the insecticidal activity and the biodegradation of the bound toxin, were studied.  The results of these studies indicate that the toxins from B. thuringiensis introduced in transgenic plants and microbes could persist, accumulate, and remain insecticidal in soil as a result of binding to humic acids, as well as on clays.  This persistence could pose a hazard to non-target organisms and enhance the selection of toxin-resistant target species.', 'en_US'),
(615, 'Effects of Bacillus thuringiensis toxins in transgenic cotton and potato on Folsomia candida (Collembola: Isotomidae) and Oppia nitens (Acari: Orbatidae)', 'Methods are reported for testing the effects of toxins or small molecules [B. thuringiensis var. kurstaki d-endotoxins HD-1 CryIA(b) and HD-73 CryIA(c)] in plants (cotton and potato) on 2 nontarget soil arthropods, a collembolan,  F. candida Willem, and an orbatid mite, O. nitens Koch.  Time to oviposition, egg production, and final body length were unaffected when F. candida were fed residues of transgenic cotton lines #81 or #249.  Total production of O. nitens adults and nymphs was unaffected by feeding on leaves of both transgenic cotton lines.  With B. thuringiensis ssp. tenebrionis CryIIIA in potato, no differences were seen in the three indices for  F. candida.  Overall, transgenic toxin sources had no negative effects, but similar tests with cadmium as a positive control showed a concentration-rate response of decreased reproduction.', 'en_US'),
(616, 'Herbicide resistance in transgenic plants expressing a bacterial detoxification gene', 'The herbicide bromoxynil (3,5-dibromo-4-hydroxybenzonitrile) is a photosynthetic (photosystem II) inhibitor in plants.  A gene, bxn, encoding a specific nitrilase that converts bromoxynil to its primary metabolite 3,5-dibromo-4-hydroxybenzoic acid, was cloned from the natural soil bacterium Klebsiella ozaenae.  For expression in plants, the bxn gene was placed under control of a light-regulated tissue-specific promoter, the ribulose biophosphate carboxylase small subunit.  Transfer of this chimeric gene and expression of a bromoxynil-specific nitrilase in leaves of transgenic tobacco plants conferred resistance to high levels of a commercial formulation of bromoxynil.  The results presented indicate a successful approach to obtain herbicide resistance by introducing a novel catabolic detoxification gene in plants.', 'en_US'),
(617, 'The planned introduction of genetically engineered organisms: ecological considerations and recommendations', 'The ecological and evolutionary aspects of planned introductions of transgenic organisms into the environment are considered in this report.  The authors support the timely development of environmentally sound products, such as improved agricultural varieties, fertilizers, pest control agents, and microorganisms for waste treatment, through the use of advanced biotechnology within the context of a scientifically based regulatory policy that encourages innovation without compromising sound environmental management.  Economic, social, and ethical concerns also must be weighed along with strictly ecological and evolutionary considerations, but these other issues are beyond the scope of this report.', 'en_US'),
(618, '''Phytoantibodies'': a general vector for the expression of immunoglobin domains in transgenic plants', 'Sequences encoding the immunoglobulin heavy-chain variable (VH) domains were engineered in a new general purpose vector to transform plants via Agrobacterium.  The expression of an isolated VH domain (IVD) after introduction into the plant genome has been monitored by northern, western and immuno-histochemical analysis.  Immunoblotting showed that the polypeptide was stably expressed and accounted for up to 1% of the soluble protein fraction.  It is therefore proposed that single immunoglobulin domains of suitable specificity expressed in plants may constitute an effective system to inhibit the activity of molecules involved in plant pathology or plant development.', 'en_US'),
(619, 'Transgenic plants with enhanced resistance to the fungal pathogen Rhizoctonia solani', 'The production of enzymes capable of degrading the cell walls of invading phytopathogenic fungi is an important component of the defense response of plants.  The timing of this natural host defense mechanism was modified to produce fungal-resistant plants.  Transgenic tobacco seedlings constitutively expressing a bean chitinase gene under control of the cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter showed an increased ability to survive in soil infested with the fungal pathogen R. solani and delayed development of disease symptoms.', 'en_US'),
(620, 'Agrobacterium and plant genetic engineering', 'More than eighty years ago now Smith and Townsend published an article in which they presented evidence that the bacterium which is now called Agrobacterium tumefaciens is the causative agent of the widespread neoplastic plant disease crown gall. Since then a large number of scientists throughout the world have focused their research on this organism in a effort to analyze the molecular mechanism underlying the process of crown gall induction in detail.  This was driven by the hope that this would lead to a better understanding of oncogenesis in general, and to the development of remedies for such diseases.  After a period of diminished interest in the system Agrobacterium and crown gall research revived when it became apparent that oncogenic gene transfer from Agrobacterium to plants might form the molecular basis  of crown gall induction, and thus the transfer system might be exploited for the genetic engineering of plants.', 'en_US'),
(621, 'Fertile, transgenic oat plants.', 'Transgenic friable, embryogenic oat callus cultures were selected for phosphinothricin (PPT) resistance following microprojectile bombardment with a plasmid encoding the Streptomyces hygroscopicus bar gene and the E. coli uidA gene.  From three microprojectile bombardment experiments, 111 PPT-resistant tissue cultures were shown to be transgenic based on Southern blot analysis.  From one to more than 20 copies of the transgenes were integrated in the genome of the PPT-resistant tissue cultures.  Coexpression of b-glucuronidase (GUS) activity due to expression of uidA was detected in 75% of the transgenic tissue cultures.  Plants were regenerated from 38 of the 111 transgenic tissue cultures.  Regenerated plants generally exhibited male sterility; however, more than 30 plants regenerated from one transgenic tissue culture were fully fertile.  GUS activity in the seed of fertile regenerated plants and PPT resistance in progeny of these plants cosegregated with bar and uidA sequences demonstrating stable inheritance of the transgenes.', 'en_US'),
(622, 'Safety evaluation of genetically engineered plants and plant products: insect-resistant cotton', 'Genetic engineering of plants has expanded dramatically since the production of the first genetically engineered plants approximately ten years ago (1). Approximately 50 different plant species have now been successfully engineered. Several other food crops are under development (Table 1). Essentially all agronomically important crops either have been engineered or are expected to be within the next few years (1). Products derived from these plants are rapidly moving toward commercial introduction, with the first product-Flavr Savr tomato (2)-potentially reaching the market within the next year. This product, which is reported to provide an extended shelf-life for fresh tomatoes, is currently under regulatory review. Many other products have been extensively field-tested and shown to provide consumer and/or agronomic value. These products include plants that are resistant to pests, including insects, viruses, and fungi; products with extended shelf-life; seed with improved oil or amino acid composition; potatoes with increased starch content; and crops tolerant to environmentally compatible herbicides (1). Plants with many other useful traits are under development. As these plants and plant products move toward commercial introduction, gaining regulatory approval becomes one of, if not the, critical step in developing these products. In the United States, genetically engineered plants and plant products could come under the statutory jurisdiction of three federal agencies: the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Food and Drug Administration 0-A).', 'en_US'),
(623, 'Phytase-containing transgenic seeds as a novel feed additive for improved phosphorus utilization.', 'Phytate is the main storage form of phosphorus in many plant seeds, but bound in this form it is a poor nutrient for monogastric animals.  Its availability can be significantly increased by the addition of the enzyme phytase, which releases phosphate from the substrate, phytate.  We have engineered a phytase from Aspergillus niger in tobacco seeds, providing a stable and convenient packaging of the enzyme that is directly applicable to animal feed.  The enzyme was expressed a 1 percent of the soluble protein in mature seeds.  In in vitro tests that simulated chicken crop and stomach conditions, release of phosphate from feed by addition of transgenic seeds was demonstrated.  supplementation of broiler diets with transgenic seeds resulted in an improved growth rate, comparable to diets supplemented with fungal phytase or phosphorus.  Addition of phytase-transgenic seeds to animal feed thus obviates the need for inorganic phosphorus supplementation, and is environmentally desirable because of the reduced excretion of phosphorus.', 'en_US'),
(624, 'Genetic engineering of potatoes', 'In contemporary crop production, as in the past, growers balance the cost of pesticide inputs to control insects and diseases with the risk of suffering severe crops losses.  Chemical companies develop new pesticides to replace chemicals to which resistance develops in insects and fungal pathogens.  However, as the cost of bringing new pesticides to market increases the number of new agricultural chemicals being registered is declining.  In addition to fewer new chemicals coming to market, many of the chemicals that have been used successfully in the past are being removed from the market for various reasons.  There is also pressure by consumers to reduce pesticide use in crop production and pressure by all concerned to minimize the amount of pesticides in our environment.  The major driving force behind the development of alternative technologies to control plant pests and diseases are: the reduced number of available pesticides, increasing concern and awareness over the short and long term effect these chemicals are having on the environment, and the cost of purchasing and applying pesticides to crops.  Information from the Agricultural Chemical Usage Summary provides information on the quantity of chemicals used to control insects and diseases on potato in 1992.  The objective of this paper is to outline some of the progress that has been made towards engineering resistance to viral,  bacterial and fungal pathogens and major insect and nematode pests of potatoes.  The topic of genetic engineering for control of plant diseases has been reviewed recently.', 'en_US'),
(625, 'Adsorption and binding of the insecticidal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis ssp kurstaki and tenebrionis on clay minerals', 'The release of organisms that have been genetically modified to contain the genes that code for the insecticidal toxins of subspecies of B. thuringiensis may have adverse effects on the environment.  To evaluate such potential effect, the adsorption and binding of these toxins on clay minerals and other soil particulates and the effects of such surface interactions on the persistence and activity of the toxins must be established.  The equilibrium adsorption and binding of the toxins from B. thuringiensis ssp kurstaki,  toxic to lepidopteran larvae, and from ssp tenebrionis, toxic to coleopteran larvae, on the clay minerals, montmorillonite and kaolinite, homoionic to various cations (''clean'' clays) or coated with two types of polymeric oxyhydroxides of Fe(III) (''dirty'' clays) were studied.  Adsorption of the toxins on a constant amount of the clays increased with toxin concentration and then reached a plateau.  Larger amounts of the toxins from Btk  than from Btt were adsorbed.  Adsorption of the toxins was rapid and maximal between pH 6 and 8 onto clean clays and between pH 5 and 9 onto dirty clays.  Adsorption of the toxins from Btk or Btt on clean clays was affected by the type of cation to which the clays were homoionic.', 'en_US'),
(626, 'Ruminal microbiology, biotechnology, and ruminant nutrition: progress and problems', 'Present methods for manipulating ruminal fermentation that involve microbial biotechnology include dietary ionophores, antibiotics, and microbial feed additives. Developments in recombinant DNA technology mean that future methods will have a much wider scope. It has been suggested that genetically engineered ruminal microorganisms will be used in future to improve ruminal fermentation. Several technical objectives must be achieved before that will be possible. First, methods for inserting foreign or modified genes into ruminal microorganisms and ensuring their efficient expression must be developed. Broad host range plasmids and transposons have been used successfully to introduce new DNA into ruminal bacteria, as have shuttle vectors constructed as chimeras of plasmids from ruminal species and Escherichia coli. Although so far only antibiotic resistance markers have been transferred, the prospects for introducing other genes into selected ruminal bacteria are excellent. Second, the expression of the gene product(s) should be known to be nutritionally useful in vivo. A few examples of this type of benefit have been demonstrated, and many more proposed, including polysaccharidases for improving fiber digestion, methods for improving the amino acid composition of ruminal bacteria, and breakdown of plant toxins. Third, the difficulty that has been examined least, yet may prove most difficult to overcome, is that mechanisms have to be found for introducing and maintaining the new strain in the mixed ruminal population. Factors governing the survival of new strains in vivo are ill-understood, and attempts to select in favor of added new organisms have so far been unsuccessful. Because of the last obstacle, it may be advantageous, at least in the short term, to use nonruminal organisms, such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae, rather than indigenous ruminal species as a vehicle for implementing the benefits of recombinant DNA technology to ruminal fermentation. Yeast is already in widespread use as a feed additive, so no enrichment is necessary; and its genetics are already well known. Alternatively, adding particular enzymes to the diet may achieve some of the objectives described above, with the advantage that the manipulation could be achieved without the release of a recombinant microorganism.', 'en_US'),
(627, 'Transgenic virus-resistant plants and new plant viruses', 'Many genes derived from plant RNA viruses expressed in transgenic plants confer resistance against infection by viruses that were the original source of the genes and in some cases, by other viruses as well. As of March 17, 1995, over 240 field tests of virus-resistant transgenic plants had been conducted in the United States. Recently, the first virus-resistant transgenic plant (ZW 20 squash developed by Asgrow Seed Company) was approved by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) for widespread commercial production. Other virus-resistant plants are likely to be commercialized by the turn of the century. Although the use of viral genes for resistance to plant viruses has many potential benefits, some risk issues associated with the use of these genes have been raised.The principal issues are associated with the possibility that recombination between an infecting plant RNA virus and a viral RNA produced from a transgene will result in a new, problematic virus. Additional issues include potential synergism, transcapsidation, and other interactions that might lead to new or more severe disease problems. To address these issues, the USDA''s Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) and the American Institute of Biological Sciences (AIBS) convened a two-day work-shop (Appendix A) on April 20-21, 1995, in Beltsville, Maryland. Workshop participants included virologists and others with expertise in molecular biology and plant pathology (Appendix B). Support was provided by APHIS and by the Biotechnology Industry Organization. With assistance from the program committee (Appendix C), APHIS developed a list of 18 questions related to the potential risks of transgenic virus resistance. The questions were categorized as follows: Recombination and Mixed Infections; Transgenes; Experiments; and Benefits and Post-Commercialization Monitoring. To provide a context for answering the questions, formal presentations were given by leading virologists on resistance mediated by viral coat proteins, movement proteins, replicases, and RNA, as well as presentations on transgenic complementation, recombination, synergism, and replication. Issues concerning the potential effect of gene flow of transgenes to wild plant populations were not addressed. After the formal presentations, the workshop participants broke into five groups according to their interests. There were two groups for coat protein, one group for replicase, one group for movement protein, and one group to cover other viral genes. Each group was asked to address the 18 questions in terms of their group''s gene assignment.', 'en_US'),
(628, 'Safety assessment of potatoes resistant to Colorado potato beetle.', 'Russet Burbank potato plants which resist damage by Colorado potato beetle (CPB) have been developed through Agrobacterium-mediated transformation.  The CPB resistant potato plants produce two additional proteins, the Bacillus thuringiensis ssp. tenebrionis protein which confers resistance to CPB and the neomycin phosphotransferase II protein which serves as a selectable marker during the plant transformation process.  Extensive studies have been performed to assess the environmental and food safety of the CPB resistant potatoes to gain regulatory approval for commercialization of potato varieties with this new trait.  Data derived from the studies have confirmed the safety of the newly introduced proteins and demonstrated that the presence of these proteins and the process used to produce these plants did not alter the quality, composition or safety of the tubers from CPB resistant plants as compared to commercial Russet Burbank potatoes.', 'en_US'),
(629, 'Gene dispersal from transgenic crops: growth of interspecific hybrids between oilseed rape and the wild hoary mustard', 'The growth of interspecific hybrids between oilseed rape (Brassica napus ssp. oleifera) and hoary mustard (Hirschfeldia incana) was studied in different conditions of temperature and photoperiod in individual pots and in competitive conditions with each of the two parental species.  In the absence of competition, the hybrid plants were intermediate between parents for morphological and developmental traits.  Under competitive conditions, the hybrids were closer to hoary mustard.  The results of the studies indicated that hybrids and hoary mustard would not be better competitors against oilseed rape, but hybrids would be more competitive in a hoary mustard population.  The relevance of these studies to the environmental impact of the release of transgenic crops is discussed.  Hybrid survival would not limit gene escape through interspecific hybridization.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(630, 'Pleiotropic effects of tobacco mosaic virus movement protein on carbon metabolism in transgenic tobacco plants', 'Transgenic tobacco plants expressing wild-type or mutant forms of the 30kDa movement protein of tobacco mosaic virus (TMV-MP) were employed to study the effects of the TMV-MP on carbon metabolism in source leaves.  Fully expanded source leaves of transgenic plants expressing the TMV-MP were found to retain more newly fixed C-14 compared with control plants.  Analysis of C-14 export from young leaves of TMV-MP plants, where the MP is yet to influence plasmodesmal size exclusion limit, indicated a similar pattern, in that daytime C-14 export was slower in TMV-MP plants as compared to equivalent-aged leaves on control plants.  Pulse-chase experiments were used to monitor radioactivity present in the different carbohydrate fractions, at specified intervals following carbon labeling.  These studies established that the TMV-MP can cause a significant adjustment in short-term C-14 photosynthate storage and export.  That these effects of the TMV-MP on carbon metabolism and phloem function were not attributable to the effect of this protein on plasmodesmal size exclusion limits, per se, was established using transgenic tobacco plants expressing temperature-sensitive and C-terminal deletion mutant forms of the TMV-MP.  Collectively, these studies establish the pleiotropic nature of the TMV-MP in transgenic tobacco, and the results are discussed in terms of potential sites of interaction between the TMV-MP and endogenous processes involved in regulating carbon metabolism and export.', 'en_US'),
(631, '''Horizontal'' gene transfer from a transgenic potato line to a bacterial pathogen (Erwinia chrysanthemi) occurs - if at all - at an extremely low frequency.', 'The frequency of possible ''horizontal'' gene transfer between a plant and a tightly associated bacterial pathogen was studied in a model system consisting of transgenic Solanum tuberosum, containing a beta-lactamase gene linked to a pBR322 origin of replication, and Erwinia chrysanthemi. This experimental system offers optimal conditions for the detection of possible horizontal gene transfer events, even when they occur at very low frequency. Horizontal gene transfer was not detected under conditions mimicking a ''natural'' infection. The gradual, stepwise alteration of artificial, positive control conditions to idealized natural conditions, however, allowed the characterization of factors that affected gene transfer, and revealed a gradual decrease of the gene transfer frequency from 6.3 x 10(-2) under optimal control conditions to a calculated 2.0 x 10(-17) under idealized natural conditions. These data, in combination with other published studies, argue that horizontal gene transfer is so rare as to be essentially irrelevant to any realistic assessment of the risk involved in release experiments involving transgenic plants.', 'en_US'),
(632, 'Insecticidal activity of the toxins from Bacillus thuringiensis ssp. kurstaki and tenebrionis adsorbed and bound on pure and clay soils', 'The release of transgenic plants and microorganisms expressing truncated genes from various subspecies of Bacillus thuringiensis that encode active insecticidal toxins rather than inactive protoxins could result in the accumulation of these active proteins in soil, especially when bound on clays and other soil particles. Toxins from B. thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki and B. thuringiensis subsp. tenebrionis, either free or adsorbed at equilibrium or bound on pure clay minerals (montmorillonite or kaolinite) or on the clay size fraction of soil, were toxic to larvae of the tobacco hornworm (Manduca sexta) and the Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata), respectively. The 50% lethal concentrations (LC(inf50)) of free toxins from B. thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki were higher than those of both bound and adsorbed complexes of these toxins with clays, indicating that adsorption and binding of these toxins on clays increase their toxicity in diet bioassays. The LC(inf50) of the toxin from B. thuringiensis subsp. tenebrionis that was either free or adsorbed on montmorillonite were comparable, whereas the toxin bound on this clay had higher LC(inf50) and the toxin bound on kaolinite had lower LC(inf50) than when adsorbed on this clay. Results obtained with the clay size fraction separated from unamended soil or soil amended with montmorillonite or kaolinite were similar to those obtained with the respective pure clay minerals. Therefore, insecticidal activity of these toxins is retained and sometimes enhanced by adsorption and binding on clays.', 'en_US'),
(633, 'Consensus document on general information concerning the biosafety of crop plants made virus resistant through coat protein gene-mediated protection', 'The Expert Group on Harmonization of Regulatory Oversight in Biotechnology instituted the development of consensus documents which are mutually acceptable among Member countries. The goal is to identify common elements in the safety assessment of a new plant variety developed through modern biotechnology, in order to encourage information sharing and prevent duplication of effort among countries. These common elements fall into two general categories: the biology of the host species, or crop; and the gene product. The first gene product chosen to be reviewed was virus resistance. The Expert Group charged a task group to develop a document that would identify information relevant to consideration of virus resistant crop plants specifically developed through the use of viral coat protein genes. The Expert Group identified two core issues that should be explored: the creation of new viruses through mechanisms such as recombination and transencapsidation, and the potential for synergistic effects when a transgenic plant is infected by other indigenous viruses.', 'en_US'),
(634, 'The composition of insect-protected cottonseed is equivalent to that of conventionial cottonseed', 'Cotton plants have been developed that control the major lepidopteran insect pests of  cotton by the stable introduction of a gene encoding an insecticidal protein from Bacillus thuringiensis ssp kurstaki.  These plants provide season-long protection against cotton bollworm, tobacco budworm, and pink bollworm.  An important component of the safety and product assessment of these lines was the comparison of the nutrient and antinutrient levels in the seed both to the parental variety and to published values for other commercial cotton varieties.  Compositional equivalence confirms the appropriateness of these cotton lines for use in food and feed products.  The insect-protected lines and the parental control were shown to contain levels of nutrients comparable to those of other commercial varieties.  Nutrients included protein, fat, carbohydrate, moisture,ash, amino acids, and fatty acids.  The levels of the antinutrients gossypol, cyclopropenoid fatty acids, and aflatoxin in the seed from the parental variety and reported for other commercial varieties.  These analyses demonstrate that seed from the insect-protected cotton lines is compositionally equivalent to and as nutritious as seed from the parental and other commercial cotton varieties.', 'en_US'),
(635, 'The feeding value of soybeans fed to rats, chickens, catfish and dairy cattle is not altered by genetic incorporation of glyphosate tolerance', 'Animal feeding studies were conducted with rats, broiler chickens, catfish and dairy cows as part of a safety assessment program for a soybean variety genetically modified to tolerate in-season application of glyphosate.  These studies were designed to compare the feeding value (wholesomeness) of two lines of glyphosate-tolerant soybeans (GTS) to the feeding value of the parental cultivar from which they were derived.  Processed GTS meal was incorporated into the diets at the same concentrations as used commercially; dairy cows were fed 10 g/100 g cracked soybeans in the diet, a level that is on the high end of what is normally fed commercially.  In a separate study, laboratory rats were fed 5 and 10 g unprocessed soybean meal 100 g diet.  the study durations were 4 week (rats and dairy cows) , 6 week (broilers) and 10 week (catfish).  Growth, feed conversion (rats, catfish, broilers),  fillet composition (catfish), and breast muscle and fat pad weights (broilers) were compared for animals fed the parental and GTS lines.  Milk production, milk composition, rumen fermentation and nitrogen digestibility were also compared for dairy cows.  In all studies, measured variables were similar for animals fed both GTS lines and the parental line, indicating that the feeding value of the two GTS lines is comparable to that of the parental line.  These studies support detailed compositional analysis of the GTS seeds, which showed no meaningful differences between the parental and GTS lines in the concentrations of important nutrients and antinutrients.  They also confirmed the results of other studies that demonstrated the safety of the introduced protein, a bacterial 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase from Agrobacterium sp. strain CP4.', 'en_US'),
(636, 'Gene dispersal from transgenic crops: hybridization between oilseed rape and the wild hoary mustard', 'The risk of release of genetically modified oilseed rape (Brassica napus) was investigated in relation to interspecific gene flow with hoary mustard (Hirschfeldia incana).  Microscopic studies showed polymorphism within the population of hoary mustard for pollen germination on oilseed rape flowers.  The transgenic herbicide-resistant line and a commercial cultivar of oilseed rape were not different for pollen behavior and ovule fertilization.  Pollen tube growth was slow and erratic in interspecific crosses.  Fertilization efficiency of oilseed rape and hoary mustard pollen in interspecific crosses was 15% and 1.3%, respectively, of that in intraspecific crosses.  This unequal efficiency in reciprocal crosses was confirmed by hybrid seed set in pods.  There was no post-zygotic barrier to the development of hybrid embryos in hoary mustard pods.  Up to 26 spontaneous hybrids per male sterile oilseeed rape plant, and one per hoary mustard plant, were obtained in field experiments.  Hybrids were identified by isozyme electrophoresis, morphology, and cytology.  All hybrids were triploid with 26 chromosomes, and had low fertility.  They produced 0.5 seeds per plant after spontaneous backcrossing with hoary mustard.  Some of these descendants were produced from unrelated gametes.  Our results suggest that gene flow is likely to occur, but its actual frequency under crop growing conditions remains to be estimated.', 'en_US'),
(637, 'Predicting hybridization between transgenic oilseed rape and wild mustard', 'Overlap between flowering of oilseed rape (Brassica napus var. oleifera Metzger) and wild mustard (Sinapis arvensis L.), artificial hybridization between the two species, spontaneous crosses, and backcrossing were assessed to estimate the risk of escape of genes from transgenic crops towards the wild species.  In the Burgundy region of France, wild mustard flowers later than oilseed rape.  Exposure to cross pollination was two to five times greater with late-flowering cultivars than with early cultivars.  Artificial hybridizations using in vitro ovary culture produced up to 1 seed per 100 pollinated flowers.  No hybrid was found among 2.9 million seeds produced by wild mustard grown in a garden in presence of a herbicide-resistant transgenic cultivar.  No more than six hybrids were obtained from 50 000 flowers of a male-sterile oilseed rape grown in presence of wild mustard.  Artificial hybrids grown in presence of wild mustard, or hand-crossed, produced a few aborted seeds.  Thus, in similar ''normal conditions'', it may be concluded that a flower of these two species has a probability smaller than 10 -10 of having an interspecific hybrid progeny.', 'en_US'),
(638, 'Why are some proteins allergenic?  Implications for biotechnology', 'In recent years, a number of agricultural crops have been developed with recombinant DNA technology. Because the transferred genes code for proteins that are ordinarily not present in these particular foods, there is concern about the potential allergenicity of these new crop varieties. Foods contain many proteins; however, only a small fraction are allergens. Although the structural properties of proteins that cause allergic reactions have not been characterized completely, known food allergens in general have molecular weights between 10 and 70 kDa, stimulate the immune response (induce the production of allergen-specific IgE), and are stable molecules that are resistant to processing, cooking, and digestion. Although any type of food is potentially allergenic, the majority of food allergies are caused by a small group of foods (cows'' milk, nuts, legumes, eggs, seafood). Cross-reactivities occur within a given food group and between foods and seemingly unrelated proteins. Even though most transgenic foods are considered safe, biotechnological manipulation can affect crop allergenicity. The safety evaluation of transgenic foods is relatively easy when the allergenicity of the gene sources are known. The recombinant food can be assayed using traditional in vitro inhibition assays. Recently, reduced allergen content of biotechnologically altered rice was shown. In contrast, increased allergenicity was demonstrated in transgenic soybeans after a methionine- and cystine-rich protein from Brazil nuts, identified as a major Brazil nut allergen, was expressed in soybean to increase its content of sulfur-rich amino acids. The most difficult issue regarding transgenic food allergenicity is the effect of transfer of proteins of unknown allergenicity. The challenge is to determine whether these proteins are allergenic as there is no generally accepted, established, definitive procedure to define or predict a protein''s allergenicity. Comparing the structures of the transferred protein with known allergens and allergen epitopes could be one approach. Additionally, Th-2 cell stimulation, the production of IL-4, and IgE antibody induction in animal models may help to evaluate the potential allergenicity of a protein. In conclusion, there is no evidence that recombinant proteins in newly developed foods are more allergenic than traditional proteins. The evidence suggests that the vast majority of these proteins will be completely safe for the consumer. The concern is that if a few transgenic foods cause serious allergic reactions, this could undermine the public''s confidence in such products. It is essential that proper guidelines are established and tests are developed to assure that this will not occur.', 'en_US'),
(639, 'Identification of a Brazil-nut allergen in transgenic soybeans.', 'BACKGROUND. The nutritional quality of soybeans (Glycine max) is compromised by a relative deficiency of methionine in the protein fraction of the seeds. To improve the nutritional quality, methionine-rich 2S albumin from the Brazil nut (Betholletia excelsa) has been introduced into transgenic soybeans. Since the Brazil nut is a known allergenic food, we assessed the allergenicity of the 2S albumin. METHODS. The ability of proteins in transgenic and non-transgenic soybeans, Brazil nuts, and purified 2S albumin to bind to IgE in serum from subjects allergic to Brazil nuts was determined by radioallergosorbent tests (4 subjects) and sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide-gel electrophoresis (9 subjects) with immunoblotting and autoradiography. Three subjects also underwent skin-prick testing with extracts of soybean, transgenic soybean, and Brazil nut. RESULTS. On radioallergosorbent testing of pooled serum from four subjects allergic to Brazil nuts, protein extracts of transgenic soybean inhibited binding of IgE to Brazil-nut proteins. On immunoblotting, serum IgE from eight of nine subjects bound to purified 2S albumin from the Brazil nut and the transgenic soybean. On skin-prick testing, three subjects had positive reactions to extracts of Brazil nut and transgenic soybean and negative reactions to soybean extract. CONCLUSIONS. The 2S albumin is probably a major Brazil-nut allergen, and the transgenic soybeans analyzed in this study contain this protein. Our study show that an allergen from a food known to be allergenic can be transferred into another food by genetic engineering.', 'en_US'),
(640, 'The composition of glyphosate-tolerant soybean seeds is equivalent to that of conventional soybeans', 'One important aspect of the safety assessment of genetically engineered crops destined for food and feed uses is the characterization of the consumed portion of the crop.  One crop currently under development, glyphosate-tolerant soybeans (GTS), was modified by the addition of a glyphosate-tolerance gene to a commercial soybean cultivar.  The composition of seeds and selected processing fractions from two GTS lines, designated 40-3-2 and 61-67-1, was compared with that of the parental soybean cultivar, A5403.  Nutrients measured in the soybean seeds included macronutrients by proximate analysis (protein, fat, fiber, ash, carbohydrates), amino acids and fatty acids.  Antinutrients measured in either the seed or toasted meal were trypsin inhibitor, lectins, isoflavones, stachyose, raffinose and phytate.  Proximate analyses were also performed on batches of defatted toasted meal, defatted nontoasted meal, protein isolate, and protein concentrate prepared from GTS and control soybean seeds.  In addition, refined, bleached, deodorized oil was made, along with crude soybean lecithin, from GTS and control soybeans.  The analytical results demonstrated that the GTS lines are equivalent to the parental, conventional soybean cultivar.', 'en_US'),
(641, 'Transgene inheritance in plants genetically engineered by microprojectile bombardment', 'Microprojectile bombardment to deliver DNA into plant cells represents a major breakthrough in the development of plant transformation technologies and accordingly has resulted in transformation of numerous species considered recalcitrant to Agrobacterium or protoplast-mediated transformation methods.  This article attempts to review the current understanding of the molecular and genetic behavior of transgenes introduced by microprojectile bombardment.  The characteristic features of the transgene integration pattern resulting from DNA delivery via microprojectile bombardment include integration of the full length transgene as well as rearranged copies of the introduced DNA.  Copy number of both the transgene and rearranged fragments is often highly variable.  Most frequently the multiple transgene copies and rearranged fragments are inherited at a single locus.  However, a variable proportion of transgenic events produced by microprojectile bombardment exhibit Mendelian ratios for monogenic and digenic segregation vs events exhibiting segregation distortion.  The potential mechanisms underlying these investigations is discussed.', 'en_US'),
(642, 'Biosafety policy and implications in India', NULL, 'en_US'),
