INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(2015, 'Foraging habitats and foraging distances of bumblebees, Bombus spp. (Hym. apidae), in an agricultural landscape.', 'In selected foraging habitats of an agricultural landscape flower visits of bumblebees and community structure of foraging bumblebees were studied, with special regard to the role of crops as super-abundant resources. Most crops represent temporal foraging habitats with high abundance of bumblebees but mainly with low diversity in the bumblebee forage community, in contrast to permanent foraging habitats such as, for example, a hedgerow. The high numbers of bumblebees in the monoculture of crop plantations consisted mainly of short-tongued bumblebee species. The role of foraging distances for the visitation rate of foraging habitats was studied by performing capturerecapture experiments with natural nests of Bombus terrestris, Bombus lapidarius and Bombus muscorum. Differences were found on the species as well as the individual level. The foraging distances of B. muscorum were more restricted to the neighbourhood of the nesting habitat than the foraging activity of B. terrestris and B. lapidarius. High percentages of B. terrestris workers were recaptured while foraging on super-abundant resources in distances up to 1750m from the nest. Isolated patches of highly rewarding forage crops, in agricultural landscapes, are probably only accessed by bumblebee species with large mean foraging distances, such as the short-tongued B. terrestris. Species like the rare, long-tongued B. muscorum depend on a close connection between nesting and foraging habitat. A restricted foraging radius might be one important factor of bumblebee species loss and potential pollinator limitation in modern agricultural landscapes. Furthermore, long-distance flights of bumblebee pollinators have to be considered in the present discussion on gene flow from transgenic plant species on a landscape scale.', 'en_US'),
(2016, 'A sequential approach to risk assessment of transgenic plants expressing potease inhibitors: effects on nontarget herbivorous insects.', 'Protease inhibitors expressed in transgenic plants can provide enhanced levels of resistance to important pest species. A sequential approach for testing the effects of protease inhibitor-expressing crops on nontarget herbivorous insects has been developed. The approach consists of five tiers. The first two tiers comprise the selection phase. In tier one, field surveys are used to characterise the nontarget invertebrate fauna of a crop. In tier 2, histochemical assays are used to identify the subset of herbivores with a particular class of digestive proteolytic enzymes. In the assessment phase a combination of laboratory ''worst-case scenario'' studies (tier 3) and controlled environment or small-scale field trials (tier 4) are used to evaluate the impact of the protease inhibitor-expressing plants on the selected nontarget species. In the final tier, field trials are used to compare the relative effect of transgenic plants and current management practices, such as pesticide use, on selected species. The first four tiers of the approach are described using potatoes expressing cystatins, a family of cysteine proteinase inhibitors, as an example. Although the plants have enhanced levels of resistance to potato cyst nematodes (PCN), Globodera pallida and Globodera rostochiensis, the results establish that they have negligible impact on the nontarget herbivorous insect, Eupteryx aurata', 'en_US'),
(2017, 'A novel approach to the use of genetically modified herbicde tolerant crops for environmental benefit', 'The proposed introduction of genetically modified herbicide tolerant (GMHT) crops, with claims of improved weed control, has prompted fears about possible environmental impacts of their widespread adoption, particularly on arable weeds, insects and associated farmland birds. In response to this, we have developed a novel weed-management system for GMHT sugar beet, based on band spraying, which exploits the flexibility offered by the broad-spectrum partner herbicides. Here, we show the results from two series of field experiments which, taken together, demonstrate that, by using this system, crops can be managed for enhanced weed and insect biomass without compromising yield, thus potentially offering food and shelter to farmland birds and other wildlife. These results could be applicable widely to other row crops, and indicate that creative use of GMHT technology could be a powerful tool for developing more sustainable farming systems in the future..', 'en_US'),
(2018, 'Simulating a relative environmental effect of glyphosate-resistant soybeans', 'Great controversy surrounds the potential environmental effects of genetically modified crops (GMOs). Of the GM crops currently in commercial use, glyphosate-resistant (GR) soybeans have probably received the most attention from both proponents and opponents of GMOs. GR soybeans are an example of an input-substituting technological innovation. Adoption is a private decision, based on the adopter''s assessment of private costs and benefits, but may also have external effects. Measuring and valuing these effects completely is not possible today. Environmental indicators are attempts to find more easily measured proxies for the external effects. We present an environmental indicator based on a standardized, well-known acute mammalian toxicity measure, the LD50 dose for rats. We use this indicator to compare an environmental effect of the use of GR genetically modified soybeans to the use of non-modified soybeans for over 1400 US Midwest farms. This indicator is superior to previous indicators used to assess environmental effects of GR soybeans that rely on adding up volumes of different herbicides. The indicator allows for consistent aggregation of a specific environmental effect across many different pesticides. Furthermore, the methodology can be used to compare environmental effects for many other types of technology choices since values are mandated for all pesticides. Our simulation results suggest that GR soybean seed technology is more environmentally friendly than non-GR technology for all farms in the dimension of acute mammalian toxicity. The effect is generally more pronounced in the South where a longer growing season makes overall weed pressure more serious and presents soybean growers with a greater variety of weed species.', 'en_US'),
(2019, 'Genetic profiling of noncultivated bacteria from the rhizospheres of sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) reveal field and annual variability but no effect of a transgenic herbicide resistance', 'In this field study, we compared the bacterial communities inhabiting the rhizosphere of a transgenic, herbicide-resistant sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) cultivar with those of its nonengineered counterpart, using a genetic profiling technique based on PCR amplifications of partial 16S rRNA gene sequences and single-strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP). As a control for the plasticity of the bacterial community, we also analyzed the influence of herbicides, the field heterogeneity, and the annual variation. DNA was isolated from bacterial cell consortia that were directly collected from root material. PCR was carried out with primers that hybridized to evolutionarily conserved regions flanking variable regions 4 and 5 of the 16S rRNA gene. SSCP patterns of these PCR products were composed of approximately 50 distinguishable bands, as detected by silver staining of the gels after electrophoresis. Patterns of the replicates and the different treatments were highly similar, but digital image and similarity analyses revealed differences that corresponded to the positions of the replicates in the field. In addition, communities collected from sugar beet in two successive growing seasons could be distinguished. In contrast, no effect of the transgenic herbicide resistance was detectable. Sequencing of 24 dominant products of the SSCP profiles indicated the presence of bacteria from different phylogenetic groups, with Proteobacteria and members of the Cytophaga?Flavobacterium?Bacteroides group being most abundant.', 'en_US'),
(2020, 'Tritrophic choice experiments with Bt plants, the diamondbackmoth (Plutella xylostella) and the parasitoid Cotesia plutellae', 'Parasitoids are important natural enemies of many pest species and are used extensively in biological and integrated control programmes. Crop plants transformed to express toxin genes derived from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) provide high levels of resistance to certain pest species, which is likely to have consequent effects on parasitoids specialising on such pests. A better understanding of the interaction between transgenic plants, pests and parasitoids is important to limit disruption of biological control and to provide background knowledge essential for implementing measures for the conservation of parasitoid populations. It is also essential for investigations into the potential role of parasitoids in delaying the build-up of Bt-resistant pest populations. The diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella), a major pest of brassica crops, is normally highly susceptible to a range of Bt toxins. However, extensive use of microbial Bt sprays has led to the selection of resistance to Bt toxins in P. xylostella. Cotesia plutellae is an important endoparasitoid of P. xylostella larvae. Although unable to survive in Bt-susceptible P. xylostella larvae on highly resistant Bt oilseed rape plants due to premature host mortality, C. plutellae is able to complete its larval development in Bt-resistant P. xylostella larvae. Experiments of parasitoid flight and foraging behaviour presented in this paper showed that adult C. plutellae females do not distinguish between Bt and wildtype oilseed rape plants, and are more attracted to Bt plants damaged by Bt-resistant hosts than by susceptible hosts. This stronger attraction to Bt plants damaged by resistant hosts was due to more extensive feeding damage. Population scale experiments with mixtures of Bt and wildtype plants demonstrated that the parasitoid is as effective in controlling Bt-resistant P. xylostella larvae on Bt plants as on wildtype plants. In these experiments equal or higher numbers of parasitoid adults emerged per transgenic as per wildtype plant. The implications for integrated pest management and the evolution of resistance to Bt in P. xylostella are discussed', 'en_US'),
(2021, 'Influence of Bt transgenes on cell wall lignification and digestibility of maize stover for silage', 'There have been inconsistent reports that maize (Zea mays L.) hybrids with the Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) cry1 Ab transgene contain more lignin than non-Bt hybrids of similar genetic background. Our objective was to evaluate the impact of the cry1 Ab transgene on lignin concentration (using three different assays), yield, and forage quality traits of maize. Replicated trials were conducted at four locations in Minnesota with 12 commercial hybrids (three MON810 and three Bt11 cry1 Ab transgene event hybrids, and respective near-isogenic controls). Whole plants and the fourth elongated, above-ground internodes were harvested at silage maturity. Samples were analyzed for crude protein, starch, neutral detergent fiber (NDF), acid detergent fiber, 24- and 96-h in vitro ruminal NDF digestibility, and lignin (acid detergent, Klason, and acetyl bromide). European corn borers (Ostrinia nubilalis Hübner) were not controlled and damage was limited to the non-Bt hybrids, averaging 1.5 internodes plant-1 with tunnels. Environment and environment x hybrid interactions affected all measures of maize performance and quality, but comparisons of non-Bt/Bt hybrid pairs, for both whole plants and internodes, found no consistent differences in yield, nutrient content, in vitro ruminal NDF digestibility, or lignin concentration. Differences in lignin concentration were infrequent, small in magnitude, and inconsistent between a few non-Bt/Bt hybrid pairs at individual locations. Two non-Bt/Bt hybrid pairs did not differ in lignin concentration at any location. Contrary to some earlier reports, presence of the cry1 Ab transgene did not alter lignin concentration or other forage quality traits of maize stover in commercial maize hybrids.', 'en_US'),
(2022, 'Nutritional assessment and fate of DNA from soybean meal from Roundup Ready or conventional soybeans using rats', 'This study was conducted to compare the safety of soybean meal prepared from genetically modified (GM) glyphosate-tolerant (Roundup Ready; RR) soybeans and conventional soybeans. Eighty Sprague-Dawley rats (40 males and 40 females) were randomly allotted to one of four groups according to sex and body weight for a 13-week feeding experiment. The rats were fed corn-based diets containing 60% conventional soybean meal, a mixture of 30% conventional and 30% RR soybean meal, 60% or 90% RR soybean meal. All diets were adjusted to an identical nutrient level except the 90% RR diet. The two soybean meals were similar in chemical analysis and amino acid composition. During the 13-week growth trial, body weight (P?<?0.05) and feed intake (P?<?0.05) decreased only in rats fed with 90% RR soybean meal at the first week. No treatment-related deaths occurred during the experiment. Gross necropsy findings, haematological or urinalysis values and clinical serum parameters showed no meaningful differences between rats fed the control and RR soybean meals. A 145 bp of cp4 epsps gene specific for the GM constructs from RR soybean meal or a 407 bp of lec gene from endogenous soybean DNA could not be detected in investigated masseter muscle samples. No adverse effects of glyphosate-tolerant soybean meal on rats were seen even at levels as high as 90% of the diet.', 'en_US'),
(2023, 'Geneflow from GM plants - towards a more quantitative risk assessment', 'Assessing the risks associated with geneflow from GM crops to wild relatives is a significant scientific challenge. Most researchers have focused on assessing the frequency of gene flow, too often on a localized scale, and ignoring the hazards caused by geneflow. To quantify risk, multi-disciplinary research teams need to unite and scale up their studies.', 'en_US'),
(2024, 'Abandoning ''responsive'' GM risk assessment', 'Concerns over the potential for GM crops to cause unwanted environmental change have spawned intense research activity. Studies have ranged in scope from small-scale laboratory experiments aiming to specify unwanted changes that could occur (hazard identification studies) through to large-scale initiatives designed to calculate the likelihood that a particular hazard will occur (exposure and risk assessment studies).', 'en_US'),
(2025, 'Contamination of rapeseed harvest by volunteers of other varieties: a study of intergenotypic competition', 'Rapeseed volunteers in rapeseed crops can cause contamination in harvest through pollen and seeds. The aim of the study was to predict pollen and seed production by volunteers in winter rapeseed crops according to the genotypes of the crop and the volunteers. Firstly an experimental analysis of intraspecific competition was carried out in 2000 and 2001 on two and six genotypes, respectively. The main competition period begins with vegetation onset and affects pollen and seed production of the volunteers. Relations between density, height, yield and number of flowers were developed based on results from experiments and literature. Knowing the densities and heights of volunteers and crop on the plot, the yield of the volunteers can be predicted. For example, for volunteers 60cm lower (higher) than the crop, at a density of 1volunteer/m2 in a crop at a density of 50 plants/m2, the seed production per plant of the volunteers is 12% (112%) of the production observed on a field of pure volunteers at 50 plants/m2. We propose to include the equation predicting volunteer production in the gene flow model, GS-R, in order to manage cropping systems according to harvest purity goals.', 'en_US'),
(2026, 'Biomedical and agricultural applications of animal transgenesis', 'Additive transgenesis by pronuclear injection of the mouse zygote has been in use for more than 20 yr and gene targeting in mouse embryonic stem cells for almost as long. Together, these techniques have revolutionized animal biology by helping to unravel much of what we now know about gene function. Both additive transgenics and targeting can also be performed in livestock species but the impact has not yet been substantial. In part, this has been the result of the inefficiency of the techniques but?at least in agriculture?also to a lack of obvious practicality. This review assesses the extent to which this situation is changing, with particular reference to applications in biopharming, xenotransplantation, and large animal models', 'en_US'),
(2027, 'Widespread use of glyphosate tolerant soybean and weed community richness in Argentina', 'Trends in weed richness responses to widespread use of glyphosate tolerant soybean in Argentina are presented. An experiment was carried out since 1997 to analyse weed community changes associated with the continuous and exclusive use of glyphosate. Sampling results showed that weed richness in soybean decreased or remained stable early in the season before glyphosate application but increased at harvest. A survey of crop advisers indicated that 37 species were of increasing, 18 species of decreasing importance. It is suggested that successional changes are taking place in the cropping systems in response to changes in weed control practices..', 'en_US'),
(2028, 'Is confidence in the monitoring of GE foods justified?', 'Often the limits of detection of genetically engineered organisms (GEOs, LMOs, GMOs) determine what legislation sets as thresholds of allowable contamination of the human food chain with GEOs. Many countries have legislation that is triggered by certain thresholds of contamination. Importantly, international trade in food and animal feed is becoming increasingly vulnerable to interruptions caused by the ambiguity GEOs can create when shipments are monitored at the border. We examine the tools available for detection. Four key error-generating stages are identified with the aim of prompting a higher uniform standard of routine analysis at export and import points. Contamination of the New Zealand corn crop with GEOs is used as a case study for the application of monitoring tools and vulnerability to errors. These tools fail to meet emerging food safety requirements, but some improvements are in development.', 'en_US'),
(2029, 'Impacts of developing on Bt maize-intoxicated hosts on fitness parameters of a stem borer parasitoid.', 'Transgenic Bt maize cultivars are widely used in U.S. agriculture.  Control of target pests by these cultivars is not complete, and non-target pests are usually tolerant of the toxic activity of these cultivars.  Sublethally intoxicated pest individuals may become hosts for parasitoids, but their quality as hosts may be affected as a result of intoxication.  This study addresses the effects on various fitness parameters in parasitoids that develop on intoxicated hosts.  The parasitoid used in this study was Parallorhogas pyralophagus (Marsh), a gregarious, external idiobiont, and the host was Eoreuma loftini Dyar, a subtropical stemborer.  Results showed that ingestion of Bt maize tissue by E. loftini larvae negatively affect some fitness components in P. pyralophagus, whereas other components were not affected.  Specifically, immature stage developmental mortality was greater, adult longevity was approximately 1 d shorter in females, and developmental times were approximately 2 d longer in both males and females when P. pyralophagus developed on hosts fed Bt maize tissue relative to hosts fed non-Bt maize tissue.  Moreover, parasitoid brood size was positively correlated with host size when hosts were fed non-Bt maize tissue, while this relationship was absent when hosts were fed Bt maize tissue.  However, feeding on Bt maize tissue did not affect egg loads, adult-size egg load and adult-size longevity relationships, adult sizes of females and males, and sex ratio of parasitoids whose hosts were fed Bt maize tissue.  Results are discussed in relation to the importance of sublethal effects of Bt maize cultivars on parasitoids and potential impacts on naturally-occurring biological control.', 'en_US'),
(2030, 'Transgenic potatoes with enhanced levels of nematode resistance do not have altered susceptibility to nontarget aphids.', 'Cysteine proteinase inhibitors (cystatins) confer resistance to plant-parasitic nematodes when expressed in transgenic plants. The survival and growth of nymphs of the peach-potato aphid, Myzus persicae, were adversely affected when cystatins were added to artificial diets. When aphids were clip-caged onto transgenic plants expressing chicken egg white cystatin (CEWc) there was no adverse effect on aphid fitness. Field populations of aphids on transgenic Desiree potatoes, expressing CEWc or a modified version of oryzacystatin I, were not significantly different from populations on control Desiree plants. The effect of other nematode management options on aphid numbers was also studied. A conventionally bred cultivar, with partial nematode resistance, supported higher populations of aphids than the transgenic lines at the beginning of the sampling period. Peak aphid densities on the untreated control and untreated transgenic lines were 7 and 5.2 aphids per plant. Aldicarb, commonly used to control nematodes on potatoes, reduced the value to less than 0.2 aphids per plant. The results demonstrate that levels of expression in the plant tissue actually consumed are important in determining the risk of cystatins to nontarget invertebrates. The study also highlights the importance of including currently used management options in any assessment of the impact of transgenic plants on nontarget organisms.', 'en_US'),