(643, 'Management of virus diseases by classical and engineered protection', 'The phenomenon of cross protection has been known for a long time and in theory it provides an efficient means of controlling virus diseases.  McKinney (1929) was the first to show that plants already infected with a virus are normally protected against infection by a related strain of the virus.  Thus, plants infected with a mild strain could be protected against infection by a related strain of that virus.  However, cross protection referred to here as classical protection has been used to control virus diseases of a few crops.  There are a number of reasons for the limited use and application of classical protection.  First, the fact that a ''live'' virus is used to deliberately infect plants makes researchers and growers reluctant to use this approach on a practical scale.  Second, it is generally difficult to obtain mild strains that are of practical value.  Third, there is some possibility that the mild strain might mutate and cause even greater problems than the control strain itself.  Engineered protection, which is a form of parasite-derived resistance, is being pursued in many laboratories as a strategy for controlling virus diseases.  Numerous reports have shown that this approach is generally applicable to many plant viruses without the drawbacks of classical protection.  This report will focus on the analysis of cases where these approaches have been used to manage viruses under field conditions.', 'en_US'),
(644, 'Sexual hybridization in crosses of cultivated Brassica species with the crucifers Erucastrum gallicum and  Raphanus raphanistrum: potential for gene introgression', 'Studies were conducted to investigate the crossability of the cultivated Brassica species, Brassica napus (oilseed rape), B. rapa (turnip rape), and B. juncea (brown and oriental mustard), with two related cruciferous weeds that are abundant in certain regions of Canada, Erucastrum gallicum (dog mustard) and Raphanus raphanistrum ssp. raphanistrum (wild radish).  Seed was produced without recourse to embryo rescue from all reciprocal crosses except R. raphanistrum x B. juncea.  Four hybrids were recovered, namely B. napus x E. gallicum, B. napus x R. raphanistrum (two plants), and B. rapa x E. gallicum.  The hybrids were characterized by their morphology, RAPD analysis, and cytological examination.  The B. rapa x E. gallicum hybrid was extremely vigourous and fertile, and would likely grow in natural habitats.  This hybrid produced self-seed and backcrossed readily with the B. rapa parent and, to a lesser extent, with the E. gallicum parent.  The B. napus x E. gallicum hybrid was a weak plant, but produced fertile backcross progeny with the E. gallicum parent.  The B. napus x R. raphanistrum hybrids were vigourous but mostly sterile.  Because of their low vigour and/or sterility, hybrids produced from crosses of B. napus with the cruciferous weeds would not likely be an environmental concern.  However, the potential of the B. napus x E. gallicum and  B. rapa x E. gallicum hybrids to backcross with E. gallicum may be of concern.', 'en_US'),
(645, 'Recombinant proteins in newly developed foods: identification of allergenic activity', 'A number of agricultural crops are being modified for various purposes using recombinant DNA technology. Since transferred genes may code for proteins that are ordinarily not present, there is concern about the potential allergenicity of these new varieties. The safety evaluation of transgenic foods is relatively easy when the allergenicity of the gene source is known. Recombinant allergens in genetically engineered or altered foods can be identified using traditional immunological assays such as RAST or ELISA inhibition or immunoblotting procedures. Our recent studies of two corn proteins (10 kD and HSZ) used to alter grain amino acid composition and of transgenic soybeans with an altered fatty acid profile are examples of this approach. Both 10 kD and HSZ did not bind IgE antibodies from sera of corn-reactive subjects by immunoblotting. Studies of wild-type and transgenic soybeans with high oleic acidic content by RAST inhibition and immunoblotting with pooled sera of soy-allergic individuals demonstrated no difference in the allergen content of both extracts. In contrast to these studies, a recent investigation by Nordlee et al. (1996) of transgenic soybeans which expressed a methionine/cysteine-rich protein from Brazil nuts identified this protein as a major Brazil nut allergen. These studies indicate that, when the gene source is from a known allergen or if the recipient contains allergens, it is possible to determine whether the allergen content of the transgenic line is altered relative to the nontransgenic varieties.', 'en_US'),
(646, 'Seeking the root of insect resistance to transgenic plants', 'It is humbling and instructive that the most exquisitely specific group of insecticides known originates not from a laboratory, but instead from the common soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt).  Insecticidal crystal proteins produced by Bt kill insects by binding to and disrupting their midgut membranes.  each of the numerous strains of Bt produces a characteristic set of crystal proteins.  Each of these toxins is lethal to certain insects, yet does little or no harm to most other organisms, including people, wildlife, and even other insects.', 'en_US'),
(647, 'Evaluation of transgenic event 176 Bt corn in broiler chickens', 'A 38-d feeding study evaluated whether standard broiler diets prepared with transgenic Event 176-derived Bt corn (maize) grain had any adverse effects on male or female broiler chickens as compared to diets prepared with non-transgenic (isogenic) control corn grain.  No statistically significant differences in survival or BW were observed between birds reared on mash or pelleted diets prepared with transgenic corn and similar diets prepared using control corn.  Broilers raised on diets prepared from transgenic corn exhibited significantly better feed conversion ratios and improved yield of the Pectoralis minor breast muscle.  Although it is not clear whether this enhance performance was attributable to the transgenic corn per se, or due to possible slight differences in overall composition of the formulated diets, it was clear that the transgenic corn had no deleterious effects in this study.', 'en_US'),
(648, 'Soybeans transformed with a fungal phytase gene improve phosphorus availability for broilers', 'Male broilers (n = 416) were used to compare the efficacy of providing dietary phytase either as a commercial supplement or as a recombinant protein in transformed soybean. From 7 to 21 d of age, broilers were fed a basal diet containing 0.20% nonphytate P (nP) with additional supplementation by fungal phytase as Natuphos® or as raw transformed soybeans expressing recombinant phytase at 400, 800, or 1,200 U/kg. For comparison, broilers were also fed the basal diet containing 0.08, 0.16, or 0.24 added nP. The basal diet was fed as the negative control. Diets were consumed ad libitum as a mash. All excreta were collected from each pen from 18 through 20 d of age, and the birds were killed at 21 d of age. Supplementing the basal diet with nP linearly increased body weight gain, feed efficiency, feed intake, toe ash weight and percentage, and tibia shear force and energy. Phosphorus digestibility decreased linearly as nP level increased, but P excretion increased. Dietary phytase linearly increased growth rate, feed intake, toe ash weight and percentage, tibia shear force and energy, and P digestibility, whereas excretion was decreased. Except for P digestibility, there was no difference in efficacy of responses for performance, bone mineralization, and P excretion between the two sources of phytase. It appears from this study that phytase can improve growth performance of broilers fed low nP diets when provided either as a commercial supplement or in the form of transformed seeds.', 'en_US'),
(649, 'Horizontal gene transfer as a biosafety issue: a natural phenomenon of public concern', 'The transfer of genetic information between distantly or even unrelated organisms during evolution had been inferred from nucleotide sequence comparisons. These studies provided circumstantial evidence that in rare cases genes had been laterally transmitted amongst organisms of the domains bacteria, archaea and eukarya. Laboratory-based studies confirmed that the gene pools of the various domains of organisms are linked. Amongst the bacterial gene exchange mechanisms transduction, transformation and conjugation, the latter was identified as the mechanism with potentially the broadest host range of transfer. Previously, the issue of horizontal gene transfer has become important in the context of biosafety. Gene transfer studies carried out under more natural conditions such as in model ecosystems or in the environment established that all gene transfer mechanisms worked under these conditions. Moreover, environmental hot-spots were identified where favourable conditions such as nutrient enrichment increased the probability of genetic exchange among bacteria. In particular, the phytosphere was shown to provide conducive conditions for conjugative gene exchange. Concern has been expressed that transfer of recombinant DNA (e.g. antibiotic resistance genes) from genetically modified organisms (GMOs) such as transgenic plants to phytosphere bacteria may occur and thus contribute to the undesirable spread of antibiotic resistance determinants. Studies which were performed to address this issue clearly showed that such a transfer occurs, if at all, at extremely low frequency.', 'en_US'),
(650, 'The introduction and expression of transgenes in plants', 'Despite the fact that the first transgenic plants were generated less than 15 years ago, many transgenic crops are now beginning to be widely grown, and the products of these plants are available in the marketplace.  Among these first generation crops are plants that are tolerant of herbicides, plants resistant to viruses and insects, and plants that are being used as ''bioreactors'' to produce pharmaceuticals and food additives.  In addition, some recombinant crops have altered nutritional or storage qualities, or are being used to produce industrially important materials, such as specialty oils and plastics.  The rapid advances necessary to generate these crops have come from three areas: basic research in plant molecular biology and physiology; the development of transformation technologies; and improvements in plant tissue culture to regenerate transformed plant cells or tissues.  Although breakthroughs in each of these areas were essential, I shall limit this review to recent advances in transformation and related technologies.  In addition, I shall discuss recent research to understand how transgene integration patterns may affect transgene expression.', 'en_US'),
(651, 'Processing of transgenic corn seed and its effect on the recovery of recombinant b-glucuronidase', 'The tools of plant biotechnology that have been developed to improve agronomic traits are now being applied to generate recombinant protein products for the food, feed, and pharmaceutical industry. This study addresses several processing and protein recovery issues that are relevant to utilizing transgenic corn as a protein production system. The gus gene coding for -glucuronidase (rGUS) was stably integrated and expressed over four generations. The accumulation level of rGUS reached 0.4% of total extractable protein. Within the kernel, rGUS was preferentially accumulated in the germ even though a constitutive ubiquitin promoter was used to direct gus expression. Fourth-generation transgenic seed was used to investigate the effect of seed processing on the activity and the recovery of rGUS. Transgenic seed containing rGUS could be stored at an ambient temperature for up to two weeks and for at least three months at 10°C without a significant loss of enzyme activity. rGUS exposed to dry heat was more stable in ground than in whole kernels. The enzyme stability was correlated with the moisture loss of the samples during the heating. Transgenic seed was dry-milled, fractionated, and hexane extracted to produce full-fat and defatted germ fractions. The results of the aqueous extraction of rGUS from ground kernels, full-fat germ, and defatted-germ samples revealed that approximately 10 times more rGUS per gram of solids could be extracted from the ground full-fat germ and defatted-germ than from the kernel samples. The extraction of corn oil from ground germ with hot hexane (60°C) did not affect the extractable rGUS activity. rGUS was purified from ground kernels and full-fat germ extracts by ion exchange, hydrophobic interaction, and size exclusion chromatography. Similar purity and yield of rGUS were obtained from both extracts. Biochemical properties of rGUS purified from transgenic corn seed were similar to those of E. coli GUS.', 'en_US'),
(652, 'Position effects and epigenetic silencing of plant transgenes', 'Nuclear processes that silence plant transgenes are being revealed by analyses of natural triggers of epigenetic modifications, particularly cytosine methylation, and by comparisons of the genomic environments of differentially expressed transgene loci.  It is increasingly apparent that plant genomes can sense and respond to the presence of foreign DNA in certain sequence contexts and at multiple dispersed sites.  Determining the basis of this sensitivity and how nuclear defense systems are activated poses major challenges for the future.  This review focuses on silencing concerning positioning effects, which refer to repressive influences exerted on transgenes by flanking plant DNA and/or an unfavourable chromosomal location.  This type of silencing presumably reflects the epigenetic state of neighbouring host sequences or the relative tolerance of particular chromosome regions to invasion by alien DNA.  Often assumed in lieu of a better explanation, position effects are being clarified by analyses of the genomic environments of differentially expressed transgenes.  Further insight is coming from an improved understanding of the natural targets and signals for epigenetic modifications in eukaryotic genomes.', 'en_US'),
(653, 'Horizontal gene transfer from transgenic plants to terrestrial bacteria - a rare event?', 'Today, 12 years after the first field release of a genetically modified plant (GMP), over 15,000 field trials at different locations have been performed. As new and unique characteristics are frequently introduced into GMPs, risk assessment has to be performed to assess their ecological impact. The possibilities of horizontal gene transfer (HGT; no parent-to-offspring transfer of genes) from plants to microorganisms are frequently evaluated in such risk assessments of GMPs before release into the field. In this review we indicate why putative HGT from plants to terrestrial (soil and plant associated) bacteria has raised concern in biosafety evaluations. Further, we discuss possible pathways of HGT from plants to bacteria, outline the barriers to HGT in bacteria, describe the strategies used to investigate HGT from plants to bacteria and summarize the results obtained. Only a few cases of HGT from eukaryotes such as plants to bacteria have been reported to date. These cases have been ascertained after comparison of DNA sequences between plants and bacteria. Although experimental approaches in both field and laboratory studies have not been able to confirm the occurrence of such HGT to naturally occurring bacteria, recently two studies have shown transfer of marker genes from plants to bacteria based on homologous recombination. The few examples of HGT indicated by DNA sequence comparisons suggest that the frequencies of evolutionarily successful HGT from plants to bacteria may be extremely low. However, this inference is based on a small number of experimental studies and indications found in the literature. Transfer frequencies should not be confounded with the likelihood of environmental implications, since the frequency of HGT is probably only marginally important compared with the selective force acting on the outcome. Attention should therefore be focused on enhancing the understanding of selection processes in natural environments. Only an accurate understanding of these selective events will allow the prediction of possible consequences of novel genes following their introduction into open environments.', 'en_US'),
(654, 'Barriers to horizontal gene transfer by natural transformation in soil bacteria', 'Bacteria can utilize horizontally transferred DNA from other bacterial species to adapt and evolve to their changing environments. Natural transformation is a process that allows bacteria, which are able to express a regulated physiological state of competence, to take up and integrate free DNA from their surroundings. This uptake of DNA does not necessarily depend on DNA sequence, thus, indicating the potential of gene transfer from diverged donor organisms. Barriers active against such interspecies transfer are present at different phases of the transformation process. The functionality of these barriers will be discussed, and seen in relation to mechanisms that may enable bacterial cells to respond to environmental stress by adaptive evolution.', 'en_US'),
(655, 'Do dynamics of crop mutation and herbivorous insect life cycle influence the risk of adaptation to toxins in transgenic host plants?', 'Because host-plant chemistry is dynamic, chemical defenses are dynamic, and senescence in plants causes many proteins to decompose after flowering, laboratory and field studies on transgenic crops performed over only part of a plant generation or part of a season may not provide sufficient data to evaluate strategies for resistance management.  As an example, we focused on the recent introduction of transgenic corn to control European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis.  We gathered data from literature on the life cycle of European corn borer and corn crop maturation to study the role that phenological relationships may play in rresistance evolution.  In addition, we simulated hypothetical titer declines resulting in increased survival in European corn borer populations infesting transgenic corn using a model of population dynamics and genetics.  The relationship between European corn borer hatching period and corn maturation varies greatly from site to site and year to year.  The peak of the hatching period in the late summer generation of the European corn borer occurs at or after the average midpoint of the dough stage of corn.  The last larvae tend to hatch after the dough stage is past and after the midpoint of the dent stage.  In simulations where 5% of a region is planted with nontransgenic corn in separate refuge plots and 95% is planted with transgenic corn, complete loss of titer as a result of senescence produces resistance at the 3% resistance-allele level after 5-42 years, which is less than the 83 years predicted by the standard model for resistance development when the transgenic corn loses no titer as a result of senescence.  We hypothesize that genetically engineered corn toxins will often decrease in leaf and stem titer as crops reach maturation.  The insects feeding and surviving on a crop during its senescence may have important consequences for the population genetics of the breakdown of host plant resistance.', 'en_US'),
(656, 'Sensitization to the major allergen of Brazil nut is correlated with the clinical expression of allergy', 'BACKGROUND: Only a few studies have investigated the clinical role of food allergens, especially the relationship between sensitization to a given allergen and occurrence of adverse reactions when eating the relevant food item. OBJECTIVE: This study evaluated the clinical role of the allergens of Brazil nut by comparing the patterns of IgE binding in sera from 11 patients with anaphylaxis after eating Brazil nuts with those from 10 subjects with no symptoms to this food item. Both groups had specific IgE to Brazil nut. METHODS: Allergens in the in-house extract of Brazil nut were identified by SDS-PAGE/immunoblotting, the major allergen was purified by HPLC, and its N-terminal sequence was determined by a protein sequencer. RESULTS: SDS-PAGE/immunoblotting detected a number of allergenic components with molecular weights ranging from 4 to 58 kd. All sera from symptomatic patients recognized a 9-kd allergen corresponding (as established by amino acid sequencing) to a 2S albumin already described as a major allergen of Brazil nut, whereas the other allergens each bound IgE from less than 50% of sera. No sera from asymptomatic subjects showed IgE binding to the 9-kd allergen, but they did recognize components from 25 to 58 kd, which are minor allergens. CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate that the allergen underlying clinical reactions to Brazil nut is a 2S albumin of 9 kd and that in vitro reactivity to this allergen identifies subjects who react in vivo to ingestion of this food.', 'en_US'),
(657, 'Transgenic oat DNA integrated into the oat genome is frequently interspersed by host DNA', 'Integration of transgenic DNA into the plant genome was investigated in 13 transgenic oat (Avena sativa L.) lines produced using microprojectile bombardment with one or two cotransformed plasmids.  In all transformation events, the transgenic DNA integrated into the plant genome consisted of intact transgenic copies that were accompanied by multiple, rearranged, and/or truncated transgene fragments.  All fragments of transgenic DNA cosegregated, indicating that they were integrated at a single gene loci.  Analysis of the structure of the transgenic loci indicated that the transgenic DNA was interspersed by the host genomic DNA.  The number of insertions of transgenic DNA within the transgene loci varied from 2 to 12 among the 13 lines.  Restriction endonucleases that do not cleave the introduced fragments produced restriction fragments ranging from 3.6 to about 60 kb in length hybridizing to a probe comprising the introduced plasmids.  Although the size of the interspersing host DNA within the transgene locus is unknown, the sizes of the transgene-hybridizing restriction fragments indicated that the entire transgene locus must be at least from 35-280 kb.  The observation that all transgenic lines analyzed exhibited genomic interspersion of multiple clustered transgenes suggests a predominating integration mechanism.  We propose that transgene integration at multiple clustered DNA replication forks could account for the observed interspersion of transgenic DNA with host genomic DNA within transgenic loci.', 'en_US'),
(658, 'Development and application of a selective detection method for genetically modified soy and soy-derived products', 'A method has been developed to distinguish between traditional soybeans and transgenic Roundup Ready soybeans, i.e. the glyphosate resistant soybean developed by Monsanto Company.  Glyphosate resistance results from the incorporation of an Agrobacterium derived 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS) gene.  The detection method developed is based on a nested Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) procedure.  Ten femtograms of soybean DNA can be detected, while, starting from whole soybeans, Roundup Ready DNA can be detected at a level of 1  Roundup Ready  soybean in 5000 non-GM soybeans (0.02% R.R. soybean).  the method has been applied to samples of soybean, soy-meal pellets, and soybean flour, as well as a number of processed complex products such as infant formula based on soy, tofu, tempeh, soy-based desserts, bakery products and complex meat and meat-replacing products.  The results obtained are discussed with respect to practical application of the detection method developed.', 'en_US'),
(659, 'Transgene-induced gene silencing in plants', 'The recent development of gene transfer methods for almost all eukaryotes has revealed that transgenes can undergo silencing after integration in the genome.  Host genes can also be silenced as a consequence of the presence of a homologous transgene, thus limiting the potential application of genetic transformation.  Despite this limitation, transgene-induced gene silencing events were considered originally as anecdotal phenomena.  However, as more and more similarities were found between transgene-induced gene silencing and natural epigenetic phenomena, considerable interest has been devoted to this subject.', 'en_US'),
(660, 'Horizontal gene transfer and mutation: Ngrol genes in the genome of Nicotiana glauca', 'Ngrol genes (NgrolB, NgrolC, NgORF13, and NgORF14) that are similar in sequence to genes in the left transferred DNA (TL-DNA) of Agrobacterium rhizogenes have been found in the genome of untransformed plants of N. glauca.  it has been suggested that a bacterial infection resulted in transformation of Ngrol genes early in the evolution of genus Nicotiana.  Although the corresponding four rol genes in TL-DNA provoked hairy-root syndrome in plants, present-day N. glauca and plants transformed with Ngrol genes did not exhibit this phenotype.  Sequenced complementation analysis revealed that the NgrolB gene did not induce adventitious roots because it contained two point mutations.  Single-base site-directed mutagenesis at these two positions restored the capacity for root induction to the NgrolB gene.  When the NgrolB, with these two base substitutions, was positioned under the control of the cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter (P35S), transgenic tobacco plants exhibited morphological abnormalities that were not observed in P35S-RirolB plants.  In contrast, the activity of the NgrolC gene may have been conserved after an ancient infection by bacteria.  discussed is the effect of the horizontal gene transfer of the Ngrol genes and mutations in the NgrolB gene on the phenotype of ancient plants during the evolution of N. glauca.', 'en_US'),
(661, 'Horizontal gene transfers in the environment: natural transformation as a putative process for gene transfers between transgenic plants and microorganisms', 'Horizontal gene transfers among bacteria, such as natural transformation or conjugation, may have played an important role in bacterial evolution. They are thought to have been involved in promoting genome plasticity which permitted bacteria to adapt very efficiently to any change in their environment and to colonize a wide range of ecosystems. Evidence that some genes were transferred from eukaryotes, and in particular, from plants to bacteria, was obtained from nucleotide and protein sequence analyses. However, numerous factors, including some which are endogenous to the bacterial cells, tend to limit the extent of transfer, particularly among phylogenetically distant organisms. The goal of this paper is to give an overview of the potentials and limits of natural interkingdom gene transfers, with particular focus on prokaryote-originating sequences which fit the nuclear genome of transgenic plants.', 'en_US'),
(662, 'Antisense-mediated silencing of a gene encoding a major ryegrass pollen allergen', 'Type 1 allergen reactions, such as hay fever and allergic asthma, triggered by grass pollen allergens are a global health problem that affects ~20% of the population in cool, temperate climates.  Ryegrass is the dominant source of allergens because of its prodigious production of airborne pollen.  Lol p 5 is the major allergenic protein of ryegrass pollen, judging from the fact that almost all of the individuals allergic to grass pollen show presence of serum IgE antibodies against this protein.  Moreover, nearly two- thirds of the IgE reactivity of ryegrass pollen  has been attributed to this protein.  Therefore, it can be expected that down-regulation of Lol p 5 production can significantly reduce the allergenic potential of ryegrass pollen.  Here, we report down-regulation of Lol p 5 with an antisense construct targeted to the Lol p 5 gene in ryegrass.  The expression of antisense RNA was regulated by a pollen-specific promoter.  Immunoblot analysis of proteins with allergen-specific antibodies did not detect Lol p 5 in the transgenic pollen.  The transgenic pollen showed remarkably reduced allergenicity as reflected by low IgE-binding capacity of pollen extract as compared with that of control pollen.  The transgenic ryegrass plants in which Lol p 5 gene expression is perturbed showed normal fertile pollen development, indicating that genetic engineering of hypoallergenic grass plants is possible.', 'en_US'),
(663, 'Improving the nutrient composition of plants to enhance human nutrition and health', 'Plant foods contain almost all of the mineral and organic nutrients established as essential for human nutrition, as well as a number of unique organic phytochemicals that have been linked to the promotion of good health. Because the concentrations of many of these dietary constituents are often low in edible plant sources, research is under way to understand the physiological, biochemical, and molecular mechanisms that contribute to their transport, synthesis and accumulation in plants. This knowledge can be used to develop strategies with which to manipulate crop plants, and thereby improve their nutritional quality. Improvement strategies will differ between various nutrients, but generalizations can be made for mineral or organic nutrients. This review focuses on the plant nutritional physiology and biochemistry of two essential human nutrients, iron and vitamin E, to provide examples of the type of information that is needed, and the strategies that can be used, to improve the mineral or organic nutrient composition of plants.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(664, 'Freedom to operate: intellectual property protection in plant biology and its implications for the conduct of research', 'Research endeavors are being affected by issues involving intellectual property (patents, copyrights, and trademarks). The acquisition of rights in intellectual property by universities can result in the transfer of new innovations to the private sector, with the university recouping a share of the profits for support of further scientific research. Intellectual property rights available for new plant cultivars include plant patents, plant variety protection certificates, plant breeder''s rights, and utility patents. Under the patent laws, there is no explicit exemption for research use, so researchers are increasingly being required to execute materials transfer agreements to obtain permission to use patented materials, such as techniques, genes, seeds, and cell lines, in laboratory research and in breeding programs. Research scientists must educate themselves on these issues so that they can make informed decisions regarding their research practices and the licensing of their discoveries.', 'en_US'),
(665, 'Molecular characterization of transforming plasmid rearrangements in transgenic rice reveals a recombination hotspot in the CaMV 35S promoter and confirms the predominance of microhomology mediated recombination', 'The characterization of plasmid-genomic DNA junctions following plant transformation has established links between DNA double-strand break repair (DSBR), illegitimate recombination and plasmid DNA integration. The limited information on plasmid-plasmid junctions in plants comes from the dicot species tobacco and Arabidopsis. We analyzed 12 representative transgenic rice lines, carrying a range of transforming plasmid rearrangements, which predominantly reflected microhomology mediated illegitimate recombination involving short complementary patches at the recombining ends. Direct end-ligation, in the absence of homology between the recombining molecules, occurred only rarely. Filler DNA was found at some of the junctions. Short, purine-rich tracts were present, either at the junction site or in the immediate flanking regions. Putative DNA topoisomerase I binding sites were clustered around the junctions. Although different regions of the transforming plasmid were involved in plasmid-plasmid recombination, we showed that a 19 bp palindromic sequence, including the TATA box of the CaMV 35S promoter, acted as a recombination hotspot. The purine-rich half of the palindromic sequence was specifically involved at the recombination junctions. This recombination hotspot is located within the ''highly recombinogenic'' region of the full-length CaMV RNA that has been shown to promote viral recombination in dicot plants. Clustering of plasmid recombination events in this highly recombinogenic region, even in the absence of viral enzymes and other cis-acting elements proves that the plant cellular machinery alone is sufficient to recognize and act on these viral sequences. Our data also show the similarity between mechanisms underlying junction formation in dicot and monocot plants transformed using different procedures.', 'en_US'),
(666, 'Evaluation of transgenic sweet corn hybrids expressing CryIA(b) toxin for resistance to corn earworm and fall armyworm (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)', 'Many of the lepidopterous insects which attack sweet corn, Zea mays L., are susceptible to insecticidal proteins produced by Bacillus thuringiensis ssp. kurstaki (Berliner) (Btk). Transgenic sweet corn expressing a synthetic cry gene for production of a Btk-insecticidal protein may provide a more environmentally acceptable means of sweet corn production. Eight transgenic sweet corn hybrids containing a synthetic gene for CryIA(b) protein production (BT11 event) were evaluated for resistance to the corn earworm, Helicoverpa zea (Boddie), and fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith). Laboratory tests revealed that all Btk sweet corn hybrids were highly resistant to leaf and silk feeding by neonate 3 and 6 d old corn earworm larvae. Ear damage in the field to the Btk sweet corn hybrids caused by corn earworm was negligible. All Btk sweet corn hybrids, except Btk 95?0901, were moderately resistant to leaf and silk feeding by the fall armyworm. Survival and weight gain were reduced when neonates were fed excised whorl leaves of the Btk plants. Weight gain, but not survival, was reduced when 3- and 6-d-old fall armyworm larvae were fed excised whorl leaves of the Btk plants. Btk sweet corn hybrids appear to be ideal candidates for use in integrated pest management (IPM) programs for both the fresh and processing sweet corn markets, and their use should drastically reduce the quantity of insecticides currently used to control these pests in sweet corn. With appropriate cultural practices, it is highly unlikely that Btk sweet corn will contribute to the development of resistance to Btk proteins in these insects because of the high toxicity of the Cry proteins expressed in these sweet corn hybrids and the harvest of sweet corn ears from fields before larvae can complete development.', 'en_US'),
(667, 'Marker gene controversy in transgenic plants', 'Selectable markers are genes that allow transformed cells expressing them to be selected against large populations of non-transformed cells. In recombinant DNA research, the marker gene is physically linked to the gene of interest. Both genes have their independent regulatory elements like promoters, terminators etc. Depending upon the host, the marker genes can code for herbicide or antibiotic resistance. The use of antibiotic resistance genes as markers is well practiced in microbial genetics as a laboratory tool. Now, a similar concept has been extended to the genetic transformation of other organisms, including agricultural crops. For the expression of selectable markers in plants, genes are often chemically synthesized with codons optimized for expression in plants.', 'en_US'),
(668, 'Gene discovery and product development for grain quality traits', 'The composition of oils, proteins, and carbohydrates in seeds of corn, soybean and other crops has been modified to produce grains with enhanced value.  Both plant breeding and molecular technologies have been used to produce plants carrying the desired traits.  Genomics-based  strategies for gene discovery, coupled with high-throughput transformation processes and miniaturized, automated analytical and functionality assays, have accelerated the identification of product candidates.  Molecular marker-based breeding strategies have been used to accelerate the process of moving trait genes into high-yielding germplasm for commercialization.  These products are being tested for applications in food, feed and industrial markets.', 'en_US'),
(669, 'Chemicals from biotechnology: molecular plant genetics will challenge the chemical and the fermentation industry', 'Industrial biotechnology has evolved as a significant manufacturing tool for products like fuel-grade ethanol, organic acids and bulk amino acids, but most items are still specialty products for food and pharmaceutical applications.  Current development projects within the chemical industry, including lactic acid and 1,3-propanediol based polymers and plastics, indicate that new biotechnological processes and products may soon approach the marketplace, clearly targeted at the leading petrochemical bulk outlets.  This is flanked by a strategic shift by the major chemical companies into ''life sciences'' - pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, and the seed business as well as biotech fine chemicals.  The recent tremendous achievements in molecular plant genetics and transgenic crop breeding will boost agrobiotechnology, agriculture and renewable raw materials as compelling projects for chemistry and biotechnology.  New plant-based production routes may challenge established chemical and biochemical domains, but at the same time open new horizons to valuable feedstocks, intermediates and end-products. ', 'en_US'),
(670, 'Report on the first session of the Codex Ad Hoc intergovernmental task force on foods derived from biotechnology', NULL, 'en_US'),
(671, 'Assessment of Scientific Information Concerning StarLink Corn', NULL, 'en_US'),
(672, 'EPA and USDA Position Paper on Insect Resistance Management in Bt Crops', 'The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) have co-authored this position paper to provide all stakeholders with a central focal point for discussion of insect resistance management (IRM) for toxin genes from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) that have been genetically engineered into crop plants (Bt crops). The following five areas will be discussed in more detail: 1) best management principles for IRM for Bt crops, 2) current IRM strategies for 1999, 3) IRM recommendations and implementation for the future, 4) development of regional pest management centers in the future, and 5) workshops on IRM for Bt crops.', 'en_US'),
(673, 'Science-based risk assessment for the approval and use of plants in agricultural and other environments', 'This paper outlines an approach to a science-based risk assessment for transgenic plants intended for use in agricultural and other managed environments.  The assessment, which focuses on the product rather than the process, concerns the possible risks due to gene transfer, weediness, trait effects, genetic and phenotypic variability, and expression of genetic material from pathogens, bearing in mind worker safety.  This risk assessment is applied in the light of the impact of conventional agriculture on the environment, risk management and the balance between risks and benefits.', 'en_US'),
(674, 'Hybridization as a stimulus for the evolution of invasiveness in plants?', 'Invasive species are of great interest to evolutionary biologists and ecologists because they represent historical examples of dramatic evolutionary and ecological change.  Likewise, they are increasingly important economically and environmentally as pests.  Obtaining generalizations about the tiny fraction of immigrant taxa that become successful invaders has been frustrated by two enigmatic phenomena.  Many of those species that become successful only do so (i) after an unusually long lag time after initial arrival,and/or (ii) after multiple introductions.  We propose an evolutionary mechanism that may account for these observations.  Hybridization between species or between disparate source populations may serve as a stimulus for the evolution of invasiveness.  We present and review a remarkable number of cases in which hybridization preceded the emergence of successful invasive populations. Progeny with a history of hybridization may enjoy one or more potential genetic benefits relative to their progenitors.  The observed lag times and multiple introductions that seem a prerequisite for certain species to evolve invasiveness may be a correlate of the time necessary for previously isolated populations to come into contact and for hybridization to occur.  Our examples demonstrate that invasiveness can evolve.  Our model does not represent the only evolutionary pathway to invasiveness, but is clearly an underappreciated mechanism worthy of more consideration in explaining the evolution of invasiveness in plants.', 'en_US'),
(675, '(Trans) gene silencing in plants: How many mechanisms?', 'Epigenetic silencing of transgenes and endogenous genes can occur at the transcriptional level (TGS) or at the posttranscriptional level (PTGS). Because they can be induced by transgenes and viruses, TGS and PTGS probably reflect alternative (although not exclusive) responses to two important stress factors that the plant''s genome has to face: the stable integration of additional DNA into chromosomes and the extrachromosomal replication of a viral genome. TGS, which results from the impairment of transcription initiation through methylation and/or chromatin condensation, could derive from the mechanisms by which transposed copies of mobile elements and T-DNA insertions are tamed. PTGS, which results from the degradation of mRNA when aberrant sense, antisense, or double-stranded forms of RNA are produced, could derive from the process of recovery by which cells eliminate pathogens (RNA viruses) or their undesirable products (RNA encoded by DNA viruses). Mechanisms involving DNA-DNA, DNA-RNA, or RNA-RNA interactions are discussed to explain the various pathways for triggering (trans)gene silencing in plants.', 'en_US'),
(676, 'Genetically modified crops and farmland biodiversity', 'The decline in farmland biodiversity is a serious conservation issue in Great Britain. So, it is not surprising that the decision to allow commercial introduction of genetically modified herbicide tolerant (GMHT) crops has been delayed until after the completion of farm-scale evaluations of the effects of these crops on farmland biodiversity. Watkinson et al. propose a mathematical model that seeks to measure the impact of GMHT sugar beet crops on weed populations in British fields and the consequences for farmland birds that are dependent on the weed seeds for food. Their model ties together weed population dynamics, farmer decision-making, and regional impacts on farmland birds.', 'en_US'),
(677, 'Biosafety information management systems.  A comparative analysis of the regulatory systems in Canada, Argentina, and Chile', 'CamBioTec, a Canadian-Latin American Network promoting the safe and effective use of agricultural and environmental biotechnology, undertook an analysis of the current capacities of Argentina, Chile and Canada with respect to the management of information related to assessment and approval of products of modern biotechnology/genetic engineering.  This report is based on data obtained during a number of interviews and institutional visits conducted during August 1998 and includes: an overview of current regulatory policy, identification of key human resources and authorities, analysis of information management capacity, recommendations for capacity building, and descriptions of relevant international initiatives.  Canada has a regulatory system in place that is respected throughout the world for its ability to insure high-quality agricultural biotechnology products that meet international human and environmental health and safety standards.  Argentina is recognized as a leader among Latin American countries in the regulation of biotechnology products.  Chile is a well-known center of genetic diversity for a number of plant species but with very little in the way of biosafety regulation.  Together these countries represent a broad spectrum of technical experience, regulatory policy, and agricultural interests.', 'en_US'),
(678, 'Biotechnology and the European public', 'The latest European sample survey of public perceptions of biotechnology reveals widespread opposition to genetically modified food in much of Europe, but public attitudes to medical and environmental applications remain positive.', 'en_US'),
(679, 'Applying the precautionary principle to genetically modified crops', 'The precautionary principle has often been invoked to justify a ban on genetically modified (GM) crops. However, this justification is based upon a selective application of the principle to the potential public health and environmental benefits of such a ban, while ignoring a ban''s potential downside. This is due principally to the fact that the precautionary principle itself provides no guidance on its application in situations where actions (such as a ban on GM crops) could simultaneously lead to uncertain benefits and uncertain costs to public health and the environment. Accordingly, I first develop a framework for applying the principle in cases where the final outcome is ambiguous because both costs and benefits are uncertain. Then, based on a brief survey of the public health and environmental costs and benefits of GM crops, I apply this framework to the broad range of consequences of a ban on GM crops.', 'en_US'),
(680, 'Economic impact study: potential costs of mandatory labelling of food products derived from biotechnology in Canada', 'This report presents the findings from an exploratory investigation of the potential economic impacts if Canada were to introduce mandatory labelling of food products containing ingredients from biotechnology and non-biotechnology. Canada does not currently require mandatory labelling of foods containing biotechnology ingredients except where the composition, nutritional value ora safety of a product is significantly different from its conventional counterparts or where allergen risks exist. The findings presented are based on a program of interviews with a limited number of Canadian industry participants at each level in the supply chain for grain and oilseed products, plus a review of relevant secondary research.', 'en_US'),
(681, 'Field deposition of Bt transgenic corn pollen: lethal effects on the Monarch butterfly', 'We present the first evidence that transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) corn pollen naturally deposited on Asclepias syriaca, common milkweed, in a corn field causes significant mortality of Danaus plexippus L. (Lepidoptera: Danaidae) larvae.  Larvae feeding for 48 hours on A. syriaca plants naturally dusted with pollen from Bt corn plants suffered significantly higher rates of mortality at 48 hours compared to larvae feeding on leaves with no pollen, or feeding on leaves with non-Bt pollen.  Mortality at 120 hours of D. plexippus larvae exposed to 135 pollen grains/cm2 of transgenic pollen for 48 hours ranged from 60-70%.  We found no sub-lethal effects on D. plexippus adults reared from larvae that survived a 48 hour exposure to three concentrations of Bt pollen.  Based on our quantification of the wind dispersal of this pollen beyond the edges of agricultural fields, we predict that the effects of transgenic pollen on D. plexippus may be observed at least 10 m from transgenic field borders.  However, the highest larval mortality will likely occur on A. syriaca plants in corn fields or within 3m of the edge of a transgenic corn field.  We conclude that the ecological effects of transgenic insecticidal crops need to be evaluated more fully before they are planted over extensive areas.', 'en_US'),
(682, 'Removal of antibiotic resistance genes from transgenic tobacco plastids', 'Removal of antibiotic resistance genes from genetically modified (GM) crops removes the risk of their transfer to the enviornment or gut microbes.  Integration of foreign genes into plastid DNA enhances containment in crops that inherit their plastids maternally.  Efficient plastid transformation requires the aadA marker gene, which confers resistance to the antibiotics spectinomycin and streptomycin.  We have exploited plastid DNA recombination and cytoplasmic sorting to remove aadA from transplastomic tobacco plants.  A 4.9kbp insert, composed of aadA flanked by bar and uidA genes, was integrated into plastid DNA and selected to remove wild-type plastid genomes.  The bar gene confers tolerance to the herbicide glufosinate despite being GC-rich.  Excision of aadA and uidA mediated by two 174bp direct repeats generated aadA-free To transplastomic plants containing the bar gene.  Removal of aadA and bar by three 418 bp direct repeats allowed the isolation of marker-free T2 plants containing a plastid-locating uidA reporter gene.', 'en_US'),
(683, 'Plant biotechnology and food security in Latin America and the Caribbean', 'Agriculture is expected to feed an increasing population, forecasted to reach 8 billion by 2020, out of whom 6.7 billion will be in developing countries where the carrying capacity of agricultural lands will soon be reached.  In Latin American and the Caribbean (LAC) countries, in spite of the abundance of natural resources and continued investments in development, poverty and food insecurity affect more than 55% of the rural population.  Fifteen years ago, plant biotechnology comprised only a few applications of tissue culture, recombinant DNA technology and monoclonal antibodies.  Today, genetic transformation, and marker-aided selection and breeding are just a few of the examples of the applications in crop improvement with profound implications for the LAC region.  Plant biotechnology applications must respond to increasing demands in terms of food security, socio-economic development and promote the conservation, diversification and sustainable use of plant genetic resources as basic inputs for the future agriculture of the region.  Food security is defined by the FAO as the access by all people at all times to the food needed for a healthy and active life.  The concept means the achievement of the food self-sufficiency, and guarantees that this condition will be sustained in the future.  Food security implies reaching productive growth and the preservation of the environment.  Malnutrition affects 15% of the population in South America, while the Region represents nearly 23% of the arable lands and 12% of the world cultivated areas.  Plant biotechnology offers several possibilities for increasing productivity, diversification and production, plant tissue culture techniques, and the use of advanced molecular biology techniques for plant transformation, genomic analysis coupled with breeding and plant-disease diagnoses.  Agricultural biotechnology in the LAC Region is characterized by a repetitive and academic model, where many of the project objectives do not respond to the real needs of crop production and food security in the Region.  Many small research teams in universities or agricultural institutions, poorly connected and/or integrated, have a high dispersion of facilities and qualified labour force.  The database of REDBIO/FAO in 1999, register 539 laboratories affiliated in 23 countries of the Region.  83% of the member laboratories have less than 10 researchers and technical personnel and only 72% of them have three post-graduates or more.  The majority of these small research groups lack adequate technology and properly trained personnel to start relevant projects, attractive for public and private investment.  Public and private institutions should play a key role to create of strengthen National Programmes to guide efforts towards the real production needs and food security.  National Programs should identify objectives and priorities in each country, in order to promote regional collaboration, find financial support and facilitate the transfer of appropriate biotechnology and biosafety norms to the producers by promoting the application of valid results.', 'en_US'),
(684, 'Under-utilized Andean food crops: status and prospects of plant biotechnology for the conservation and sustainable agricultural use of genetic resources', 'In line with the strategic recommendations of the Global Plan of Action for the Conservation and Sustainable Utilization of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture approved at the Fourth International Technical Conference on Plant Genetic Resources (ITCPGR), Leipzig, Germany, June 1996 and of the Global Plan of Action on Food Security approved at the World Food Summit on Food Security (WFS), Rome, November 1996, the Andean countries of Latin America (LAC) face the need to strengthen the use of modern plant biotechnology for the conservation and sustainable agricultural use of genetic resources of under-utilized crops.  Advanced biotechnologies such as cell and tissue culture, molecular genome analysis, plant genetic transformation, molecular plant disease diagnosis and germplasm cryo-conservation can be successfully used to cope genetic erosion, to reinforce ex-situ collections and in-situ conservation, to upgrade the supply of improved and healthy seed and planting materials to farmers and to integrate a new approach into the development programmes for food production and food security in mountain lands.  Over the centuries more than 70 crops have been domesticated by the Andes inhabitants.  Presently, on 28 crop species, selected under the basis of adaptation to high altitude, agronomic use and yield, nutritional value and market potential, there are relative developments in terms of agronomic cultural management and scarce genetic conservation activities. ... The paper summarizes the main parameters and characteristics of 13 selected crops including the state of the art of plant biotechnology in the Andean countries and main applications and discusses perspectives and future impact of plant biotechnology for the conservation and development of food crops.', 'en_US'),
(685, 'Biotechnology can help crop production to feed an increasing world population: positive and negative aspects need to be balanced - A perspective from FAO', 'Agriculture mainly food crops, is expected to feed an increasing human population, forecast to reach 7500 million by 2020, of whom 6300 million will be in developing countries.  Although the rate of population growth is steadily decreasing, the increase in absolute numbers of people to be fed may be such that the carrying capacity of agricultural lands could soon be reached given current technology.  New technologies, such as DNA recombinant biotechnologies, if properly focused, offer a responsible way to enhance agricultural productivity for now and the future.  Sustainable food production is uncertain in many developing areas of the world because of their particular climatic, land and water limitations; thus developing low-cost applications will be an important complementary element in increasing food production and stability for the rural poor.  Biotechnology not alone but, coupled with other technologies such as plant breeding and crop physiology, is a powerful tool in agricultural development with great potential - both positive and negative- and offers a potential solution for many problems affecting crops and livestock production in developing countries.  National programmes should ensure that biotechnology benefits all sectors, including resource-poor rural populations, particularly in marginal areas where productivity increases would be more difficult to achieve.  Biotechnology-derived solutions for low productivity and biotic and abiotic stresses as well as improved nutritional or medicinal content built into the genotype of plants could reduce the use of agrochemicals and water, thus promoting sustainable yields, food security and added value integration.  Biotechnology also offers unique opportunities to solve environmental problems, some of which derive from unsustainable agricultural and industrial practices.  FAO recognizes the need to take a balanced and comprehensive approach to biotechnological development by considering its integration into various areas of the Organization''s work programme.  Since the scope for potential action is huge, while FAO resources are limited, it is important that close partnerships with other bodies be forged, including the CGIAR.  Networking operation, as in the case of the Technical Cooperation Network on Plan Biotechnology for Latin America and the Caribbean (REDBIO/FAO), has to be reinforced through new institutional capacity on information, communication and training.  A number of issues are of special concern to countries aiming at increasing their involvement in biotechnology and thus developing their agricultural sector, which is an integral element of rural development and overall national food security.  This paper focuses on a perspective from FAO and REDBIO on specific issues  and concerns of biotechnology application.  Tactics are discussed for priority setting and applying the technologies in support of sustainable agricultural production and food security, with an underlying emphasis on safety in use of biotechnology and its products.', 'en_US'),
(686, 'Global review of commercialized transgenic crops: 2000', 'This publication provides the latest provisional information on the global status of commercialized transgenic crops. In presenting the provisional data for 2000, the changes that have occurred between 1999 and 2000 are highlighted and the global adoption trends during the last five years from 1996 to 2000 are illustrated.', 'en_US'),
(687, 'Changing attitudes to biotechnology in Japan', 'A new survey of the Japanese population reveals waning support for biotechnology and genetic engineering in particular.  Although a majority of people remain optimistic about biotechnology and its uses, a growing number of people feel that the risks associated with agricultural applications, and even environmental and health applications, are increasingly unacceptable.', 'en_US'),
(688, 'Biotechnology, ethics and government: A synthesis', 'The general aim of this report is to provide (a) a synthesis of six papers prepared for the government of Canada dealing with ethics and biotechnology and (b) an indication of gaps in information provided in those papers. CBAC''s role as an advisor to the government of Canada on all aspects of biotechnology including socio-ethical and legal aspects is taken as a starting point for this paper.', 'en_US'),
(689, 'Biotechnology and Food', 'Modern biotechnology greatly benefits the quality and quantity of food, human and animal health, and the environment. Unfortunately, misinformation and misunderstandings about biotechnology in the popular media make it difficult for consumers to make informed assessments. This booklet explains the facts behind genetic modification and explores some of the issues surrounding the increasingly contentious debate over its use in food production.', 'en_US'),
(690, 'Substantial equivalence of antinutrients and inherent plant toxins in genetically modified novel foods', 'For a safety evaluation of foodstuff derived from genetically modified crops, the concept of the substantial equivalence of modified organisms with their parental lines is used following an environmental safety evaluation. To assess the potential pleiotropic effect of genetic modifications on constituents of modified crops data from US and EC documents were investigated with regard to inherent plant toxins and antinutrients. Analysed were documents of rape (glucosinolates, phytate), maize (phytate), tomato (tomatine, solanine, chaconine, lectins, oxalate), potato (solanine, chaconine, protease-inhibitors, phenols) and soybean (protease-inhibitors, lectins, isoflavones, phytate). In several documents used for notifications no declarations even on essential inherent plant toxins and antinutrients could be found, for instance data on phytate in modified maize were provided only in one of four documents. Significant variations in the contents of these compounds in parental and modified plants especially due to environmental influences were observed: drought stress, for example, was made responsible for significantly increased glucosinolate levels of up to 72.6µmol/g meal in modified and parental rape plants in field trials compared to recommended standard concentrations of less than 30µmol/g. Taking into account these wide natural variations generally the concentrations of inherent plant toxins and antinutrients in modified products were in the range of the concentrations in parental organisms. The results presented indicate that the concept of the substantial equivalence is useful for the risk assessment of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) used for novel foods but possible environmental influences on constituents of modified crops need more attention. Consistent guidelines, specifying data of relevant compounds which have to be provided for notification documents of specific organisms have to be established. Because of the importance of inherent plant toxins and antinutrients on nutritional safety, also coherent databases', 'en_US'),
(691, 'Lateral gene transfer and the nature of bacterial innovation', 'Unlike eukaryotes, which evolve principally through the modification of existing genetic information, bacteria have obtained a significant proportion of their genetic diversity through the aquisition of sequences from distantly related organisms.  Horizontal gene transfer produces extremely dynamic genomes in which substantial amounts of DNA are introduced into and deleted from the chromosome.  These lateral transfers have effectively changed the ecological and pathogenic character of bacterial species.', 'en_US'),
(692, 'Governing the GM crop revolution: policy choices for developing countries', 'In this report, Paarlberg devises a system for clarifying policy choices toward GM crops in the areas of intellectual property rights, food safety, biosafety, trade, and public research investment. He then presents an up-to-date snapshot and analysis of policies toward GM crops for four countries: Brazil, China, India, and Kenya. Of these four countries, only China has officially approved the commercial planting of GM crops. Although scientists and some policymakers in Brazil, India and Kenya are pushing for adoption of GM crops, precautionary biosafety policies in these countries are keeping these crops out of the hands of farmers. Paarlberg seeks to explain the differences among the four countries in these policy areas, and he determines that international pressures -from, for example, international environmental and nongovernmental organizations, international agreements, and donors - are working to discourage GM crop adoption in Brazil, India and Kenya. China has taken a different path in part because it is relatively insulated from such pressures.', 'en_US'),
(693, 'US public opinion divided over biotechnology?', 'Conventional wisdom judges that the people of the United States to have few concerns about biotechnology in comparison to people in other parts of the developed world.  According to data from a new survey, this picture is at once both accurate and misleading.  At least one other major comparative study using data from 1996-1997 published this year appeared to indicate generally more favourable attitudes in the US than in Europe.  But recent data reflect mixed opinions in the US consistent with other evidence suggesting moderate declines in US support.  While the proportions may be slightly different, the US increasingly resembles Europe in having significant amounts of opposition.', 'en_US'),
(694, 'Regulators and promoters of genetically modified foods in the government of Canada: an organizational and policy analysis', NULL, 'en_US'),
(695, 'Frequency of resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis in field populations of pink bollworm', 'Strategies for delaying pest resistance to genetically modified crops that produce Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxins are based primarily on theoretical models.  One key assumption of such models is that genes conferring resistance are rare.  Previous estimates for lepidopteran pests targeted by Bt crops seem to meet this assumption.  We report here that the estimated frequency of a recessive allele conferring resistance to Bt toxin Cry1Ac was 0.16 in strains of pink bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella) derived from 10 Arizona cotton fields during 1997.  Unexpectedly, the estimated resistance allele did not increase from 1997 to 1999 and Bt cotton remained extremely effective against pink bollworm.  These results demonstrate that the assumptions and predictions of resistance management models must be reexamined.', 'en_US'),
(696, 'Crop-to-weed gene flow in the genus Sorghum (Poaceae): spontaneous interspecific hybridization between Johnsongrass, Sorghum halepense, and crop sorghum, S. bicolor', 'The role of crop-to-weed gene flow is often controverrsial and overlooked. As a consequence, the likelihood of spontaneous crop-to-weed hybridization in most crop-weed systems is generally unknown. The lack of data relating to the formation of crop-weed hybrids has particular contemporary significance when considering the wide scale commercial release of transgenic crop plants and thr potential for escape of engineered genes via crop-to-weed hybridization. We created an experimental system whereby we could examine the incidence and rate of spontaneous crop-to-weed hybridization between Sorghum bicolor and S. halepense, jonsongrass. An isozyme marker was used to identify hybrid plants ghrough progeny testing. Incidence and rate of hybridization were highly variable with respect to weed distance from the crop, location of the study size, and year the study was performed. Crop-weed hybrids were drtected at distances of 0.5-100 m from the crop. Interspecific hybridization can and does occur in this system at a substantial and measurable rate. Transgenes introduced into crop sorghum can be expected to have the opportunity to escape cultivation through interspecific hybrdization with johnsongrass. Trais that prove to be beneficial to weeds possessing them can be expected to persist and spread. This is an issue that needs to be addressed when developing biosafety guidelines for the commercial release of transgenic sorghums.', 'en_US'),
(697, 'Comparative environmental impacts of biotechnology-derived and traditional soybean, corn, and cotton crops', 'A comprehensive review of the scientific literature supports the conclusion that overall the currently commercialized biotechnology-derived1 soybean, corn, and cotton crops yield environmental benefits.  Furthermore, a critical analysis of the literature supports the idea that biotechnology-derived soybean, corn, and cotton pose no environmental concerns unique to or different from those historically associated with conventionally developed crop varieties.', 'en_US'),
(698, 'The potential for biotechnology to improve crop pest management in the US, 30 crop study', 'With the use of modern genetic transformation techniques, such as microprojectile bombardment of plant tissue, scientists have been inserting genetic material into plant species from other biological species, such as bacteria. The resulting transgenic plant cultivars express proteins that normally are not part of the plant''s genetic makeup. Several transgenic cultivars have been commercialized in the U.S. and have been widely planted after regulatory review of numerous health and safety studies.', 'en_US'),
(699, 'Adoption of Bt cotton by small-scale famers in South Africa', NULL, 'en_US'),
(700, 'Plant biotechnology in China', 'A survey of China''s plant biotechnologists shows that China is developing the largest plant biotechnology capacity outside of North America. The list of genetically modified plant technologies in trials, including rice, wheat, potatoes, and peanuts, is impressive and differs from those being worked on in other countries. Poor farmers in China are cultivating more area of genetically modified plants than are small farmers in any other developing country. A survey of agricultural producers in China demonstrates that Bacillus thuringiensis cotton adoption increases production efficiency and improves farmer health.', 'en_US'),
(701, 'Can farmers in the developing countries benefit from modern technology - experience from the Makhathini Flats, Republic of South Africa', NULL, 'en_US'),
(702, 'Farm level impact of Bt cotton in South Africa', 'This paper describes the method and findings of the first independent survey of smallholder farmers in the Republic of South Africa designed to explore the economic benefits of their adoption of Bt cotton. The study found that the Bt variety generally resulted in a per hectare increase in yields, value of output and reduction of pesticide costs which outweighed the increase in seed costs to give a substantial increase in gross margins. There are several surveys being carried out at the moment on different aspects of the Makhathini experience. The Monitor will be reporting on their results as these become available.', 'en_US'),
(703, 'The payoffs of agricultural biotechnology - an assessment of the evidence', 'Transgenic crops are relatively new technologies being adopted rapidly in the United States and in a few other countries. The economic impacts of these technologies have, thus far, been estimated in a piecemeal fashion. The purpose of this study was to collect and characterize the economic evidence available to date, organize it, and determine if any general implications can be drawn from it. The general classes of economic impacts at the farm level are discussed. The types of studies that generate estimates of these benefits are also characterized and categorized in terms of the implications for measuring economic impacts when the set of things held constant in the type of study does not correspond to those that economic theory suggests. The evidence is presented, along with some general implications drawn from the analysis. These implications are: (1) growing transgenic cotton is likely to result in reduced pesticide use in most years and is likely to be profitable in most years in most U.S. states in the Cotton Belt, (2) Bt corn will provide a small but significant yield increase in most years across the U.S. Corn Belt, and in some years and some places the increase will be substantial, and (3) although there is some evidence of a small yield loss in the Roundup Ready â soybean varieties, in most years and locations savings in pesticide costs and, possibly, tillage costs will more than offset the lost revenue from the yield discrepancy. There is not yet enough evidence to generalize even these few conclusions to other countries. More farm- level studies in more years and across more locations are required before any additional implications can be drawn. Studies that measure the non-pecuniary benefits and costs of these technologies should be undertaken, as well. ', 'en_US'),
(704, 'Fungal growth and Fusarium mycotoxin content in isogenic traditional maize and genetically modified maize grown in France and Spain', 'Fungi of the genus Fusariumare common fungal contaminants of maize and are also known to produce mycotoxins. Maize that has been genetically modified to express a Bt endotoxin has been used to study the effect of insect resistance on fungal infection of maize grains by Fusarium species and their related mycotoxins. Maize grain from Bt hybrids and near-isogenic traditional hybrids was collected in France and Spain from the 1999 crop, which was grown under natural conditions. According to the ergosterol level, the fungal biomass formed on Bt maize grain was 4-18 times lower than that on isogenic maize. Fumonisin B1 grain concentrations ranged from 0.05 to 0.3 ppm for Bt maize and from 0.4 to 9 ppm for isogenic maize. Moderate to low concentrations of trichothecenes and zearalenone were measured on transgenic as well as on non-transgenic maize. Nevertheless, significant differences were obtained in certain regions. The protection of maize plants against insect damage (European corn borer and pink stem borer) through the use of Bt technology seems to be a way to reduce the contamination of maize by Fusarium species and the resultant fumonisins in maize grain grown in France and Spain.', 'en_US'),
(705, 'Enhancing mineral content in plant food products', 'Plant foods can serve as dietary sources of all essential minerals required by humans. Unfortunately, mineral concentrations are low in some plants, especially many staple food crops; thus, efforts are underway to increase the mineral content of these foods as a means to ensure adequate attainment of dietary minerals in all individuals. While these efforts have included classical breeding approaches in the past, it is clear that future progress can be made by utilizing the tools of biotechnology to effect directed changes in plant mineral status. Reviewed are the short- and long-distance mineral transport mechanisms responsible for the root acquisition and whole-plant partitioning of mineral ions in crop plants. This background is used to discuss different transgenic strategies with the potential to enhance mineral content in vegetative and/or reproductive tissues. Due to various constraints imposed by plant transport systems on whole-plant mineral movement, it is argued that modifications designed to increase the supply of minerals to edible organs should have the highest chance for success. Examples of previous efforts to manipulate plant mineral nutrition through the introduction of novel transgenes are presented to demonstrate the utility of these approaches.', 'en_US'),
(706, 'The evolution of modern agriculture and its future with biotechnology', 'Since the dawn of agriculture, humans have been manipulating crops to enhance their quality and yield. Via conventional breeding, seed producers have developed the modern corn hybrids and wheat commonly grown today. Newer techniques, such as radiation breeding, enhanced the seed producers'' ability to develop new traits in crops. Then in the 1980''s?1990''s, scientists began applying genetic engineering techniques to improve crop quality and yield. In contrast to earlier breeding methods, these techniques raised questions about their safety to consumers and the environment. This paper provides an overview of the kinds of genetically modified crops developed and marketed to date and the value they provide farmers and consumers. The safety assessment process required for these crops is contrasted with the lack of a formal process required for traditionally bred crops. While European consumers have expressed concern about foods and animal feeds containing ingredients from genetically modified crops, Americans have largely been unconcerned or unaware of the presence of genetically modified foods on the market. This difference in attitude is reflected in Europe''s decision to label foods containing genetically modified ingredients while no such labeling is required in the U.S. In the future, genetic modification will produce a variety of new products with enhanced nutritional or quality attributes.', 'en_US'),
(707, 'Transgenic approaches in commonly consumed cereals to improve iron and zinc content and bioavailability', 'Modern genetic and molecular technologies provide a number of tools that can be utilized for the development of staple foods with a higher iron and zinc content and improved bioavailability of these minerals. This article summarizes current strategies aimed at increasing the iron-sequestering capacity of the endosperm and improving mineral bioavailability via in planta synthesis of microbial phytases. A case study is presented for wheat, and future strategies are discussed addressing the importance of phytase thermostability.', 'en_US'),
(708, 'Foods as production and delivery vehicles for human vaccines', 'Vaccination is a great asset for eradication of infectious diseases in humans and animals. With the prevalence of antibiotic resistant bacterial strains and an alarming increase in new and re-emerging pathogens, the need for vaccination continues to be a high priority for mammalian diseases. In the last several years, a novel approach for developing improved mucosal subunit vaccines has emerged by exploiting the use of genetically modified plants. It has been demonstrated that plant-derived antigens are functionally similar to conventional vaccines and can induce neutralizing antibodies in mammalian hosts. Using genetically engineered plants for the production of immunogenic peptides also provides a new approach for the delivery of a plant-based subunit vaccine, i.e., oral delivery, provided these immunogenic peptides are expressed in an edible part of the plant, such as grain or fruit. Thus, food crops can play a significant new role in promoting human health by serving as vehicles for both production and delivery of vaccine.', 'en_US'),