(2031, 'Prey-mediated effects of the protease inhibitor aprotinin on the predatory carabid beetle Nebria brevicollis', 'To investigate the potential non-target impacts of transgenic pest-resistant plants, prey-mediated impacts of a protease inhibitor (PI) on the predatory carabid, Nebria brevicollis, were investigated. The PI used was aprotinin, a serine PI of mammalian origin with insecticidal properties when incorporated in artificial diet or expressed in transgenic plants. Field-collected N. brevicollis adults, kept at 23 °C, 16:8 L:D, were fed, over their pre-aestivation activity period of 24 days, with Helicoverpa armigera larvae reared on an artificial diet containing 0.5% (w:w, fresh mass) aprotinin. These larvae contained 22.62 g aprotinin/g insect. Control prey was reared on diet without aprotinin. Beetle survival and body mass were unaffected by prey type. Beetles consuming PI-fed prey lost significantly more mass than the control beetles during two periods of mass loss, but gained significantly more mass during the final period of mass gain. This was not due to differences in amounts of prey supplied or consumed. The final mass gain coincided with increased consumption of PI-prey. Female beetles were significantly heavier than males, but we found no consistent gender-based differences in response to PI-prey. At the end of the experiment, body mass of all beetles was similar to field-collected ones (approximately 55 mg). All experimental beetles had significantly lower activities of digestive cysteine proteases and the serine proteases chymotrypsin and trypsin than field-collected ones. Beetles consuming PI-fed prey had significantly lower levels of trypsin and higher levels of chymotrypsin and elastase than the control beetles. ', 'en_US'),
(2032, 'Plant allocation to defensive compounds:  iteractions between elevated CO2 and nitrogen in transgenic cotton plants.', 'Plant allocation to defensive compounds in response to growth in elevated atmospheric CO2 in combination with two levels of nitrogen was examined. The aim was to discover if allocation patterns of transgenic plants containing genes for defensive chemicals which had not evolved in the species would respond as predicted by the Carbon Nutrient Balance (CNB) hypothesis. Cotton plants (Gossypium hirsutum L.) were sown inside 12 environmental chambers. Six of them were maintained at an elevated CO2 level of 900 µmol mol-1 and the other six at the current level of 370 µmol mol-1. Half the plants in each chamber were from a transgenic line producing Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxin and the others were from a near isogenic line without the Bt gene. The allocation to total phenolics, condensed tannins, and gossypol and related terpenoid aldehydes was measured. All the treatments were bioassayed against a non-target insect herbivore found on cotton, Spodoptera exigua (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Plants had lower N concentrations and higher C:N ratios when grown in elevated CO2. Carbon defensive compounds increased in elevated CO2, low N availability or both. The increase in these compounds in elevated CO2 and low N, adversely affected growth and survival of S. exigua. The production of the nitrogen-based toxin was affected by an interaction between CO2 and N; elevated CO2 decreased N allocation to Bt, but the reduction was largely alleviated by the addition of nitrogen. The CNB hypothesis accurately predicted only some of the results, and may require revision. These data indicate that for the future expected elevated CO2 concentrations, plant allocation to defensive compounds will be affected enough to impact plant-herbivore interactions.', 'en_US'),
(2033, 'The effect of transgenic nematode resistance on non-target organisms in the potato rhizosphere', 'Plant-parasitic nematodes are important pests of agriculture and transgenic plants with potential for nematode control are currently being developed. The expression of cysteine proteinase inhibitors (cystatins) in potato confers partial resistance to potato-cyst nematode (PCN). Here, we used field studies to test for effects of cystatin-expressing potato on non-target soil organisms.Microbial community structure, soil microarthropods and litter decomposition were studied during two growing seasons. In the second year, nematode control options of cystatin-expressing plants and an oxime carbamate nematicide application were compared for their non-target effects.In the first year, the transgenic lines had no effect on the abundance, evenness or metabolic activity of the soil microbial community as determined by ester-linked phospholipid fatty acid analysis (PLFA). However, one transgenic line (D6/7) influenced the structure of the soil microbial community. PLFA suggested it favoured fungal growth relative to bacterial growth during the latter parts of the growing season. A second transgenic line (D5/13) was more effective against PCN. It reduced the abundance of the fungal fatty acid 18:26 in late season, suggesting a suppression of fungal growth.In the second year PLFA analysis suggested microbial abundance was reduced by 15% and 23% in the nematicide and transgenic treatments, respectively, relative to the control. Nematicidal treatment reduced the bacterial fraction of the microbial community, whereas the transgenic plants suppressed both the bacterial and fungal community components.The observed changes in soil microbial community structure did not result in changes in the rate of leaf litter decomposition.The transgenic lines had no significant effect on the abundance of soil microarthropods or free-living nematodes.The study is the first stage of a risk assessment of the impact of transgenic nematode resistance on non-target soil organisms. It has highlighted the importance of including currently used management options when studying the effect of transgenic plants on non-target organisms. Both nematicide use and the transgenic plants affected components of the soil microbial community. However, the changes brought about by the two treatments were not sufficient to affect soil functioning, as measured by rates of litter decomposition.', 'en_US'),
(2034, 'Environmental Fate and Effects of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Proteins from Transgenic Crops: a Review', 'This paper reviews the scientific literature addressing the environmental fate and nontarget effects of the Cry protein toxins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), specifically resulting from their expression in transgenic crops. Published literature on analytical methodologies for the detection and quantification of the Cry proteins in environmental matrices is also reviewed, with discussion of the adequacy of the techniques for determining the persistence and mobility of the Bt proteins. In general, assessment of the nontarget effects of Bt protein toxins indicates that there is a low level of hazard to most groups of nontarget organisms, although some investigations are of limited ecological relevance. Some published reports on the persistence of the proteins in soil show short half-lives, whereas others show low-level residues lasting for many months. Improvements in analytical methods will allow a more complete understanding of the fate and significance of Bt proteins in the environment.', 'en_US'),
(2035, 'Influence of Planting Date on Aflatoxin Accumulation in Bt, non-Bt, and Tropical non-Bt Hybrids', 'Received for publication December 19, 2003. Aflatoxin, produced by the fungus Aspergillus flavus Link, reduces the value of corn (Zea mays L.) and is usually associated with high temperatures, water stress, and insect damage. The objective of this study was to determine if Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) corn hybrids or ''tropical'' germplasm could reduce aflatoxin accumulation with later planting dates. Aflatoxin accumulation (B1, B2, G1, and G2) in corn grain was evaluated on Bt, non-Bt, and tropical non-Bt hybrids and four planting dates (March, April, May, and June) from 1998 to 2000. Aflatoxin concentration in corn varied across years but generally decreased with later planting date. In 1998, aflatoxin accumulation was lower in Bt (314 ng g?1) than non-Bt hybrids (634 ng g?1) but not different than tropical non-Bt hybrid (470 ng g?1). However, aflatoxin contamination was lower from Bt hybrids (70 ng g?1) than from the tropical non-Bt hybrid (259 ng g?1) but not different in non-Bt hybrids (86 ng g?1) in 1999. In 2000, aflatoxin levels were low, and hybrid had no effect on aflatoxin concentration. Temperature and irrigation effects on aflatoxin accumulation were not consistent. Increased temperature and delayed harvest may lead to aflatoxin accumulation before harvest. However, precipitation may influence aflatoxin levels in some years. The results of this study indicate that aflatoxin accumulation in corn may be decreased with later planting date, and less accumulation in Bt than non-Bt or tropical non-Bt hybrids may be indirectly explained by insect reductions. ', 'en_US'),
(2036, 'Maize diversity and ethnolinguistic diversity in Chiapas, Mexico', 'The objective of this study is to investigate whether ethnolinguistic diversity influences crop diversity. Factors suggest a correlation between biological diversity of crops and cultural diversity. Although this correlation has been noted, little systematic research has focused on the role of culture in shaping crop diversity. This paper reports on research in the Maya highlands (altitude > 1,800 m) of central Chiapas in southern Mexico that examined the distribution of maize (Zea mays) types among communities of two groups, the Tzeltal and Tzotzil. The findings suggest that maize populations are distinct according to ethnolinguistic group. However, a study of isozymes indicates no clear separation of the region''s maize into two distinct populations based on ethnolin-guistic origin. A reciprocal garden experiment shows that there is adaptation of maize to its environment but that Tzeltal maize sometimes out-yields Tzotzil maize in Tzotzil environments. Because of the proximity of the two groups and selection for yield, we would expect that the superior maize would dominate both groups'' maize populations, but we find that such domination is not the case. The role of ethnolinguistic identity in shaping social networks and information exchange is discussed in relation to landrace differentiation.', 'en_US'),
(2037, 'A framework for assessing the risk of transgenic crops.', 'The environmental risks of many transgenic crops can be evaluated without additional experimentation by using already available information on the biology of the crop, the presence of compatible relatives, and the transgene phenotype. The level of crop invasiveness and the location of compatible relatives can be determined by consulting local floras and the crop literature. Decisions about invasiveness can be bolstered by determining the number of weediness traits carried by the crop and its congeners. The potential impact of transgenes can be ranked by their likely effect on reproductive success, ranging from neutral to advantageous to detrimental. This scheme can identify not only the low-risk transgene?crop combinations that are safe to deploy but also those that either are too dangerous to release or require additional experimentation.', 'en_US'),
(2038, 'Soybean Allergenicity and Suppression of the Immunodominant Allergen', 'The wide-spread use of soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] products in processed foods poses a potential threat to soybean-sensitive, food-allergic individuals. Clinical symptoms of soybean allergy can be manifested as gastric distress or atopic dermatitis and, while usually not life threatening, suspected cases of anaphylaxis have been reported. In vitro assays of soybean seed proteins with sera collected from soybean-sensitive individuals have shown that major storage proteins as well as other minor seed proteins account for IgE binding. Gly m Bd 30k, a member of the papain superfamily of cysteine proteases, also referred to as P34, has been identified as a major allergen in soybean seeds. We have used gene silencing to eliminate accumulation of P34/Gly m Bd 30k in transgenic soybean. These transgenic plants, producing P34/Gly m Bd 30k-null seeds, lacked any obvious developmental or phenotypic differences when compared with control plants. The production of a P34/Gly m Bd 30k-null line eliminates one of the primary allergens present in soybean seeds.', 'en_US'),
(2039, 'Allergy assessment of foods or ingredients derived from biotechnology, gene-modified organisms, or novel foods.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2040, 'Ecological Context for Examining the Effects of Transgenic Crops in Production Systems.', 'Ecological processes can have strong effects on production systems, many of which prevent crops from reaching their maximal yield. Past and present management strategies have been developed to mitigate the negative interactions, thereby improving crop production. However, when applied to complex and variable agroecosystems, some of these strategies have resulted in unintended ecological effects that ultimately hindered production. Transgenic crops are a widespread and powerful management option, and there is a tremendous need to understand their intended ecological effects as well as potential unintended direct and indirect effects. The purpose of this review is threefold: (1) to discuss four of the major ecological effects that limit crop production: competition, herbivory, disease, and abiotic stresses, (2) to describe how biotechnology is addressing these problems, and (3) to examine the ways these biotechnological solutions may cause ecological effects that unintentionally hinder crop production. We find that, to date, there has been little diversity in the types of transgenic crops available and the approaches they use to improve crop production. Transgenic crops, like previous agricultural technologies, are designed to enhance a singular plant trait in order to solve a specific production problem.When viewed in a simplified system, transgenic crops seem to provide effective means to mitigate negative ecological effects. However, when approached via a larger ecological context, it is clear that transgenic crops have already had and will continue to have unintended ecological effects that can ultimately affect crop production through mechanisms such as gene flow, resistance evolution, community interactions, and production practices. No management option, including transgenics, is universally beneficial or detrimental. The ecological context of specific agroecosystems may improve predictions of the benefits, limitations, and consequences of a given management tactic within that system. As we increase our understanding of the ecological context of crop production problems, we may be able to improve our control efforts to maximize production and minimize potential problems in the future.', 'en_US'),
(2041, 'Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Genetically Modified Organisms on the use of antibiotic resistance genes as marker genes in genetically modified plants.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2042, 'Regulating transgenic crops sensibly: lessons from plant breeding, biotechnology and genomics.', 'The costs of meeting regulatory requirements and market restrictions guided by regulatory criteria are substantial impediments to the commercialization of transgenic crops. Although a cautious approach may have been prudent initially, we argue that some regulatory requirements can now be modified to reduce costs and uncertainty without compromising safety. Long-accepted plant breeding methods for incorporating new diversity into crop varieties, experience from two decades of research on and commercialization of transgenic crops, and expanding knowledge of plant genome structure and dynamics all indicate that if a gene or trait is safe, the genetic engineering process itself presents little potential for unexpected consequences that would not be identified or eliminated in the variety development process before commercialization. We propose that as in conventional breeding, regulatory emphasis should be on phenotypic rather than genomic characteristics once a gene or trait has been shown to be safe.', 'en_US'),
(2043, 'Genetic and Biochemical Characterization of Field-Evolved Resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis Toxin Cry1Ac in the Diamondback Moth, Plutella xylostella.', 'The long-term usefulness of Bacillus thuringiensis Cry toxins, either in sprays or in transgenic crops, may be compromised by the evolution of resistance in target insects. Managing the evolution of resistance to B. thuringiensis toxins requires extensive knowledge about the mechanisms, genetics, and ecology of resistance genes. To date, laboratory-selected populations have provided information on the diverse genetics and mechanisms of resistance to B. thuringiensis, highly resistant field populations being rare. However, the selection pressures on field and laboratory populations are very different and may produce resistance genes with distinct characteristics. In order to better understand the genetics, biochemical mechanisms, and ecology of field-evolved resistance, a diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella) field population (Karak) which had been exposed to intensive spraying with B. thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki was collected from Malaysia. We detected a very high level of resistance to Cry1Ac; high levels of resistance to B. thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki Cry1Aa, Cry1Ab, and Cry1Fa; and a moderate level of resistance to Cry1Ca. The toxicity of Cry1Ja to the Karak population was not significantly different from that to a standard laboratory population (LAB-UK). Notable features of the Karak population were that field-selected resistance to B. thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki did not decline at all in unselected populations over 11 generations in laboratory microcosm experiments and that resistance to Cry1Ac declined only threefold over the same period. This finding may be due to a lack of fitness costs expressed by resistance strains, since such costs can be environmentally dependent and may not occur under ordinary laboratory culture conditions. Alternatively, resistance in the Karak population may have been near fixation, leading to a very slow increase in heterozygosity. Reciprocal genetic crosses between Karak and LAB-UK populations indicated that resistance was autosomal and recessive. At the highest dose of Cry1Ac tested, resistance was completely recessive, while at the lowest dose, it was incompletely dominant. A direct test of monogenic inheritance based on a backcross of F1 progeny with the Karak population suggested that resistance to Cry1Ac was controlled by a single locus. Binding studies with 125I-labeled Cry1Ab and Cry1Ac revealed greatly reduced binding to brush border membrane vesicles prepared from this field population.', 'en_US'),
(2044, 'Release of transgenic bacterial inoculants - rhizobia as a case study.', 'The current debate on the release of genetically modified organisms to the environment must be informed by scientific data obtained from field studies. Many of the microorganisms that have potential applications outside the laboratory, especially in agriculture and horticulture, could be improved by genetic modification. Rhizobia, the bacteria that form N2-fixing symbioses with leguminous plants, have a long history of safe use as seed inoculants, their biology is relatively well known, and they represent a relevant model system. There have been several field releases of genetically modified (GM) rhizobia in the USA and Europe, which provide information on various aspects of their ecology and efficacy. This review summarises the rationale for each release, details of the methods used for monitoring, and the results. Novel properties of rhizobia did not always have the predicted effects. Most studies revealed that rhizobial numbers dropped rapidly after application to soil or seeds but then numbers stabilised for months or years. The monitoring of survival and spread of rhizobia was greatly improved by the presence of novel marker genes. Tagging of rhizobia with marker genes provided more accurate information compared to the use of conventional strains, illustrating an important application of genetic modification, for tracking bacteria in the environment.', 'en_US'),
(2045, 'Risk assessment for engineered bacteria used in biocontrol of fungal disease in agricultural crops.', 'A plant growth promoting rhizobacterium (PGPR)Pseudomonas fluorescens SBW25 (WT) protects a number of crop plant species from damping-off caused by Pythium ultimum. A genetically modified, phenazine-1-carboxylic acid (PCA) producing variant, 23.10, carries on its chromosome a single copy of phzABCDEFG, under the control of the P tac constitutive promoter. The genetically modified biological control agent (GM-BCA), 23.10, has improved biocontrol activity when compared to wild type SBW25, and can effectively suppress Pythium spp. present at up to 100 times normal field infestations. GM-BCA inocula establish high population densities which persist well in the phytosphere of several crop plants including pea, wheat and sugar beet, effectively suppressed infection and promoted increase in total plant biomass. It also has an improved spectrum of activity over other plant phytopathogens such as Fusarium spp. Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici, Phytophtora cinnamomi and Rhizoctonia solani. However in developing BCAs and in particular GMBCAs it is important to determine whether their use has any adverse effect in the environment. Any observed changes following inoculation with wild type BCA or GM BCA in microbial diversity (bacteria and fungi) were negligible when assessed by either quantitive selective plate count methods (CFU/g) or culture independent molecular assays (SSU rRNA based PCR-DGGE). Rhizosphere community diversity profiles (DGGE) in infected plants in the presence of inocula were highly similar to disease free systems. Histological assessment of the impact of inocula on established functional mycorrhizae associations were conducted on cores collected from an established field margin grassland pasture. No adverse impact on mycorrhizal colonization and root infection were recorded after addition of WT or GM-BCA bacterial inocula as a soil drench. This approach and the related culturable and culture independent methods have recorded only a minor, transient perturbation to microbial communities, but as far as we are aware this is the first direct demonstration that a functional, AFC producing GMM also has only a transient impact on mycorrhizal associations in established plant communities. In all instances studied the plant species, plant stage of development and disease, damping-off, had a greater impact on changes in rhizosphere diversity than the presence of an introduced GM bacterial inocula.', 'en_US'),
(2046, 'Post-market surveillance model for potential human health effects of novel foods.', 'This paper presents a post-market surveillance model for evaluating the potential human health effects of novel foods. It examines the characteristics of current protocols ? substantial equivalence and precautionary principle ? and argues that post-market surveillance complements the former and provides a sensible rationale for the latter. The paper posits that given the direct consumer claims associated with emerging novel foods, a post-market surveillance system may help policy makers maximize the net benefits of these products given desired health status objectives.', 'en_US'),
(2047, 'Persistence and biological activity in soil of the insecticidal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis, especially from transgenic plants.', 'Insecticidal proteins produced by various subspecies (kurstaki, tenebrionis, and israelensis) of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) bound rapidly and tightly on clays, both pure mined clay minerals and soil clays, on humic acids extracted from soil, and on complexes of clay and humic acids. Binding reduced susceptibility of the proteins to microbial degradation. However, bound proteins retained biological activity. Purified Cry1Ab protein and protein released from biomass of transgenic Bt corn and in root exudates of growing Bt corn (13 hybrids representing three transformation events) exhibited binding and persistence in soil. Insecticidal protein was also released in root exudates of Bt potato (Cry3A protein) and rice (Cry1Ab protein) but not in root exudates of Bt canola, cotton, and tobacco (Cry1Ac protein). Vertical movement of Cry1Ab protein, either purified or in root exudates or biomass of Bt corn, decreased as the concentration of the clay minerals, kaolinite or montmorillonite, in soil increased. Biomass of transgenic Bt corn decomposed less in soil than biomass of near-isogenic non-Bt corn, possibly because biomass of Bt corn had a significantly higher content of lignin than biomass of non-Bt corn. Biomass of Bt canola, cotton, potato, rice, and tobacco also decomposed less than biomass of the respective near-isogenic non-Bt plants. However, the lignin content of these Bt plants, which was significantly less than that of Bt corn, was not significantly different from that of their near-isogenic non-Bt counterparts, although it was consistently higher. The Cry1Ab protein had no consistent effects on organisms (earthworms, nematodes, protozoa, bacteria, fungi) in soil or in vitro. The Cry1Ab protein was not taken up from soil by non-Bt corn, carrot, radish, or turnip grown in soil in which Bt corn had been grown or into which biomass of Bt corn had been incorporated.', 'en_US'),
(2048, 'Impact of oilseed rape expressing the insecticidal serine protease inhibitor, mustard trypsin inhibitor-2 on the beneficial predator Pterostichus madidus.', 'Insect-resistant transgenic plants have been suggested to have deleterious effects on beneficial predators feeding on crop pests, through transmission of the transgene product by the pest to the predator. To test this hypothesis, effects of oilseed rape expressing the serine protease inhibitor, mustard trypsin inhibitor 2 (MTI-2), on the predatory ground beetle Pterostichus madidus were investigated, using diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella as the intermediary pest species. As expected, oilseed rape expressing MTI-2 had a deleterious effect on the development and survival of the pest. However, incomplete pest mortality resulted in survivors being available to predators at the next trophic level, and inhibition studies confirmed the presence of biologically active transgene product in pest larvae. Characterization of proteolytic digestive enzymes of P. madidus demonstrated that adults utilize serine proteases with trypsin-like and chymotrypsin-like specificities; the former activity was completely inhibited by MTI-2 in vitro. When P. madidus consumed prey reared on MTI-2 expressing plants over the reproductive period in their life cycle, no significant effects upon survival were observed as a result of exposure to the inhibitor. However, there was a short-term significant inhibition of weight gain in female beetles fed unlimited prey containing MTI-2, with a concomitant reduction of prey consumption. Biochemical analyses showed that the inhibitory effects of MTI-2 delivered via prey on gut proteolysis in the carabid decreased with time of exposure, possibly resulting from up-regulation of inhibitor-insensitive proteases. Of ecological significance, consumption of MTI-2 dosed prey had no detrimental effects on reproductive fitness of adult P. madidus.', 'en_US'),
(2049, 'Environmental biosafety and transgenic potato in a centre of diversity for this crop.', NULL, 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(2050, 'Monitoring horizontal gene transfer', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2051, 'Estimating isolation distances for genetically modified trees in plantation forestry.', 'Globally there is growing concern about the problem of genetic pollution. This issue has gained public prominence with the creation of novel genotypes using genetic engineering, and their subsequent release into the environment. Of particular, public concern are the risks associated with genetic pollution from the release of genetically modified plants into centres of diversity. This problem is of significance in Australia, which is a centre of diversity for eucalyptus. Gene flow is managed using isolation distances, which are set using qualitative risk assessments by experts. However, we believe that quantitative risk assessments using mathematical models can augment expert opinion by better informing decision makers about the risks of gene flow. We develop a spatially explicit gene flow and invasion model using cellular automata, which we use to investigate gene introgression between plantations of genetically modified eucalypts and stands of wild eucalypts. Our results suggest that an isolation distance in excess of 100 m is likely to be the minimum distance needed to limit gene introgression.', 'en_US'),
(2052, 'Stability of gene silencing-based resistance to Plum pox virus in transgenic plum (Prunus domestica L.) under field conditions.', 'Plum pox virus (PPV) is one of the most devastating diseases of Prunus species. Since few sources of resistance to PPV have been identified, transgene-based resistance offers a complementary approach to developing PPV-resistant stone fruit cultivars. C5, a transgenic clone of Prunus domestica L., containing the PPV coat protein (CP) gene, has been described as highly resistant to PPV in greenhouse tests, displaying characteristics typical of post-transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS). We show in this report that C5 trees exposed to natural aphid vectors in the field remained uninfected after 4years while susceptible transgenic and untransformed trees developed severe symptoms within the first year. C5 trees inoculated by chip budding showed only very mild symptoms and PPV could be detected in these trees by IC-RT-PCR. The PPV-CP transgene in C5 was specifically hyper-methylated with no detectable expression. These results indicate both stability and efficiency of PTGS-based PPV resistance in plum under field conditions.', 'en_US'),
(2053, 'Genetic modifications to lignin biosynthesis in field-grown poplar trees have inconsistent effects on the rate of woody trunk decomposition.', 'In this paper we report results on the decomposition in soil of woody trunk material from poplar (Populus tremula×Populus alba) trees with genetic modifications to lignin biosynthesis grown for 4 years in a field trial. Lengths of trunks were salvaged following the premature termination of the trial as a result of serious damage to the trees by protestors against the release of genetically modified plants. The decomposition in soils of sections of trunk from trees with antisense transgenes for two enzymes in the monolignol pathway, cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase and caffeic acid O-methyl transferase (two lines of each), and material from unmodified trees were determined during laboratory incubation for 552 days. Although total CO2 production from soil amended with trunk material was 2.0- to 4.3-times greater (P<0.010) than that from unamended soils during the first 77 days of incubation, no significant differences between modified or unmodified plants were detected for either total CO2 production over 77 days or total mass loss from the trunk material over 552 days. Addition of the plant materials significantly increased the soil microbial biomass, but the effects of the different genetic modifications on biomass were not consistent or in most cases not significant. We conclude that environmental variability during growth in the field has a greater influence on future wood decomposition than modifications to lignin biosynthesis.', 'en_US'),
(2054, 'Theoretical hybridization potential of transgenic safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) with weedy relatives in the New World.', 'Carthamus tinctorius L. (safflower) is being evaluated as a crop for the production of plant-made pharmaceuticals using an oleosin fusion protein system. We evaluated the potential for transgenic gene flow from C. tinctorius to wild or weedy relatives in western Canada. Cytogenetic and phylogenetic studies with most of the species of Carthamus have demonstrated that cultivated C. tinctorius has the ability to hybridize with at least six wild or weedy relatives worldwide. Of the four naturalized wild relatives in the New World, only two, C. oxyacanthus and C. creticus, have successfully been crossed with C. tinctorius to produce fertile hybrids. Data from artificial crosses resulting in fertile offspring indicate the biological potential of a hybridization event, but only if the species are temporally and spatially sympatric can this occur. Based on the New World distribution of C. oxyacanthus and C. creticus we predict that hybridization with transgenic C. tinctorius could occur in some areas of Argentina, Chile and localities within several states in the United States including California, Florida, Illinois, Kansas, New Mexico, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Utah, and Texas. Locations in the New World where wild species of Carthamus have not been naturalized may provide biologically isolated locations for the cultivation of a transgenic safflower crop.', 'en_US'),
(2055, 'The assessment of the environmental impact of genetically modified wine yeast strains.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2056, 'Ecological risk assessment of transgenic pasture plants: a community gradient modelling approach.', 'The extension of transgene technology to pasture species presents new challenges for ecological risk assessment because, unlike most crops, pasture plants are well adapted for persistence in mixed plant communities and are an important source of invasive species worldwide. Despite this, the impact of transgenic pasture plants on native ecosystems remains relatively unstudied. Here we use a community gradient modelling approach to investigate the performance of subterranean clover containing a nutrition-enhancing transgene over a range of ecologically important grassland communities at a study site in south-eastern Australia. Our data, which were collected over a full annual growing season, show that the transgenic clover line has different seedling survival and seed dormancy breakdown rates than the commercial non-transgenic line, which suggests that transgenic populations will decline faster than non-transgenic ones in perennial native grassland communities but could, under optimal climatic conditions, have potentially higher growth rates in grazed annual grasslands. These results demonstrate that changes to ecologically important demographic parameters can occur in plants containing transgenes that are not typically considered fitness enhancing, and that genotype by environment interactions and management regimes that impact on these parameters may influence the invasiveness of transgenic plants. Our study also demonstrates the utility of incorporating plant community gradient modelling into ecological risk assessment protocols designed for transgenic pasture plants.', 'en_US'),
(2057, 'Evidence for landscape-level, pollen-mediated gene flow from genetically modified creeping bentgrass with CP4 EPSPS as a marker.', 'Sampling methods and results of a gene flow study are described that will be of interest to plant scientists, evolutionary biologists, ecologists, and stakeholders assessing the environmental safety of transgenic crops. This study documents gene flow on a landscape level from creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera L.), one of the first wind-pollinated, perennial, and highly outcrossing transgenic crops being developed for commercial use. Most of the gene flow occurred within 2 km in the direction of prevailing winds. The maximal gene flow distances observed were 21 km and 14 km in sentinel and resident plants, respectively, that were located in primarily nonagronomic habitats. The selectable marker used in these studies was the CP4 EPSPS gene derived from Agrobacterium spp. strain CP4 that encodes 5-enol-pyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase and confers resistance to glyphosate herbicide. Evidence for gene flow to 75 of 138 sentinel plants of A. stolonifera and to 29 of 69 resident Agrostis plants was based on seedling progeny survival after spraying with glyphosate in greenhouse assays and positive TraitChek, PCR, and sequencing results. Additional studies are needed to determine whether introgression will occur and whether it will affect the ecological fitness of progeny or the structure of plant communities in which transgenic progeny may become established.', 'en_US'),
(2058, 'Reproductive performance of growth-enhanced transgenic coho salmon.', 'The reproductive performances of growth-enhanced transgenic, hatchery, and cultured nontransgenic coho salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch were examined to investigate the consequences of reproductive interaction between growth hormone (GH)?transgenic fish and wild fish that may occur if transgenic salmon escaped into the natural environment. We examined adult morphological phenotypes, gamete quantity and quality, in vitro offspring production, courtship and spawning behavior, male competitive behavior, and transgene transmission to offspring. Transgenic, hatchery, and cultured nontransgenic fish required 2, 3, and 3 or 4 years, respectively, to reach sexual maturation. No differences in male gamete quantity or in vitro offspring production were observed. Transgenic females were more fecund than hatchery females but had smaller eggs. Fewer transgenic females spawned than hatchery females under experimental conditions, and transgenic females displayed consistently low levels of courtship behavior. In noncompetitive trials, there were no differences in the courtship behavior of transgenic and hatchery males; during competition with hatchery males, however, transgenic males failed to spawn and displayed less courtship and competitive behavior. Cultured nontransgenic salmon also displayed reduced spawning capacity relative to hatchery salmon, indicating that the effects observed in transgenic salmon may arise in part from being reared in the culture environment and highlighting the difficulty in using laboratory-reared transgenic fish to assess reproductive fitness because of the strong genotype?environment interactions. As long as wild-reared transgenic fish are unavailable, exact determinations of reproductive fitness will be difficult. However, these studies have shown that in a simulated natural environment, growth-enhanced transgenic coho salmon do display courtship behavior and can spawn, producing viable transgenic offspring. The findings suggest some capacity exists for the natural transmission of transgenes to populations arising from reproductive interaction, which could occur during first contact between escaped cultured transgenic fish and wild conspecifics.', 'en_US'),
(2059, 'Future fish: issues in science and regulation of transgenic fish.', 'This report provides an overview of the issues surrounding transgenic fish. The report reviews the development of aquaculture biotechnology, the status of current research, its potential economic, environmental, and other benefits, its possible food safety and environmental risks, and the application of current U.S. laws and regulations as it moves to commercial development. While the report does not contain specific policy recommendations, it highlights a number of key regulatory issues for policymakers.', 'en_US'),
(2060, 'Insect resistance management in GM crops: past, present and future.', 'Transgenic plants expressing insecticidal proteins from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) were first commercialized in 1996 amid concern from some scientists, regulators and environmentalists that the widespread use of Bt crops would inevitably lead to resistance and the loss of a ''public good,'' specifically, the susceptibility of insect pests to Bt proteins. Eight years later, Bt corn and cotton have been grown on a cumulative area >80 million ha worldwide. Despite dire predictions to the contrary, resistance to a Bt crop has yet to be documented, suggesting that resistance management strategies have been effective thus far. However, current strategies to delay resistance remain far from ideal. Eight years without resistance provides a timely opportunity for researchers, regulators and industry to reassess the risk of resistance and the most effective strategies to preserve Bt and other novel insect-resistant crops in development.', 'en_US'),
(2061, 'Effects of plants genetically modified for insect resistance on nontarget organisms.', 'Insect resistance, based on Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) endotoxins, is the second most widely used trait (after herbicide resistance) in commercial genetically modified (GM) crops. Other modifications for insect resistance, such as proteinase inhibitors and lectins, are also being used in many experimental crops. The extensive testing on nontarget plant-feeding insects and beneficial species that has accompanied the long-term and wide-scale use of Bt plants has not detected significant adverse effects. GM plants expressing other insect-resistant proteins that have a broader spectrum of activity have been tested on only a limited number of nontarget species. Little is known about the persistence of transgene-derived proteins in soil, with the exception of Bt endotoxins, which can persist in soil for several months. Bt plants appear to have little impact on soil biota such as earthworms, collembolans, and general soil microflora. Further research is required on the effects of GM plants on soil processes such as decomposition. Assessment of nontarget impacts is an essential part of the risk assessment process for insect-resistant GM plants.', 'en_US'),
(2062, 'Mycotoxins produced by Fusarium spp. in isogenic Bt vs. non-Bt maize hybrids under European corn borer pressure.', 'Stalk and ear rots caused by Fusarium subspecies are often related to mycotoxin accumulation in maize (Zea mays L.) kernels. Various mycotoxicoses in livestock and humans are triggered by the consumption of these toxins. The European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis Hübner) reportedly promotes the infection by Fusarium spp. The objectives of our study were to (i) evaluate the concentration of deoxinivalenol (DON), 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (3-A-DON), 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (15-A-DON), fumonisin (FUM), fusarenon-X (FUS-X), moniliformin (MON), and nivalenol (NIV) in kernels; (ii) determine the level of European corn borer (ECB) resistance; and (iii) investigate the association between the concentration of mycotoxins and ECB resistance. The study used early maturing European Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) cultivars, their isogenic counterparts, and commercial hybrids. The field experiments were conducted at three locations in Germany. The mycotoxins most prevalent were DON, FUM, and MON. Plots infested by and protected from ECB differed significantly for DON and FUM concentrations. In addition, significant differences were found for concentrations of FUM between isogenic Bt and non-Bt hybrids. The two Bt events?Bt176 and Mon810?were also significantly different for FUM concentrations. Not all mycotoxins were related to ECB damage. Insect management and, therefore, the use of Bt cultivars may be a short-term solution to minimize toxins in kernels.', 'en_US'),