(709, 'High-oleic and high-stearic cottonseed oils - nutritionally improved cooking oils developed using gene silencing', 'Gene technology and plant breeding are combining to provide powerful means for modifying the composition of oilseeds to improve their nutritional value and provide the functional properties required for various food oil applications. Major alterations in the proportions of individual fatty acids have been achieved in a range of oilseeds using conventional selection, induced mutation and, more recently, post-transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS). In particular, a number of high-oleic oils have been developed in order to provide high-stability cooking oils. These oils provide the opportunity to replace the current widespread use of saturated fats and hydrogenated oils that contribute significantly to increased risk of cardiovascular disease due to the effect of saturated and trans-fatty acids on elevating LDL cholesterol in the bloodstream. Similarly, oils with increased stearic acid content are being developed to enable the production of solid fats without the need for hydrogenation.We have recently applied hpRNA-mediated PTGS in cotton to down-regulate key fatty acid desaturase genes and develop nutritionally-improved high-oleic (HO) and high-stearic (HS) cottonseed oils (CSOs). Silencing of the ghFAD2-1 Ä12-desaturase gene raised oleic acid content from 13% to 78% and silencing of the ghSAD-1 Ä 9-desaturase gene substantially increased stearic acid from the normal level of 2% to as high as 40%. Additionally, palmitic acid was significantly lowered from 26% to 15% in both HO and HS lines. Intercrossing the HS and HO lines resulted in a wide range of unique intermediate combinations of palmitic, stearic, oleic and linoleic contents. The oxidative stability, flavor characteristics and physical properties of these novel CSOs are currently being evaluated by food technologists.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(710, 'Expression of human milk proteins in plants', 'Human milk proteins are believed to have a multitude of biological activities benefiting the newborn infant. Such functions include antibacterial and antiviral activities, enhancement of the immune system and increased nutrient absorption. To date, only breast-fed infants have been exposed to these proteins. However, by using genetic engineering it is now possible to express these proteins in plants, such as rice, at very high levels. Recombinant human milk proteins can subsequently be added to infant formula and baby foods. Prior to such addition, safety tests and efficacy trials need to be conducted. The safety tests will initially be done in rats and then in humans. The efficacy trials should also evaluate stability against heat treatment (processing), pH (stomach conditions) and proteolytic enzymes (digestion). To date, we have expressed recombinant human lactoferrin, lysozyme and á1-antitrypsin in rice at very high expression levels. These recombinant proteins showed a stability and activities similar to those of the native milk proteins, suggesting that they may be able to exert biological activities in infants when added to formula or baby foods.', 'en_US'),
(711, 'Fighting iron deficiency anemia with iron-rich rice', 'Objective: Iron deficiency is estimated to affect about 30% of the world population. Iron supplementation in the form of tablets and food fortification has not been successful in developing countries, and iron deficiency is still the most important deficiency related to malnutrition. Here we present experiments that aim to increase the iron content in rice endosperm and to improve its absorption in the human intestine by means of genetic engineering.Methods: We first introduced a ferritin gene from Phaseolus vulgaris into rice grains, increasing their iron content up to twofold. To increase iron bioavailability, we introduced a thermo-tolerant phytase from Aspergillus fumigatus into the rice endosperm. In addition, as cysteine peptides are considered major enhancers of iron absorption, we over-expressed the endogenous cysteine-rich metallothionein-like protein.Results: The content of cysteine residues increased about sevenfold and the phytase level in the grains about one hundred and thirtyfold, giving a phytase activity sufficient to completely degrade phytic acid in a simulated digestion experiment.Conclusions: This rice, with higher iron content, rich in phytase and cysteine-peptide has a great potential to substantially improve iron nutrition in those populations where iron deficiency is so widely spread.', 'en_US'),
(712, 'The application of biotechnology to nutrition - an overview', 'Crop biotechnology is being used in two major ways to enhance human nutrition: to improve global food security by making more food available, especially locally grown and familiar foods in the developing world, and by enhancing the nutritional composition of foods that would interest both the developed and developing worlds. Since the first commercialized products of biotechnology are major commodity crops grown primarily in the US, Canada and Argentina (soybeans, corn, canola and cotton), there is concern about whether and when crop biotechnology will help the developing world. There are, however, several on-going projects in Africa, SE Asia and Latin America where crop biotechnology is being used to enhance locally grown crops. The expectation is that genetically improved crops, e.g., those able to resist local pests, will allow even small-scale farmers to grow more crops using fewer inputs and in an environmentally sustainable manner. Furthermore, there are numerous on-going projects to enhance the nutritional or health value of foods via transgene technology. A few of these projects are described in this article.', 'en_US'),
(713, 'Enhancement of vitamin E levels in corn fighting iron deficiency anemia with iron-rich rice', 'Vitamin E is the common name that describes eight naturally occurring compounds possessing _-tocopherol activity. These eight vitamin E compounds are collectively termed tocols, and all have antioxidant activity. There is natural variation among different corn breeding lines for levels of tocols. The two predominant isomers present in corn grain are y-tocopherol and a-tocopherol. a-tocopherol is considered more desirable for human and animal consumption because it has higher biological activity than y-tocopherol. Most corn breeding lines naturally have much more y-tocopherol than a-tocopherol. Therefore a breeding goal is to increase levels of a-tocopherol relative to y-tocopherol. However, recent research suggests that y-tocopherol and compounds metabolized from it have properties important to human health that are unique from properties of a-tocopherol. Therefore it may be desirable to not only increase levels of _-tocopherol in corn grain, but also levels of y-tocopherol. Determination of levels of tocopherols in corn grain is very laborious, requires HPLC analysis and is too time consuming for use in routine commercial corn breeding programs. Therefore we are performing biotechnology enabled molecular marker mapping of chromosomal regions with genes that control levels and ratios of a- and y-tocopherol. Breeders can use molecular markers we have identified to expediently select for desirable alleles of genes that will improve levels of a- and y-tocopherol in corn grain, without having to perform laborious HPLC assays. Another biotechnology strategy we have initiated is genetic transformation of corn with the y-tocopherol methyl transferase gene to enhance conversion of y-tocopherol to a-tocopherol and thus increase levels of a-tocopherol. This transgenic strategy has been demonstrated in the model plant Arabidopsis, and we are now applying this approach to corn.', 'en_US'),
(714, 'The impact of consumer food biotechnology training on knowledge and attitude', 'Objective: Consumer education is an important aspect in the adoption of any new technology. The objective of this work was to determine whether consumer''s knowledge and attitudes would be influenced by a face-to-face presentation involving food biotechnology.Materials and Methods: Participants (576) were requested to complete a pre-test prior to receiving a 45?80 minute presentation, which was then followed by a post-test. Participants included members from a community organization, undergraduate and graduate college students and cooperative extension educators (county agents).Results: Following training, 98% to 99% correctly indicated that fruits and vegetables contain chromosomes and that foods from biotech crops were currently sold in grocery stores. Prior to training, only 31% felt that these crops were properly regulated by federal agencies, and only 25% were confident that bioengineering was unlikely to make an existing food allergenic. Following training, 83% felt that these crops were properly regulated, and 63% believed that biotechnology was unlikely to add new allergens to our food supply. In addition, 90% of those trained would eat or serve genetically-modified foods to their family, and 90% believed that they or their family would benefit from genetically-modified foods within the next five years.Conclusions: It is apparent from these results that when provided sound, science-based information, participants are more accepting of this technology and the regulatory process.', 'en_US'),
(715, 'Increased production of nutrients by genetically engineered crops', 'Plants are the basis of human nutrition and have been selected and improved to assure this purpose. Nowadays, new technologies such as genetic engineering and genomics approaches allow further improvement of plants. We describe here three examples for which these techniques have been employed. We introduced the first enzyme involved in fructan synthesis, the sucrose sucrose fructosyltransferase (isolated from Jerusalem artichoke), into sugar beet. The transgenic sugar beet showed a dramatic change in the nature of the accumulated sugar, 90% of the sucrose being converted into fructan. The use of transgenic sugar beet for the production and isolation of fructans will result in a more efficient plant production system of fructans and should promote their use in human food. The second example shows how the over-expression of the key enzyme of flavonoid biosynthesis could increase anti-oxidant levels in tomato. Introduction of a highly expressed chalcone isomerase led to a seventyfold increase of the amount of quercetin glucoside, which is a strong anti-oxidant in tomato. We were also able to modify the essential amino acid content of potato in order to increase its nutritional value. The introduction of a feedback insensitive bacterial gene involved in biosynthesis of aspartate family amino acids led to a sixfold increase of the lysine content. Because the use of a bacterial gene could appear to be controversial, we also introduced a mutated form of the plant key enzyme of lysine biosynthesis (dihydrodipicolinate synthase) in potato. This modifi-cation led to a 15 times increase of the lysine content of potato. This increase of the essential amino acid lysine influences the nutritional value of potato, which normally has low levels of several essential amino acids. These three examples show how the metabolism of primary constituents of the plant cell such as sugar or amino acids, but also of secondary metabolites such as flavonoids, can be modified by genetic engineering. Producing fructan, a soluble fiber, increasing the level of flavonoids, an antioxidant, in tomato or increasing the level of essential amino acids in potato are all clear examples of plant genetic modifications with possible positive effects on human nutrition.', 'en_US'),
(716, 'Golden rice: introducing the B-carotene biosynthesis pathway into rice endosperm by genetic engineering to defeat vitamin A deficiency', 'To obtain a functioning provitamnin A (13-carotene) biosynthetic pathway in rice endosperm, we introduced in a single, combined transformation effort the cDNA coding for phytoene synthase (psy) and lycopene 13-cyclase (13-Icy) both from Narcissus pseudonarcissus and both under the control of the endosperm-specific glutelin promoter together with a bacterial phytoene desaturase (crtl, from Erwinia uredovora under constitutive 35S promoter control). This combination covers the requirements for (3-carotene synthesis and, as hoped, yellow 13-carotene-bearing rice endosperm was obtained in the To-generation. Additional experiments revealed that the presence of 13-Icy was not necessary, because psy and crtl alone were able to drive 13-carotene synthesis as well as the formation of further downstream xanthophylls. Plausible explanations for this finding are that these downstream enzymes are constitutively expressed in rice endlosperm or are induced by the transformation, e.g., by enzymatically formed products. Results using N. pseudonarcissus as a model system led to the development of a hypothesis, our present working model, that trans-lycopene or a trans-lycopene derivative acts as an inductor in a kind of feedback mechanism stimulating endogenous carotenogenic genes. Various institutional arrangements for disseminating Golden Rice to research institutes in developing countries also are discussed.', 'en_US'),
(717, 'Value of engineered virus resistance in crop plants and technology cooperation with developing countries', 'Plant viruses often cause considerable crop damage and significantly reduce yields in the absence of effective protection treatments. In cultivated crop plants the decrease in yield and crop value caused by virus infection is estimated at 60 billion US dollars per year. Virus infected crops are always of inferior quality,. which reduces their market value. Modem biotechnology has significant potential to increase agricultural productivity to meet the demand for food from an increasing world population. Transformation of plants with viral genes has been proven in many cases to produce resistance to the virus from which the genes were derived. The development of transformation techniques broadens the possibility of using engineered virus resistance in plant breeding. There are many destructive virus diseases of crop plants worldwide, and biotechnology may be the fastest and most efficient way to produce resistant cultivars. From the original discovery of coat protein-mediated resistance in 1986 to the introduction in 1995 of squash and papaya resistant to different viruses, this technology has finally reached the market-place. Transgenic virus resistance, like genetic resistance, is of great value for modem agriculture and can create even greater savings for subsistence farmers, who cannot afford other measures of crop protection. Other than transgenic solutions, only breeding for virus resistance and vector resistance offer long term solutions to a virus disease problem; however, this process is lengthy and the resistance genes are not always available in the desired species. Genetic engineering offers an alternative in crops where no effective resistance gene(s) has been identified, or as way of creating durable multiple resistance mechanisms by combining natural and transgenic resistance.', 'en_US'),
(718, 'Plant biotechnology - current and potential impact for improving pest managment in US agriculture', 'Advances in genetics and molecular biology have made it possible to identify genes coding for specific traits in one organism, isolate and clone them, and incorporate them into the genome of another organism, regardless of relatedness of the source and donor species. Myriad crop species are being experimentally transformed for protection against insects, pathogens, and herbicides, for improved management of pests that plague modern agriculture.Several transgenic cultivars have full regulatory approval and are commercially available for planting by U.S. growers. Adoption of these transgenic cultivars has been rapid in some cases. In other cases, adoption has been minimal. The limited adoption of some transgenic varieties stems from growers'' uncertainty of finding a market for their harvested product rather than from poor agronomic or pest management performance. Despite inconsistent adoption, however, research continues to improve and expand the application of biotechnology in agriculture.An understanding of the contributions, both realized and potentially forthcoming, of agricultural biotechnology for crop pest management is critical to the unfolding public discussion that surrounds it and, ultimately, will determine its future. This report provides descriptions of traits transferred to crop plants for resistance to insects, pathogens and herbicides, and discusses current adoption levels and farm level impacts of available transgenic cultivars. Also reviewed are several transgenic crops under development, the agronomic pests they target, and projected farm level impacts of their commercialization and adoption.', 'en_US'),
(719, 'Commercialization of transgenic cotton expressing insecticidal crystal protein', 'In 1996, the first commercial fields of transgenic upland cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.), expressing the CryIAc insecticidal protein, were grown in the USA (Hardee and Herzog, 1997). The cryIAc transgene was modified after a gene from the bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis. This genetically engineered cotton, commonly known as ''Bt cotton,'' was developed by Monsanto, and Delta & Pine Land Companies as a novel new approach to controlling insect pest injury in production agriculture (Benedict, 1996a; Jenkins, 1999). The commercial production and regulation of Bt cotton technology has been closely followed by the general public, universities, governments, and special interest groups around the world. Genetically transforming cotton and other crops by the addition of foreign genes is viewed by certain public, private and governmental sectors as the most promising new paradigm to reduce pest injury, increase yields and genetically improve crops. However, transforming plants using foreign DNA from non-interbreeding organisms or synthetic DNA artificially produced in the laboratory, has raised questions regarding the impact of these transformed organisms on the environment, health of man, genetic diversity of plant and animal species, and the various religious and philosophical views of mankind. In this chapter we shall review the development and first three years of commercialization of Bt cotton as a novel new insect pest management strategy and tool. We will also discuss the challenges and opportunities in breeding and managing crops genetically engineered to suppress insect injury; and the contributions of these crops to current philosophies of integrated pest management and sustainable agriculture (see Carozzi and Koziel, 1997a; Hall and Menn, 1999 for further discussion on use of transgenic plants and biopesticides in agriculture).', 'en_US'),
(720, 'Agricultural biotechnology: updated benefit estimates.', 'Executive SummaryU.S. farmers have adopted genetically modified crop varieties rapidly since their introduction. By 2000, roughly one fifth of U.S. corn acreage, over half of the soybean acreage, and almost three-quarters of the cotton acreage was planted to crops genetically modified to be resistant to insects and/or herbicides.This report updates our previous estimates of the benefits associated with the adoption of genetically modified crop varieties. Updated impact estimates have been calculated for corn, cotton and soybeans. A discussion of potential impacts for potatoes is included. Each of these crops delivers a unique set of benefits to growers who adopt them. These benefits largely depend on pest control issues particular to each crop and whether other effective and affordable pest control options are available. Understanding the reasons why growers are adopting these varieties is critical in evaluating the their impact.Insect resistant Bt corn varieties have allowed farmers to control the European Corn Borer, an insect pest that is difficult to control using conventional insecticides because it tunnels into the corn stalk soon after hatching, and is protected from the insecticides. Prior to the introduction of Bt corn, few growers were spraying for the corn borer. Instead, yield losses sometimes reached 300 million bushels of corn per year. With Bt corn, losses to the corn borer are eliminated. The primary benefit of Bt corn varieties has been increased yields. In 1999, it is estimated that 66 million bushels of corn were saved from the corn borer, or the equivalent of production on nearly 500,000 acres. Modest reductions in corn insecticide use have also been observed since the introduction of Bt corn. Cotton growers have adopted genetically modified varieties faster than growers of any other crop. Both insect and herbicide resistant varieties have been adopted widely. Insect protected varieties of Bt cotton provide control of three of the most destructive insect pests in cotton: tobacco budworm, cotton bollworm and pink bollworm. Growers were managing these pests with several insecticide treatments per year. In some areas, the efficacy of these insecticides was diminished by the development of insecticide resistant insect populations. Bt cotton has allowed growers to reduce insecticide use and attain better control of these pests, which has resulted in increased yields. It is estimated that cotton growers reduced insecticide use by 2.7 million lbs and made 15 million fewer insecticide applications per year due to the introduction of Bt cotton. Cotton production has also increased, by 260 million lbs per year. Net revenues are estimated to have increased by $99 million in 1999.', 'en_US'),
(721, 'Economic advantage of transgenic cotton in Argentina', 'Transgenic varieties (Bt) are becoming more widespread in cotton plantations in Argentina, reaching about 10,000 hectares in the 1999/2000 campaign. In this paper, we carried out an economic analysis to find out differences between transgenic (Bt) and conventional varieties in terms of costs and income. We analyzed the information provided by 32 growers who are using this technology. To calculate Bt additional benefit per hectare, we used the partial budget method. Overall results show that Bt income surpassed $159.02 /ha and the additional benefit of using it was $65.05 /ha. Bt total direct costs, yield, and fiber quality were better. When using the Bt variety, the number of insecticide applications decreased 2.41 times (63.74 %) and costs by $27.55 /ha.', 'en_US'),
(722, 'Adoption of bioengineered crops', 'Use of crop biotechnology products, such as genetically engineered (GE) crops with input traits for pest management, has risen dramatically since commercial approval in the mid-1990s. This report addresses several of the economic dimensions regarding farmer adoption of bioengineered crops, including herbicide-tolerant and insect-resistant varieties. In particular, the report examines: (1) the extent of adoption of bioengineered crops, their diffusion path, and expected adoption rates over the next few years; (2) factors affecting the adoption of bioengineered crops; and (3) farm-level impacts of the adoption of bioengineered crops. Data used in the analysis are mostly from USDA surveys.', 'en_US'),
(723, 'Predicted impact of transgenic, herbicide-tolerant corn on drinking water quality in vulnerable watersheds of the mid-western USA', 'In the intensely farmed corn-growing regions of the mid-western USA, surface waters have often been contaminated by herbicides, principally as a result of rainfall runoff occurrring shortly after appliation of these to corn and other crops. In some vulnerable watersaheds, water quality criteria for chronic human exposure through drinking water are occasionally exceeded. We selected three settings representative of vulnerable corn-region watersheds, and used the PRZM-EXAMS model with the Indx Reservoir scenario to predict corn herbicide concentrations in the reservoirs as a function of herbicide properties and use pattern, site characteristics and weather in the watersheds. We compared herbicide application scenarios, including broadcast surface pre-plant atrazine and alachlor applications with a glyphosate pre-plant application, scenarios in which losses of herbicides were mitigated by incorporation or banding, and scenarios in which only glyphosate or glufosinate post-emergent herbicides were used with corn genetically modified to be resistant to them. In the absence of drift, in almost all years a single runoff event dominates the input into the reservoir. As a result, annual average pesticide concentrations are highly correlated with annual maximum daily values. The modeled concentrations were generally higher than those derived from monitoring data, even for non-drift model scenarios. Because of their lower post-emergent application rates and greater soil sorpitivity, glyphosate and glufosinate loads in runoff were generally one-fifth to one-tenth those of atrazine and alachlor. These model results indicate that the replacement of pre-emergent corn herbicides with the post-emergent herbicides allowed by genetic modification of crops would dramatically reduce herbicide concentrations in vulnerable watersheds. Given the significantly lower chronic mammalian toxicity of these compounds, and their vulnerability to break down in the drinking water treatment process, risks to human populations through drinking water would also be reduced.', 'en_US'),
(724, 'Natural enemy abundance in commercial Bollgard and conventional cotton fields', 'Field trials in Alabama, Georgia, and South Carolina determined the effect of transgenic Bollgard cotton and conventional varieties treated with insecticides on natural enemy populations. Initial results indicated that Bollgard had a lesser effect on arthropod natural enemy populations than did conventional, broad spectrum insecticides. The effects on nontarget populations, which depended on pest populations and agronomic practices, varied among regions and years. An accurate evaluation of the effect on natural enemy populations may require a multiyear study.', 'en_US'),
(725, 'The limits of GMO detection', NULL, 'en_US'),
(726, 'Validation of a method based on polymerase chain reaction for the detection of genetically modified organisms in various processed foodstuffs', 'A qualitative screening method was validated for the detection of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in various processed food matrices (cooked maize grit, infant formula, biscuits, meal of acidified soybeans). The prepared food matrices contained each 0%, 2%, 100% (10% instead of 100% in the case of biscuits) of Roundup-Ready(R) soybeans and/or of Bt-176 maize. The method was based on the detection of the introduced DNA sequences by using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for amplification of DNA. Two different detection systems were applied: one based on the 35S promoter fragment which is present in GM-soybeans and in GM-maize and one based on the nos terminator sequence which is present only in GM-soybeans. Prior to the validation study, it was demonstrated that the food matrices were homogenous and that there was no cross-contamination between GMO-containing and GMO-free samples. Some laboratories had a high portion of false positive results probably due to laboratory contamination whereas all others reported nearly always correct data for all matrices investigated. Statistical analysis showed that after exclusion of the outliers, an average of 97% correct results was obtained for non-GMO containing samples (3% false positive results) and an average of 98% correct results for GMO-containing samples (2% false negative results). The validated method was shown to be suitable for screening of CMOs in processed food matrices also when extreme physical stress was applied (e.g., heating for 45 min at 100 degreesC or 10 min at 180 degreesC) or when multiple components were present, as in the case of biscuit preparations.', 'en_US'),
(727, 'The certification of reference materials of dry mixed maize powder with different mass fractions of MON 810 maize', 'This report describes the preparation and certification of dry mixed maize powder CRMs (IRMM-413-0) with different mass fractions of genetically modified MON 810 maize powder (Certified reference materials IRMM-413-0, IRMM-413-1, IRMM-413-2, IRMM-413-3, IRMM-413-4 and IRMM-413-5). The CRMs were produced by the Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements (IRMM) in 2000 in collaboration with the Institute for Health and Consumer Protection (IHCP, Ispra, IT), both Joint Research Centres of the European Commission. The CRMs are intended for the validation and calibration of methods for the detection of genetically modified food. The MON 810 concentration of IRMM-413 was verified with the help of DNA based and protein based detection methods. The CRMs are available in the form of glass bottles containing 1 g of maize powder packed under argon atmosphere. Seeds of non-modified maize (variety DK 512 delivered by R.a.g.t. Semences, Rodez, France) and MON 810 (cultivar DK 513 delivered by R.a.g.t. Semences, Rodez, France) were rinsed with demineralised water, additionally drained and dried at 30°C in order to minimise dust contamination from other crops. An average particle size in the maize powder of 35 µm was reached by cryo-grinding. The materials were prepared by quantitative Turbula and dry-mixing of non-modified maize powder and 100 % MON 810 GMO maize powder. After bottling the pre-filled bottles were submitted to a supplemental primary vacuum drying for around 2 h and closed after filling with pure argon. It is recommended to use samplings not smaller than 100 mg. Bottles should be stored dry and cool (+4 °C) and kept in the dark.', 'en_US'),
(728, 'Validation of an immunoassay for the detection and qualification of Round-Up Ready soy beans in food and food fractions', 'An immunoassay for detection of a specific genetically modified soybean (Roundup-Ready(R)) was validated on dried soybean powder in an interlaboratory study. Different percentages of genetically modified soybeans in nonmodified soybean matrix were evaluated in a blind study. Thirty-eight laboratories from 13 countries participated, The immunoassay was evaluated for 2 end-points: (1) To give a semiquantitative result, i.e., determination of a given sample above or below a given threshold, or (2) to compute a quantitative result, i.e., percentage of genetically modified soybeans in the sample. Semiquantitative results showed that a given sample which contained &lt;2% genetically modified soybeans was identified as below 2% with a 99% confidence level. Quantitative use of the assay resulted in a repeatability (r) and reproducibility (R) that were computed to be RSDr = 7% and RSDR = 10%, respectively, for a sample containing 2% genetically modified soybeans. Application of this method depends on availability of appropriate reference materials for a specific food matrix. Only matrix-matched reference materials can be used for analysis of food or food fractions.', 'en_US'),
(729, 'Overview of all small scale notifications (September 1991 - January 2000)', NULL, 'en_US'),
(730, 'Validation of an analytical method for the detection of GMO-derived DNA in processed foodstuffs', NULL, 'en_US'),
(731, 'Validation of a double competitive polymerase chain reaction method for the quanification of GMOs in raw material', 'Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) cannot be marketed within the European Union (EU) as food or food ingredients without following the requirements of the Novel Foods Regulation . In addition to safety evaluation, that regulation also sets the conditions for the labelling of GMO-containing food.Two GMO products (Roundup-Ready® soybean and Bt-176 maize) had been placed on the EU market before the Novel Foods Regulation came into force , . A specific Council Regulation has therefore been approved to deal with the particular labelling requirements for these GMOs . More recently, the so-called ''threshold regulation'' specifies that foodstuffs must be subject to labelling where material, derived from these genetically modified organisms is present in food ingredients in a proportion above 1% of the food ingredients individually considered .The availability of validated methods for the detection and quantification of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in food samples is therefore a key component for the implementation of the European Unions'' Novel Foods Regulation.Qualitative methods can be used as an initial screening of food products to investigate whether GMO specific compounds (proteins and/or DNA) are present. Qualitative analysis could thus be performed on products, sampled from the shelves of supermarkets or from the supplies stored in harbour stockpiles. It is important to highlight the consequences of the two different components of the regulatory framework since they have affected the technical layout of this report. Compliance with the labelling requirements must be assessed in a two-step procedure. By screening products such as biscuits, it is feasible to know if the food has been made from a particular GMO. However, screening techniques are known to be extremely sensitive since they might detect 0.01% of GMOs, in other words it is sufficient to have 100 milligram of GMO soybean per kilogram of soybean to score a positive result. Such a low amount is far below the 1% limit that is set as a threshold level for labelling. Furthermore, that limit is set at the level of ingredients and therefore, if a final product scores positive after a screening method, its respective ingredients should be assayed quantitatively to assess if it contains less or more than 1% GMO. In the latter case, the final product should be labelled.   If the qualitative analysis provides an indication for the presence of an authorised GMO, a subsequent quantitative test should give a decisive answer concerning the labelling requirement. Labelling is required if it can be demonstrated, at the food ingredient level, that there is more than 1% of the GMO present. It can therefore be summarised that a qualitative method for GMO detection should be suitable for ingredients as well as for complex food matrices, whereas a quantitative method should perform well on raw materials and on food ingredients.The current study focuses on the detection of Roundup-Ready® soybean and Bt-176 maize because these were the first GMO products authorised in the EU for food use and subjected to specific labelling requirements.Outline of the projectThe aim of this project was to use Roundup-Ready® soybeans and Bt-176 maize in collaborative trial studies to validate:-a qualitative screening method for its suitability to detect GMOs in processed food-a quantitative method to estimate the concentration of GMOs in raw materials.Both methods are based on the amplification of DNA by the so-called polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and on the visualisation of the DNA fragments generated by using gel electrophoresis. Twenty-three European laboratories participated in the validation studies.', 'en_US'),
(732, 'The validation of methods based on the polymerase chain reaction for the detection of genetically modifed organisms in food', 'Validated analytical methods are necessary in order to show compliance with labelling concerning conventionally produced food or food containing genetically modified organisms (GMOs). Methods to be used in arbitration should be collaboratively tested according to standardisation protocols. According to the Council Regulation of 1998, one of the marker components being the criterion for labelling of products from soy beans and maize is the genetically altered DNA. A qualitative polymerase chain reaction method which has recently been validated in a collaborative trial can be used for initial screening of food products in order to detect GMOs. Furthermore, this screening method has to be validated for processed food. In addition, there is a strong need for quantitative methods with a view to a threshold value for labelling and to distinguish between the source of GMOs in food products (ingredients or additives).', 'en_US'),
(733, 'IUPAC collaborative trial study of a method to detect the presence of genetically modified soy beans and maize in (dried powder) food raw materials', 'This paper presents results of a collaborative trial study (IUPAC project No. 650/93/97) involving 29 laboratories in 13 countries applying a method for detecting genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in food. The method is based on using the polymerase chain reaction to determine the 35s promoter and the NOS termlnator for detection of GMOs. Reference materials were produced that were derived from genetically modified soy beans and maize. Correct identification of samples containing 2% GMOs is achievable for both soy beans and maize. For samples containing 0.5% genetically modified soy beans, analysis of the 355 promoter resulted also in a 166% correct classification. How- ever, 3 false-negative results (out of 105 samples analyzed) were reported for analysis of the NOS terminator, which is due to the lower sensitivity of this method. Because of the bigger genomic DNA of maize, the probability of encountering false-negative results for samples containing 0.5% GMOs is greater for maize than for soy beans. For blank samples (0% GMO), only 2 false-positive results for soy beans and one for maize were re- ported. These results appeared as very weak signals and were most probably due to contamination of laboratory equipment.', 'en_US'),
(734, 'Preliminary results of an interlaboratory assessment of a screening method for the detection of genetically modified organisms in soy beans in maize', 'The preliminary results on an interlaboratory trial On the detection of genetically modified organisms (GMO) are presented. The method applied is based on the detection of modified DNA using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for amplification. The amplified fragments analysed are derived from the 35S promotor and the NOS terminator used for modification and are present in 26 from the 28 GMOs currently already approved or under approval by the competent authorities. This method fits as a screening method indicating the presence of GMO in food. However, it does not allow an identification of the kind of GMO present in the samples. Samples of soybean and maize flour containing 0%, 0.1%, 0.5% and 2% GMO had been prepared for this study and are also already commercially available. In this paper the combined results from 27 laboratories are presented, indicating that on average the probability of false positive or false negative results is only about 1% for soybeans and below 5% for maize.', 'en_US'),
(735, 'Formulating guidelines for field-testing in the Philippines', 'The Philippines was one of the first countries in Asia to develop a biosafety system. This chapter provides an overview of the management challenges and lessons learned in formulating guidelines for field-testing and for implementating biosafety guidelines in general in the Philippines. The most important message is that biosafety guidelines should be based on sound science and management, implementable within the conditions prevailing in the country, and structured in a way that enables rational risk analysis. Biosafety guidelines provide the framework for ensuringthe safe use of and benefits from the products of modern biotechnology.', 'en_US'),
(736, 'Addressing public acceptance issues for biotechnology: experiences from Japan', 'The Government of Japan has declared 22 genetically modified crops safe as food and feed. However, some Japanese consumer and environmental organizations have doubts about the safety of these crops and have protested their import and consumption as human food and livestock feed. Consumer anxiety about these issues is due partly to a lack of reliable information. The government, which regulates genetically modified organisms, plays a role in providing the public with accurate information about genetically engineered crops and their risk assessment. This paper describes Japan''s experience with public acceptance activities carried out by the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries.', 'en_US'),