(2063, 'Safety evaluation of the phosphinothricin acetyltransferase proteins encoded by the pat and bar sequences that confer tolerance to glufosinate-ammonium herbicide in transgenic plants.', 'Transgenic plant varieties, which are tolerant to glufosinate-ammonium, were developed. The herbicide tolerance is based upon the presence of either the bar or the pat gene, which encode for two homologous phosphinothricin acetyltransferases (PAT), in the plant genome. Based on both a review of published literature and experimental studies, the safety assessment reviews the first step of a two-step-approach for the evaluation of the safety of the proteins expressed in plants. It can be used to support the safety of food or feed products derived from any crop that contains and expresses these PAT proteins. The safety evaluation supports the conclusion that the genes and the donor microorganisms (Streptomyces) are innocuous. The PAT enzymes are highly specific and do not possess the characteristics associated with food toxins or allergens, i.e., they have no sequence homology with any known allergens or toxins, they have no N-glycosylation sites, they are rapidly degraded in gastric and intestinal fluids, and they are devoid of adverse effects in mice after intravenous administration at a high dose level. In conclusion, there is a reasonable certainty of no harm resulting from the inclusion of the PAT proteins in human food or in animal feed.', 'en_US'),
(2064, 'The stability of the Arabidopsis transcriptome in transgenic plants expressing the marker genes nptII and uidA.', 'The ATH1 Arabidopsis GeneChip from Affymetrix was used to search for transcriptome changes in Arabidopsis associated with the strong expression of transgenes regulated by constitutive promoters. The insertion and expression of the commonly used marker genes, uidA and nptII, did not induce changes to the expression patterns of the approximately 24 000 genes that were screened under optimal growth conditions and under physiological stress imposed by low temperatures. Approximately 8000 genes (35% of the Arabidopsis genome) underwent changes in gene expression in both wild-type and transgenic plants under abiotic stresses such as salt, dehydration, cold, and heat. This study provides detailed information on the extent of non-targeted or pleiotropic effects of transgenes on plants and shows that the transgenic and non-transgenic plants were equivalent in their global patterns of transcription. This information may help to extend our understanding and interpretation of the principle of substantial equivalence which is used as a first step in the biosafety evaluation of transgenic crops.', 'en_US'),
(2065, 'Expression of a Bacillus thuringiensis insecticidal crystal protein gene in tobacco plants', 'A major strategy for controlling pest insects is the development of plants resistant to insect attack.  Introduction of proteins toxic to insects into plants via genetic engineering is one approach to developing such plants.  We have previously cloned and characterized the DNA encoding the insecticidal crystal protein gene of Bacillus thuringiensis strain HD-73.  To transfer the toxic crystal protein gene into plants, the HD-73 gene was engineered 3'' to the (ORF 24) promoter of pTi1595.  This promoter/gene cassette was cloned into a binary micro T-DNA vector containing a plant selectable marker and delivered into tobacco cells.  In regenerated transgenic tobacco plants, we have detected B. thuringiensis peptides by immunoassay.  Crystal protein-specific transcripts in these tissues are truncated at the 3'' end of the gene.  Nonetheless, leaves of some transgenic plants kill tobacco hornworms in feeding bioassays.', 'en_US'),
(2066, '100 Years of Bacillus thuringiensis: A critical scientific assessment', 'The insecticidal proteins produced by Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) have provided a uniquely specific, safe, and effective tool for the control of a wide variety of insect pests.  Bt has been used in spray formulations for over 40 years, where it is considered remarkably safe, in large part because specific formulations harm only a narrow range of insect species.  Today, Bt insecticidal protein genes have been incorporated into several major crops where they provide a model for genetic engineering in agriculture. Effective protection of crops from insect pests afforded by insecticidal proteins has had a number of positive impacts on agriculture.  Reduced insect damage improves crop yield, reduces fungal toxins in the food supply, and improves the livelihood of farmers.  Replacement of toxic chemical pesticides with Bt has reduced hazards to the environment and farm workers.  Bt-engineered crops are equally amenable to use in large or small scale farming operations and compatible with other agricultural practices and technologies. Concerns associated with the use of Bt include potential for harm to non-target organisms, development of resistance in populations of target insects, and, for engineered crops, possible ecological consequences of gene flow to non-engineered crops and wild relatives.  These concerns merit continued attention on a case-by-case basis in order to ensure that Bt technologies have the maximum positive impact with a minimum risk on agriculture.  Prudent use of Bt technologies will also be key in maintaining their usefulness for a long period of time.', 'en_US'),
(2067, 'Gossypol.', 'The polyphenolic gossypol pigments are indigenous in the genus Gossypium and in certain other members of the order Malvales.  In the cotton plant, they are contained almost exclusively within discrete bodies commonly called pigment glands, which are found in the leaves, stems, roots, and seed of cotton plants.  The occurrence of the gossypol pigments in cottonseed is of considerable economic importance.  Although cottonseed is a by-product of the cotton fiber, the processing of cottonseed is a major industry in the cotton-producing areas of the world.  World production of cottonseed in 1976 was estimated at 25.6 million tons, of which 4.0 million tons were produced in the United States.  In the 14 cotton-producing states of the United States the seed represents a multimillion dollar agricultural crop.  Oils and meals obtained from cottonseed are recognized as highly desirable or preferred products in the markets in which they compete.  The principal quality deficiencies of these cottonseed products are due to their contents of gossypol pigments.', 'en_US'),
(2068, 'Inhibition of fatty acid Ä6- and Ä5-desaturation by cyclopropene fatty acids in rat liver microsomes.', 'Ä6-Desaturation of linoleic acid and Ä5-desaturation of dihomo--linolenic acid were measured in liver microsomes from ra fresh Baobab seed oil containing cyclopropene fatty acids (malvalic acid and sterculic acid) or heated Baobab seed oil practically devoid of these fatty acids or control oil. The presence of cyclopropene fatty acids in the fresh Baobab oil diet highly depressed both desaturations, but Ä6- more than Ä5-desaturation. The decreased capacity of microsomes to desaturate was reflected in the lower arachidonic acid content in microsomal phospholipids from rats fed this oil. However it was also lower in rats fed heated oil although in vitro Ä6- and Ä5-desaturation were not depressed. When liver microsomes prepared from rats fed the control diet were used for the desaturation assays, the presence of free malvalic or sterculic acid in the medium, also highly depressed Ä6- and Ä5-desaturation. The incorporation of arachidonic acid, the product of Ä5-desaturation, into phospholipids was also highly depressed, while that of the precursor dihomo--linolenic acid was not. This suggests that cyclopropene fatty acids specifically inhibit incorporation of the Ä5-desaturation product into phospholipids or that they specifically inhibit desaturation of the substrate previously incorporated into a membrane phospholipid. ', 'en_US'),
(2069, 'Seed.', 'In the world market, cottonseed production and processing ranks second (17.3% of world oilseed production) among the five major oilseeds, which include soybean seed, cottonseed, sunflower seed, peanut seed, and rapeseed.  The USA, USSR. People''s Republic of China, India, and Pakistan produce approximately 75.3% of the 27.8 Mt of the world cottonseed supply.  Cottonseed is processed into four major products - oil, meal, hulls, and linters.  Cottonseed yields approximately 16% crude oil, 45% meal, 9% linters, and 26% hulls, with losses of 4% due to handling and processing.  World production of oil and meal (44% protein) for 1981/1982, the USA was expected to process 0.9 and 9.1 Mt of oil and meal, respectively.', 'en_US'),
(2070, 'Definition of gossypol and its prevalence in cottonseed products.', 'The purpose of this paper is to help set a background for those that follow in this Special Session and to present some of the practical considerations with regards to gossypol levels in cottonseed products and in finished rations.  This paper will deal with the general question of where gossypol is found, and at what levels.Six topics will be covered in this paper:1.', 'en_US'),
(2071, 'Action of a cyclopropenoid fatty acid on the corpus luteum of pregnant and nonpregnant ewes.', 'The effects of a cyclopropenoid fatty acid on luteal cell function were studied. In experiment 1, pregnant ewes were laparotomized on Day 18 of gestation and ewes with CL in both ovaries were unilaterally ovariectomized. Either 1.09 mg of an extract of Sterculia foetida seeds, containing 750 micrograms sterculic acid methyl ester (SA, n = 6), or 1.09 mg oleic acid methyl ester (OA, n = 6) was injected into the artery supplying the ovary bearing CL. Jugular blood was collected on Day 18 before surgery and daily thereafter until Day 30 of gestation or until detection of estrus, whichever occurred first. Serum was assayed for progesterone (P4) by RIA. In experiment 2, CL were removed from ewes on Day 10 of the estrous cycle and slices of luteal tissue were incubated in medium containing 145 ng/ml of S. foetida extract (100 ng/ml SA) or 145 ng/ml OA (control) for 90 min. Then tissue was washed and reincubated in medium containing 25 micrograms 22(R)- hydroxycholesterol/ml or 25 micrograms pregnenolone/ml for 120 min. Tissue plus medium was analyzed for P4. Injection of SA or OA on Day 18 of gestation reduced (p < 0.01) serum levels of P4 within 24 h; concentrations of P4 then remained low, and relatively constant, in six OA control ewes that were pregnant until Day 30 of gestation and in three SA-treated ewes that had nonviable fetuses on Day 30. Serum concentrations of P4 in SA-treated ewes were lower than those of control ewes (p = 0.009). The remaining three ewes injected with SA exhibited estrus within 3 to 5 days after treatment.', 'en_US'),
(2072, 'Comparison of Tuber Proteomes of Potato Varieties, Landraces, and Genetically Modified Lines', 'Crop improvement by genetic modification remains controversial, one of the major issues being the potential for unintended effects. Comparative safety assessment includes targeted analysis of key nutrients and antinutritional factors, but broader scale-profiling or ''omics'' methods could increase the chances of detecting unintended effects. Comparative assessment should consider the extent of natural variation and not simply compare genetically modified (GM) lines and parental controls. In this study, potato (Solanum tuberosum) proteome diversity has been assessed using a range of diverse non-GM germplasm. In addition, a selection of GM potato lines was compared to assess the potential for unintended differences in protein profiles. Clear qualitative and quantitative differences were found in the protein patterns of the varieties and landraces examined, with 1,077 of 1,111 protein spots analyzed showing statistically significant differences. The diploid species Solanum phureja could be clearly differentiated from tetraploid (Solanum tuberosum) genotypes. Many of the proteins apparently contributing to genotype differentiation are involved in disease and defense responses, the glycolytic pathway, and sugar metabolism or protein targeting/storage. Only nine proteins out of 730 showed significant differences between GM lines and their controls. There was much less variation between GM lines and their non-GM controls compared with that found between different varieties and landraces. A number of proteins were identified by mass spectrometry and added to a potato tuber two-dimensional protein map.', 'en_US'),
(2073, 'Liberation Biology:  The Scientific And Moral Case For  The Biotech Revolution', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2074, 'Ecological risks of Bt transferred bollworm resistant cotton and the remedies.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2075, 'Risks of allergic reactions to biotech proteins in foods: perception and reality.', 'In recent years, significant attention has been paid to the use of biotechnology to improve the quality and quantity of the food supply due in part to the projected growth in the world population, plus limited options available for increasing the amount of land under cultivation. Alterations in the food supply induced by classical breeding and selection methods typically involve the movement of large portions of genomic DNA between different plant varieties to obtain the desired trait. This is in contrast to techniques of genetic engineering which allows the selection and transfers specific genes from one species to another. The primary allergy risk to consumers from genetically modified crops may be placed into one of three categories. The first represents the highest risk to the allergic consumer is the transfer of known allergen or cross-reacting allergen into a food crop. The second category, representing an intermediate risk to the consumer, is the potential for replacing the endogenous allergenicity of a genetically-modified crop. The last category involves expression of novel proteins that may become allergens in man and generally represents a relatively low risk to the consumer, although this possibility has received attention of late. In order to mitigate the three categories of potential allergy risk associated with biotech crops, all genes introduced into food crops undergo a series of tests designed to determine if the biotech protein exhibits properties of known food allergens. The result of this risk assessment process to date is that no biotech proteins in foods have been documented to cause allergic reactions. These results indicate that the current assessment process is robust, although as science of allergy and allergens evolves, new information and new technology should help further the assessment process for potential allergenicity.', 'en_US'),
(2076, 'Abundance of non-target pests in transgenic Bt-maize: a farm scale study.', 'The impact of transgenic Bt-maize, expressing the Cry1Ab protein, on aphids, leafhoppers, cutworms and wireworms was evaluated at the farm scale by comparing their abundance on Bt-plots and those sown with the isogenic variety over three consecutive growing seasons. The impact of Bt-maize was different on each of the three-herbivore groups. There were significantly more aphids on the Bt-maize but in terms of aphid species, the difference was only statistically significant for Sitobion avenae and not for the other three most abundant species (Metopolophium dirhodum, Rhopalosiphum padi and Macrosiphum euphorbiae). The analysis of aphid age structure showed consistently more individuals on Bt-plots; differences were significant for alates, apterous adults and young nymphs of R. padi, apterous adults and apterous fourth instar nymphs of S. avenae, alates, apterous adults and apterous fourth instar nymphs of M. dirhodum. Leafhoppers (Zyginidia scutellaris), particularly mature nymphs, were also more abundant on the Bt-maize. In spite of this there was no difference in leafhopper damage to Bt and non Bt-maize. The reasons for this are unclear but may be due to changes in Bt-maize that favoured aphids and leafhoppers. Differences in aphid and leafhopper densities were not high enough to affect yield. However, they may have affected the availability of prey for polyphagous predators such as Orius sp. The Bt-maize did not affect the incidence of cutworms (Agrotis segetum) or wireworms (Agriotes lineatus). These results indicate that Bt-maize does not have a negative impact on the non-target maize biocenosis at the farm scale.', 'en_US'),
(2077, 'Effects on weed and invertebrate abundance and diversity of herbicide management in genetically modified herbicide-tolerant winter-sown oilseed rape.', 'We evaluated the effects of the herbicide management associated with genetically modified herbicide-tolerant (GMHT) winter oilseed rape (WOSR) on weed and invertebrate abundance and diversity by testing the null hypothesis that there is no difference between the effects of herbicide management of GMHT WOSR and that of comparable conventional varieties. For total weeds there were few treatment differences between GMHT and conventional cropping, but large and opposite treatment effects were observed for dicots and monocots. In the GMHT treatment, there were fewer dicots and more monocots than in conventional crops. At harvest, dicot biomass and seed rain in the GMHT treatment were one-third of that in the conventional, while monocot biomass was threefold greater and monocot seed rain almost fivefold greater in the GMHT treatment than in the conventional. These differential effects persisted into the following two years of the rotation. Bees and butterflies that forage and select for dicot weeds were less abundant in GMHT WOSR management in July. Year totals for Collembola were greater under GMHT management. There were few other treatment effects on invertebrates, despite the marked effects of herbicide management on the weeds. ', 'en_US'),
(2078, 'Risk perceptions, risk preference, and acceptance of risky food.', 'Consumers'' risk preferences are often overlooked in studies of consumer demand for risky food. We find that risk preferences elicited through context-less lottery choices are significantly related to consumers'' stated preferences for genetically modified (GM) food. These results suggest risk preferences elicited in the laboratory are not artificial in the sense that they appear to be related to the same risk preferences that govern other individual decisions such as food choice. Consistent with theoretical expectations, risk perceptions and risk preferences were found to be significant determinants of acceptance of GM food, which has important implications for explaining consumer behavior.', 'en_US'),
(2079, 'The lack of clear GMO regulation: its impact on researchers and farmers  in Brazil.', 'This paper discusses the current regulation of genetically modified organisms and derivatives used in Brazil, where GM-plants are on the verge of being approved for commercial use. The paper further uses a simulation model to assess the potential economic benefits resulting from unrestricted commercial approval of herbicide-tolerant soybeans and some other crops on the Brazilian economy. Only soybean has been specially approved in the last three seasons (2002/03, 2003/04 and 2004/05). As there is no consistent information about the benefits of using transgenic seeds in Brazil, the authors made simulations on the basis of the experiences reported by Argentina and the USA. The paper concludes that Brazil could do much better if government had taken the lead to clarify the legal requirements for research and commercial release of genetically modified crops which are still contradictory and unlikely to control any future environmental impact in Brazil.', 'en_US'),
(2080, 'Bt176 corn in poultry nutrition: physiological characteristics and fate of recombinant plant DNA in chickens.', 'A genetically modified Bt176 corn hybrid, which contains an insecticidal protein against the European corn borer, and its conventional, nonmodified counterpart were evaluated in 4 separate trials to verify substantial equivalence in feeding value and animal performance. Thirty-six individually kept laying hens and 3 replicates of 94 broiler chickens each, assigned to 12 cages, were fed 2 different hen and broiler diets containing either 60% conventional or 60% Bt176 corn. The nutrient compositions of the 2 corn hybrids and the 2 corn diets revealed no major differences. Furthermore, metabolism and performance data revealed no significant differences between the birds that received the conventional, nonmodified corn, and those that received the modified corn diets. The detection of the genetic modification, by PCR, in feed obtained from insect-resistant Bt corn, in tissues and products from animals fed Bt corn is described. In all evaluated chicken tissues of muscle, liver, and spleen, the corn-chloroplast ivr gene fragment was amplified. It can be deduced from these findings and from other studies that the transfer of DNA fragments into the body is a normal process that takes place constantly. Nevertheless, no recombinant plant DNA fragments such as recombinant bla or cry1A(b) fragments could be found. Bt-gene specific constructs from the Bt corn were not detected in any of the poultry samples, neither in organs, meat, nor eggs.', 'en_US'),