(737, 'Balancing needs for productivity and sustainability:genetic engineering of rice at IRRI', 'To achieve the productivity gains required to feed the growing population of rice consumers, IRRI scientists use genetic engineering to address a range of problems. Prominent among theseproblems is the need to enhance resistance to biotic and abotic stresses. Research focuses on finding solutions that are effective, durable, environmentally friendly, and acceptable toconsumers. Achieving this balance stimulates research on (1) the isolation of genes and promoters to ensure effectiveness of traits, safety as human food, and friendliness to nontarget organisms, (2) cultivar-independent transformation methods to maintain biodiversity in transgenic rices, (3) environmentally friendly selectable marker genes, (4) deployment strategies favoring durability of transgenic traits, and (5) biological confinement to prevent the spread of certain transgenes to related plants. Several areas of uncertainty may delay the implementation of this valuable technology. This paper explores some of these issues with regard to managing biotechnology for rice improvement at IRRI.', 'en_US'),
(738, 'Genetically modified fish in future aquaculture: technical, environmental and management considerations', 'Statistics on global fish and shellfish production show that fish farming represents about 15% of the global fish yields and is expected to exceed 20% by the year 2000. Capture fisheries have already reached their maximum sustainable yield, and this why any increase in seafood production can only be achieved through aquaculture. Increased productivity in aquaculture will be achieved through genetic improvement of species by selection breeding and, potentially, gene transfer technology.Fish farming in ponds and dams was known in China 5,000 years ago and in Europe around 1,000 years ago. Trout farming started just before World War I, and salmon pen and cage farming began in Norway in the 1970s. About ten years later, a national breeding program was developed, becoming the starting point of this new activity (Gjedrem et al. 1988). After six generations of selection breeding a Norwegian salmon was produced that was 50% bigger than its ancestors from the Norwegian rivers. Later, the Aquaculture Research Institute (AKVAFORSK) successfully transferred the Norwegian salmon breeding program to tilapia farming in the Philippines and carp farming in India. The history of farmed salmon makes it one of the last species to be domesticated together with a few other cultured fish species, although fish culture as such has been known for thousands of years.Efforts are now underway to domesticate new species for aquaculture and to meet the global demand for increased food production. In order to optimize results in new breeding programs, genetic engineering and genetically modified organisms (GMOs) offer new possibilities. The objectives of this paper are to discuss technical, environmental and management considerations regarding the use of GMOs in aquaculture.', 'en_US'),
(739, 'Biosafety: the safe application of biotechnology in agriculture and the environment', NULL, 'en_US'),
(740, 'Biosécurité: Maîtrise des risques dans l''application des biotechnologies à l''agriculture et à l''enrivonnement', NULL, 'en_US'),
(741, 'Analysis of a national biosafety system: regulatory policies and procedures in Egypt', 'During the past decade, national biosafety systems have gained importance as mechanisms for ensuring the safe use of biotechnology products without imposing unacceptable risk to human health or the environment, or unintended constraints to technology transfer. This Country Report presents an analysis of the present status of the biosafety system in Egypt and its impact on the commercialization of genetically modified organisms (GMOs). The specific objectives of the report are:1. to assess the efficacy of biosafety policies and procedures associated with the introduction of biotechnology products in Egypt;2. to develop recommendations for enhancing the operation of Egypt''s biosafety system and minimizing potential constraints to technology transfer;3. to identify areas where ISNAR and other international providers can provide furtherassistance.The report includes a description of the organization and operation of Egypt''s biosafety system, and discusses the larger context for GMO commercialization. Recommendations emerging from this study include (1) specific suggestions for revising Egypt''s biosafety guidelines, (2) ideas for improving the functioning of national and institutional biosafety committees, (3) recommendations for strengthening biosafety review and decision making, and (4) developing means of actively disseminating information to the wider biotechnology community and the public.Findings and recommendations in the report may serve as the basis for discussions to strengthen and adapt the biosafety system to the changing context for biotechnology products in Egypt.', 'en_US'),
(742, 'Evaluation of novel crop varieties in their center of origin and diversity: the case of maize in Mexico', NULL, 'en_US'),
(743, 'Developing durable resistance to rice blast: productivity and environmental considerations', NULL, 'en_US'),
(744, 'Pest resistance management and transgenic plant deployment: perspectives and policy recommendations for the developing world', NULL, 'en_US'),
(745, 'Policy and planning for biosafety: synthesis of an African workshop', NULL, 'en_US'),
(746, 'Impact of genetically modified crops in agriculture', NULL, 'en_US'),
(747, 'The pollination of genetically modified plants', 'Genetically modified plants have now been produced in many species. An examination of pollination in these plant will be necessary before commercial cultivars are produced. In addition, this technology provides a new tool for the study of cross-pollination. An initial field trial, using tobacco, was carried out in 1989. Results demonstrated that pollen transfer from genetically modified plants can be readily followed. Particular species of bumble bees were potential pollen vectors. A second field experiment is being carried out in 1990, to examine cross-pollination in more detail.', 'en_US'),
(748, 'Field performance of derived generations of transgenic tobacco', NULL, 'en_US'),
(749, 'A study of gene dispersal via pollen in Nicotiana tabacum using introduced genetic markers', NULL, 'en_US'),
(750, 'Releasing transgenic plants', NULL, 'en_US'),
(751, 'Time scales for transgenic product development', 'Recent rapid progress on the production of transgenic plants has led to an increasing number of field trials throughout the world by both commercial and academic groups. A brief, selective, review of progress achieved by conventional plant breeding and the expected life time of cultivars developed through this process is followed by details of recent experience gained from mutagenesis programmes, in particular the generation and marketing of imidazolinone-resistant maize in the USA. The role of RFLP-aided backcrossing to speed the development of such products is emphasised.Three specific types of transgenic product development are examined in some detail. The first two, namely herbicide resistance and tomatoes with improved processing characteristics are already close to market. The third example, that provided by woody species (either fruit or forest trees) is inevitably longer term because of the prolonged duration of the breeding cycle. Nevertheless, it may in the future provide some of the most valuable benefits such as improvements in the efficiency of paper production.', 'en_US'),
(752, 'How to engineer a crop plant', NULL, 'en_US'),
(753, 'Transgenic crop plants: the next generation or an example of 2020 vision', 'Genetically modified, i.e. transgenic crops, are now being grown on several million acres throughout the world, mainly in North America. Most of these ''first generation'' products have specific agronomic traits designed to improve the efficiency of production. For example herbicide tolerant soybean and insect resistant corn are the two most widely grown transgenic crops. Increasingly, the new transgenic varieties under test contain product quality or other higher value traits intended to provide specific benefits to the end user whether it be the producer of specialist chemicals or the consumer. This review describes examples of these ''second generation'' traits and attempts to predict the range of household, medical, industrial and environmental products that might become available over the next 20 years.', 'en_US'),
(754, 'Analytical challenges: bridging the gap from regulation to enforcement', 'An overview is presented of the analytical steps that may be needed to determine the presence of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) or for analysis of GMO-derived produce. The analytical aspects necessary for compliance with labeling regulations are discussed along with bottlenecks that may develop when a plant product or a food sample is analyzed for conformity with current European Union GMO legislation. In addition to sampling and testing, other topics deal with complications that arise from biological and agricultural realities that may influence testing capabilities. The issues presented are intended to serve as elements to examine the different challenges that enforcement laboratories might face.', 'en_US'),
(755, 'Method development in relation to regulatory requirements for the detection of GMO''s in the food chain', 'This is a summary report of a joint workshop held in Brussels, Belgium, in December 2000. The workshop was organized by the ILSI Europe Novel Food Task Force in collaboration with the European Commission''s Joint Research Centre (JRC) and ILSI International Food Biotechnology Committee. The purpose was to investigate progress in the development of analytical methods since the last workshop was held in June 1998.', 'en_US'),
(756, 'Analytical methods for detection and determination of genetically modified organisms (GMO''s) in agricultural crops and plant-derived food products - a review', 'Numerous analytical methods, both qualitative and quantitative, have been developed to determine reliably the presence and/or the amount of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in agricultural commodities, in raw agricultural materials and in processed and refined ingredients. In addition to the ''classical'' methods for DNA and protein analysis, e.g. polymerase chain reaction and enzyme linked immunosorbent analysis, certain types of GMO-containing matrices can be profiled by complementary chemical analysis methods such as chromatography and near infrared spectroscopy. This review summarises the status of the most widely used GMO analysis technologies, identifies new areas of analytical investigation and discusses current needs and future challenges.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(757, 'Vallidation studies and proficiency testing', 'Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) entered the European food market in 1996. Current legislation demands the labeling of food products if they contain <1% GMO, as assessed for each ingredient of the product. To create confidence in the testing methods and to complement enforcement requirements, there is an urgent need for internationally validated methods, which could serve as reference methods. To date, several methods have been submitted to validation trials at an international level; approaches now exist that can be used in different circumstances and for different food matrixes. Moreover, the requirement for the formal validation of methods is clearly accepted; several national and international bodies are active in organizing studies. Further validation studies, especially on the quantitative polymerase chain reaction methods, need to be performed to cover the rising demand for new extraction methods and other background matrixes, as well as for novel GMO constructs.', 'en_US'),
(758, 'Transgenic approaches to crop improvement', 'Transgenic crops are now grown com. on several million ha, principally in North America. To date, the predominant crops are maize (corn), soybean, cotton, and potatoes. In addn., there have been field trials of transgenics from at least 52 species including all the major field crops, vegetables, and several herbaceous and woody species. This review summarizes recent data relating to such trials, particularly in terms of the trends away from simple, single gene traits such as herbicide and insect resistance towards more complex agronomic traits such as growth rate and increased photosynthetic efficiency. Much of the recent information is derived from inspection of patent databases, a useful source of information on com. priorities. The review also discusses the time scale for the introduction of these transgenes into breeding populations and their eventual release as new varieties.', 'en_US'),
(759, 'Transcriptome analysis and crop improvement', NULL, 'en_US'),
(760, 'Consumer attitudes towards genetically modified foods.', 'The present study reports attitudes towards genetically modified (GM) foods among Swedish consumers. A random nation-wide sample of 2000 addressees, aged 18?65 years, were mailed a questionnaire and 786 (39%) responded. Most of these consumers were rather negative about GM foods. However, males, younger respondents and those with higher level of education were more positive than were females, older respondents and those with lower level of education. A majority of the consumers had moral and ethical doubts about eating GM foods and did not perceive attributes like better taste or lower price beneficial enough to persuade them to purchase GM foods. However, tangible benefits, like being better for the environment or healthier, seemed to increase willingness to purchase GM foods.', 'en_US'),
(761, 'Europe gets tough on labelling genetically modified foodstuffs', NULL, 'en_US'),
(762, 'Food biotechnology: benefits and concerns', 'Recent advances in agricultural biotechnology have highlighted the need for experimental evidence and sound scientific judgment to assess the benefits and risks to society. Nutrition scientists and other animal biologists need a balanced understanding of the issues to participate in this assessment. To date most modifications to crop plants have benefited producers. Crops have been engineered to decrease pesticide and herbicide usage, protect against stressors, enhance yields and extend shelf life. Beyond the environmental benefits of decreased pesticide and herbicide application, consumers stand to benefit by development of food crops with increased nutritional value, medicinal properties, enhanced taste and esthetic appeal. There remains concern that these benefits come with a cost to the environment or increased risk to the consumer. Most U.S. consumers are not aware of-the extent that genetically modified foods have entered the marketplace. Consumer awareness of biotechnology seems to have increased over the last decade, yet most consumers remain confused over the science. Concern over the impact on the safety of the food supply remains low in the United States, but is substantially elevated in Europe. Before a genetically engineered crop is introduced into commerce it must pass regulatory scrutiny by as many as four different federal regulatory bodies to ensure a safe food supply and minimize the risk to the environment. Key areas for more research are evaluation of the nutritional benefits of new crops, further investigation of the environmental impact, and development of better techniques to identify and track genetically engineered products.', 'en_US'),
(763, 'The dog as a model for food allergy', 'Research during the past decade has shown the dog to be an excellent model for human food allergies. Humans and dogs share many of the same allergies to foods. Furthermore, the dog model shows clinical symptoms typical of humans, that is, both experience vomiting and diarrhea. Present results suggest that the dog may provide a means to test genetically modified foods for unsuspected allergens.', 'en_US'),
(764, 'Detection of genetically modified coho salmon using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification', NULL, 'en_US'),
(765, 'Genetically modified foods, science, consumers and the media', NULL, 'en_US'),
(766, 'Hidden food allergens', 'This review summarizes recent advances and findings in the area of ''hidden'' food allergens, i.e. allergenic foods that can either contaminate other foods, or be ''disguised'' as part of a food, and cause allergic reactions. Newly emerging allergenic foods of increasing importance, recently developed methods for the detection of allergenic residues, the potential allergenicity of genetically engineered foods, and some unexpected sources of food allergens are described.', 'en_US'),
(767, 'A new kind of fish story. The coming of biotech animals', NULL, 'en_US'),
(768, 'Biotechnology and food allergy', 'The production of genetically modified foods for an increasingly informed and selective consumer requires the coordinated activities of both the companies developing the transgenic food and regulatory authorities to ensure that these foods are at least as safe as the traditional foods they are supplementing in the diet. Although the size and complexity of the food sector ensures that no single player can control the process from seed production through farming and processing to final products marketed in a retail outlet, checks and balances are in place to ensure that transgenic foods will provide a convenient, wholesome, tasty, safe, affordable food source. Ultimately, it is the responsibility of companies developing the genetically modified food to provide relevant data to regulatory agencies, such as the US Department of Agriculture, Environmental Protection Agency, and Food and Drug Administration, to confirm that the transgenic product is reasonably safe for the consumer, as zero risk from allergen sensitization is nonexistent.', 'en_US'),
(769, 'Allergies a la carte: is there a problem with genetically modified foods?', NULL, 'en_US'),
(770, 'Transgenes in native Mexican maize--still no need for concern', NULL, 'en_US'),
(771, 'No ''killer tomatoes'': easing federal regulation of genetically engineered plants', 'This article discusses the regulation of the use of genetically engineered organisms by the three federal organizations that have significant roles in regulating such use: the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the Food and Drug Administration, and the Environmental Protection Agency. In response to the public''s fear that genetic engineering of plants somehow would harm the environment, these agencies promulgated strict regulations and established policies to provide specific guidelines for such regulation. Based on extensive regulatory review and testing, however, these regulatory organizations determined that there are no risks to the environment and are liberalizing their regulations. Indeed, in contrast with the policies of the European Union, the U.S. government considers genetically engineered crops to be identical to traditional crops so that, unless specific safety issues are raised, special labeling of genetically engineered foods is not required.', 'en_US'),
(772, 'Safety considerations of DNA in food', 'Recombinant DNA techniques are capable of introducing genetic changes into food organisms that are more predictable than those introduced through conventional breeding techniques. This review discusses whether the consumption of DNA in approved novel foods and novel food ingredients derived from genetically modified organisms (GMOs) can be regarded as being as safe as the consumption of DNA in existing foods. It concludes that DNA from GMOs is equivalent to DNA from existing food organisms that has always been consumed with human diets. Any risks associated with the consumption of DNA will remain, irrespective of its origin, because the body handles all DNA in the same way. The breakdown of DNA during food processing and passage through the gastrointestinal tract reduces the likelihood that intact genes capable of encoding foreign proteins will be transferred to gut microflora. The review does not specifically address food safety issues arising from the consumption of viable genetically modified microorganisms but it shows that the likelihood of transfer and functional integration of DNA from ingested food by gut microflora and/or human cells is minimal. Information reviewed does not indicate any safety concerns associated with the ingestion of DNA per se from GMOs resulting from the use of currently available recombinant DNA techniques in the food chain.', 'en_US'),
(773, 'Oral immunization of human with transgenic lettuce expressing hepatitis B surface antigen', NULL, 'en_US'),
(774, 'Sampling grain shipments to detect genetically modified seed', 'Using the binomial distribution, the effect of sample size on the variability among sample test results when sampling a lot with 1.0% genetically modified (GM) or biotech seed was evaluated. The coefficient of variation, cv, among 500-seed sample test results taken from a lot with truly 1.0% was computed to be 44.5%. Increasing sample size to 1000 seeds reduced the cv among sample test results to 31.5%. The effects of sample size and accept/reject limits on the buyer''s risk (bad lots accepted) and the seller''s risk (good lots rejected) was also evaluated assuming a tolerance of 1.0% GM seed. Increasing sample size decreases both the buyer''s and seller''s risks at the same time. Using an accept/reject limit below the regulatory tolerance decreases the buyer''s risk, but increases the seller''s risk. Using an accept/reject limit above the regulatory tolerance decreases the seller''s risk but increases the buyer''s risk.', 'en_US'),
(775, 'Validation of PCR methods for quantitation of genetically modified plants in food', 'For enforcement of the recently introduced labeling threshold for genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in food ingredients, quantitative detection methods such as quantitative competitive (QC-PCR) and real-time PCR are applied by official food control laboratories. The experiences of 3 European food control laboratories in validating such methods were compared to describe realistic performance characteristics of quantitative PCR detection methods. The limit of quantitation (LOQ) of GMO-specific, real-time PCR was experimentally determined to reach 3050 target molecules, which Is close to theoretical prediction. Starting PCR with Or-200 ng genomic plant DNA, the LOQ depends primarily on the genome size of the target plant and ranges from 0.02% for rice to 0.7% for wheat. The be-precision of quantitative PCR detection methods, expressed as relative standard deviation (RSD), varied from 10 to 30%. Using Bt1 76 corn containing test samples and applying Bt176 specific QCPCR, mean values deviated from true values by -7 to 18%, with an average of 2 ± 10%. Ruggedness of real-time PCR detection methods was assessed in an interlaboratory study analyzing commercial, homogeneous food samples. Roundup Ready soybean DNA contents were determined in the range of 0.3 to 36%, relative to soybean DNA, with RSDs of 0.3 to 36%, relative to soybean DNA, with RSDs of mate-about 25%. Taking the precision of quantitative PCR detection methods into account, suitable sample plans and sample sizes for GMO analysis are suggested. Because quantitative GMO detection methods measure GMO contents of samples in relation to reference material (calibrants), high priority must be given to international agreements and standardization on certified reference materials.', 'en_US'),
(776, 'Contribution of European research to risk analysis', 'The European Commission''s, Quality of Life Research Programme, Key Action 1-Health, Food & Nutrition is mission-oriented and aims, amongst other things, at providing a healthy, safe and high-quality food supply leading to reinforced consumer confidence in the safety of European food. Its objectives also include the enhancing of the competitiveness of the European food supply. Key Action 1 is currently supporting a number of different types of European collaborative projects in the area of risk analysis. The objectives of these projects range from the development and validation of prevention strategies including the reduction of consumers risks; development and validation of new modelling approaches; harmonization of risk assessment principles, methodologies, and terminology; standardization of methods and systems used for the safety evaluation of transgenic food; providing of tools for the evaluation of human viral contamination of shellfish and quality control; new methodologies for assessing the potential of unintended effects of genetically modified (genetically modified) foods; development of a risk assessment model for Cryptosporidium parvum related to the food and water industries; to the development of a communication platform for genetically modified organism, producers, retailers, regulatory authorities and consumer groups to improve safety assessment procedures, risk management strategies and risk communication; development and validation of new methods for safety testing of transgenic food; evaluation of the safety and efficacy of iron supplementation in pregnant women; evaluation of the potential cancer-preventing activity of pro- and pre-biotic (''synbiotic'') combinations in human volunteers. An overview of these projects is presented here.', 'en_US'),
(777, 'Risk communication--the perceptions and realities', 'This paper defines risk communication and puts it into the perspective of risk analysis as a whole. Case studies originating for the food industry are described in the areas of food colours, pesticides and genetically modified foods to exemplify both the difficulties of risk communication and the lessons that can be learned. This paper concludes by suggesting ways in which successful risk communication should be managed.', 'en_US'),
(778, 'Research needs for human nutrition in the post-genome-sequencing era', NULL, 'en_US'),
(779, 'Perspectives on nutrition needs for the new millennium for South Asian regions', NULL, 'en_US'),
(780, 'Modern biotechnology-current standards in Japan', NULL, 'en_US'),
(781, 'Practical approaches to risk assessment', NULL, 'en_US'),
(782, 'PCR-based detection of genetically modified soybean and maize in raw and highly processed foodstuffs', 'The PCR method has proved to be an invaluable tool for the specific and sensitive detection of genetically modified material (e.g., Roundup Ready Im Soybean and Bt-176 ''Maximizer'' Maize) in foodstuffs. The first step in the procedure, namely the purification of nucleic acids from the sample, is often the deciding factor in the production of meaningful results. In this study, we present two procedures that enable an efficient isolation of trace amounts of genetic material from both raw and highly processed foodstuffs. We show that for optimal, PCR-ready DNA purification from highly processed foodstuffs and PCR inhibitor-rich substances-such as cocoa-containing products-adapted protocols for the QIAGEN((R)) QlAamp((R)) DNA Stool Mini Kit can be utilized. For complete DNA isolation from raw foodstuffs, a protocol using the DNeasy((R)) Plant Mini Kit is presented.', 'en_US'),
(783, 'How to make foods safer--genetically modified foods', NULL, 'en_US'),
(784, 'Toward a political economy of opinion formation on genetically modified foods', NULL, 'en_US'),
(785, 'Scientific perspectives on regulating the safety of genetically modified foods', 'Regulation is often seen as the dull end of science. The recent storm over the introduction of genetically modified foods and the calls to regulate their consumption have had a negative affect on development of the science. Assuring the safety of genetically modified foods might raise questions where existing scientiic data is limited and underline the need for further research.', 'en_US'),
(786, 'From breeder reactors to butterflies: risk, culture, and biotechnology', NULL, 'en_US'),
(787, 'Genetically modified foods: a case of information or misinformation?', NULL, 'en_US'),
(788, 'Genetically modified foods--safety and regulatory issues', NULL, 'en_US'),
(789, 'Genetically modified foods--safety and regulatory issues', NULL, 'en_US'),
(790, 'Health risks of genetically modified foods: a literature review', 'In 1999, there has been much concern on the safety of genetically modified (GM) foods, an important and complex area of safety research, which demands rigorous standards. Various groups, including consumers and environmental Non Governmental Organizations (NGO) have suggested that all GM foods should be subjected to long-term animal feeding studies before approval for human consumption. The main goal of this review has been to know which is the state-of-the art regarding to the potential adverse effects of GM foods. Two databases, MEDLINE and TOXLINE, as well as a number of URL from INTERNET were used for references. Although commentaries, general news and letters to the Editor have been frequently published in reputable journals, papers about experimental studies on the safety of GM foods are surprisingly very scant. If data on toxicological assessment of GM foods have been obtained, these have not been reported in scientific journals and subjected to the scientific judgement.', 'en_US'),
(791, 'Genetically modified foods and current epidemiology', NULL, 'en_US'),
(792, 'The future relationship between the media, the food industry and the consumer', 'The relationship between the media, the food industry and the consumer is probably at its lowest point as we start the new millennium. The frequency of food scares appears to be increasing and news reports sometimes seem both sensational and polarised. High profile issues like the development of bovine spongiform encephalopathy in the UK and the dioxin contamination of poultry products in Belgium have undermined consumer confidence in the food industry. The recent genetically modified foods'' debate has served to demonstrate the gulf that has grown between the food industry, food safety experts and the public. This is a rift that has been exploited by environmental pressure groups and fuelled by the media.', 'en_US'),
(793, 'Genetically modified foods--safety and regulatory issues', NULL, 'en_US'),
(794, 'Genetically modified foods: economic aspects and public acceptance in Brazil', 'A pilot survey of the public''s acceptance of biotechnology was carried out in Brazil. The main focus in Brazil is on the production of transgenic soyabeans, which are adapted to the country''s different regions. Public perceptions varied with level of education and family income. The main concern is the insufficient monitoring of environmental and food safety issues of genetically modified products, as wel as risks and benefits of alternatives.', 'en_US'),
(795, 'Consumers'' cognitions with regard to genetically modified foods. Results of a qualitative study in four countries', 'The objective of this research was to gain insight into consumers'' attitudes towards genetic modification in food production. With means-end chain theory as the theoretical basis, laddering interviews were conducted with 400 consumers in Denmark, Germany, the United Kingdom and Italy. Perceived risks and benefits of genetic modification in foods were investigated using beer and yoghurt as examples. German and Danish responses revealed more complex cognitive structures than did the results from the United Kingdom and Italy. In all four countries, however, applying genetic modification was associated with unnaturalness and low trustworthiness of the resulting products, independently of whether the genetically modified material was traceable in the product. Moral considerations were voiced as well, as were a number of other consequences that were perceived to conflict with both individual and social values.', 'en_US'),
(796, 'Adequacy of methods for testing the safety of genetically modified foods', 'AAn issue that has been prominent in the current debate on the health risks of genetically modified (GM) foods is whether there are adequate methods of testing for the safety of these foods. One view is that the safety assessments of these foods are not as rigorous as those for new chemicals or drugs. Today ''s Lancet carries two Research Letters reporting work on the potential risks to human health of the lectin Galanthus nivalisagglutinin (GNA ) , a compound that may be useful in protecting food plants from attacks by insects. These letters raise issues about the design of studies on safety.Stanley Ewen and Arpad Pusztai report that , when fed to rats , GM potatoes containing the GNA lectin have proliferative and antiproliferative effects on the gut.  They suggest that several of these effects are due to alterations in the composition of the transgenic potatoes , rather than to the newly expressed gene product.  However, data on the composition of the different diets are not reported in the letter.  Pusztai has released some of these details on the internet (http://www.rri.sari.ac.uk/gmo/ajp.htm).  These details indicate that the content of starch, glucosepolymers, lectin, and trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors in GM potatoes differed from that of the parental line.  Unfortunately, these differences have not been examined further by analysis of an extended range of lines, for evidence on whether these differences are attributable to the genetic modification or to natural variations.  Another shortcoming of the study is that the diets were protein deficient; they contained only 6% protein by weight.  There is convincing evidence that short-term protein stress and starvation impair the growth rate, development, hepatic metabolism, and immune function of rats.(1, 2)Ewen and Pusztai say that the significant differences between diet groups in variables such as mucosal thickness or crypt length are evidence of the biological effects of the GM foods.  Such a claim is easy to make but difficult to prove, because no consistent patterns of changes were observed in the study.  Ingestion of potatoes may be associated with several adaptive changes in the gut because of the low digestibility of raw or partly refined potato starch.  In rats caecal hypertrophy is a common response to short -term feeding of various poorly digestible carbohydrates, such as raw potato starch (3 , 4).  A physiological response of this nature is probably of little toxicological significance.  Dose -response studies would have helped in the assessment of consistency of response.', 'en_US'),
(797, 'The safety and social acceptance of novel foods', 'The regulatory processes employed in the UK and the European Union to assess the safety of novel foods and novel food ingredients, including those resulting from the application of recombinant DNA technology (genetically modified foods), are described. Examples are given of yeasts that have been genetically modified and can be used in food and drink manufacture and food enzymes derived from genetically modified microorganisms that have been deemed safe for use by the UK regulatory system. Social acceptance of such novel foods or food ingredients is not uniform in countries of the developed world. Consumer concerns can be based on ethical considerations (scientists ''playing God'') or safety worries (''more testing needs to be done''). The general acceptance of such foods and food ingredients in Europe is still unclear.', 'en_US'),
(798, 'Science, medicine, and the future. Genetically modified foods', 'The use of genetic modification in food production is proving contentious and attracting much media coverage. Despite this, it can be difficult for anyone not directly involved to know how to obtain hard facts.  Genetically modified foods raise many issues?scientific, technological, environmental, social, ethical, economic, and political?too many to cover here.  This article therefore paints a broad picture of genetically modified foods and provides a lead to sources of information by addressing three specific points:  What is genetic modification and how does it relate to food production?  What are the current and future applications?  What concerns do genetically modified foods raise?', 'en_US'),
(799, 'New regulation for labeling genetically modified foods: a solution or a problem?', NULL, 'en_US'),
(800, 'The EC novel foods regulation--a UK perspective', NULL, 'en_US'),
(801, 'Genetic improvement of poplar feedstock quality for ethanol production', 'Opportunities for matching chemical and physical properties of woody feedstocks to ethanol production process requirements via genetic improvement have long been recognized. Exploitation is now feasible owing to advances in trait measurement, breeding, and gene transfer technologies. Poplar genetic parameters are favorable largely for reducing lignin and increasing cellulose contents and specific gravity. Transgenic poplars with decreased lignin and increased cellulose contents, but otherwise normal growth and development, have been produced via genetic transformation. The long-standing debate on feasibility has thus become one of when, not if, designer varieties will become available.', 'en_US'),
(802, 'Using transgenic poplars to elucidate the relationship between the structure and the thermal properties of lignins', NULL, 'en_US'),
(803, 'Mycorrhizal colonization of transgenic aspen in a field trial', NULL, 'en_US'),
(804, 'Can genetic engineering help restore ''heritage'' trees?', 'By the end of World War I, the American chestnut, which once dominated many eastern forests, had nearly been wiped out by the Asian fungus Cryphonectria parasitica. Now, forest-biotech researchers believe genetic engineering might help restore this majestic species--and possibly other ''heritage trees'' menaced by disease, including elms, white pine, butternut, and several species of California oak.', 'en_US'),
(805, 'Molecular biological studies on diversity of secondary metabolism in medicinal plants and application to the production in transgenic plants', NULL, 'en_US'),
(806, 'Plotting a course for GM forestry', NULL, 'en_US'),
(807, 'Enhanced tolerance of transgenic poplar plants overexpressing gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase towards chloroacetanilide herbicides', 'A wild-type poplar hybrid and two transgenic clones overexpressing a bacterial Y-glutamylcysteine synthetase in the cytosol or in the chloroplasts were exposed to the chloroacetanilide herbicides acetochlor and metolachlor dispersed in the soil. The transformed poplars contained higher Y-glutamylcysteine and glutathione (GSH) levels than wild-type plants and therefore it was supposed that they would have an elevated tolerance towards these herbicides, which are detoxified in GSH-dependent reactions. Phenotypically, the transgenic and wild-type plants did not differ. The growth and the biomass of all poplar lines were markedly reduced by the two chloroacetanilide herbicides. However, the decrease of shoot and root fresh weights caused by the herbicides was significantly smaller in the transgenic than in wild-type plants. In addition, the growth rate of poplars transformed in the cytosol was reduced to a significantly lesser extent than that of wild-type plants following herbicide treatments. The effects of the two herbicides were similar. Herbicide exposures markedly increased the levels of Y-glutamylcysteine and GSH in leaves of each poplar line. The increase in the foliar amounts of these thiols was stronger in the transgenic lines than in the wild type, particularly in the upper leaves. Considerable GST activities were detected in leaves of all poplar plants. Exposure of poplars to chloroacetanilide herbicides resulted in a marked induction of GST activity in upper leaf positions but not in middle and lower leaves. The extent of enzyme induction did not differ significantly between transgenic and wild-type poplars. Although the results show that the transgenic poplar lines are good candidates for phytoremediation purposes, the further improvement of their detoxification capacity, preferably by transformation using genes encoding herbicide-specific GST isoenzymes, seems to be the most promising way to obtain plants suitable for practical application.', 'en_US'),