(2081, 'Evaluation of agronomic traits and environmental biosafety of a transgenic tomato plant expressing satellite RNA of Cucumber mosaic virus.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2082, 'Transgenic Bt plants decompose less in soil than non-Bt plants.', 'Bt plants are plants that have been genetically modified to express the insecticidal proteins (e.g. Cry1Ab, Cry1Ac, Cry3A) from subspecies of the bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), to kill lepidopteran pests that feed on corn, rice, tobacco, canola, and cotton and coleopteran pests that feed on potato. The biomass of these transgenic Bt plants (Bt+) was decomposed less in soil than the biomass of their near-isogenic non-Bt plant counterparts (Bt-). Soil was amended with 0.5, 1, or 2% (wt wt-1) ground, dried (50 °C) leaves or stems of Bt corn plants; with 0.5% (wt wt-1) ground, dried biomass of Bt rice, tobacco, canola, cotton, and potato plants; with biomass of the near-isogenic plants without the respective cry genes; or not amended. The gross metabolic activity of the soil was determined by CO2 evolution. The amounts of C evolved as CO2 were significantly lower from soil microcosms amended with biomass of Bt plants than of non-Bt plants. This difference occurred with stems and leaves from two hybrids of Bt corn, one of which had a higher C:N ratio than its near-isogenic non-Bt counterpart and the other which had essentially the same C:N ratio, even when glucose, nitrogen (NH4NO3), or glucose plus nitrogen were added with the biomass. The C:N ratios of the other Bt plants (including two other hybrids of Bt corn) and their near-isogenic non-Bt counterparts were also not related to their relative biodegradation. Bt corn had a significantly higher lignin content than near-isogenic non-Bt corn. However, the lignin content of the other Bt plants, which was significantly lower than that of both Bt and non-Bt corn, was generally not statistically significantly different, although 10?66% higher, from that of their respective non-Bt near-isolines. The numbers of culturable bacteria and fungi and the activity of representative enzymes involved in the degradation of plant biomass were not significantly different between soil amended with biomass of Bt or non-Bt corn. The degradation of the biomass of all Bt plants in the absence of soil but inoculated with a microbial suspension from the same soil was also significantly less than that of their respective inoculated non-Bt plants. The addition of streptomycin, cycloheximide, or both to the soil suspension did not alter the relative degradation of Bt+ and Bt- biomass, suggesting that differences in the soil microbiota were not responsible for the differential decomposition of I+ and I- biomass. All samples of soil amended with biomass of Bt plants were immunologically positive for the respective Cry proteins and toxic to the larvae of the tobacco hornworm (Manduca sexta), which was used as a representative lepidopteran in insect bioassays (no insecticidal assay was done for the Cry3A protein from potato). The ecological and environmental relevance of these findings is not clear.', 'en_US'),
(2083, 'Management of herbicide-tolerant oilseed rape in Europe: a case study on minimizing vertical gene flow.', 'The potential commercialization of genetically modified herbicide-tolerant (GMHT) oilseed rape in Europe raises various concerns about their potential environmental and agronomic impacts, especially those associated with the escape of transgenes. Pollen of oilseed rape can be dispersed in space, resulting in the fertilization of sympatric compatible wild relatives (e.g. Brassica rapa) and oilseed rape cultivars grown nearby (GM and/or non-GM Brassica napus). The spatial and temporal dispersal of seeds of oilseed rape may lead to feral oilseed rape populations outside the cropped areas and oilseed rape volunteers in subsequent crops in the rotation. The incorporation of a HT trait(s) may increase the fitness of the recipient plants, making them more abundant and persistent, and may result in weeds that are difficult to control by the herbicide(s) to which they are tolerant. Vertical gene flow from transgenic oilseed rape to non-GM counterparts may also have an impact on farming and supply chain management, depending on labelling thresholds for the adventitious presence of GM material in non-GM products. Given the extent of pollen and seed dispersal in oilseed rape, it is obvious that the safe and sound integration of GMHT oilseed rape in Europe may require significant on-farm and off-farm management efforts. Crucial practical measures that can reduce vertical gene flow include (1) isolating seed production of Brassica napus, (2) the use of certified seed, (3) isolating fields of GM oilseed rape, (4) harvesting at the correct crop development stage with properly adjusted combine settings, (5) ensuring maximum germination of shed seeds after harvest, (6) controlling volunteers in subsequent crops, and (7) keeping on-farm records. The implementation of the recommended practices may, however, be difficult, entailing various challenges.', 'en_US'),
(2084, 'Gene flow scenarios with transgenic maize in Mexico.', 'Maize diversity is widespread in Mexico and it has been stewarded by campesinos in small communities until the present. With the arrival of transgenic maize, the objective of this study is to analyze possible scenarios that could result if genetically modified maize were not regulated and openly available in Mexico. By applying a simple logistic model based on the conditions of maize production in Mexico, the dispersion of transgenic maize in different situations within fields of farmers is described. In traditional open systems of freely exchanged seed within communities it is concluded that the most likely outcome of GM maize release is the incorporation of transgenes in the genome of Mexican germplasm and possibly in that of teosinte.', 'en_US'),
(2085, 'Diversity of alternative hosts of maize stemborers in Trans-Nzoia  district of Kenya.', 'Genetically-engineered (GE) crops such as those expressing insecticidal Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxin genes have the potential to greatly reduce the use of broad spectrum insecticides and increase crop productivity. However, development of resistance by the target insect species is an important consideration in the deployment of this strategy. In areas where GE crops are deployed on a large scale, current resistance management strategies rely on a ''refuge strategy'', comprising the incorporation of a certain proportion of non-GE plants in the agro-ecosystems, to conserve susceptible individuals of the target pests. In the USA, simulation models indicate that at least 20% of the crop should be non-Bt plants. In Africa, the target lepidopteran stemborers attack a wide range of wild grass species as well as cultivated cereal crops. Wild grasses generally occur in the vicinity of maize and other cereal fields, and may provide a refuge if GE crops are in the farming systems. To assess the quality of these grasses as refuges, it is critical to obtain information about their size and spatial distribution. In this study, we have assessed the abundance and diversity of alternative refuge of stemborers, mainly wild grasses occurring in the proximity of maize fields, in Trans-Nzoia district, one of the most important maize growing areas in Kenya. The proportion of wild host plants relative to maize was found to decline from 100% during the non-cropping season to <8% during the maize-growing season. The Shannon-Weaver diversity index indicated high variation in the diversity of wild hosts of stemborers between agro-ecological zones in the district. The results of this study are discussed in light of the possible role that wild host plant species might play in stemborer resistance management following the introduction of Bt maize.', 'en_US'),
(2086, 'Investigation on stability of transgenes and their expression in transgenic apple plants (Malus x domestica Borkh.).', 'With respect to the release of transgenic woody plants the stability of integrated transgenes and their long-term expression is one of the main objectives in monitoring and risk assessment of genetically engineered plants. A stable integration and expression of the transgenes is particular important for fruit trees, which have an exceptional long production time compared with annual crops. Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation of commercially grown apple cultivars was used to increase resistance to the main diseases, like powdery mildew, apple scab and fire blight. Transgenic apple plants were transferred to the greenhouse, grown as own rooted trees or grafted in different scion-rootstock combinations consisting of a transgenic/non-transgenic part. This plant material was used for investigations on stable integration and expression of transgenes. The analyses were carried out using insert-PCR, RT-PCR for gene transcription and ELISA technique for marker protein assay. In 34% of the examined samples neither the transgene nor the neomycinphosphotransferaseII marker gene (nptII) or both genes were anymore detectable. From the remaining samples with a stable integration of the T-DNA, four plant samples did not express the nptII marker gene. Three plants without transcription of the marker gene nptII were tested by a PCR methylation assay. While one sample of the tested plants did not amplify the fragment of the nopalinsynthase promoter (nos promoter), the remaining two plants are assumed to be methylated at the nos promoter site.', 'en_US'),
(2087, 'Feeds from genetically modified plants in animal nutrition.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2088, 'Quantitation of transgenic plant DNA in leachate water: real-time polymerase chain reaction analysis.', 'Roundup Ready (RR) genetically modified (GM) corn and soybean comprise a large portion of the annual planted acreage of GM crops. Plant growth and subsequent plant decomposition introduce the recombinant DNA (rDNA) into the soil environment, where its fate has not been completely researched. Little is known of the temporal and spatial distribution of plant-derived rDNA in the soil environment and in situ transport of plant DNA by leachate water has not been studied before. The objectives of this study were to determine whether sufficient quantities of plant rDNA were released by roots during growth and early decomposition to be detected in water collected after percolating through a soil profile and to determine the influence of temperature on DNA persistence in the leachate water. Individual plants of RR corn and RR soybean were grown in modified cylinders in a growth room, and the cylinders were flushed with rain water weekly. Immediately after collection, the leachate was subjected to DNA purification followed by rDNA quantification using real-time Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) analysis. To test the effects of temperature on plant DNA persistence in leachate water, water samples were spiked with known quantities of RR soybean or RR corn genomic DNA and DNA persistence was examined at 5, 15, and 25 C. Differences in the amounts and temporal distributions of root-derived rDNA were observed between corn and soybean plants. The results suggest that rainfall events may distribute plant DNA throughout the soil and into leachate water. Half-lives of plant DNA in leachate water ranged from 1.2 to 26.7 h, and persistence was greater at colder temperatures (5 and 15 C).', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(2089, 'Detectability of coleopteran-specific Cry3Bb1 protein in soil and its effect on nontarget surface and below-ground arthropods.', 'Corn engineered to produce the Cry3Bb1 protein from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) kumamotoensis has provided unprecedented control for corn rootworm (Diabrotica spp.). However, the Bt protein may be released in soil by root exudates or decaying plant residues that may affect soil organisms. Field studies were conducted to determine the abundance of surface and below-ground nontarget arthropods in fields planted with Bt or non-Bt corn for the first year or planted over 3 consecutive yr. Results of these studies showed that there were no significant differences in numbers of surface and below-ground arthropods in soil planted with Bt and non-Bt corn at any of the studied locations. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) showed no detectable Cry3Bb1 protein in any of the soil samples collected in a field planted with a Bt corn hybrid and its non-Bt isogenic hybrid for the first year or planted over 3 consecutive yr near Manhattan, KS. However, a small amount of Cry3Bb1 protein (3.38-6.89 ng/g dry soil) was detected in the soil samples collected from an area near plants in a Bt corn field that was planted for the first year near Scandia, KS. These findings indicate that the Cry3Bb1 protein released from root exudates or decaying plant residues does not persist and is rapidly broken down in the soil. The rapid degradation of Cry3Bb1 in soil results in none or trace amounts of protein being detected by ELISA.', 'en_US'),
(2090, 'Assessing and managing biological risks of plants used for bioremediation, including risks of transgene flow.', 'The plants used for phytoremediation pose special biological risks, whether transgenic or not, as most of the species: (a) are semi-domesticated; (b) are introduced from other habitats; (c) can become established in the contaminated site; (d) can spread and displace native species, and/or; (e) may introgress transgenes into related species. The addition of transgenes can reduce the risks, e.g. to sterilize or render the species and hybrid offspring hypersensitive to environmental effects (heat, cold), or to a chemical that will cull the species. Various measures can contain transgenes used in phytoremediation species to prevent gene flow, but most containment technologies are both uni-directional (prevent either outflow or influx), and are inherently leaky, even a concept specifically utilizable for phytoremediation Ð grafting non-transgenic scions on bioremediating transgenic rootstocks. Containment mechanisms should be either stacked with each other or with ''mitigator'' genes. Transgenic mitigation (TM) has mitigator genes added in tandem to the desired primary transgene (genetically linked) and the mitigator genes confer traits that are positive or neutral to the desired species but are deleterious to hybrids, keeping them at very low frequencies. The concept was demonstrated in tobacco and oilseed rape with a dwarfing mitigator gene that enhanced the reproductive productivity (harvest index) when cultured alone, but eliminated it from mixed populations. Besides the mitigator genes previously proposed for crop species (sterility, no seed shattering, dwarfing, no secondary dormancy) there are genes especially appropriate for phytoremediation, e.g. overexpression of cytokinin oxidase (reduces cytokinin levels) conferring reduced shoot systems (unfitness to compete) with a more extensive root system that is better for extracting toxic wastes as well as no-flowering for vegetatively propagated species.  Thus, biotechnology can be harnessed to reduce risks from both non-transgenic and transgenic phytoremediation species.', 'en_US'),
(2091, 'Mating frequency in dispersing potato tuber moth, Phthorimaea  operculella, and its influence on the design of refugia to manage  resistance in Bt transgenic crops.', 'Mating of potato tuber moth, Phthorimaea operculella (Zeller) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), was investigated in relation to the dispersal of males in laboratory and field trials. The effect of stimulating the flight of males to light sources in a large cage on their mating ability was estimated for three age groups, and compared with similar estimates for confined moths. Although the mating of males declined with ages of up to 15 days, simulated dispersal had no effect on subsequent mating when the males were paired with virgin females. The dispersal of male moths was also categorised by the initial flight activity of untethered moths to a light source. Scores for poor, moderate, and good flight provided a repeatable measure of initial male flight activity, but the degree of activity was not related to their subsequent mating ability. In the field, virgin female potato tuber moths were tethered at various distances from the edge of isolated potato crops and then dissected to determine their mating status. Female mating frequency averaged 75% at the crop margin, remained above 50% up to 200 m, and then declined to 19% at 360 m from the margin. Derivation of the mating probability for an individual male potato tuber moth confirmed earlier work by other researchers that has indicated a tendency for dispersal prior to mating, and that males retain their ability to mate as they disperse from a crop. The influence of dispersal and mating on gene flow between crops, and its potential effects on refuge size required to minimise the development of resistance to Bt transgenic potato crops was examined.', 'en_US'),
(2092, 'Gene Flow from GM Plants', 'Gene flow is not unique to genetically modified (GM) crops, but the possibility of the spread of transgenic DNA to wild and domesticated relatives raises a new set of issues for scientists and policymakers to consider. Unfortunately, we are still too often unable to quantify the risks of ecological damage associated with gene flow. This is due partly to the huge breadth of knowledge required to assemble a comprehensive risk assessment. For example, many scientists active in research on the mechanics of gene flow nevertheless lack a deep understanding of what is required to identify, characterise and assess ecological risk, and many of those who are aware of the risk assessment process and the framework used for legislation have insufficient knowledge of the reproductive biology, agricultural systems, modelling and ecological literature required to compile a balanced risk assessment. This book, set in the context of gene flow in general, considers the assessment, measurement and management of the risks of gene flow from GM plants, combining the expertise of all the various stakeholders. It is directed at researchers and professionals in plant molecular genetics and plant ecology, in both the academic and industrial sectors.', 'en_US'),
(2093, 'Patterns of Integration of DNA Microinjected into Cultured Mammalian Cells: Evidence for Homologous Recombination Between Injected Plasmid DNA Molecules', 'We examined the fate of DNA microinjected into nuclei of cultured mammalian cells. The sequence composition and the physical form of the vector carrying the selectable gene affected the efficiency of DNA-mediated transformation. Introduction of sequences near the simian virus 40 origin of DNA replication or in the long terminal repeat of avian sarcoma provirus into a recombinant plasmid containing the herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase gene. (pBR322/HSV-tk) enhanced the frequency of transformation of LMtk- and RAT-2tk- cells to the TK+ phenotype 20- to 40-fold. In cells receiving injections of only a few plasmid DNA molecules, the transformation frequency was 40-fold higher after injection of linear molecules than after injection of supercoiled molecules. By controlling the number of gene copies injected into a recipient cell, we could obtain transformants containing a single copy or as many as 50 to 100 copies of the selectable gene. Multiple copies of the transforming gene were not scattered throughout the host genome but were integrated as a concatemer at one or a very few sites in the host chromosome. Independent transformants contained the donated genes in different chromosomes. The orientation of the gene copies within the concatemer was not random; rather, the copies were organized as tandem head-to-tail arrays. By analyzing transformants obtained by coinjecting two vectors which were identical except that in one a portion of the vector was inverted, we were able to conclude that the head-to-tail concatemers were generated predominantly by homologous recombination. Surprisingly, these head-to-tail concatemers were found in transformants obtained by injecting either supercoiled or linear plasmid DNA. Even though we demonstrated that cultured mammalian cells contain the enzymes for ligating two DNA molecules very efficiently irrespective of the sequences or topology at their ends, we found that even linear plasmid DNA was recruited into the concatemer by homologous recombination.', 'en_US'),
(2094, 'The Cartagena Protocol and GMOs', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2095, 'Non-target impacts of forest defoliator management options: Decision for no spraying may have worse impacts on non-target Lepidoptera than Bacillus thuringiensis insecticides.', 'Management programs for major forest defoliators such as gypsy moths or forest tent caterpillars, and crop pests such as the European corn borer have shifted from broad-spectrum insecticides to more environmentally benign microbial pesticides such as Bacillus thuringiensis (foliage sprays and transgenic toxin expression in plant tissues). Phytochemically resistant host plants and natural enemies have been used as alternative pest management strategies (including generalist tachinid flies such as Compsilura, viruses, microsporidians, and fungi), but all of these have some non-target impacts, as described from literature review. A sequence of lab and field studies were conducted to determine non-target impacts on native Lepidoptera in North America. The conclusions reached are that a decision not to spray Bt pesticides (i.e. to allow defoliation and natural pest outbreaks to run their course) could be as bad or worse for non-target Lepidoptera as the microbial insecticides would be. The important concept that must be maintained is that all pest management programs have some risk of negative non-target impacts, but it is the magnitude and relative importance that will remain the most critical issue for environmental impacts and pest management.', 'en_US'),