(808, 'Increased Septoria musiva resistance in transgenic hybrid poplar leaves expressing a wheat oxalate oxidase gene', 'A cDNA clone of a wheat germin-like oxalate oxidase (OxO) gene regulated by the constitutive CaMV 35S promoter was expressed in a hybrid poplar clone, Populus × euramericana (`Ogy''). Previous studies showed that OxO is likely to play an important role in several aspects of plant development, stress response, and defense against pathogens. In order to study this wheat oxalate oxidase gene in woody plants, the expression of this gene and the functions of the encoded enzyme were examined in vitro and in vivo in transgenic `Ogy''. The enzyme activity in the transformed `Ogy'' was visualized by histochemical assays and in SDS-polyacrylamide gels. It was found that the wheat OxO gene is expressed in leaves, stems, and roots of the transgenic `Ogy'' plants and the encoded enzyme is able to break down oxalic acid. Transgenic `Ogy'' leaves were more tolerant to oxalic acid as well as more effective in increasing the pH in an oxalic acid solution when compared to untransformed controls. In addition, when leaf disks from `Ogy'' plants were inoculated with conidia of the poplar pathogenic fungus Septoria musiva, which produces oxalic acid, the OxO-transformed plants were more resistant than the untransformed controls.', 'en_US'),
(809, 'Advances in phytoremediation', NULL, 'en_US'),
(810, 'A rapid coming of age in tree biotechnology', NULL, 'en_US'),
(811, 'The use of transgenic fruit trees as a resistance strategy for virus epidemics: the plum pox (sharka) model', 'Sharka or plum pox, caused by Plum pox Virus (PPV: genus PotyVirus; Family PotyViridae), is the most serious disease of Prunus. Most cultivated Prunus species are highly susceptible and conventional breeding has not produced highly resistant and commercially acceptable varieties. Success in developing virus-resistant herbaceous crops through genetic engineering led us to investigate this approach for resistance to PPV. Our programme aims to develop a biotechnological approach to PPV control that is effective and shown to be environmentally safe. The programme began with the cloning of the PPV coat protein (CP) gene and the development of a transformation system for plum (Prunus domestica). The CP construct was first tested in Nicotiana benthamiana in which it proved effective in producing transgenic plants with varying levels of CP expression. Some of these plants, particularly low PPV CP expressers, were resistant to PPV, or recovered from initial infection. Based on these results plum was transformed using the Agrobacterium tumefaciens system and both low and high PPV CP-expressing transgenic plum lines were obtained. These were inoculated with PPV by bud grafts in the greenhouse. Line C-5 proved to be highly resistant. It contained multiple copies of the insert, produced low levels of PPV CP mRNA, no detectable CP and the insert appeared to be methylated. These characteristics all suggest that the resistance of the C-5 clone is based on post-transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS). Field tests of C-5 and other transgenic lines in Poland, Romania and Spain have demonstrated that such trees when inoculated by bud-grafts allow a low level of PPV multiplication, from which they rapidly recover. C-5 plants exposed to natural infection for 3 years did not become infected, whereas control trees were infected in the first year. Hybrid plums having the C-5 PPV CP insert inherited from C-5 are virus-resistant, demonstrating the usefulness of C-5 as a parent in developing new PPV-resistant plum varieties. Research is in progress on the biorisks of PPV CP transgenic plants. Gene constructs that either produce no CP or CP that cannot be transmitted by aphids have been developed, tested in N. benthamiana and transferred to plum. Studies have begun on the potential for synergistic interactions between the PPV CP gene and the other common viruses of Prunus spp. In the future we will be participating in investigating the toxicity or:and the allergenicity of transgenic fruit products and, more importantly, transgenic lines will be developed that express transgenes only in vegetative parts of the plant and not in the fruit.', 'en_US'),
(812, 'Selection of marker-free transgenic plants using the isopentenyl transferase gene', 'We have developed a new plant vector system for repeated transformation (called MAT for multi-auto-transformation) in which a chimeric ipt gene, inserted into the transposable element Ac, is used as a selectable marker for transformation. Selectable marker genes conferring antibiotic or herbicide resistance, used to introduce economically valuable genes into crop plants, have three major problems: (i) the selective agents have negative effects on proliferation and differentiation of plant cells; (ii) there is uncertainty regarding the environmental impact of many selectable marker genes; (iii) it is difficult to perform recurrent transformations using the same selectable marker to pyramid desirable genes. The MAT vector system containing the ipt gene and the Ac element is designed to overcome these difficulties. When tobacco leaf segments were transformed and selected, subsequent excision of the modified Ac produced marker-free transgenic tobacco plants without sexual crosses or seed production. In addition, the chimeric ipt gene could be visually used as a selectable marker for transformation of hybrid aspen (Populus sieboldii × Populus grandidentata). The chimeric ipt gene, therefore, is an attractive alternative to the most widely used selectable marker genes. The MAT vector system provides a promising way to shorten breeding time for genetically engineered crops. This method could be particularly valuable for fruit and forest trees, for which long generation times are a more significant barrier to breeding and genetic analysis.', 'en_US'),
(813, 'Rapid production of the major birch pollen allergen Bet v 1 in Nicotiana benthamiana plants and its immunological in vitro and in vivo characterization', 'Type I allergies are immunological disorders that afflict a quarter of the world''s population. Improved diagnosis of allergic diseases and the formulation of new therapeutic approaches are based on the use of recombinant allergens. We describe here for the first time the application of a rapid plant-based expression system for a plant-derived allergen and its immunological characterization. We expressed our model allergen Bet v 1, the major birch pollen allergen, in the tobacco-related species Nicotiana benthamiana using a tobacco mosaic virus vector. Two weeks postinoculation, plants infected with recombinant viral RNA containing the Bet v 1 coding sequence accumulated the allergen to levels of 200 µg/g leaf material. Total nonpurified protein extracts from plants were used for immunological characterizations. IgE immunoblots and ELISA (enzyme-linked immunoassay) inhibition assays showed comparable IgE binding properties for tobacco recombinant (r) Bet v 1 and natural (n) Bet v 1, suggesting that the B cell epitopes were preserved when the allergen was expressed in N. benthamiana plants. Using a murine model of type I allergy, mice immunized with crude leaf extracts containing Bet v 1 with purified rBet v 1 produced in E. coli or with birch pollen extract generated comparable allergen-specific IgE and IgG1 antibody responses and positive type I skin test reactions. These results demonstrate that nonpurified Bet v 1 overexpressed in N. benthamina has the same immunogenicity as purified Bet v 1 produced in E. coli or nBet v 1. We therefore conclude that this plant expression system offers a viable alternative to fermentation-based production of allergens in bacteria or yeasts. In addition, there may be a broad utility of this system for the development of new and low-cost vaccination strategies against allergy.', 'en_US'),
(814, 'Forest tree biotechnology', 'The past year has seen the fruits of biotechnological manipulation of forest trees approach commercial application. Advances in somatic embryogenesis have brought mass clonal propagation of the top commercial trees closer to reality, and efficient gene transfer systems have been developed for a number of conifers and hardwoods. Radical alterations in the quantity and quality of lignin in wood have been shown to be possible in softwoods and hardwoods through identification of naturally occurring mutants, as well as by engineering the lignin biosynthetic pathway with transgenes. The potential environmental and social impacts of the release of transgenic trees have become an increasingly contentious issue that will require more attention if we are to use these technologies to their full advantage.', 'en_US'),
(815, 'Repression of lignin biosynthesis promotes cellulose accumulation and growth in transgenic trees', 'Because lignin limits the use of wood for fiber, chemical, and energy production, strategies for its downregulation are of considerable interest. We have produced transgenic aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) trees in which expression of a lignin biosynthetic pathway gene Pt4CL1 encoding 4-coumarate:coenzyme A ligase (4CL) has been downregulated by antisense inhibition. Trees with suppressed Pt4CL1 expression exhibited up to a 45% reduction of lignin, but this was compensated for by a 15% increase in cellulose. As a result, the total lignin-cellulose mass remained essentially unchanged. Leaf, root, and stem growth were substantially enhanced, and structural integrity was maintained both at the cellular and whole-plant levels in the transgenic lines. Our results indicate that lignin and cellulose deposition could be regulated in a compensatory fashion, which may contribute to metabolic flexibility and a growth advantage to sustain the long-term structural integrity of woody perennials.', 'en_US'),
(816, 'Building better trees with antisense', NULL, 'en_US'),
(817, 'Phytoremediation of methylmercury pollution: merB expression in Arabidopsis thaliana confers resistance to organomercurials', 'Methylmercury is an environmental toxicant that biomagnifies and causes severe neurological degeneration in animals. It is produced by bacteria in soils and sediments that have been contaminated with mercury. To explore the potential of plants to extract and detoxify this chemical, we engineered a model plant, Arabidopsis thaliana, to express a modified bacterial gene, merBpe, encoding organomercurial lyase (MerB) under control of a plant promoter. MerB catalyzes the protonolysis of the carbon---mercury bond, removing the organic ligand and releasing Hg(II), a less mobile mercury species. Transgenic plants expressing merBpe grew vigorously on a wide range of concentrations of monomethylmercuric chloride and phenylmercuric acetate. Plants lacking the merBpe gene were severely inhibited or died at the same organomercurial concentrations. Six independently isolated transgenic lines produced merBpe mRNA and MerB protein at levels that varied over a 10- to 15-fold range, and even the lowest levels of merBpe expression conferred resistance to organomercurials. Our work suggests that native macrophytes (e.g., trees, shrubs, grasses) engineered to express merBpe may be used to degrade methylmercury at polluted sites and sequester Hg(II) for later removal.', 'en_US'),
(818, 'Gene stability in transgenic aspen (Populus). I. Flanking DNA sequences and T-DNA structure', 'The stability of transgenes in the genome of transformed plants depends strongly on their correct physical integration into the host genome as well as on flanking target DNA sequences. For long-lived species like trees, however, no information is available so far concerning inactivation or loss of transgenes due to gene silencing or somatic genome rearrangement events. In this study, four independently transformed 35S-rolC transgenic hybrid aspen plants (Populus tremula L. × tremuloides Michx.), each harbouring one copy of the transgene, were investigated during continuous growth in the greenhouse. In one of these transgenic lines (Esch5:35S-rolC-##1) individuals frequently show phenotypic reversions, while in the remaining three lines (Esch5:35S-rolC-#3, -#5, -#16) the gene was essentially stable. Molecular analysis including PCR, Southern and Northern assays clearly showed that the transgene had been lost in the revertant tissue of the unstable line. Sequencing of T-DNA right and left borders, and flanking DNA regions, in all four transgenic aspen lines revealed no differences either in the type of flanking DNA (G-C to A-T ratio) or with respect to the presence of enhancers or MAR (matrix associated repeats)-like structures. Primers located within the left and right flanking regions in the three stable lines could be used to recover the target sites from the untransformed plants. This was not possible, however, with the unstable line, indicating that at least one flanking sequence does not derive from the plant target DNA but is of unknown origin. PCR using other primer pairs, and inverse PCR analysis, revealed an additional truncated T-DNA copy of 1050 nucleotides adjacent to the left border of the complete copy in this line. Sequencing of this truncated T-DNA revealed that it represented an inverted copy of part of the right half of the original construct. This special feature would allow the inverted repeat to pair with right border sequences of the complete copy. This would explain the frequently observed reversion resulting in transgene loss as due to intrachromosomal base-pairing leading to double-stranded loops of single-stranded DNA during mitotic cell divisions.', 'en_US'),
(819, 'Making forest biotechnology a commercial reality. Do we need a tree genome project, or will Arabidopsis point the way?', NULL, 'en_US'),
(820, 'Development of transgenic yellow poplar for mercury phytoremediation', NULL, 'en_US'),
(821, 'Uses of plant gene silencing', NULL, 'en_US'),
(822, 'Forest tree biotechnology', NULL, 'en_US'),
(823, 'Engineering gut flora of ruminant livestock to reduce forage toxicity: progress and problems', 'The rumen bacterium Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens has been genetically modified to detoxify fluoroacetate (a poisonous component of trees and shrubs in Australia, Africa and Central America) and has been shown to persist when it is returned to the rumen. Such bacteria may save animals from poisoning and, therefore, reduce economic losses for livestock industries in those countries. The ability to make genetic changes to rumen bacteria raises important questions about their practicality, and about the environmental factors that must be considered before releasing modified strains. The fluoroacetate-detoxifying bacterium provides an important model by which these issues can be examined.', 'en_US'),
(824, 'Genetic strategies for enhancing phytoremediation', NULL, 'en_US'),
(825, 'Insect tolerance of transgenic Populus nigra plants transformed with Bacillus thuringiensis toxin gene', NULL, 'en_US'),
(826, 'Comparative studies on tree pollen allergens. XI. Trials on the regulation of IgE response in mice using modified birch pollen allergens.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(827, 'Food, agricultural and marine biotechnology in Chile', 'Economic segments with highest growth rates in Chile are those based on renewable resources like agriculture (fruits and vegetables), marine and forest products. Opportunities for biotechnology are based on a sound scientific base at universities, adequate funding and incipient industry-academia relationships. However, there is an urgent need to develop the engineering capabilities required to scale-up processes and to design, build and operate industrial biotechnology plants.', 'en_US'),
(828, 'Where will the wood come from? Plantation forests and the role of biotechnology', 'Wood is almost as important to humanity as food, and the natural forests from which most of it is harvested from are of enormous environmental value. However, these slow-growing forests are unable to meet current demand, resulting in the loss and degradation of forest. Plantation forests have the potential to supply the bulk of humanity''s wood needs on a long-term basis, and so reduce to acceptable limits the harvest pressures on natural forests. However, if they are to be successful, plantation forests must have a far higher yield of timber than their natural counterparts, on much shorter rotation times. To achieve this in reasonable time, biotechnology must be applied to the tree-improvement process, for which large increases in public and private capital investment are needed. However, additional obstacles exist in the form of opposition to plantations, some forest ecocertification schemes, and concerns about aspects of forest biotechnology, especially genetic engineering. It is the intention of this article to explain, in detail, why plantation forests are needed to sustainably meet the world''s demand for wood, why they are not being developed fast enough, and why the application of biotechnology to tree improvement is essential to speeding up this process', 'en_US'),
(829, 'The biotechnological control of pitch in paper pulp manufacturing', 'At present, microbial and enzymatic preparations for the control of triglyceride-containing pitch deposits during the manufacture of mechanical and sulfite paper is commercially available. However, biotechnological products for pitch control in other pulping processes, such as alkaline pulping, are under development. These products include new fungi for the removal of steroids involved in pitch deposit formation in chlorine-free pulps, to be used as a biological pretreatment of wood before pulping. Simultaneously, tailor-made enzymes are being produced using protein-engineering techniques, enabling the specific removal of pitch contaminant compounds from paper pulp.', 'en_US'),
(830, 'Forest biotechnology makes its position known', NULL, 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(831, 'Biotechnology for developing countries. The case of the Central American isthmus', 'Recent developments in the fields of chemistry, molecular biology, computer science, and communications promise to transform the way that many things will be done in the near future in diverse fields of scientific R&D. Fortunately for less developed countries (LDCs) some of the technologies involved are user friendly and safe, avoiding the need for radioactive precursors, large machines, or expensive reagents. For instance, tissue culture, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), dideoxi-sequencing, and recombinant DNA techniques have already invaded clinical laboratories, agricultural field stations, and natural history museums, even in some developing nations. Somatic cell culture for plant biotechnology and immunologic techniques for diagnosis have had wide applications for over a decade in all countries in the Central American Isthmus. More recently, recombinant DNA techniques, including PCR, have been introduced for diagnostic purposes and research at the two largest universities in Costa Rica and at other public institutions and are also used in Guatemala and Panama. Honduras and Nicaragua are only now acquiring these technologies for diagnostic purposes. Biotechnological applications in industry seem to be lagging behind, and presently no good links exist between research laboratories and industry for advanced applications. The application of biotechnologies in environmental problems is slowly underway, with molecular studies of natural wildlife populations and primary forest trees. A major effort is needed to create safe and effective ways of dealing with environmental degradation, wastes, and byproducts of tropical agriculture and industry. The creation of the National Biodiversity Institute (INBio) in Costa Rica to elaborate an inventory of flora and fauna and to prospect for useful substances provides a unique opportunity for biotechnological applications. In addition, government policies to promote biotechnological development are supported by CONICIT (National Research Council), the Ministry of Science and Technology, the newly established Costa Rican Academy of Science, and the national universities. Other countries in the region are beginning to take similar action. At the Cell and Molecular Biology Center (CIBCM) our strategy is to obtain the key components and infrastructure to handle nucleic acids and manage genetic information in databanks. Training has been an important priority during the last decade, with over 20 Central American students receiving graduate degrees in virology, molecular biology, genetics, and immunology, with support from German and Swedish governmental institutions. Diagnosis of viral diseases in cultivated plants and animals was done initially at CIBCM for research and later on a contractual basis for both the public and private agricultural sectors. DNA hybridization and PCR techniques are now replacing or being used concurrently with immunologic techniques.', 'en_US'),
(832, 'Field and pulping performances of transgenic trees with altered lignification', 'The agronomic and pulping performance of transgenic trees with altered lignin has been evaluated in duplicated, long-term field trials. Poplars expressing cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase (CAD) or caffeate/5-hydroxy-ferulate O-methyltransferase (COMT) antisense transgenes were grown for four years at two sites, in France and England. The trees remained healthy throughout the trial. Growth indicators and interactions with insects were normal. No changes in soil microbial communities were detected beneath the transgenic trees. The expected modifications to lignin were maintained in the transgenics over four years, at both sites. Kraft pulping of tree trunks showed that the reduced-CAD lines had improved characteristics, allowing easier delignification, using smaller amounts of chemicals, while yielding more high-quality pulp. This work highlights the potential of engineering wood quality for more environmentally benign papermaking without interfering with tree growth or fitness.', 'en_US'),
(833, 'Transgenic manipulation of the metabolism of polyamines in poplar cells', 'The metabolism of polyamines (putrescine, spermidine, and spermine) has become the target of genetic manipulation because of their significance in plant development and possibly stress tolerance. We studied the polyamine metabolism in non-transgenic (NT) and transgenic cells of poplar (Populus nigra × maximowiczii) expressing a mouse Orn decarboxylase (odc) cDNA. The transgenic cells showed elevated levels of mouse ODC enzyme activity, severalfold higher amounts of putrescine, a small increase in spermidine, and a small reduction in spermine as compared with NT cells. The conversion of labeled ornithine (Orn) into putrescine was significantly higher in the transgenic than the NT cells. Whereas exogenously supplied Orn caused an increase in cellular putrescine in both cell lines, arginine at high concentrations was inhibitory to putrescine accumulation. The addition of urea and glutamine had no effect on polyamines in either of the cell lines. Inhibition of glutamine synthetase by methionine sulfoximine led to a substantial reduction in putrescine and spermidine in both cell lines. The results show that: (a) Transgenic expression of a heterologous odc gene can be used to modulate putrescine metabolism in plant cells, (b) accumulation of putrescine in high amounts does not affect the native arginine decarboxylase activity, (c) Orn biosynthesis occurs primarily from glutamine/glutamate and not from catabolic breakdown of arginine, (d) Orn biosynthesis may become a limiting factor for putrescine production in the odc transgenic cells, and (e) assimilation of nitrogen into glutamine keeps pace with an increased demand for its use for putrescine production.', 'en_US'),
(834, 'Growing up fast: manipulating the generation time of trees', 'Domestication and genetic improvement of trees is far behind that of herbaceous plants owing to their long generation times, which result from the existence of a long juvenile phase of reproductive incompetence. During recent years, significant progress has been made towards understanding the molecular basis of flowering transition in model herbaceous species. Some of the genes identified have been shown to efficiently accelerate reproductive development when ectopically expressed in transgenic plants, including trees. These results provide new clues as to the molecular basis of reproductive competence in trees and suggest ways to accelerate their genetic improvement.', 'en_US'),
(835, 'Recent advances in the genetic transformation of trees', 'As the commercial production of transgenic annual crops becomes a reality in many parts of the world, many people wonder if the genetic engineering of perennial trees will allow their eventual commercialization. Not long ago, trees were considered to be recalcitrant material for most molecular biology techniques, including genetic transformation. However, transgenes for shortening the juvenile phase or for phytoremediation purposes have now been incorporated, and the alteration of lignin biosynthesis and increased cellulose accumulation in forest trees have also been accomplished. For long-lived tree species, new questions arise regarding the stability of integration and expression of foreign genes. Biosafety considerations, including transgene dispersion through the pollen and advances in strategies to avoid this, are also important.', 'en_US'),
(836, 'Preliminary report on the apparent breaking of resistance of a transgenic plum by chip bud inoculation of plum pox virus PPV-S', 'Five transgenic clones of Prunus domestica L. containing plum pox virus (PPV) coat protein (CP) gene and one non-transformed control clone were challenged with PPV-S in the field. Symptoms developed on C2, C3, C4, C6 and B70146 but not C5 trees inoculated by chip budding (CBI) (2/2, 2/2, 1/1, 2/2 and 2/2, positive/inoculated) in the first summer after inoculation. However, in the second year, symptoms appeared on CBI C5 trees. The presence of the virus in the plants was confirmed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) amplification of a fragment of viral polymerase gene. During two years, symptoms of infection developed on 3 to 4 of 8 non-inoculated trees of clones C2, C3, C4, C6 and B70146. Eight non-inoculated C5 trees remained symptomless and ELISA-negative as of spring 1998, in spite of the presence of aphid vectors and inoculum sources.', 'en_US'),
(837, 'New aero-allergens. Interaction between allergens and the environment', NULL, 'en_US'),
(838, 'Biotechnology and the American agricultural industry: Council on Scientific Affairs, American Medical Association.', 'To meet the needs of a rapidly growing population and minimize the toxic influences of traditional farming practices on the environment, the US agricultural industry has applied molecular technology to the development of food crops and livestock. By placing genes specific for highly desirable phenotypes in the DNA of plants, animals, and bacteria, farmers have increased crop and livestock survival, enhanced the nutritional quality of foods, increased industry productivity, and reduced the need for toxic pesticides and herbicides. However, introduction of genetically modified foods into the marketplace has raised a spectrum of public health issues. Physicians, as the most proximal scientific resource for most individuals, are uniquely positioned to address patient concerns regarding the safety of genetically altered foods. This report provides an overview of the inherent risks and benefits of ''agrogenetics'' and offers a series of recommendations designed to promote the education of the medical community and dispel public misconception regarding genetic manipulation.', 'en_US'),
(839, 'Liabilities and economics of transgenic crops', 'Two growing patterns threaten current crop production practices in intensive agriculture: the cross-pollination of genetically modified (GM) crop varieties with conventional varieties, and the germination of volunteer GM seeds (seeds dropped, blown, or inadvertently planted). Crosspollination of GM crops with crop varieties destined for non-GM, GM-free, or ''organic'' niche markets is of great concern to the corresponding producers. The growth of volunteer GM seeds can be controlled chemically, but at an added cost for producers. Both of these problems must be rapidly addressed to ensure that the adoption rate of GM crops remains high and that the commercialization of future varieties is not jeopardized.', 'en_US'),
(840, 'Transgenic crops-why gene flow matters', NULL, 'en_US'),
(841, 'GM crops and the pesticide paradigm', 'Commercialized transgenic crops maintain the present reliance on pesticides to control crop pests. This pest-management regime relies on suppressing pest populations by exposing them to toxic materials and taking measures to minimize negative health and environmental externalities. An alternative is to develop a new generation of GM crops designed along agro-ecological principles, for instance by improving a plant''s tolerance of pest damage. This approach potentially has substantial benefits, including decreased environmental impact, reduced opportunities for pest resistance, and an enhancement of the reputation of the agricultural biotechnology industry.', 'en_US'),
(842, 'CGIAR statement on UN treaty', NULL, 'en_US'),
(843, 'Potential for the environmental impact of transgenic crops', 'In recent years, there has been increasing interest in how changes in agricultural practice associated with the introduction of particular genetically modified (GM) crops might indirectly impact the environment. There is also interest in any effects that might be associated with recombinant and novel combinations of DNA passing into the environment, and the possibility that they may be taken up by microorganisms or other live biological material. From the current state of knowledge, the impact of free DNA of transgenic origin is likely to be negligible compared with the large amount of total free DNA. We can find no compelling scientific arguments to demonstrate that GM crops are innately different from non-GM crops. The kinds of potential impacts of GM crops fall into classes familiar from the cultivation of non-GM crops (e.g., invasiveness, weediness, toxicity, or biodiversity). It is likely, however, that the novelty of some of the products of GM crop improvement will present new challenges and perhaps opportunities to manage particular crops in creative ways.', 'en_US'),
(844, 'An intellectual property clearinghouse for agricultural biotechnology', NULL, 'en_US'),
(845, 'Excision of selectable marker genes from transgenic plants', 'Selectable marker genes are required to ensure the efficient genetic modification of crops. Economic incentives and safety concerns have prompted the development of several strategies (site-specific recombination, homologous recombination, transposition, and co-transformation) to eliminate these genes from the genome after they have fulfilled their purpose. Recently, chemically inducible site-specific recombinase systems have emerged as valuable tools for efficiently regulating the excision of transgenes when their expression is no longer required. The implementation of these strategies in crops and their further improvement will help to expedite widespread public acceptance of agricultural biotechnology.', 'en_US'),
(846, 'Molecular strategies for gene containment in transgenic crops', 'The potential of genetically modified (GM) crops to transfer foreign genes through pollen to related plant species has been cited as an environmental concern. Until more is known concerning the environmental impact of novel genes on indigenous crops and weeds, practical and regulatory considerations will likely require the adoption of gene-containment approaches for future generations of GM crops. Most molecular approaches with potential for controlling gene flow among crops and weeds have thus far focused on maternal inheritance, male sterility, and seed sterility. Several other containment strategies may also prove useful in restricting gene flow, including apomixis (vegetative propagation and asexual seed formation), cleistogamy (self-fertilization without opening of the flower), genome incompatibility, chemical induction/deletion of transgenes, fruit-specific excision of transgenes, and transgenic mitigation (transgenes that compromise fitness in the hybrid). As yet, however, no strategy has proved broadly applicable to all crop species, and a combination of approaches may prove most effective for engineering the next generation of GM crops.', 'en_US'),
(847, 'Engineered polyamine accumulation in tomato enhances phytonutrient content, juice quality, and vine life', 'Polyamines, ubiquitous organic aliphatic cations, have been implicated in a myriad of physiological and developmental processes in many organisms, but their in vivo functions remain to be determined. We expressed a yeast S-adenosylmethionine decarboxylase gene (ySAMdc; Spe2) fused with a ripening-inducible E8 promoter to specifically increase levels of the polyamines spermidine and spermine in tomato fruit during ripening. Independent transgenic plants and their segregating lines were evaluated after cultivation in the greenhouse and in the field for five successive generations. The enhanced expression of the ySAMdc gene resulted in increased conversion of putrescine into higher polyamines and thus to ripening-specific accumulation of spermidine and spermine. This led to an increase in lycopene, prolonged vine life, and enhanced fruit juice quality. Lycopene levels in cultivated tomatoes are generally low, and increasing them in the fruit enhances its nutrient value. Furthermore, the rates of ethylene production in the transgenic tomato fruit were consistently higher than those in the nontransgenic control fruit. These data show that polyamine and ethylene biosynthesis pathways can act simultaneously in ripening tomato fruit. Taken together, these results provide the first direct evidence for a physiological role of polyamines and demonstrate an approach to improving nutritional quality, juice quality, and vine life of tomato fruit.', 'en_US'),
(848, 'Nontransgenic crops from transgenic plants', NULL, 'en_US'),
(849, 'Rethinking substantial equivalence', NULL, 'en_US'),
(850, 'Transgenic salt-tolerant tomato plants accumulate salt in foliage but not in fruit', 'Transgenic tomato plants overexpressing a vacuolar Na+/H+ antiport were able to grow, flower, and produce fruit in the presence of 200 mM sodium chloride. Although the leaves accumulated high sodium concentrations, the tomato fruit displayed very low sodium content. Contrary to the notion that multiple traits introduced by breeding into crop plants are needed to obtain salt-tolerant plants, the modification of a single trait significantly improved the salinity tolerance of this crop plant. These results demonstrate that with a combination of breeding and transgenic plants it could be possible to produce salt-tolerant crops with far fewer target traits than had been anticipated. The accumulation of sodium in the leaves and not in the fruit demonstrates the utility of such a modification in preserving the quality of the fruit.', 'en_US'),
(851, 'Insecticidal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis protect corn from corn rootworms', 'Field tests of corn co-expressing two new delta-endotoxins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) have demonstrated protection from root damage by western corn rootworm (Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte). The level of protection exceeds that provided by chemical insecticides. In the bacterium, these proteins form crystals during the sporulation phase of the growth cycle, are encoded by a single operon, and have molecular masses of 14 kDa and 44 kDa. Corn rootworm larvae fed on corn roots expressing the proteins showed histopathological symptoms in the midgut epithelium.', 'en_US'),
(852, 'Crafting crop resistance to corn rootworms', 'A review with 10 refs. Potentials of using transgenic corn co-expressing two complementary endotoxins from Bacillus thuringiensis against corn rootworms (Diabrotica spp.) and issues of resistance management are discussed.', 'en_US'),
(853, 'A plant-based multicomponent vaccine protects mice from enteric diseases', 'Cholera toxin (CT) B and A2 subunit complementary DNAs (cDNAs) were fused to a rotavirus enterotoxin and enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli fimbrial antigen genes and transferred into potato. Immunoblot and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) results indicated that the fusion antigens were synthesized in transformed tuber tissues and assembled into cholera holotoxin-like structures that retained enterocyte-binding affinity. Orally immunized mice generated detectable levels of serum and intestinal antibodies against the pathogen antigens. Elevated levels of interleukin 2 (IL2) and interferon (INF) detected in immunogen-challenged spleen cells from the immunized mice indicated the presence of a strong Th1 immune response to the three plant-synthesized antigens. This result was supported by flow cytometry analysis of immunized mouse spleen cells that showed a significant increase in CD4+ lymphocyte numbers. Diarrhea symptoms were reduced in severity and duration in passively immunized mouse neonates following rotavirus challenge. The results suggest that food plants can function as vaccines for simultaneous protection against infectious virus and bacterial diseases.', 'en_US'),
(854, 'Production of spider silk proteins in tobacco and potato', 'Spider dragline silk is a proteinaceous fiber with remarkable mechanical properties that make it attractive for technical applications. Unfortunately, the material cannot be obtained in large quantities from spiders. We have therefore generated transgenic tobacco and potato plants that express remarkable amounts of recombinant Nephila clavipes dragline proteins. Using a gene synthesis approach, the recombinant proteins exhibit homologies of >90% compared to their native models. Here, we demonstrate the accumulation of recombinant silk proteins, which are encoded by synthetic genes of 420-3,600 base pairs, up to a level of at least 2% of total soluble protein in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of tobacco and potato leaves and potato tubers, respectively. Using the present expression system, spider silk proteins up to 100 kDa could be detected in plant tissues. When produced in plants, the recombinant spidroins exhibit extreme heat stability-a property that is used to purify the spidroins by a simple and efficient procedure.', 'en_US'),