(2096, 'Genetically engineered salmon, ecological risk, and environmental policy.', 'Patented, genetically engineered salmon are proposed for deployment in commercial aquaculture. If released accidentally into ecosystems, these novel organisms would have uncertain effects on ecological processes. Proponents suggest that ecosystems are fundamentally balanced and resilient and therefore that risks are negligible because of transgenic fishes'' reduced ecological fitness. Opponents maintain that ecosystems are characterized by instability and contingency rather than equilibrium and that a small number of ecologically fit organisms may change the state of an ecosystem if conditions are favorable. Current U.S. federal regulations hamper public discussion about potential risks, limit the role of agencies with the greatest expertise in fisheries and ecological sciences, and make precautionary action difficult without proof of harm. Field interviews and regulatory materials support the view that the U.S. regulatory system does not adequately address ecological and social issues, nor is current scientific knowledge sufficient for evaluation of potential risks to native ecosystems. Four elements are essential: independent scientific research before introduction that addresses uncertainties about potential impacts; regulatory systems with clearer standards and modified burdens of proof; opportunities for the public, including scientists, to participate meaningfully in decision processes; and for any introduction, experimental approaches that include hypothesis formulation, testing, and monitoring.', 'en_US'),
(2097, 'Biosafety assessment of transgenic plants in the greenhouse and the  field -- a case study of transgenic cucumber.', 'We have developed transgenic cucumber plants Cucumis sativus L. resistant to gray mold (Botrytis cinerea) by the expression of rice chitinase cDNA (Tabei et al. 1998). These transgenic plants were obtained by Agrobacterium-mediated transformation, and the introduced rice chitinase cDNA was driven by the CaMV 35S promoter. The biosafety assessment of the transformed cucumber plants was carefully performed to confirm that their characteristics are equivalent to those of non-transgenic plants except for harboring gray mold resistance. The biosafety assessment was carried out successively in full-containment greenhouse, semi-containment greenhouse, isolated field, and finally in ordinary field trials. The following items were compared between transgenic and non-transgenic cucumber plants: (1) morphological characteristics of plants and fruits; (2) reproductive characteristics, e.g. pollen morphology and fertility, longevity of the pollen, pollen dispersal by wind, and seed fertilities; (3) possibility of harmful influences on the environment due to the production of detrimental substances i.e. volatile compounds, plant parts and root secreta; (4) influence on soil microflora and; (5) presence of remaining Agrobacterium tumefaciens, which was used as a vector in the production of the transgenic cucumber. Throughout the biosafety assessment, we did not find any substantial differences except the expression of rice chitinase gene and resistance to gray mold between transgenic and non-transgenic cucumber plants.', 'en_US'),
(2098, 'New resistance mechanism in Helicoverpa armigera threatens transgenic crops expressing Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Ac toxin.', 'In Australia, the cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera, has a long history of resistance to conventional insecticides. Transgenic cotton (expressing the Bacillus thuringiensis toxin Cry1Ac) has been grown for H. armigera control since 1996. It is demonstrated here that a population of Australian H. armigera has developed resistance to Cry1Ac toxin (275-fold). Some 70% of resistant H. armigera larvae were able to survive on Cry1Ac transgenic cotton (Ingard) The resistance phenotype is inherited as an autosomal semidominant trait. Resistance was associated with elevated esterase levels, which cosegregated with resistance. In vitro studies employing surface plasmon resonance technology and other biochemical techniques demonstrated that resistant strain esterase could bind to Cry1Ac protoxin and activated toxin. In vivo studies showed that Cry1Ac-resistant larvae fed Cy1Ac transgenic cotton or Cry1Ac-treated artificial diet had lower esterase activity than non-Cry1Ac-fed larvae. A resistance mechanism in which esterase sequesters Cry1Ac is proposed.', 'en_US'),
(2099, 'Human safety and genetically modified plants: a review of antibiotic resistance markers and future transformation selection technologies.', 'The first generation of genetically modified plants suitable for agriculture was largely produced using antibiotic resistance markers (ARMs) for the preparation of plant transformation vectors or for the plant transformation process itself.  In some instances, the ARM gene remains in the finished commercial plant product. Theoretical concerns regarding the risks posed by such markers have resulted in a demand for the production of commercial plants free of ARMs. This, in turn, has resulted in the development of technologies which avoid the use of ARMs or which allow for the efficient excision of such markers following the initial transformation process, but in advance of the selection of commercial plant lines. We review the current status of ARM safety information relevant to existing genetically modified crops as well as reviewing in some detail the available alternatives to ARM use, the utility of these technologies for commercial production, and the issues that might pertain to the use of these alternative technologies for the production of commercial genetically modified crops. Many of the alternative techniques have the potential to be commercially viable, and one or more will necessarily be used for the future production of genetically modified plants free of ARMs. Nonetheless, existing ARM-containing products will remain in the market for the foreseeable future, and the safety of these products therefore remains a relevant issue. Further, the ease of use, cost, availability, safety profile, regulatory status, and utility of alternative techniques should be kept in proper perspective relative to the long history of safe use of ARMs in plant biotechnology.', 'en_US'),
(2100, 'Potential failsafe mechanisms against the spread and introgression of transgenic hypervirulent biocontrol fungi.', 'Microbial biocontrol agents are typically inefficient owing to the evolutionary necessity to be in balance with their hosts to survive. If transgenetically rendered hypervirulent, however, they could be competitive alternatives to pesticides. Potential means are delineated to prevent, contain or mitigate uncontrollable spread of hypervirulent biocontrol organisms, mutations that increase their host range, and the sexual or asexual introgression of hypervirulence genes into pathogens of other organisms. The use of asporogenic deletion mutants as a platform for generating transgenic hypervirulent biopesticides would prevent such spread. Hypervirulence genes flanked with available ''transgenetic mitigator'' (TM) genes (genes that are neutral or positive to the biocontrol agent but deleterious to recombinants) would decrease virulence to non-target species.', 'en_US'),
(2101, 'Comparative safety assessment for biotech crops.', 'Since the first discussions on strategies to assess the food safety of genetically modified (GM) crop plants, assessment of GM plants and derived tissues has been based on comparisons with their traditionally bred counterparts. This was termed the Principle of Substantial Equivalence. However, implementation of the principle led to controversy and hampered the precision of the actual safety assessment. Here, we propose the principle be rephrased into the Comparative Safety Assessment strategy. This describes the analytical nature of the first step of the entire (GM) food safety assessment in combination with consecutive toxicological and nutritional evaluations. Further development of advanced analytical methods will help to improve the efficacy of assessment strategies.', 'en_US'),
(2102, 'Quantitative exposure assessment for confinement of maize biogenic systems.', 'The development of transgenic crops as production platforms for biogenic agents will largely depend on the success of efforts to confine the genes and their expressed proteins in field environments. We have used quantitative exposure assessment to evaluate how management practices affect materials escape due to outcrossing by pollen flow or grain loss during harvest operations. Specifically, we study the use of maize to produce biogenic agents within field-confined systems. Decision trees representing simplified schemes of fully conforming (designed to comply with current regulatory standards for field confined trials), partially conforming, and non-conforming management practices were developed. Exemplifying assumptions and published data for conformance and material fate probabilities were used in Monte Carlo simulations to forecast materials escape by pollen outcrossing and harvest operations from a 1 ha source field. Deterministic analyses showed fully conforming confinement management restricted materials loss to low levels (for this example, outcrossing produced <1 in 106 kernels in receptor fields). The corresponding high-end (90th percentile) probabilistic result was 16- and 4333-fold higher (relative to deterministic outcrossing = 1) for outcrossing and harvest loss, respectively. For partially conforming practice, high-end outcrossing ranged from 100- to >15 000-fold over the base result in receptor fields, and harvest loss was >10 000-fold over the base result. For non-conforming practice, high-end outcrossing produced >15 000-fold greater kernels in receptor fields and high-end harvest loss was at least 19 000-fold greater. Deterministic estimates of off-field loss by machine transfer are as much as 30 000-fold higher for non-conforming operations relative to the base case of pollen outcrossing. Better knowledge of failure frequencies for confinement management practices, improved physical models of materials flows, refined analysis of confinement loss probabilities using quantitative tools, and decision analysis to improve and audit management system performance are all needed to extend understanding of confinement integrity beyond the exemplifying case used here.', 'en_US'),
(2103, 'Spider web survey or whole plant visual sampling? Impact assessment of Bt corn on non-target predatory insects with two concurrent methods.', 'Impact assessment studies rely on relevant sampling methods. Correct evaluation of methods can be done by their concurrent use in the same sampling site and period. Collecting webs of Theridion impressum L. Koch (Araneae: Theridiidae) may serve as an arthropod sampling method: empty cuticles of prey items remain attached to the back side of the leaves with adhesive silk. Our study aimed to compare the applicability of the two methods concurrently (spider web survey and whole plant visual sampling) in a risk assessment study. The spider web survey recorded more predatory insect families than the whole plant visual sampling. Both methods were able to detect significant differences in the quantity of predatory insects in Bt vs. isogenic plots, but not in the same taxa (Nabidae: spider-web, 2001, Bt > Iso; Coccinellidae: plant sampling, 2001, Iso > Bt; Welsh-test, P < 0.05); thus, they could not confirm each other. The lack of confirmation can be explained by differences in the sensitivity and selectivity of the two methods. A web survey of T. impressum has the practical advantage that although we concentrate only on the one species during field sampling, we gain additional information on a wide range of foliage-dwelling arthropods. Due to several biological uncertainties, interpretation and explanation of the results remain problematic. Thus, additional research - based on in-situ observation and recording of T. impressum-prey interactions - is necessary before we could propose web survey method as a complementary tool in ecological impact assessment.', 'en_US'),
(2104, 'An alternative strategy for sustainable pest resistance in genetically enhanced crops.', 'Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) crystal protein genes encode insecticidal -endotoxins that are widely used for the development of insect-resistant crops. In this article, we describe an alternative transgenic strategy that has the potential to generate broader and more sustainable levels of resistance against insect pests. Our strategy involves engineering plants with a fusion protein combining the -endotoxin Cry1Ac with the galactose-binding domain of the nontoxic ricin B-chain (RB). This fusion, designated BtRB, provides the toxin with additional, binding domains, thus increasing the potential number of interactions at the molecular level in target insects. Transgenic rice and maize plants engineered to express the fusion protein were significantly more toxic in insect bioassays than those containing the Bt gene alone. They were also resistant to a wider range of insects, including important pests that are not normally susceptible to Bt toxins. The potential impact of fusion genes such as BtRB in terms of crop improvement, resistance sustainability, and biosafety is discussed.', 'en_US'),
(2105, 'Gene flow of oilseed rape (Brassica napus) according to isolation distance and buffer zone.', 'The introduction of genetically modified (GM) crops in the EU has raised questions concerning gene dispersal and co-existence with non-GM-farming. Quantitative estimates of the gene dispersal from fields with GM-crops to fields with conspecific non-GM-crops (conventional or organic) are therefore needed in order to suggest isolation distances and other management strategies to keep GM-pollination below acceptable threshold values. A meta-analysis of available gene-flow data for oilseed rape (Brassica napus) was performed. The probability distribution that seeds of non-GM-oilseed rape are fertilised by foreign pollen grains from a neighbouring field of GM-oilseed rape is modelled as functions of the width of the recipient (i.e. pollen receiving) field and the distance to the pollen donor fields. Furthermore, the significance of using a buffer zone (removal of a 1?5 m border of a recipient field parallel to the pollen donor field) to reduce GM-pollination of the crop, is quantified and discussed. The predicted median and 95% credibility level of the probability of foreign pollination is calculated as a function of the width of the recipient field and the buffer zone, as well as the distance between fields. Analysis of different management strategies shows that an increasing isolation distance is more effective to reduce GM-pollen dispersal than the use of a buffer zone, especially for small recipient fields. The analysis shows that increasing the width of a recipient oilseed rape field, relative to the pollen donor field, will have a large effect on reducing the average level of fertilisation by foreign pollen within the recipient field. The results indicate that a GM-pollination percentage <0.1% will be possible if the isolation distance exceeds 100 m and the width of the non-GM-field is larger than 200 m. If a threshold value of 0.3% is acceptable, an isolation distance of 50 m should be sufficient even for smaller fields. The use of a 5 m discarded buffer zone surrounding the non-GM-field is expected to reduce GM-pollination by about a third. The implications of the results for field management in conventional and organic farming are discussed.', 'en_US'),
(2106, 'Corporate control over seeds: limiting access and farmers'' rights.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2107, 'Concurrent use of transgenic plants expressing a single and two Bacillus thuringiensis genes speeds insect adaptation to pyramided plants.', 'Transgenic plants expressing insecticidal proteins from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) were grown on over 13 million ha in the United States and 22.4 million ha worldwide in 2004. Preventing or slowing the evolution of resistance by insects (''resistance management'') is critical for the sustainable use of Bt crops. Plants containing two dissimilar Bt toxin genes in the same plant (''pyramided'') have the potential to delay insect resistance. However, the advantage of pyramided Bt plants for resistance management may be compromised if they share similar toxins with single-gene plants that are deployed simultaneously. We tested this hypothesis using a unique model system composed of broccoli plants transformed to express different Cry toxins (Cry1Ac, Cry1C, or both) and a synthetic population of the diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella) carrying genes for resistance to Cry1Ac and Cry1C at frequencies of 0.10 and 0.34, respectively. After 24?26 generations of selection in the greenhouse, the concurrent use of one- and two-gene plants resulted in control failure of both types of Bt plants. When only two-gene plants were used in the selection, no or few insects survived on one- or two-gene Bt plants, indicating that concurrent use of transgenic plants expressing a single and two Bt genes will select for resistance to two-gene plants more rapidly than the use of two-gene plants alone. The results of this experiment agree with the predictions of a Mendelian deterministic simulation model and have important implications for the regulation and deployment of pyramided Bt plants.', 'en_US'),
(2108, 'Competitive ability and mortality of growth-enhanced transgenic coho  salmon fry and parr when foraging for food.', 'Coho salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch were genetically altered to produce growth hormone without regulation, causing them grow 11 times larger (on average) than control fish after 14 months. This technology has potential benefits for the aquaculture industry, but the environmental risk associated with the escape of transgenic fish into the wild is not known. To partially address this issue, we experimentally investigated how well transgenic salmon survive when given a choice to consume food in a predator''s presence. If transgenic salmon are to retain their growth advantage, we predict that they must also be more effective at competing for food than wild salmon and be willing to suffer higher mortality rates when foraging. The relative competitive abilities of transgenic and control salmon at two different ages were tested with an unequal competitors ideal free distribution. A larger proportion of transgenic salmon fed within the system, although they were not overrepresented at a higher-quantity food source. When feeding in the presence of a predator, there was no measurable difference in mortality rates between transgenic and control salmon at both the fry and parr stages. These data indicate that, under the limited environmental conditions we tested transgenic coho salmon are at least competitively equal to control fish and do not suffer higher rates of mortality to acquire food resources and maintain their enhanced growth.', 'en_US'),
(2109, 'Reductions in insecticide use from adoption of Bt cotton in South Africa: impacts on economic performance and toxic load to the environment.', 'The study reported presents the findings relating to commercial growing of genetically-modified Bt cotton in South Africa by a large sample of smallholder farmers over three seasons (1998/99, 1999/2000, 2000/01) following adoption. The analysis presents constructs and compares groupwise differences for key variables in Bt v. non-Bt technology and uses regressions to further analyse the production and profit impacts of Bt adoption. Analysis of the distribution of benefits between farmers due to the technology is also presented. In parallel with these socio-economic measures, the toxic loads being presented to the environment following the introduction of Bt cotton are monitored in terms of insecticide active ingredient (ai) and the Biocide Index. The latter adjusts ai to allow for differing persistence and toxicity of insecticides.Results show substantial and significant financial benefits to smallholder cotton growers of adopting Bt cotton over three seasons in terms of increased yields, lower insecticide spray costs and higher gross margins. This includes one particularly wet, poor growing season. In addition, those with the smaller holdings appeared to benefit proportionately more from the technology (in terms of higher gross margins) than those with larger holdings. Analysis using the Gini-coefficient suggests that the Bt technology has helped to reduce inequality amongst smallholder cotton growers in Makhathini compared to what may have been the position if they had grown conventional cotton. However, while Bt growers applied lower amounts of insecticide and had lower Biocide Indices (per ha) than growers of non-Bt cotton, some of this advantage was due to a reduction in non-bollworm insecticide. Indeed, the Biocide Index for all farmers in the population actually increased with the introduction of Bt cotton.The results indicate the complexity of such studies on the socio-economic and environmental impacts of GM varieties in the developing world.', 'en_US'),
(2110, 'Pollination biology of oilseed poppy, Papaver somniferum L.', 'Although poppies (Papaver somniferum L.) are one of the oldest cultivated plants relatively little is known of their pollination biology. We have investigated the relative importance of wind and insects in the pollination of poppies and identified potential insect pollinators. Wind pollination was found to be negligible, insect pollination was responsible for the majority of out-crossing, and self-pollination was the dominant mode of poppy fertilisation. Honeybees and flies were identified as the main potential cross-pollinators of Tasmanian poppies. Using a transgenic poppy field trial in which approximately 50% of the pollen grains produced were transgenic, we have determined the level of pollen-mediated gene flow by scoring over 50 000 seeds for the presence of a selectable marker gene. Gene flow was measured using a 10-m buffer area that surrounded the field trial. It was highest at 0.1 m with 3.26% of seeds found to be transgenic and declined over distance with 1.73% transgenic seeds at 0.5 m, 1.80% at 1 m, 0.86% at 2 m, 0.34% at 5 m, 0.12% at 9 m, and 0.18% at 10 m. These results demonstrate that under Tasmanian conditions, pollen-mediated gene flow occurs at modest levels in poppies that are in close proximity to each other and is most probably mediated by honeybees and flies.', 'en_US'),