(855, 'Growing pains for biopharmaceuticals', NULL, 'en_US'),
(856, 'Biotechnology patents in the food sector', NULL, 'en_US'),
(857, 'Bt toxin uptake from soil by plants', NULL, 'en_US'),
(858, 'Food safety evaluation of crops produced through biotechnology', 'Agricultural biotechnology has been widely adopted in agriculture but is also the focus of controversy. Questions have arisen regarding food and environmental safety. In the US, responsibility for ensuring agricultural and environmental safety is delegated to the USDA and EPA, respectively. The FDA has primary responsibility for food safety, with the exception that the EPA has responsibility for the safety of proteins in plants associated with insect defense mechanisms. The food safety assessment, whether performed by the FDA or the EPA, requires evaluation of the safety of 1) the newly added DNA, 2) the safety of the newly introduced gene product and 3) the overall safety of the balance of the food. A paradigm called ''Substantial Equivalence'' guides the assessment. The principal food safety issues for new varieties crops are 1) potential toxicity of the newly introduced protein(s), 2) potential changes in allergenicity, 3) changes in nutrient composition, 4) unintended effects giving rise to allergenicity or toxicity and 5) the safety of antibiotic resistance marker-encoded proteins included with the transgene. All of these must be taken in the context of the predicted range of dietary exposures. The evaluation seeks to establish that there is a ''reasonable likelihood of safety'' and that new varieties are as safe as or safer than crops produced by traditional methods. Indeed, after extensive safety testing and some five years of experience with such crops in the marketplace, there is not a single report that would lead an expert food scientist to question the safety of such transgenic crops now in use.', 'en_US'),
(859, 'Chemical-regulated, site-specific DNA excision in transgenic plants', 'We have developed a chemical-inducible, site-specific DNA excision system in transgenic Arabidopsis plants mediated by the Cre/loxP DNA recombination system. Expression of the Cre recombinase was tightly controlled by an estrogen receptor-based fusion transactivator XVE. Upon induction by -estradiol, sequences encoding the selectable marker, Cre, and XVE sandwiched by two loxP sites were excised from the Arabidopsis genome, leading to activation of the downstream GFP (green fluorescent protein) reporter gene. Genetic and molecular analyses indicated that the system is tightly controlled, showing high-efficiency inducible DNA excision in all 19 transgenic events tested with either single or multiple T-DNA insertions. The system provides a highly reliable method to generate marker-free transgenic plants after transformation through either organogenesis or somatic embryogenesis.', 'en_US'),
(860, 'GM crop data-agronomy and ecology in tandem', NULL, 'en_US'),
(861, 'Overexpression of the Bt cry2Aa2 operon in chloroplasts leads to formation of insecticidal crystals', 'In nuclear transgenic plants, expression of multiple genes requires introduction of individual genes and time-consuming subsequent backcrosses to reconstitute multi-subunit proteins or pathways, a problem that is compounded by variable expression levels. In order to accomplish expression of multiple genes in a single transformation event, we have introduced several genes into the chromoplast genome. We confirmed stable integration of the cry2Aa2 operon by PCR and Southern blot analyses in T0 and T1 transgenic plants. Foreign protein accumulated at 45.3% of the total soluble protein in mature leaves and remained stable even in old bleached leaves (46.1%), thereby increasing the efficacy and safety of transgenic plants throughout the growing season. This represents the highest level of foreign gene expression reported in transgenic plants to date. Insects that are normally difficult to control (10-day old cotton bollworm, beet armyworm) were killed 100% after consuming transgenic leaves. Electron micrographs showed the presence of the insecticidal protein folded into cuboidal crystals. Formation of crystals of foreign proteins (due to hyperexpression and folding by the putative chaperonin, ORF 2) provides a simple method of purification by centrifugation and enhances stability by protection from cellular proteases. Demonstration of expression of an operon in transgenic plants paves the way to engineering new pathways in plants in a single transformation event.', 'en_US'),
(862, 'Safety assessment of foods derived from genetically modified microorganisms', 'A Joint FAO/WHO Expert Consultation on Foods Derived from Biotechnology - Safety Assessment of Foods Derived from Genetically Modified Microorganisms (GMMs) was held at the Headquarters of the World Health Organization (WHO) in Geneva from 24 - 28 September 2001. A total of 27 experts, including authors of discussion papers, participated in the Consultation.', 'en_US'),
(863, 'Topic 9: Post-market surveillance of allergenicity', 'The development of biotechnology for the production and processing of foods raises the question of the safety of these foods and the evaluation of any risks, including the allergic risk, that their consumption could pose to Public Health.Indeed allergies engendered by foods containing or derived from genetically modified organisms (GMOs) is a special issue on which particular emphasis has been placed. European Union''s regulation 258/97 on Novel Foods stipulates that it must be addressed in every application for the authorization to put on the market any novel foods and particularly those containing or derived from GMOs. Assessment of the allergic risk is  currently performed using the decision tree approach as described in the ILSI-IFBC recommendations. The aim of this paper is to analyse for the different steps of this approach whether human studies may be necessary to assess the allergic risk of long term or high dosages consumption of such novel foods and how post market surveillance could provide such informations in addition of a priori (e.g. pre-marketing) safety evaluation by testing methodologies currently used as yet.', 'en_US'),
(864, 'PCR detection of genetically modified soya and maize in foodstuffs', 'The detection of genetically modified foodstuffs is becoming both a food sales and legal necessity. This study reports a rapid DNA extraction/PCR-based method for the detection of genetically modified soya (GMS) and maize (GMM) in mixed samples of transgenic and unmodified soyabeans and maize kernels, and a variety of processed samples including soya flour, soya protein isolates, extruded defatted soya, acid- and alcohol-precipitated soya concentrates, soya lecithin, maize grits, seasoned maize puffs and salted maize chips. The presence of GMS DNA was determined using two pairs of primers directed towards different GMS target sequences and GMM by one primer pair. In addition, a multiplex PCR reaction which utilises an internal positive control was developed for both genetically modified organisms (GMOs). Results indicated that the methods are sensitive and specific enough to detect GMS down to a level of 0.01% dry weight in single-product PCRs and 0.1% in multiplex PCRs and GMM down to 0.001% dry weight in single-product PCRs and 0.01% in multiplex PCR. The methods are considered to represent a viable route for the commercial detection of GMS and GMM in foodstuffs.', 'en_US'),
(865, 'An economic approach to identifying an ''effective sui generis system'' for plant variety protection under TRIPs', 'Developing countries required under the WTO TRIPs agreement to provide some intellectual property protection for plants are choosing Plant Breeders'' Rights (PBR). TRIPs specifies only an effective sui generis system without further clarification. This article develops an effective system based on the detailed TRIPs patent requirements. In general, the requirements map well with current UPOV Acts. A complete analysis must also consider implementation. The US registration system, which allows limited distinctness, provides weaker protection than European examination systems. Some evidence indicates the US system provides inadequate protection while European systems may release too few varieties. The recent UPOV initial variety system should use high initial variety standards to discourage breeders from delaying introductions. UPOV 1991 makes seed saving a national option; preliminary results indicate seed saving does not unduly reduce breeders'' profits, but may lead to growers unprofitably delaying replacing seed.', 'en_US'),
(866, 'Genetically modified crops in developing countries. Promise or peril?', 'Although the move toward transgenic or genetically modified crops is being financed by the industrialized world, it is in the developing world where the greatest human and environmental promise--or peril--of this new technology may lie. What the developing countries need is more investment in their own indigenous scientific capacity so they can shape this new technology to suit their own distinctive local needs and circumstances.', 'en_US'),
(867, 'Monitoring and labeling for genetically modified products', 'In response to growing concerns regarding the use of genetically modified food in Europe, revisions have been proposed to Directive 90/220 of the European Economic Community. The amendments would provide more specific guidance for risk assessment and monitoring as a way of reassuring the public about the safety of products introduced on the market. There is a clear need for the United States to harmonize with this approach if international trade is not to be impeded.', 'en_US'),
(868, 'Indian rules, regulations and procedures for handling transgenic plants', 'The Indian Government promulgated rules for dealing with genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and their products in 1989. These rules define the authorities. They also elaborate the implementation structures for conducting research and for the commercial application of GMOs. The major Indian developments in GM crops include work on transgenic cotton, Indian mustard, oilseed rape, tomato, brinjal, cauliflower, cabbage, potato, tobacco, chilli, bell pepper and rice. Research on GMOs is monitored by the Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation (RCGM) which stewards the generation of biosafety data, starting from the laboratory to contained greenhouse experiments to small-scale contained field trials. RCGM also authorizes the import/export/transfer of transgenic materials for research use only. The biosafety data required to be generated include: rationale for the development of GMOs, details of their molecular biology, comparison of germination rates and phenotypic characteristics, study of gene flow, invasiveness and weed formation possibilities, susceptibility to diseases and pests, effects on non-target organisms and food safety evaluation. Agronomic evaluation is also undertaken. The Genetic Engineering Approval Committee provides authorization of GMOs for commercial release based on the biosafety evaluation data.', 'en_US'),
(869, 'Testing genetically engineered potato, producing the lectins GNA and Con A, on non-target soil organisms and processes', '1. Two lectins, concanavalin A (Con A) and Galanthus nivalis agglutinin (GNA), have anti-feedant properties that suggest a potential for the control of invertebrate pests of plants. We tested potato plants genetically engineered to produce each of these lectins constitutively, as well as the purified lectins, for possible non-target effects.', 'en_US'),
(870, 'Thailand: biotechnology for farm products and agro-industries', 'Before the economic crisis in 1997, Thailand was named one of the Asian Newly Indus-trialized Countries (NICs) with an average economic growth rate of 8-9percent during 1993- 95. The crisis resulted in a negative growth rate of -7.8 percent in 1998. Moreover, the impact of the economic recession in the world market has affected the country''s total exports, which amounted to US$57 billion (US$1=31.5 bahts) and US$53 billion (US$1=41.6 bahts) in 1997 and 1998, respectively. The economic growth forecast for 1999 is expected to be around 3-4 percent. Efforts to revive the economy are currently being implemented in both the government and the private sector. The linkage between the sta-tus of science and technology and the economic status of a country has long been noted. At this stage, it is crucial for Thailand to increase the tech-nological capability of the country, to make effi-cient use of its resources, and to reduce the cost of production, thereby increasing economic growth and competitiveness. Despite the country''s industrialization, agri-culture has remained a significant part of the economy. Thailand has been moving towards in-dustrial- based agriculture and has focused on the development of postharvest and processing tech-nologies that are the major problems for indus-try. Biotechnology has become the country''s priority for research and development (R&D) and for the benefit of the private sector as well as ru-ral development.', 'en_US'),
(871, 'Philippines: challenges, opportunities, and constraints in agricultural biotechnology', NULL, 'en_US'),
(872, 'Agricultural biotechnology and the poor: Promethean science', 'Prometheus, according to Greek mythology, was a Titan, responsible for introducing fire to humans, a remarkable innovation at the time, but having benefits and risks, depending on its use. Promethean has since come to mean daringly original and creative.Science is an elegant way of getting at the truth, according to science writer Rick Weiss. It should follow then that molecular biology and other tools of modern biotechnology add elegance and precision to the pursuit of solutions to thwart poverty, malnutrition and food insecurity in too many countries around the world. In agriculture these enemies are manifest as pests, diseases, drought and other biotic and abiotic stresses that limit the productivity of plants and animals.But not all appreciate the elegance of science in the pursuit of truth. The current debate about the potential utility of modern biotechnology for food and agriculture presents a challenge for modern science to contribute to the solution of human problems. This debate is currently focused on the initial applications of modern biotechnology in industrial country agriculture and its potential risks to human health and the environment. It is also intertwined with other of-ten understated societal concerns such as food safety, animal welfare, industrialized agriculture, and the global role of large private-sector corporations.A debate based on the best available empirical evidence on the relevance of modern science for poor people in developing countries is urgently needed. Its purpose would be to identify the most appropriate ways that molecular biology-based research might contribute to the solution of poor people''s problems. These problems and the socioeconomic context in which they occur are so different from the problems and context of the countries where most of the biotechnology debate currently takes place that the positions and conclusions from the current debate are largely irrelevant for poor farmers and poor consumers in developing countries. Despite this, many of the arguments in the current debate are extrapolated to conclusions about the potential utility of biotechnology for poor countries and poor people. There is an urgent need for a more focused debate on the role of modern agricultural biotechnology in developing countries, a debate that should and is being led by people from developing countries themselves (Pinstrup-Andersen and Cohen 2000).', 'en_US'),
(873, 'Sustainable use of genetically modified crops in developing countries', 'Because poverty can lead to environmental degradation, a potential chain of interactions between genetic modification, increased yield, variation in yield, food security, and environmental degradation is examined. The potential for genetic modification to increase yield and decrease yield variation is explored. Sections cover importance of yield stability, and pest resistance management and yield variation; a case history of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is presented and Bt resistance management is discussed. Implications for developing countries are considered and the case of Bt resistance management in rice is reviewed. Regulatory requirements to ensure biosafety are outlined.', 'en_US'),
(874, 'Genetically modified crops and other organisms: implications for agricultural sustainability and biodiversity', 'We are at the dawn of a revolution in how we grow food and many other products on this planet, a revolution that is pushing society into rethinking what we want out of agriculture. Biotechnology and other advances in plant and animal breeding and crop technology are already offering an unprecedented range of choices for how we use agricultural land, and how we produce fish and forests. Visions of the future for agricultural land vary between weedless and pestless ''green concrete'' and visions of a new organic agriculture producing high-quality, high-yield crops yet protecting and nurturing biodiversity. Given the rapid pace of new developments in agricultural biotechnology and the culture of the research world, consumers, farmers, policymakers and regulators throughout the world are struggling to come to terms with these choices. Some consumers, especially those in Europe, are perplexed, anxious, and desperate for information about the potential effects of biotechnology on their food and their environment. The media have sensed that this issue is not going to go away from public consciousness in the foreseeable future, and are actively promoting widespread debate on how we should best use the profound discoveries emanating from the new genetics. This is perhaps the most important debate of the new millennium, because its outcomes will have global implications for food and raw material production for the rest of our history.I will explore some of the implications of us-ing the present outputs from the agricultural bio- technology industry, draw attention to the science which seems to be missing from the debate, and to look toward the future, when we may well turn to biotechnology to build a more sustainable agriculture. The views are mostly those of the UK statutory conservation bodies and inevitably Eurocentric, but I will try to pose some fundamental questions about the implications of agricultural biotechnology for developing countries. Statutory conservation advisors in the UK are not opposed to genetic modification as a technique for changing the characteristics of plants and animals. It is simply another, but very powerful, tool for plant and animal breeding. On the contrary, we see real promise in genetic modification for eventually producing more sustainable and environmentally friendly crops and farming.Biotechnology could give us a future where perennial crops have in-built resistance to pests and diseases, fix their own nitrogen, and give higher yields. We may eventually be able to produce entirely new plants, designed specifically to produce food, medicines, industrial chemicals and fuel. But let us not be blinded by such dreams; like all new technology, genetic modification is risky. European society is deeply concerned about the direction that research and development (R&D) in this technology appears to be going, and the statutory conservation agencies are trying hard to stimulate a debate, not on whether genetic modification should be used, but on how and where it might best be used.In Europe, where our landscape and wildlife are inextricably mixed with, and dependent upon, farming, we already have serious environmental problems with ''conventional'' chemical-dependent agriculture. We have surface and ground-water pollution, soil degradation and erosion, and alarming declines in biodiversity. These are the costs of increasing yields, aimed at driving down costs of food to consumers and attempts to compete on world markets. We are still overproducing some commodities and the damage to our environment continues. These agricultural processes were enabled by the introduction of new plant varieties and more effective chemical regimes, including new generations of pesticides. In whatever way we measure the impacts of in-tensive agriculture, we must conclude that in its present form it is probably not sustainable. By this I mean that, although levels of production may be sustainable for perhaps decades, the social, environmental, and economic consequences of these processes may not be sustainable for that period of time.Biotechnology may offer a way out of this dependence on unsustainable agriculture by eventually producing crop plants that enable agriculture to sustain yields but minimize environ-mental impacts. But the perception in Europe is that some of the present generation of genetically modified (GM) crops, especially those developed for the US agricultural situation, which are herbicide- tolerant and insect-resistant, may present yet further risks to biodiversity in our present intensive agricultural system. I will explore some of the reasons why these GM systems are being proposed and I will argue that the advent of genetic modification has thrown into sharp focus the need for reappraisal of agricultural strategy in Europe. We need clear thinking, scientific information, and realistic views to minimize the risks and maximize the benefits, which I see not just in terms of yet more production and profit.Before exploring the potential benefits of genetic modification in agriculture, I would like to look more closely at some of the perceived risks associated with growing the present generation of GM crops in Europe. I believe that some of these have been understated by both the industry and by some regulatory authorities both in Europe and overseas. I believe there has been a laissez faire attitude toward the potential environ-mental effects of GI crops. This attitude toward such a powerful technology is potentially dam- aging not only to the industry but also to politicians, policymakers, and regulators. It is they who are faced with the task of convincing the public that GM crops will bring real benefits to the public and the environment, at minimal risk. It would not be unfair to suggest that up to now the European public are far from impressed by the arguments in favor of GM crops put forward by the biotechnology companies.', 'en_US'),
(875, 'A- or C-chromosomes, does it matter for the transfer of transgenes from Brassica napus', 'Introgression of genes from allotetraploid Brassica napus into its diploid wild relative B. rapa is generally considered to be inevitable. As a means to minimize a potential ecological risk in environments where B. rapa is growing, the insertion of transgenes into chromosome regions of B. napus with a very low probability of transfer to backcross generations with B. rapa has been proposed. Recently, the progeny of four backcross generations between transgenic herbicide-tolerant B. napus and B. rapa was studied in selection experiments (Metz et al. 1997). The rapid decrease in the frequency of herbicide-tolerant plants was explained by selection against the C-chromosomes of B. napus in favor of the homeologous A-chromosomes. Obviously, such C-chromosomes could be potential candidates as safe integration sites for transgenes. We considered these safety aspects using a simple population genetic model. Theory and experiments, however, do not favor the chromosomes of B. napus as safe candidates with respect to the introgression of transgenes into wild populations of B. rapa.', 'en_US'),
(876, 'Mexico: ensuring environmental safety while benefiting from biotechnology', 'World population, now 6 billion, is ex-pected to reach 8 billion people by the year 2025 and maybe 9-10 billion by the year 2050 with around 97% of this popula-tion growth occurring in the developing coun-tries (Fedoroff and Cohen 1999 and references therein). To face the challenge posed by the need to feed this huge increase in population, food production will have to double or triple by the middle of the next century. These challenges can-not be faced with the so-called traditional tech-nologies in agriculture, and the new technologies, known collectively as biotechnology, will be es-sential to reach these goals.However, although in principle most people with a certain knowledge of the potential of bio-technology agree with these statements, most of the people living in either the industrial or devel-oping countries have not yet seen any product derived from this new technology benefiting them directly as consumers, either through lower prices for products or improved nutritional quality.This has led many consumer associations and environmental groups to find unjustified any possible risk to the environment posed by the introduction of genetically improved organisms (GIOs), given the apparent lack of benefit to soci-ety. In most societies there are groups that will not trust either industry or the regulatory agen-cies that they perceive as allied to the chemical industry, often now bioscience companies.', 'en_US'),
(877, 'Frequency and distance of pollen dispersal from transgenic cotton', NULL, 'en_US'),
(878, 'Attitudes and awareness of GM technology among farmers in Ireland', NULL, 'en_US'),
(879, 'Evidence of multiple complex patterns of T-DNA integration into the rice genome', 'The transfer of the long T-DNA (T-DNA and non-T-DNA) of a binary plasmid from Agrobacterium into the rice genome was investigated at both molecular and genetic levels. Out of 226 independent transgenic plants, 33% of the transformants contained non-T-DNA sequences. There was no major difference in the frequency of non-T-DNA transfer among three Agrobacterium tumefaciens strains. Four T1 plants containing a single putative long T-DNA insertion were selected for Southern analysis. Three of them were confirmed to have a long T-DNA insertion with a size of greater-than-unit-length of the binary plasmid. This was further confirmed by rescuing the intact binary plasmid from these plants. Our results suggest that long T-DNA transfer by rolling-circle replication from Agrobacterium to rice occurs frequently, and that the high frequency of non-T-DNA transfer should be considered when producing transgenic rice for commercial production.', 'en_US'),
(880, 'Mating system in Hirschfeldia incana and hybridization to oilseed rape', 'Concerns have been raised about the possibility of sexual transfer of herbicide resistance genes from transgenic crops towards weedy relatives. The average rate of spontaneous hybridization between Hirschfeldia incana (L.) Lagrèze-Fossat and oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) was 0.6 hybrids per plant over 3 years of field experiments using herbicide-resistant oilseed rape as a pollen donor. Self-incompatibility was shown to be the mating system of most individuals within a population of H. incana, although some plants had some ability to self-fertilize, which could mitigate gene flow. Back-crossing interspecific hybrids to H. incana over five generations showed that introgression was not successful in our experiment.', 'en_US'),
(881, 'Releasing genetically modified organisms: will any harm outweigh any advantage?', '1. The public debate about genetically modified organisms has concentrated largely on concerns about food safety and potential risks to the environment. In both cases there appears to be an assumption that existing crops and animals are safe. I discuss the experience we have to date from traditional methods and conclude that most concerns about environmental harm are more relevant to existing crops.2. The flow of genes among species, and even within different genera, is discussed with due attention being paid to the need for inherited genes to confer a selective advantage on hosts.3. A reason why so many people are critical of intensive agriculture and biotechnology is that virtually all changes in agricultural practice have an adverse impact on wildlife, particularly when such change leads to increased intensification. The problem of deciding how to manage agriculture to ensure that we maintain or enhance species diversity of wild plants and animals is discussed against the background that most of the UK environment is the result of human intervention.4. Nature and dense human populations cannot coexist without the former suffering. Our objective should be to develop and exploit our understanding of ecology to provide the information required to enable us to develop a far more enlightened future for agriculture and wildlife.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(882, 'GM crops: the Greenpeace view', 'The main general concerns about the use of genetically modified (GM) crops are summarized, and consequences for the UK feed industry are discussed. Particular attention is given to the legislation of GM animal feeds.', 'en_US'),
(883, 'Increased killing of Bacillus subtilis on the hair roots of transgenic T4 lysozyme-producing potatoes', 'Transgenic potato plants expressing the phage T4 lysozyme gene which are resistant to the plant-pathogenic enterobacterium Erwinia carotovora subsp. carotovora have been constructed. The agricultural growth of these potatoes might have harmful effects on soil microbiota as a result of T4 lysozyme release into the rhizosphere. To assess the bactericidal effect of roots, we have developed a novel method to associate the cells of Bacillus subtilis with hair roots of plants and to quantify the survival of cells directly on the root surface by appropriate staining and fluorescence microscopy. With this technique, we found that the roots of potato plants (Désirée and transgenic control lines) without T4 lysozyme gene display measurable killing activity on root-adsorbed B.subtilis cells. Killing was largely independent of the plant age and growth of plants in greenhouse or field plots. Roots from potato lines expressing the T4 lysozyme gene always showed significantly (1.5-to 3.5-fold) higher killing. It is concluded that T4 lysozyme is released from the root epidermis cells and is active in the fluid film on the root surface. We discuss why strong negative effects of T4 lysozyme-producing potatoes on soil bacteria in field trials may not be observed. We propose that the novel method presented here to study interactions of bacteria with roots can be applied not only to bacterial killing but also to interactions leading to growth-sustaining effects of plants on bacteria.', 'en_US'),
(884, 'Modelling the spread of pollen from Lolium perenne. The implications for the release of wind-pollinated transgenics', 'The dispersal of pollen from a Lolium perenne source has previously been described using various Gaussian plume models which take distance and wind direction into account. One of these models is used here to calculate, using integration, possible pollen deposition onto small conspecific populations a kilometer from the source. The percentage of immigrant pollen is compared for six different sets of parameter values previously estimated from pollen-dispersal experiments. The source size is then scaled up to simulate what might happen if transgenic ryegrass was grown on a large scale. In this case it is seen that small conspecific populations might, in some conditions, be swamped by immigrant pollen, even if they are not directly downwind of the source. The implications of this are discussed in terms of assessing and managing the risks of releasing wind-pollinated transgenic crops.', 'en_US'),
(885, 'Biotechnology and hunger: challenges for the biotech industry', 'According to the biotechnology industry, choosy consumers'' disapproval of genetically modified (GM) food stifles a further development of biotechnology and deprives the undernourished part of  the world population from essential tools to raise their food production. This conceptual paper raises basic issues that help to analyse whether indeed agricultural biotechnology industries respond to the need of the poor.', 'en_US'),
(886, 'Transgenic trees, what risks?', 'Les programmes expérimentaux de transgénèse appliquée aux arbres se multiplient dans le monde. Selon Lise Jouanin, les chercheurs font tout pour veiller à l''innocuité des variétés génétiquement modifiées sur l''environnement. Et la transgénèse forestière contribuera à l''amélioration de l''environnement et à la protection des forêts.', 'en_US'),
(887, 'Governing trade in genetically modified organisms. The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety', NULL, 'en_US'),
(888, 'Agroecological risks of transgenic plants: what are they and how do we deal with them?', 'Risk is defined as the chance of a specific event x the effect of the event. Large-scale cultivation of transgenic herbicide resistant crops can result in poorer weed control of less susceptible weeds. Another risk is reduced attention (and money) for research on reducing the environmental impact of weed control methods. Large-scale cultivation of transgenic herbicide resistant crops can also result in a delaying of weed control (thus allowing the development of harmful plant pathogens) and a reduction of biodiversity in field borders (hiding place of natural enemies). Knowledge of interactions between different types of modification, genotypes, environmental factors and the susceptibility of the environment is required on a case by case base. The introduction of transgenic herbicide resistant crops in the Netherlands should be accompanied by a strict monitoring programme of laboratory, greenhouse and field studies on experimental farms.', 'en_US'),
(889, 'Biotechnology: where now?', 'A discussion on biotechnol., its role in food production. and the controversy surrounding biotechnology.', 'en_US'),
(890, 'Transgenic maize in Mexico: no need for concern', 'According to pre-Hispanic traditions, gods gave native Mexicans the first maize seeds and from then on, and for thousands of years, maize has been a vital element to the Latin American cultures. Biologically, maize is an orphan plant and has only one relative, the annual teosinte (1). Morphologically the two are similar, but they differ strikingly in the pistillate inflorescence (what becomes the cob). For our discussion, the most notable difference is that the maize cob is solid, whereas the teosinte cob is brittle and comes apart at maturity. Molecular analysis has shown that maize was domesticated in the Balsas River drainage (Mexico) 6000 years ago (2). Primitive cobs found in caves and other archaeological sites share the same characteristics: they are of small size and are, invariably, solid. This is of major importance--viable seeds can only be released by mechanical means (basically by humans). Maize does not disperse itself and therefore does not exist as a free species in nature...', 'en_US'),
(891, 'The new quarrel of GMO?', 'Two papers discuss risks associated with the use of the DNA sequence 35S (originating from the cauliflower mosaic caulimovirus) in transgenic plants. The 1st paper (by J. J. Perrier) presents the viewpoints of opposing scientists. The 2nd paper (by J. B. Morel and M. Tepfer) discusses the possibility of 35S to activate viral genomes and genes in plants (due to the existence of a ''hot point'' for recombination).', 'en_US'),
(892, 'Removing selectable marker genes: taking the shortcut', NULL, 'en_US'),
(893, 'Assessment of interspecific hybridization between transgenic oilseed rape and wild radish under normal agronomic conditions', 'In order to assess the hybridization rate between oilseed rape and wild radish under normal agronomic conditions, three 1-ha field experiments were performed. In each case, wild radish plants were transplant ed at different densities in the middle, the border, or the margin of the herbicide-tolerant oilseed rape field. Among the 189084 seedlings obtained from seeds harvested on wild radish plants, only one herbicide-tolerant interspecific hybrid (RrRrAC, 2n = 37) was characterized from seeds harvested on an isolated plant growing in the margin of the field. Thus, for the wild radish total harvest, with a 95% confidence limit, the frequency of interspecific hybrids was assessed to range from 10(-7) to 3.10(-5). Interspecific hybrids were detected in all cases among the smallest seeds with a diameter less than 1.6 mm harvested on oilseed rape, but the highest frequency was obtained from oilseed rape close to wild radish plants growing as clusters in the border or the margin of the field. Most hybrids had the expected triploid genomic structure (ACRr, 2n = 28) except for four amphidiploids (AACCRrRr, 2n = 56) and one hybrid from a wild radish unreduced gamete (ACRrRr, 2n = 37). Among the 73847 seedlings observed on the oilseed rape total harvest, the frequency of interspecific hybrids was assessed to range from 2.10(-5) to 5.10(-4), with a 95% confidence limit. The results are discussed with regard to the type of oilseed rape variety used and the characteristics of the interspecific hybrids.', 'en_US'),
(894, 'Risk assessment of virus resistant transgenic sugar beet', NULL, 'en_US'),
(895, 'The impact of genetic modification of human foods in the 21st century: a review', 'Genetic engineering of food is the science which involves deliberate modification of the genetic material of plants or animals. It is an old agricultural practice carried on by farmers since early historical times, but recently it has been improved by technology. Many foods consumed today are either genetically modified (GM) whole foods, or contain ingredients derived from gene modification technology. Billions of dollars in U.S. food exports are realized from sales of GM seeds and crops. Despite the potential benefits of genetic engineering of foods, the technology is surrounded by controversy. Critics of GM technology include consumer and health groups, grain importers from European Union (EU) countries, organic farmers, environmentalists, concerned scientists, ethicists, religious rights groups, food advocacy groups, some politicians and trade protectionists. Some of the specific fears expressed by opponents of GM technology include alteration in nutritional quality of foods, potential toxicity, possible antibiotic resistance from GM crops, potential allergenicity and carcinogenicity from consuming GM foods. In addition, some more general concerns include environmental pollution, unintentional gene transfer to wild plants, possible creation of new viruses and toxins, limited access to seeds due to patenting of GM food plants, threat to crop genetic diversity, religious, cultural and ethical concerns, as well as fear of the unknown. Supporters of GM technology include private industries, research scientists, some consumers, U.S, farmers and regulatory agencies. Benefits presented by proponents of GM technology include improvement in fruit and vegetable shelf-life and organoleptic quality, improved nutritional quality and health benefits in foods, improved protein and carbohydrate content of foods, improved fat quality, improved quality and quantity of meat, milli and livestock. Other potential benefits are: the use of GM livestock to grow organs for transplant into humans, increased crop yield, improvement in agriculture through breeding insect, pest, disease, and weather resistant crops and herbicide tolerant crops, use of GM plants as bio-factories to yield raw materials for industrial uses, use of GM organisms in drug manufacture, in recycling and/or removal of toxic industrial wastes. The potential risks and benefits of the new technology to man and the environment are reviewed. Ways of minimizing potential risks and maximizing the benefits of GM foods are suggested. Because the benefits of GM foods apparently far outweigh the risks, regulatory agencies and industries involved in GM food business should increase public awareness in this technology to enhance worldwide acceptability of GM foods. This can be achieved through openness, education, and research.', 'en_US'),