(2111, 'Science, law, and politics in FDA''s genetically engineered foods policy: scientific concerns and uncertainties', 'The Food and Drug Administration''s (FDA''s) 1992 policy statement granted genetically engineered foods presumptive GRAS (generally recognized as safe) status. Since then, divergent views have been expressed concerning the scientific support for this policy. This paper examines four sources to better understand the basis for these claims: 1) internal FDA correspondence; 2) reports from the National Academy of Sciences; 3) research funded by US Department of Agriculture from 1981 to 2002; and 4) FDA''s proposed rules issued in 2001. These sources reveal that little research has been conducted on unintended compositional changes from genetic engineering. Profiling techniques now make this feasible, but the new debate centers on the functional meaning of compositional changes.', 'en_US'),
(2112, 'Need for an ''integrated safety assessment'' of GMOs, linking food safety and environmental considerations.', 'Evidence for substantial environmental influences on health and food safety comes from work with environmental health indicators which show that agroenvironmental practices have direct and indirect effects on human health, concluding that ''the quality of the environment influences the quality and safety of foods'' [Fennema, O. Environ. Health Perspect. 1990, 86, 229-232). In the field of genetically modified organisms (GMOs), Codex principles have been established for the assessment of GM food safety and the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety outlines international principles for an environmental assessment of living modified organisms. Both concepts also contain starting points for an assessment of health/food safety effects of GMOs in cases when the environment is involved in the chain of events that could lead to hazards. The environment can act as a route of unintentional entry of GMOs into the food supply, such as in the case of gene flow via pollen or seeds from GM cropss, but the environment can also be involved in changes of GMO-induced agricultural practices with relevance for health/food safety. Examples for this include potential regional changes of pesticide uses and reduction in pesticide poisonings resulting from the use of Bt crops or influences on immune responses via cross-reactivity. Clearly, modern methods of biotechnology in breeding are involved in the reasons behind the rapid reduction of local varieties in agrodiversity, which constitute an identified hazard for food safety and food security. The health/food safety assessment of GM foods in cases when the environment is involved needs to be informed by data from environmental assessment. Such data might be especially important for hazard identification and exposure assessment. International organizations working in these areas will very likely be needed to initiate and enable cooperation between those institutions responsible for the different assessments, as well as for exchange and analysis of information. An integrated assessment might help to focus and save capacities in highly technical areas such as molecular characterization or profiling, which are often necessary for both assessments. In the area of establishing international standards for traded foods, such as for the newly created Standards in Trade and Development Facility (STDF), an integrated assessment might help in the consideration of important environmental aspects involved in health and food safety. Furthermore, an established integrated view on GMOs may create greater consumer confidence in the technology.', 'en_US'),
(2113, 'Farm-scale evaluation of the impacts of transgenic cotton on biodiversity, pesticide use, and yield.', 'Higher yields and reduced pesticide impacts are needed to mitigate the effects of agricultural intensification. A 2-year farm-scale evaluation of 81 commercial fields in Arizona show that use of transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) cotton reduced insecticide use, whereas transgenic cotton with Bt protein and herbicide resistance (BtHr) did not affect herbicide use. Transgenic cotton had higher yield than nontransgenic cotton for any given number of insecticide applications. However, nontransgenic, Bt and BtHr cotton had similar yields overall, largely because higher insecticide use with nontransgenic cotton improved control of key pests. Unlike Bt and BtHr cotton, insecticides reduced the diversity of nontarget insects. Several other agronomic and ecological factors also affected biodiversity. Nevertheless, pairwise comparisons of diversity of nontarget insects in cotton fields with diversity in adjacent noncultivated sites revealed similar effects of cultivation of transgenic and nontransgenic cotton on biodiversity. The results indicate that impacts of agricultural intensification can be reduced when replacement of broad-spectrum insecticides by narrow-spectrum Bt crops does not reduce control of pests not affected by Bt crops.', 'en_US'),
(2114, 'Managing reproductive isolation in hybrid seed corn production.', 'Production of hybrid corn (Zea mays L) depends on cross-pollination between male and female inbred parents. As such, reproductive isolation of seed fields is required to ensure genetic purity of the hybrid progeny. Customer demand for improved genetic purity prompted the seed industry to examine the level of genetic purity resulting from current isolation practices. A 3-yr study was conducted to monitor purity of hybrid seed produced in 315 fields from 24 seed companies in North America. Each field was near a commercial corn field shedding pollen synchronously with the seed parent: a worse case scenario. Seed samples were collected at five locations along a 200-m transect established perpendicular to the nearest potential adventitious pollen source, and 100 seed from each location were subjected to isozyme analysis to determine percent out-crossing. Isolation distance, seed field size, field block size, number of border rows, adventitious field size, male:female row ratio, male population, and male pollen class were analyzed as continuous predictors and as variable class predictors of out-crossing at the field margins and field midpoints. Year had a significant (p less than or equal to 0.05) impact on observed out-crossing. Isolation distance, border rows, and male pollen class were significant predictors of out-crossing at the field margin but not at the field midpoint. A significant interaction between isolation distance and border rows was observed at both the field margin and midpoint. There also was an interaction between male:female ratio and male pollen class on out-crossing at the field margin. These results indicate that current practices used to isolate hybrid seed fields often achieve the goal of producing greater than or equal to 99% genetically pure seed, but much higher levels of out-crossing can and do occur. Because out-crossing generally was greater and more variable at the field margins than at the field midpoint, adjustments to field management that focus on minimizing out-crossing at the field margins should lead to consistently high levels of genetic purity from hybrid seed fields.', 'en_US'),
(2115, 'Perceptions of the risks and benefits of genetically-modified foods and their influence on willingness to consume.', 'There has been debate in the literature as to whether: (1) the risks and benefits of genetically-modified (GM) food and agriculture are considered and determined by individuals separately or whether they are jointly determined by attitudes; (2) consumer acceptance is determined by individuals weighing up their risk and benefit perceptions in a rational, even-handed manner, or if benefit perceptions are more important than risk perceptions, and (3) certain types of risk and benefit are more important than others. Against this background, this paper assesses the categories of risks and benefits and their relative importance in determining willingness to consume. A survey was carried out to collect data on the categories of risks and benefits in the US, UK and France, and the relative importance of selected perceived risk and benefit dimensions was estimated. The findings show: risk and benefit perceptions are negatively correlated, but not perfectly and, given that regressions we performed support the proposition that benefits are more important than risks in determining willingness to consume, a strong case can be made for measuring risks and benefits separately. Almost 2/3 of consumers perceive medium to high potential benefits from GM, though the proportion is slightly lower in the UK and down to 40% in France. Nevertheless, this suggests a much higher level of support for the technology than is normally assumed. From the study, benefits are more important for consumers'' willingness to consume than perceived risks, and slightly more interviewees scored above than below the mean on willingness to consume GM food.', 'en_US'),
(2116, 'Environmental Risk Assessment of Genetically Modified Organisms, Volume 2: A Case Study of Bt Cotton in Brazil', 'Many international forums have identified the need for comprehensive, scientific methods for the pre-release testing and post-release monitoring of transgenic plants to ensure their environmental safety and sustainable use. In response to this requirement, a GMO Guidelines Project was established under the aegis of the International Organization for Biological Control, to develop biosafety testing guidelines for transgenic plants. This second volume focuses on transgenic cotton in Brazil and addresses both environmental and agricultural impacts. It draws out some general risk assessment guidelines and demonstrates the need for case-by-case analysis.', 'en_US'),
(2117, 'Seed and pollen flow in expanding a species'' range.', 'The distinct processes of gene flow via seeds and pollen in hermaphrodite plants provide a biological basis for interpreting their different roles in expanding a species'' range. A species'' range is primarily expanded through the colonization process by seed dispersal and followed by the joint effects of both seed and pollen flow. Here we examined the effects of seed and pollen flow on shaping a species'' distribution in one-dimensional space. Our results demonstrate that pollen flow can enhance range expansion when immigrating genes are adaptive to recipient populations, but can shrink a species'' range when immigrating genes are maladaptive. The incompletely purging of maladaptive genes from immigrating pollen grains at the gametophyte stage can reinforce the biological barrier to range expansion. The linkage disequilibria attained by immigrating seeds and pollen grains indirectly amplify the effects of the reaction component and further limit a species'' range. The cumulative effect from multiple loci each with a small effect can be substantial on altering a species'' range when these genes are maladaptive. These theoretical predictions can help understand the role of pollen flow that is incapable of colonizing new habitats in range expansion.', 'en_US'),
(2118, 'Who does the public trust? The case of genetically modified food in the United States.', 'Trust is important for the perception of many types of risk, including those relating to genetically modified (GM) food. Who the public trusts in any given circumstance, however, is not well understood. In this study of public trust regarding GM food, an exploratory factor analysis with Promax rotation reveals public classification of three common institutional types?evaluators, watchdogs, and merchants. The structure of relationships among these stakeholders can act to enable or constrain public support for this new technology. Evaluators?scientists, universities, and medical professionals?are the most trusted. Watchdogs?consumer advocacy organizations, environmental organizations, and media sources?are moderately trusted. Merchants?grocers and grocery stores, industry, and farmers?are least trusted. While the federal government is seen as closest to being an evaluator, it is not highly correlated with any of the factors. The lack of trust in the organizations with the greatest resources and responsibilities for ensuring the safety of GM food should be seen as an important obstacle to the adoption of the technology.', 'en_US'),
(2119, 'Pollen dispersal of oilseed rape: estimation of the dispersal function and effects of field dimension.', '1.  Debate continues regarding the ecological impacts of genetically modified (GM) crops and their coexistence with non-GM crops in Europe. In this debate, quantitative predictions of gene dispersal by pollen are necessary, and as a result numerous plot-to-plot gene flow experiments have been performed with various crops. However, plot-to-plot cross-pollination rates (CPR) depend on spatial configuration of plots, implying that (i) they are difficult to compare among experiments and (ii) functions directly fitted on CPR data are inappropriate for predictions in other spatial contexts. 2.  Modelling pollen dispersal via an individual dispersal function (IDF) circumvents these problems by accounting for spatial designs. We detail for oilseed rape how this approach can be used to both estimate an IDF from field data and predict CPR between two neighbouring fields of various sizes and shapes. Predictions were used to investigate the sensitivity of CPR to the family of IDF, the uncertainty in parameter estimates and the effects of field dimensions and isolation distances. 3.  We fitted a range of families of IDF, including several types of tails, on previously published data. The best IDF was a fat-tailed power-law function, meaning frequent long-distance dispersal. 4.  The choice of IDF appeared crucial when predicting CPR between fields, occasionally being even more important than the distance between fields. Width of the source field and depth of the recipient field were next in importance. When approximated CPR were calculated without considering field dimensions, using distance between field centres gave better performance than field margins. 5.  Synthesis and applications. This study demonstrates the value of IDF for quantitative predictions of pollen flow in variable spatial configurations. A spatially explicit model of agro-ecosystems used to define management rules for the commercial release of GM crops in Europe already employs IDF but underestimates long-distance dispersal for oilseed rape. These new parameter estimates will refine the performance of these models. Moreover, the detailed guidelines for estimating an IDF should encourage such statistical analysis of other dispersal data, enabling comparisons of dispersal data obtained for different environments and species and providing new IDF for management models.', 'en_US'),
(2120, 'The Bioengineered Forest: Challenges for Science and Society.', 'Bioengineering offers many opportunities for forestry. Bioengineered trees can produce more valuable wood, help reclaim contaminated land, improve the health of urban trees, and facilitate pest management. But the ecological risks are complex, and public views about the ethical acceptability of genetic engineering vary widely.Unique in its breadth and diversity, The Bioengineered Forest begins with a survey of the range of forestry practices for which the use of biotechnologies might be appropriate. Scholars representing diverse academic perspectives and viewpoints examine in depth the economic and environmental rationale for forest biotechnologies and the current state of technology with respect to gene performance and safety. They consider the contemporary political and economic environment in which bioengineering is being introduced and where the ?genomic revolution? might take forestry and genetic engineering in the future. The Bioengineered Forest presents compelling arguments in favor of genetic engineering. Just as powerfully, it examines the significant technical and legal hurdles involved in genetic engineering, the undesirable environmental and social consequences that might result from its misapplication, and the risks for businesses that are looking too exclusively for near-term benefits.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(2121, 'Methodological scheme for designing the monitoring of genetically modified crops at the regional scale.', 'According to EC regulations the deliberate release of genetically modified (GM) crops into the agro-environment needs to be accompanied by environmental monitoring to detect potential adverse effects, e.g. unacceptable levels of gene flow from GM to non-GM crops, or adverse effects on single species or species groups thus reducing biodiversity. There is, however, considerable scientific and public debate on how GM crops should be monitored with sufficient accuracy, discussing questions of potential adverse effects, agro-environmental variables or indicators to be monitored and respective detection methods; another basic component, the appropriate number and location of monitoring sites, is hardly considered. Currently, no consistent GM crop monitoring approach combines these components systematically. This study focuses on and integrates spatial agro-environmental aspects at a landscape level in order to design monitoring networks. Based on examples of environmental variables associated with the cropping of Bt-Maize (Zea maize L.), herbicide-tolerant (HT) winter oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.), HT sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.), and starch-modified potato (Solanum tuberosum L.), we develop a transferable framework and assessment scheme that comprises anticipated adverse environmental effects, variables to be measured and monitoring methods.  These we integrate with a rule-based GIS (geographic information system) analysis, applying widely available spatial area and point information from existing environmental networks. This is used to develop scenarios with optimised regional GM crop monitoring networks.', 'en_US'),
(2122, 'Australia''s regulation of genetically modified crops: are we risking sustainability?', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2123, 'Stakeholder attitudes toward GMOs in the Philippines, Mexico, and South Africa: the issue of public trust.', 'This paper investigates stakeholder perceptions and interests in the public debates on the risks and benefits of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in developing countries. The surveys conducted in Mexico, the Philippines, and South Africa showed that most local stakeholders in these countries tend to have pragmatic views toward the use of GMOs. Yet, they also revealed a trend toward political polarization that is linked to the transatlantic dispute on GMOs. We argue that it is not just power politics but also the increasing competition for public trust that explains why European stakeholders turned out to be so successful in influencing attitudes and regulation on GMOs in developing countries. National academia, which proved to be the most trusted stakeholder in all three countries and less involved in foreign-funded advocacy work, may be crucial in abating political polarization and facilitate pragmatic political action.', 'en_US'),
(2124, 'The use of life cycle assessment to compare the environmental impact of production and feeding of conventional and genetically modified maize for broiler production in Argentina', 'The paper presents the methods and results of a life-cycle assessment (LCA) applied to the production of maize grain from a conventional variety compared with maize grain from a variety genetically modified to be herbicide tolerant and insect protected and to contain an enhanced oil and lysine content, and its impact when fed to broiler chickens. The findings show that there are both environmental and human health benefits of growing GM maize including lower impacts on global warming, ozone depletion, freshwater ecotoxicity and human toxicity. However, when considered in terms of the use of maize as a feed input to broiler chicken production, the benefits of the GM alternative become negligible compared to the use of conventional maize.', 'en_US'),
(2125, 'Environmental impact of transgenic crops. II. Impact of recombinant traits. [Original Title: Impact environnemental des cultures transgeniques. II. L''impact des caracteres recombinants.]', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2126, 'Environmental impact of transgenic crops. I. Transgene migration. [Original Title: Impact environnemental des cultures transgeniques. I. La migration des transgenes.]', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2127, 'Risk Assessment for Transgenic Sorghum in Africa: Crop-to-Crop Gene Flow in Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench', 'A crop-to-crop gene flow risk assessment study was conducted with Sorghum bicolor subsp. bicolor to estimate the impact of transgenic sorghum in (South) Africa. The trial was conducted with a central sorghum field (30 x 30 m) with male fertile donor plants that was surrounded by eight arms planted with male sterile recipient plants at a distance of 13 to 158 m from the central field. Gene flow was relatively high within the first 40 m and relatively low beyond that distance, but gene flow was detected even at the greatest distance investigated (158 m). The average hybridization or outcrossing rate for male sterile plants was 2.54% at 13 m, below 1% at a distance of 26 m or greater, and eventually dropping to 0.06% at 158 m. Outcrossing rates are expected to be even lower for male fertile plants, which were not investigated in this study. Mathematical models were used to estimate the maximum gene flow distance that is expected to be between approximately 200 and 700 m. These values are in line with observational data from sorghum plant breeders, who use an isolation distance of 100 m to achieve less than 1% genetic pollution. On the basis of the presence of fully fertile crop wild relatives and the weedy relative johnsongrass [S. halepense (L.) Pers.], which may form hybrids with crop sorghum, and on the fact that gene flow takes place, there is strong evidence that introgression of genetically modified- (GM)-sorghum into crops and crop wild relatives will take place once GM-sorghum is deployed.', 'en_US'),