(896, 'Plant genetic engineering and the biosafety problem', NULL, 'en_US'),
(897, 'Farm-scale trials for studying the effects of GM herbicide-tolerant crops on farmland biodiversity in the UK', NULL, 'en_US'),
(898, 'Testing Bt refuge strategies in the field', NULL, 'en_US'),
(899, 'Transgenic pest resistant crops in Switzerland?', 'The main target of growing pest-resistant plants is to reduce crop losses due to insect pests and to reduce insecticide applications. A reduction in insecticide use in Switzerland is only possible for Bt-potatoes and oilseed rape expressing proteinase inhibitors; in Switzerland no insecticides are registered nor used against the corn borer. As the three main pests of the crops discussed (corn borer, Colorado potato beetle, pollen beetle) have already developed resistance against several insecticides in the lab, it is possible that transgenic pest-resistant crops will loose their efficiency in the long term. Several laboratory studies on side-effects of transgenic crops on non-target insects indicate negative impacts of the toxin-expressing plants. Such effects are not demonstrated so far in the few existing field studies. Final conclusions on this subject are not possible yet. Vertical gene transfer is possible from all three transgenic crops on non-transgenic varieties within the maximum distance of pollen dispersal. From the many plants (manly widespread weeds) closely related to oilseed rape, vertical gene transfer has only been observed on turnip (Brassica campestris).', 'en_US'),
(900, 'An evaluation of risk analysis as applied to agricultural biotechnology (with a case study of GMO labeling)', 'Governments have several policy instruments available for influencing the speed of adoption of agricultural biotechnology and the ultimate market share of products produced with its use. Differences between countries in rates of and conditions on regulatory approval of agricultural biotechnologies result from different approaches to the factors included in risk analysis and the inclusion of different factors. Differences in labeling policy result from these same sources, as well as from different views of the consumer''s right to know about how a product was produced. An economic evaluation of the use of risk analysis to regulate agricultural biotechnology and products derived from it focuses on the welfare effects of the policy chosen relative to those of alternative policies that could have been chosen. The full application of benefit/cost analysis in different countries may indicate that different policies best suit their varying situations.', 'en_US'),
(901, 'Are the precautionary principle and the international trade of genetically modified organisms reconcilable?', 'This paper seeks to find possibilities for reconciliation of the implementation of the precautionary principle and the promotion of international trade of genetically modified organisms, based on the assumption that a sustainable development is a right objective to strive for. It starts with an explanation of the background and the role of the precautionary principle, and describes in what way measures based on the precautionary principle can easily lead to the creation of trade barriers. The article then examines to what extent the WTO (World Trade Organisation) Agreements allow the implementation of the precautionary principle. In addition, structural conflicts between the perception of the precautionary principle and the concept of trade liberalisation will be evoked. The last section of the paper analyses to what extent the WTO rules provide possibilities to avoid or solve these conflicts in order to attempt to answer the main question: are the precautionary principle and the international trade of genetically modified organisms reconcilable?', 'en_US'),
(902, 'Genetically modified organisms: why all the controversy?', 'The genetically modified organisms controversy is reviewed by addressing ten basic questions concerning GMOs. Topics covered are: the nature of GMOs; how GMOs are produced; why GMOs are so controversial; who produces GMOs; where GMOs are currently being grown; the potential benefits of GMOs; the potential risks associated with GMOs; why consumer attitudes about GMOs differ around the world; whether GMOs are appropriate for developing countries; and the long term prospects for GMOs.', 'en_US'),
(903, 'Comparison of environmental and health-related standards influencing the relative competitiveness of EU agriculture vis-a-vis main competitors in the world market', 'Synthesis of the principal environmental and human-health related standards applying to agriculture in the EU, Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the USA. The report provides one of the first comprehensive surveys of the main environmental and human health prob-lems related to agriculture in these countries. A broad range of problems is surveyed, including the quality of water, soil and air, bio-diversity and landscape, genetically modified organisms, animal welfare and human health. The policy measures in place to treat the measures are compared. Using this analysis, a preliminary assessment is made of the implications of differences in standards for the relative competitiveness of EU agriculture vis-à-vis the other four countries. ', 'en_US'),
(904, 'The ecological situation with regard to herbicide tolerant and conventional rape fields plants in the Central German region from 1996 to 1998', NULL, 'en_US'),
(905, 'Genetically modified organisms -- the farmer''s side of the field', 'Concerns raised in the debate over genetically modified crops, including commercial implications, intellectual property rights, genetic biodiversity, the development of herbicide resistant weeds through gene transfer from crops, segregation of genetically modified and non-modified crops, and market access and consumer reaction, are considered. The perspectives of the Victorian Farmers'' Federation of Australia are stated.', 'en_US'),
(906, 'Managing herbicide resistance in weeds from use of herbicide tolerant crops', NULL, 'en_US'),
(907, 'Risk-management issues for genetically engineered forest trees', NULL, 'en_US'),
(908, 'Survival of Helicoverpa zea on Bt sweet corn', NULL, 'en_US'),
(909, 'Artificial pink bollworm egg infestations and larval survival in NuCOTN 33B and Deltapine cotton cultivars in Arizona', NULL, 'en_US'),
(910, 'Longevity of phytophagous heteropteran predators feeding on transgenic Bt-potato plants', NULL, 'en_US'),
(911, 'Genetically modified organisms: consequences for ruminant health and nutrition', 'Many of the plants eaten by farmed ruminants are capable of being genetically modified, and may in the future be modified for nutritional, agronomic or industrial purposes. Techniques are also becoming available for genetic modification of silage and ruminal bacteria. Those working in agricultural biotechnology have a clear responsibility to detect and avoid any unintended or undesirable consequences of such modifications, whether direct or indirect, upon the animal, the consumer and the environment. One of the most general concerns that has been expressed is the possibility for onward transfer of modified gene sequences to gut microorganisms or host cells. Rare acquisition of diet-derived DNA fragments cannot be ruled out, but if this occurs, it must have also occurred throughout mammalian history. The possible impact of genes not normally present in ruminant diets must, however, be considered. Discussion of the use of antibiotic resistance markers in transgene constructs must take into account the wider debate on the likely impact of antibiotic use in animal agriculture on the spread of antibiotic resistant bacteria. There is increasing evidence that overuse of antibiotics has lead to extensive transfer of antibiotic resistance genes between bacteria from the human and animal gut. In general this is likely to have a far greater impact than any rare transfer events involving resistance genes passing from transgenic plants to microbes. Our rapidly improving ability to use sophisticated molecular approaches to predict and track the consequences of genetic modification will help to ensure safe application of GM technology in agriculture in the future.', 'en_US'),
(912, 'Chemical fingerprinting for the evaluation of unintended secondary metabolic changes in transgenic food crops', 'A common element in designed guidelines for assessment of the food safety of transgenic crops is centred on a comparative analytical analysis with conventionally bred crop plants, assuming that these products have a long history of safe use (i.e. OECD-principle of substantial equivalence). In this study we examine the utility of an off-line combination of 400 MHz proton (1H)-NMR spectroscopy and liquid chromatography (LC) for the multi-component comparison of low-molecular weight compounds (i.e. chemical fingerprinting) in complex plant matrices. The developed NMR-methodology can contribute to the demonstration of substantial equivalence by its ability to compare possible compositional alterations in a novel food crop with respect to related non-transgenic reference lines. In this respect a hierarchical approach is proposed by comparing the chemical fingerprints of the transgenic crop plant to those of: (1) isogenic parental or closely related lines bred at identical and multiple sites; (2) extended ranges of commercial varieties of that plant; and (3) downstream processing effects. This is of importance to assess the likelihood that some of the statistical differences in a transgenic crop plant may be false positives due to chance alone or arose from natural genetic and/or physiologic variations.', 'en_US'),
(913, 'Risk of alfalfa transgene dissemination and scale-dependent effects', 'Pollen can function as a vehicle to disseminate introduced, genetically engineered genes throughout a plant population or into a related species. The measurement of the risk of inadvertent dispersal of transgenes must include the assessment of accidental dispersion of pollen. Factors to be considered include the rate of pollen spread, the maximal dispersion distance of pollen, and the spatial dynamics of pollen movement within seed production fields; none of which are known for alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.), an insect-pollinated crop species. Using a rare, naturally occurring molecular marker, alfalfa pollen movement was tracked from seed and hay production fields. Results indicated that leafcutter bees (Megachile spp.) used in commercial seed production show a directional, non-random bias when pollinating within fields, primarily resulting in the movement of pollen directly towards and away from the bee domicile. Within-field pollen movement was detected only over distances of 4 m or less. Dispersal of pollen from alfalfa hay and seed production fields occurs at distances up to 1000 m. By examining widely dispersed, individual escaped alfalfa plants and their progeny using RAPD markers, gene movement among escaped alfalfa plants has been confirmed for distances up to 230 m. The out-crossing frequency for large fields was nearly 10-times greater than that of research-sized plots. A minimum isolation distance of 1557 m may be required to prevent gene flow in alfalfa. Data suggest that complete containment of transgenes within alfalfa seed or hay production fields would be highly unlikely using current production practices.', 'en_US'),
(914, 'Genetically modified plants and the 35S promoter: assessing the risks and enhancing the debate', 'The 35S promoter, derived from the common plant virus, cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV), is a component of transgenic constructs in more than 80% of genetically modified (GM) plants. Alarming reports have suggested that the 35S promoter might cause accidental activation of plant genes or endogenous viruses, promote horizontal gene transfer, or might even recombine with mammalian viruses such as HIV, with unexpected consequences. In this article, we discuss the properties of CaMV and the 35S promoter and the potential risks associated with the use of the promoter in GM plants, concluding that any risks are no greater than those encountered in conventional plant breeding.', 'en_US'),
(915, 'Genetics and the conservation and use of Australian wild relatives of crops', NULL, 'en_US'),
(916, 'Proposed guidelines for pre-commercial evaluation of transgenic and conventional cotton cultivars', 'The primary commercial features of recently released transgenic cotton (Gossypium) cultivars are their respective pest management traits, including, tolerance of the herbicides Buctril(R) (bromoxynil) and Roundup Ultra(R) (glyphosate), and the capacity to synthesize a Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) endotoxin for control of lepidopteran pests. Many transgenic cultivars have been offered for sale with fewer years of public testing than most growers and their advisors would have liked. Lack of time and resources may have resulted in some having been sold in locations with no previous public testing in the immediate growing area. Despite the lack of public test information, the collective market share of transgenic cultivars has increased every year since their introduction, presumably because of high grower interest in their value-added, pest management features. Obviously, transgenic pest management traits strongly influence the pest management programmes that are appropriate for the transgenic cultivars, and the efficacy of the pest management programmes may positively affect yields and the costs of production. However, in Official Cultivar Trials (OCTs), comparison of the transgenic cultivars with non-transgenic cultivars has been done using only conventional and, frequently, a high level of pest management. Concerns, about the lack of public test data on transgenic cultivars, and about relying solely on OCTs for their evaluation, prompted Cotton Incorporated to convene a working group, the objective of which was to seek consensus among public and private sector researchers on how to enable growers to confidently choose the best cultivar and pest management technology for their situation. The drafting subcommittee of the working group proposed guidelines for cultivar evaluation to a joint meeting of SRIEG-61 (Southern Regional Information Exchange Group 61 - Cotton Breeding), and a new Regional Project in preparation, SRDC-9801 (Southern Regional Development Committee 9801 - Development of Genetic Resources for Cotton). Principal points of the proposal were that a minimum of 2 years of public test data should be available to growers at the time of first sale, and that the data should include comparison of transgenic cultivars with cultivars generally recognized as having high yield potential. The proposal also suggested that the testing should provide comprehensive economic evaluation of new cultivars by concurrently evaluating yields, fibre quality, and the efficacy and costs of the respective pest management programmes.', 'en_US'),
(917, 'A direct regional scale estimate of transgene movement from genetically modified oilseed rape to its wild progenitors', 'One of the major environmental concerns over genetically modified (GM) crops relates to transgene movement into wild relatives. The pattern of hybridization ultimately affects the scale and rapidity of ecological change and the feasibility of containment. A new procedure for quantifying hybrid formation over large areas is described. Remote sensing was used to identify possible sites of sympatry between Brassica napus and ifs progenitor species across 15 000 km(2) of south-east England in 1998. Two sympatric populations with B. rapa and one with B. oleracea were found over the entire survey area. Every newly recruited plant in these populations in 1999 was screened for hybrid status using now cytometry and molecular analyses. One hybrid was observed from the 505 plants screened in the B. rapa populations but none of the nine B. oleracea recruits were hybrids. Measures to minimize gene now are suggested, and a procedure for the post-release evaluation and containment of GM cultivars is proposed.', 'en_US'),
(918, 'Plants rendered herbicide-susceptible by cauliflower mosaic virus -- elicited suppression of a 35S promoter-regulated transgene', 'Crop plants genetically modified for herbicide tolerance were some of the first to be released into the environment. Frequently, the cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) 35S promoter is used to drive expression of the herbicide tolerance transgene. We analyzed the response to CaMV infection of a transgenic oilseed rape line containing the bialaphos tolerance gene (BAR) from Streptomyces hygroscopicus, regulated by the 35S promoter. Oilseed rape is susceptible to CaMV, but plants recover from infection. CaMV infection altered the expression of the herbicide tolerance gene such that plants became susceptible to the herbicide. The effect on transgene expression differed in infections with viral pathogenic variants typical of those found in natural situations worldwide. Susceptibility to the herbicide was most likely a result of transcriptional gene silencing of the transgene. Our results show that transgene phenotypes can be modified by pathogen invasion.', 'en_US'),
(919, 'Field evaluation of seed production, shattering, and dormancy in hybrid populations of transgenic rice (Oryza sativa) and the weed, red rice (Oryza sativa)', 'The genetic and agronomic consequences of transferring glufosinate (Liberty?) herbicide resistance from transgenic rice (Oryza sativa L.) lines to the noxious weed red rice (Oryza sativa L.) were evaluated under field conditions. Replicated field trials in Louisiana (LA) and Arkansas (AR) were conducted in 1997 to evaluate ten vegetative and reproductive traits of eight F2 populations produced from controlled crosses of two transgenic, glufosinate-resistant rice lines and four red rice biotypes. Plant vigor and plant density at both locations were similar among populations derived from either transgenic or non-transgenic parents. Significant differences in plant height and maturity were observed among LA populations produced from transgenic lines when compared to corresponding populations developed from non-transgenic material. However, values for these traits were not greater than those detected in the red rice biotypes. Seed dormancy and seed production were not significantly different at either location among transgenic and non-transgenic populations. Dominant Mendelian segregation of glufosinate resistance was detected in 40% of the populations evaluated. Results of this study indicated that those populations segregating for glufosinate resistance responded in a location-specific manner with respect to life history and fecundity traits.', 'en_US'),
(920, 'Biosafety and international trade: conflict or convergence?', 'One of the most important technological developments in the 1990s has been the emergence of biotechnology. Both the draft Protocol on Biosafety under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) Measures of the World Trade Organization (WTO) could cover trade in biotechnology products. However, each agreement treats the nascent ¡¥precautionary principle¡¦ differently. Trade disputes in living modified organisms will use either agreement, depending on each country¡¦s status in each agreement. Trade and environment agreements aspire to be mutually supportive, but to do so here requires substantial harmonization between the two agreements.', 'en_US'),
(921, 'Creating a global biosafety regime', 'This article examines one of the first international efforts to formulate legally binding rules for biosafety or safe use of biotechnology - the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety under the Convention on Biological Diversity. The Cartagena Protocol, concluded in January 2000, mandates the informed consent of a country prior to the release of genetically modified organisms into its environment. The paper traces the divergent perspectives on biosafety within this negotiation and explores how key areas of disagreement were resolved in finalizing the protocol. It concludes by assessing the implications of the completed protocol for different groups and for global governance of safe use of biotechnology in agriculture. ', 'en_US'),
(922, 'Risk assessment and regulation of bioengineered food products', 'Europe is the epicentre of what has been described as an all-out war over the acceptance of genetically engineered foods. Controversy over health effects has centred around simple and complex models of transgenic modifications. Proponents of the simple models emphasize familiarity with the host plant and the well-characterization of the transgene. Advocates of the complex models consider the genome to be more like an ecosystem than a set of building blocks. They emphasize the indeterminacy and unintended outcomes of foreign gene insertions. Evolving concepts of health that embrace health promotion and sustainable agriculture set additional standards for transgenic crops that transcend reductionist approaches to risk assessment based on contested genomic principles.', 'en_US'),
(923, 'Unsound science? Transatlantic regulatory disputes over GM crops', 'In the risk debate over genetically modified (GM) crops, Europe''s regulatory delays have often been branded as ''political'', i.e. not based on science.  Yet the US slogan ''sound science'' tends to conceal value-laden features of safety claims, their weak scientific basis, their normative framing and their socio-political influences.  By contrast a ''precautionary approach'' can more readily identify scientific unknowns to be investigated, while acknowledging the agricultural-environmental values which inform risk assessment.  These issues underlie transatlantic regulatory disputes over insect-protected Bt maize.  In both the USA and Europe, public protest has stimulated risk-assessment research on broader cause-effect pathways, as well as more stringent regulation.  For harm to non-target insects, however, new evidence of risk has been disparaged as unsound.  It has been criticized on various grounds, which could apply just as well to evidence of safety; thus double standards have served to protect safety claims.  And non-target harm is deemed acceptable through unsubstantiated comparisons to agrochemical usage. In these ways, ''sound science'' operates as an ideology, pre-empting debate on the framing of scientific uncertainty.  The real choice is not between ''science versus politics'', but rather between ways of linking them.', 'en_US'),
(924, 'Bringing social analysis into a multilateral environmental agreement: social impact assessment and the Biosafety Protocol', NULL, 'en_US'),
(925, 'Labeling products of biotechnology: towards communication and consent', 'Recently, both consumers and producers of biotechnology products have insisted that communication between the two be improved. The former demand more democratic participation in the risk assessment process of biotechnology products. The latter seek to correct misinformation regarding alleged risks from these products. One way to resolve these concerns, I argue, is through the use of biotechnology labels. Such labeling fosters consumer autonomy and moves toward more participatory decision making, in addition to ensuring that informed consent from consumers is maintained. Furthermore, although voluntary biotech-free labeling in lieu of biotech labels may uphold consumer sovereignty, the latter remains a more effective strategy for achieving ethical communication between consumers and producers of biotechnology products.', 'en_US'),
(926, 'Agrobiotechnology choices in developing countries', 'Today''s agrobiotechnology revolution (especially the move toward transgenic or genetically modified (GM) crops) is being researched, commercialized, and (hotly) debated mostly in Europe, the USA, and elsewhere within the rich industrial world. Yet it is in the developing countries where the greatest human and environmental promise - or peril - of this new technology may lie. The paper argues that it is time to move the terms of the GM crop policy debate in the direction of developing country interests. Farmers and consumers in the industrial world are already wealthy and well fed, and can afford, if they wish, to take a highly sceptical, precautionary view toward this new technology. A majority of farmers and consumers in developing countries, on the other hand, are neither wealthy nor well fed, so for them the precautionary approach might not be sufficient. At the same time, governments and societies in the industrial world are also different from the developing world in their scientific and institutional capacity to manage these powerful new technologies safely.', 'en_US'),
(927, 'Effect of crop rotation and soil cover on alteration of the soil microflora generated by the culture of transgenic plants producing opines', NULL, 'en_US'),
(928, 'Bt resistance under conventional insecticide use', 'Theoretical models and available field and laboratory data suggest that the development of resistance in Louisiana bollworms (H. zea) and budworms (H. virescens) to Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) and pyrethroids is influenced by assumptions made regarding the use of pyrethroids on refuge acres. We show that the use of untreated refuge regenerates susceptibility to pyrethroids in both insects, leading to a toxin mixture effect that significantly reduces the rate of Bt resistance development relative to the treated-refuge case.', 'en_US'),
(929, 'Biotechnological production of plant-based insecticides', 'The demand for natural and nonpersistent insecticides is increasing day by day. Plant cell cultures could be an alternative to conventional methods of production of insecticides from field-grown plants. In vitro cultured plant cells produce a wide array of insecticides as a part of their secondary metabolism. Their ability to synthesize key enzymes and the manipulation of these could lead to the enhanced production of many insecticides of industrial importance. The development of a high-yielding hairy root culture system for thiophenes, nicotine, and photoecdysones is of considerable interest. in this article, the current literature on various factors that influence the growth, production, and secretion of six insecticidal compounds, namely, pyrethrins, azadirachtin, thiophenes, nicotine, rotenoids, and phytoecdysones which have been prospects for the scale-up of cell cultures, genetic engineering to obtain transgenic plants, and metabolically engineered plants for increased production of bio-molecules, has been discussed. Environmental safety clearance and the future prospects of application of biomolecules for plant-derived insecticides are presented.', 'en_US'),
(930, 'Development and characterization of diamondback moth resistance to transgenic broccoli expressing high levels of Cry1C', 'A field-collected colony of the diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella, had 31-fold resistance to Cry1C protoxin of Bacillus thuringiensis. After 24generations of selection with Cry1C protoxin and transgenic broccoli expressing a Cry1C protein, the resistance that developed was high enough that neonates of the resistant strain could complete their entire life cycle on transgenic broccoli expressing high levels of Cry1C. After 26generations of selection, the resistance ratios of this strain to Cry1C protoxin were 12,400-and 63,100-fold, respectively, for the neonates and second instars by a leaf dip assay. The resistance remained stable until generation 38(G38) under continuous selection but decreased to 235-fold at G38 when selection ceased at G28. The Cry1C resistance in this strain was seen to be inherited as an autosomal and incompletely recessive factor or factors when evaluated using a leaf dip assay and recessive when evaluated using Cry1C transgenic broccoli. Saturable binding of 125I-Cry1C was found with brush border membrane vesicles (BBMV) from both susceptible and Cry1C-resistant strains. Significant differences in Cry1C binding to BBMV from the two strains were detected. BBMV from the resistant strain had about sevenfold-lower affinity for Cry1C and threefold-higher binding site concentration than BBMV from the susceptible strain. The overall Cry1C binding affinity was just 2.5-fold higher for BBMV from the susceptible strain than it was for BBMV from the resistant strain. These results suggest that reduced binding is not the major mechanism of resistance to Cry1C.', 'en_US'),
(931, 'GMO labeling: the need for and status of GM-DNA quantification', NULL, 'en_US'),
(932, 'Breeding transformed cotton expressing enhanced fiber strength', 'New cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) seeds that can produce fiber with enhanced strength would increase efficiency of the rotor form of open end yarn manufacture. We report results of 3-yr of breeding transgenic `Deltapine 50'' (DP 50) germplasm expressing enhanced fiber strength. The objective was to identify germplasm that could consistently express and transmit enhanced fiber strength to their progeny. Deltapine 50 cotton was transformed via particle bombardment of meristems by Monsanto. The intent of transformation was to insert a b-glucuronidase (GUS) marker gene and a proprietary gene driven by a fiber specific promoter. The R4-R6 generations descendent from three GUS-positive, enhanced strength, R3 greenhouse plants were evaluated in the field from 1996-1998 near Florence, SC. Unusual frequencies of GUS-positive progeny were found upon self-pollination of GUS-positive plants, possibly reflecting altered fitness of transgenic gametes. Fiber strength of most GUS-positive plants was 30-70% greater than the non-transformed DP 50 control plants. After examining numerous parent-offspring relationships, we did not observe any consistent transmission of enhanced fiber strength. Results of this study, however, may have application to other transgenic cotton breeding efforts.', 'en_US'),
(933, 'Maturity and yield responses of non-transgenic and transgenic Bt cotton to simulated bollworm injury', 'No precise economic injury levels or action thresholds have been established for pests infesting transgenic Bt cotton, Gossypium hirsutum L. This study was designed to quantify the effects of injury to cotton bolls by simulating feeding by the bollworm, Helicoverpa zea (Boddie), during flowering stages on non-transgenic (cv. Stoneville 474) and transgenic Bt (cv. NuCOTN 33B) cotton. Field tests were conducted in Northeast Louisiana during 1997 and 1998 on upland cotton to study crop maturity, seedcotton yields, and boll injury associated with insect pests. Boll injury was produced by drilling a 63.5 mm hole completely through bolls. Yield and maturity responses of non-transgenic and transgenic, Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner var. kurstaki (Bt), cotton were measured after seven levels (0, 2.5, 5, 10, 20, 40, and 80%) of mechanical boll injury were applied to the total boll population during the first 4 wk of flowering. Boll injury during week 2 of flowering on Stoneville 474 in 1997 and during weeks 3 and 4 of flowering on Stoneville 474 and NuCOTN 33B in 1998 significantly delayed crop maturity at the time of harvest aid application. Significant reductions in seedcotton yield of Stoneville 474 were observed when bolls were damaged during weeks 3 and 4 of flowering in 1997 and during week 4 of flowering in 1998. Significant (P = 0.05) yield reductions of NuCOTN 33B were observed during weeks 3 and 4 of flowering in 1997. These data define economic injury levels for boll-feeding insects during the first four weeks of flowering.', 'en_US'),
(934, 'A consumer''s guide to GM food: from green genes to red herrings', NULL, 'en_US'),
(935, 'Determining gene flow of transgenic creeping bentgrass and gene transfer to other bentgrass species', NULL, 'en_US'),
(936, 'Delayed activation of post-transcriptional gene silencing and de novo transgene methylation in plants with the coat protein gene of sweet potato feathery mottle potyvirus', 'The relationship between post-transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS) and DNA methylation was examined using Nicotiana benthamiana transformed with the coat protein gene including the 3'' non-translated region of sweet potato feathery mottle potyvirus. Line 4.28 showed a delayed activation of the transgene silencing in comparison with the other silenced lines, and showed complete resistance against the recombinant potato virus X engineered to contain the sequence homologous to the transgene when the silencing was activated. The transgene methylation in line 4.28 was less extensive in comparison with those of the other silenced lines before the silencing was activated. However, the extent of methylation increased in the course of plant development and became comparable with those in the other silenced lines. The activated silencing and the increased transgene methylation were reset after meiosis. However, the characters of delayed activation of the silencing and developmentally increased transgene methylation were meiotically transmitted to the next generation. These results suggest that transgene(s) itself has a potential to trigger and reset DNA methylation, which could determine a state of PTGS.', 'en_US'),
(937, 'Transgenic plants and biosafety', NULL, 'en_US'),
(938, 'Food for thought -- modified and engineered', NULL, 'en_US'),
(939, 'The role of biotechnology for global food security', 'Biotechnology alone is no panacea for the world''s problems of hunger and poverty. However, genetic engineering in particular has outstanding potential to increase the efficiency of crop improvement. Thus, biotechnology could enhance global food production and availability in a sustainable way. Two case studies from Kenya and Mexico demonstrate that transgenic crops are also very appropriate for agricultural producers and consumers in developing countries. As the entire technology can be packaged into the seed, it can easily be integrated into traditional smallholder farming systems. Except for a few innovative transfer projects, however, the application of biotechnology until now remains concentrated in the industrialized world. Combined with insufficient own scientific and regulatory capacities, the increasing privatisation of international agricultural research and the strengthening of intellectual property rights complicate the access of developing countries to biotechnology. Profound institutional adjustments are essential to ensure that biotechnology does not bypass the poor.', 'en_US'),
(940, 'Cost and return comparisons of transgenic cotton systems in Arkansas', NULL, 'en_US'),
(941, 'Influence of glyphosate (Roundup Ultra reg trade mark) rate and time of application on weed control and performance of DP5415RR cotton in Israel: field and laboratory experiments', NULL, 'en_US'),
(942, 'Establishment of introduced antagonistic bacteria in the rhizosphere of transgenic potatoes and their effect on the bacterial community', 'In a field release experiment, rifampicin resistant mutants of two antagonistic plant-associated bacteria were used for seed tuber inoculation of transgenic T4 lysozyme expressing potatoes, transgenic control potatoes and non-transgenic parental potatoes. The T4 lysozyme tolerant Pseudomonas putida QC14-3-8 was originally isolated from the tuber surface (geocaulosphere) of T4 lysozyme producing plants and showed in vitro antibacterial activity to the bacterial pathogen Erwinia carotovora ssp. atroseptica. The T4 lysozyme sensitive Serratia grimesii L16-3-3 was originally isolated from the rhizosphere of parental potatoes and showed in vitro antagonism toward the plant pathogenic fungus Verticillium dahliae. The establishment of the inoculated bacteria in the rhizosphere and geocaulosphere of the different plant lines was monitored over one growing season to assess the effect of T4 lysozyme produced by transgenic potato plants on the survival of both inoculants. Both introduced isolates were able to colonize the rhizo- and geocaulosphere of transgenic plants and non-transgenic parental plants, and established in the rhizosphere at levels of ca. log10 5 colony forming units g 31 fresh weight of root. During flowering of plants, significantly more colony counts of the T4 lysozyme tolerant P. putida were recovered from transgenic T4 lysozyme plants than from the transgenic control and the parental line. At this time, the highest level of T4 lysozyme (% of total soluble protein) was detected. Effects of the inoculants on the indigenous microbial community were monitored by analysis of PCR-amplified fragments of the 16S rRNA genes of the whole bacterial community after separation by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE). At any sampling time, the DGGE pattern of rhizosphere and geocaulosphere communities did not show differences between the inoculated and non-inoculated potatoes.Neither of the introduced strains became a dominant member of the bacterial community. This work was the first approach to assess the establishment of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria and potential biocontrol agents on transgenic plants.', 'en_US'),
(943, 'Insecticidal toxin from Bacillus thuringiensis is released from roots of transgenic Bt corn in vitro and in situ', 'The insecticidal toxin encoded by the cry1Ab gene from Bacillus thuringiensis was released in root exudates from transgenic Bt corn during 40 days of growth in soil amended to 0, 3, 6, 9, or 12% (vol./vol.) with montmorillonite or kaolinite in a plant growth room and from plants grown to maturity in the field. The presence of the toxin in rhizosphere soil was detd. by immunol. and larvicidal assays. No toxin was detected in any soils from isogenic non-Bt corn or without plants. Persistence of the toxin was apparently the result of its binding on surface-active particles in the soils, which reduced the biodegrdn. of the toxin. The release of the toxin could enhance the control of insect pests or constitute a hazard to nontarget organisms, including the microbiota of soil, and increase the selection of toxin-resistant target insects.', 'en_US');