(2128, 'Detection of transgenic and endogenous plant DNA in digesta and tissues of sheep and pigs fed Roundup Ready canola meal.', 'The persistence of plant-derived recombinant DNA in sheep and pigs fed genetically modified (Roundup Ready) canola was assessed by PCR and Southern hybridization analysis of DNA extracted from digesta, gastrointestinal (GI) tract tissues, and visceral organs. Sheep (n = 11) and pigs (n = 36) were fed to slaughter on diets containing 6.5 or 15% Roundup Ready canola. Native plant DNA (high- and low-copy-number gene fragments) and the cp4 epsps transgene that encodes 5-enolpyruvyl shikimate-3-phosphate synthase were tracked in ruminal, abomasal, and large intestinal digesta and in tissue from the esophagus, rumen, abomasum, small and large intestine, liver, and kidney of sheep and in cecal content and tissue from the duodenum, cecum, liver, spleen, and kidney of pigs. High-copy chloroplast-specific DNA (a 520-bp fragment) was detected in all digesta samples, the majority (89-100%) of intestinal tissues, and at least one of each visceral organ sample (frequencies of 3-27%) from sheep and swine. Low-copy rubisco fragments (186- and 540-bp sequences from the small subunit) were present at slightly lower, variable frequencies in digesta (18-82%) and intestinal tissues (9-27% of ovine and 17-25% of porcine samples) and infrequently in visceral organs (1 of 88 ovine samples; 3 of 216 porcine samples). Each of the five cp4 epsps transgene fragments (179-527 bp) surveyed was present in at least 27% of ovine large intestinal content samples (maximum = 64%) and at least 33% of porcine cecal content samples (maximum = 75%). In sheep, transgene fragments were more common in intestinal digesta than in ruminal or abomasal content. Transgene fragments were detected in 0 (esophagus) to 3 (large intestine) GI tract tissues from the 11 sheep and in 0-10 of the duodenal and cecal tissues collected from 36 pigs. The feed-ingested recombinant DNA was not detected in visceral tissues (liver, kidney) of lambs or in the spleen from pigs. Of note, however, one liver and one kidney sample from the pigs (different animals) were positive for a 278-bp fragment of the transgenic cp4 epsps (denoted F3). Examination of genomic libraries from these tissues yielded no conclusive information regarding integration of the fragment into porcine DNA. This study confirms that feed-ingested DNA fragments (endogenous and transgenic) do survive to the terminal GI tract and that uptake into gut epithelial tissues does occur. A very low frequency of transmittance to visceral tissue was confirmed in pigs, but not in sheep. It is recognized that the low copy number of transgenes in GM feeds is a challenge to their detection in tissues, but there was no evidence to suggest that recombinant DNA would be processed in the gut in any manner different from endogenous feed-ingested genetic material.', 'en_US'),
(2129, 'A preliminary comparison of the retail level effects of genetically modified food labelling policies in Canada and France', 'Most developed countries have adopted labelling policies for genetically modified (GM) food. In April 2004, Canada implemented a voluntary labelling policy for GM and non-GM food, while France adopted the European Union''s new extended mandatory labelling of GM food. I present the result of a qualitative survey of GM and non-GM food labels in supermarkets in Canada and France, five months after the introduction of the new policies. I find that there are almost no GM labelled products in France and non-GM labelled products in Canada. Each policy tends to crowd out the targeted label attribute. However, Canadian consumers can choose between GM and non-GM organic products, whereas there are only non-GM products in French supermarkets. Recent political developments in Quebec suggest that the labelling landscape may change in Canada, either with an increase in the number of non-GM products at the retail level or a transition towards a mandatory labelling policy like in France.', 'en_US'),
(2130, 'Outcrossing frequencies and distribution of transgenic oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) in the nearest neighbourhood.', 'The outcrossing of transgenic oilseed rape in the neighbourhood is of major concern with regard to the actual EU labelling threshold of 0.9% for transgenic contamination in food and feed and the regulations for the co-existence of cultivation of genetically modified crops, conventional and organic farming. In a two-year field trial, the outcrossing frequencies and distribution from plots with different ratios of transgenic plants (100%, 1.0% and 0.1%) containing the pat-gene for resistance towards the broad-range herbicide glufosinate-ammonium were determined in surrounding acceptor plots within a distance of 3?11 m. Randomly distributed outcrossing with isolated pollination events became apparent, and an average gene flow of 0.28%, 0.01% and 0.0065% was detected for 100%, 1.0% and 0.1% transgenic donor plots, respectively. Significant effects on the distribution of outcrossing were found for distance, but not for the prevailing wind direction. The random distribution in combination with the behaviour of honey-bees and bumble-bees gives strong evidence that insects play an important role for short distance gene dispersal. A curve fit assuming an exponential decline was performed with the experimental outcrossing data as a function of distance and was applied to the actual EU labelling threshold. The contamination limit of 0.9% in food and feed could be kept without cultivation distances to the transgenic source. The impact of effective detection limits of analytical methods on the establishment of specific rules for the co-existence is discussed.', 'en_US'),
(2131, 'An application of life-cycle assessment for environmental planning and management: the potential environmental and human health impacts of growing genetically-modified herbicide-tolerant sugar beet.', 'Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA) was used to assess the potential environmental and human health impacts of growing genetically-modified (GM), herbicide-tolerant sugar beet in the UK and Germany compared with conventional sugar beet varieties. The GM variety results in lower potential environmental impacts on global warming, airborne nutrification, ecotoxicity (of soil and water) and watercourse enrichment, and lower potential human health impacts in terms of production of toxic particulates, summer smog, carcinogens and ozone depletion. Although the overall contribution of GM sugar beet to reducing harmful emissions to the environment would be relatively small, the potential for GM crops to reduce pollution from agriculture, including diffuse water pollution, is highlighted.', 'en_US'),
(2132, 'Growth performance and organ development in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L. parr fed genetically modified (GM) soybean and maize', 'Although the inclusion of genetically modified (GM) plants in diets fed to fish is a contentious issue, there are few empirical data. The present study addressed nutritional value and potential risks of four maize types (two traditional and two GM maize varieties) and two soy types (one traditional and one Roundup Ready® soy) included at moderate levels in diets fed to Atlantic salmon parr (initial mean weight ± SD; 0.21 ± 0.02 g) during the first 8 months of feeding (March to October), which included the parr-smolt transformation. The GM-maize varieties [Dekalb 1 (D1) and Pioneer 1 (P1)] were hybrids of traditional maize variants [Dekalb 2 (D2) and Pioneer 2 (P2)] and the GM maize MON810®. Four maize diets, two soy diets and one Standard fishmeal-based diet were formulated and fed to fish in triplicate. The maize diets were formulated with 121 g kg-1 GM maize (P1 and D1) or 121 g kg-1 of the traditional untransformed line (nGM-maize, P2 and D2) and the soy diets were formulated with 125 g kg-1 GM soy or 125 g kg-1 of the traditional untransformed line (nGM-soy), all of equivalent nutrient composition. All diets supported good growth and showed no evidence of diet-related mortality. Based on samplings every 6th week, growth was within the normal range and at conclusion of the study body weight did not differ among any of the treatments (range 101?116 g). Besides minor differences on heptatosomatic index (HSI), plasma triacylglycerol (TAG) values and thermal growth coefficient (TGC), body composition, relative organ weights, plasma nutrient concentrations and enzyme activities did not vary among treatments at any sampling. The present findings indicate that the inclusion of GM plants at the given level in salmonid diets poses little, or no, adverse risk to the health of first feeding Atlantic salmon parr and promote normal growth. The paper presents the production related data of this feeding study. Results regarding structure and function of intestinal segments and intestinal organs are presented in Sanden et al.', 'en_US'),
(2133, 'Bt maize pollen exposure and impact on the garden spider, Araneus diadematus', 'Concerns have been raised that Bt maize pollen may have adverse effects on non-target organisms; consequently, there is a general call for Bt maize risk assessment evaluating lethal and sublethal side effects. Spiders play an important economic and ecological role as pest predators in various crops, including maize. Web-building spiders, especially, may be exposed to the Cry1Ab toxin of Bt maize by the ingestion of pollen via ''recycling'' of pollen-dusted webs and intentional pollen feeding. In this study, the potential Bt maize pollen exposure of orb-web spiders was quantified in maize fields and adjacent field margins, and laboratory experiments were conducted to evaluate the possible effects of Bt maize pollen consumption on juvenile garden spiders, Araneus diadematus (Clerck) (Araneae: Araneidae). In maize fields and neighbouring field margins, web-building spiders were exposed to high amounts of Bt maize pollen. However, a laboratory bioassay showed no effects of Bt maize pollen on weight increase, survival, moult frequency, reaction time, and various web variables of A. diadematus. A pyrethroid insecticide (Baythroid) application affected weight increase, survival, and reaction time of spiders negatively. In conclusion, the insecticide tested showed adverse effects on the garden spider, whereas the consumption of Bt maize pollen did not. This study is the first one on Bt maize effects on orb-web spiders, and additional research is recommended in order to account for further spider species, relative fitness parameters, prey-mediated effects, and possible long-term chronic consequences of Bt exposure.', 'en_US'),
(2134, 'Assessing environmental risks of transgenic plants', 'By the end of the 1980s, a broad consensus had developed that there were potential environmental risks of transgenic plants requiring assessment and that this assessment must be done on a case-by-case basis, taking into account the transgene, recipient organism, intended environment of release, and the frequency and scale of the intended introduction. Since 1990, there have been gradual but substantial changes in the environmental risk assessment process. In this review, we focus on changes in the assessment of risks associated with non-target species and biodiversity, gene flow, and the evolution of resistance. Non-target risk assessment now focuses on risks of transgenic plants to the intended local environment of release. Measurements of gene flow indicate that it occurs at higher rates than believed in the early 1990s, mathematical theory is beginning to clarify expectations of risks associated with gene flow, and management methods are being developed to reduce gene flow and possibly mitigate its effects. Insect pest resistance risks are now managed using a high-dose/refuge or a refuge-only strategy, and the present research focuses on monitoring for resistance and encouraging compliance to requirements. We synthesize previous models for tiering risk assessment and propose a general model for tiering. Future transgenic crops are likely to pose greater challenges for risk assessment, and meeting these challenges will be crucial in developing a scientifically coherent risk assessment framework. Scientific understanding of the factors affecting environmental risk is still nascent, and environmental scientists need to help improve environmental risk assessment.', 'en_US'),
(2135, 'Effects of insect-resistance transgenes on fecundity in rice (Oryza sativa, Poaceae): a test for underlying costs', 'Understanding the balance between yield benefits and possible underlying yield costs that are associated with transgenic cultivars is useful for evaluating crop performance and the fitness of crop-wild hybrid progeny, but few researchers have tested for such costs under rigorous experimental conditions. We examined shifts in net costs and benefits of insect-resistance transgenes in cultivated rice (Oryza sativa) using two levels of insect pressure (low vs. moderate) and two types of competition (pure vs. mixed lines). We compared the growth and fecundity of potted rice plants from three transgenic lines, Bt, CpTI, and Bt/CpTI, relative to isogenic control plants at outdoor locations in Fuzhou, China. Net yield costs were detected, but only in Bt/CpTI plants in mixed-line competition with low insect pressure. These plants produced 16% fewer tillers, 6% smaller seeds, and 30% fewer seeds than competing control plants. Under moderate insect pressure, Bt and Bt/CpTI plants produced 36?65% more seeds than controls, but the net benefit for Bt/CpTI plants disappeared in mixed-line competition pots. To our knowledge, this is the first report of yield costs in cultivars with transgenic insect resistance. Our results suggest that these costs may be negligible in monotypic rice fields, especially when target insects are abundant.', 'en_US'),
(2136, 'Influence of Planting Papaya Ringspot Virus Resistant Transgenic Papaya on Soil Microbial Biodiversity', 'To investigate the influence of papaya ringspot virus resistant transgenic papaya on soil microorganisms, upper (0-15 cm) and lower layers (15-30 cm) of soil samples were collected around transgenic papaya planting area and nontransgenic papaya planting area and from soils in which plants had not been grown. The moisture content, pH value, total organic carbon content, and total nitrogen content were not significantly different among groups. The populations of total count, fungi, and actinomycete were highest in upper layer soils around transgenic papaya planting area and lowest in lower layer soils in which plants had not been grown. The microbial populations were all higher in upper layer of soils. Amplified fragment length polymorphism, amplified ribosomal DNA restriction analysis, terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism, and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis analyses indicated that the similarity of soil microorganisms of upper layer soils around transgenic papaya planting area and around nontransgenic papaya planting area was >80%. A similar result was observed in lower layer soils. Thus, planting transgenic papayas does have a limited impact on soil microorganisms.', 'en_US'),
(2137, 'Results of a 90-day safety assurance study with rats fed grain from corn rootworm-protected corn', 'The results of a 90-day rat feeding study with YieldGard® (YieldGard Rootworm Corn is a registered trademark of Monsanto Technology, LLC.) Rootworm corn (MON 863) grain that is protected against feeding damage caused by corn rootworm larvae are presented. Corn rootworm-protection was accomplished through the introduction of a cry3Bb1 coding sequence into the corn genome for in planta production of a modified Cry3Bb1 protein from Bacillus thuringiensis. Grain from MON 863 and its near isogenic control were separately formulated into rodent diets at levels of 11% and 33% (w/w) by Purina Mills, Inc. Additionally, six groups of rats were fed diets containing grain from different conventional (non-biotechnology-derived) reference varieties. The responses of rats fed diets containing MON 863 were compared to those of rats fed grain from conventional corn varieties. All diets were nutritionally balanced and conformed to Purina Mills, Inc. specifications for Certified LabDiet 5002. There were a total of 400 rats in the study divided into 10 groups of 20 rats/sex/group. Overall health, body weight gain, food consumption, clinical pathology parameters (hematology, blood chemistry, urinalysis), organ weights, gross and microscopic appearance of tissues were comparable between groups fed diets containing MON 863 and conventional corn varieties. This study complements extensive agronomic, compositional and farm animal feeding studies with MON 863 grain, confirming that it is as safe and nutritious as existing conventional corn varieties.', 'en_US'),
(2138, 'The Value of Short Amino Acid Sequence Matches for Prediction of Protein Allergenicity', 'Typically, genetically engineered crops contain traits encoded by one or a few newly expressed proteins. The allergenicity assessment of newly expressed proteins is an important component in the safety evaluation of genetically engineered plants. One aspect of this assessment involves sequence searches that compare the amino acid sequence of the protein to all known allergens. Analyses are performed to determine the potential for immunologically based cross-reactivity where IgE directed against a known allergen could bind to the protein and elicit a clinical reaction in sensitized individuals. Bioinformatic searches are designed to detect global sequence similarity and short contiguous amino acid sequence identity. It has been suggested that potential allergen cross-reactivity may be predicted by identifying matches as short as six to eight contiguous amino acids between the protein of interest and a known allergen. A series of analyses were performed, and match probabilities were calculated for different size peptides to determine if there was a scientifically justified search window size that identified allergen sequence characteristics. Four probability modeling methods were tested: (1) a mock protein and a mock allergen database, (2) a mock protein and genuine allergen database, (3) a genuine allergen and genuine protein database, and (4) a genuine allergen and genuine protein database combined with a correction for repeating peptides. These analyses indicated that searches for short amino acid sequence matches of eight amino acids or fewer to identify proteins as potential cross-reactive allergens is a product of chance and adds little value to allergy assessments for newly expressed proteins.', 'en_US'),
(2139, 'Decomposition processes under Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) maize: Results of a multi-site experiment', 'The effects of maize expressing the Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Ab protein (Bt maize) on decomposition processes under three different European climatic conditions were assessed in the field. Farming practices using Bt maize were compared with conventional farming practices using near-isogenic non-Bt maize lines under realistic agricultural practices. The litter-bag method was used to study litter decomposition and nitrogen mineralization dynamics of wheat straw. After 4 months incubation in the field, decomposition and mineralization were mainly influenced by climatic conditions with no negative effect of the Bt toxin on decomposition processes.', 'en_US'),
(2140, 'Safety and Public Acceptance of Transgenic Products', 'In this article, the terms transgenic, genetically engineered, and genetically modified are used synonymously to mean organisms in which genetic material has been introduced through recombinant DNA technology.Public acceptance of transgenic (genetically engineered, GE) products is influenced by the perception of direct or indirect risks and benefits and the credibility of regulatory agencies that evaluate food and environmental safety. In North America acceptance of GE foods is holding steady, while knowledge about them remains low. Development of transgenic foods with improved nutritional properties or other quality factors will likely be better received than products that primarily benefit the grower or developer of the product. There is continuing unease about biopharming and the association, by some members of the public, of GE crops with corporate agriculture. Several recent reports have reviewed the U.S. regulatory system for transgenic crops and called for a more coordinated and transparent process that allows for greater public participation. For society to benefit from GE crops, we must move away from the polarized positions that have defined the transgenic debate in the past, to positions of mutual respect that allow a rational discussion of the technology''s merits and risks.', 'en_US'),
(2141, 'The detection and decay of Cry1Ab Bt-endotoxins within non-target slugs, Deroceras reticulatum (Mollusca: Pulmonata), following consumption of transgenic corn', 'With greater acreages being planted to transgenic crops, the exposure of non-target species to bioengineered material is increasing. Although the slug, Deroceras reticulatum (Müller), is a major agricultural pest throughout the world, Bacillus thuringiensis crops were not intended to target these species. Molluscs are readily consumed by many generalist predators; if these Cry1Ab-endotoxins are taken up by slugs during feeding on transgenic plants, predators would therefore be exposed to elevated endotoxin concentrations. Using a biochemical assay, we tested the hypothesis that slugs fed transgenic corn would accumulate detectable quantities of Cry1Ab-endotoxins for prolonged periods of time. Characterization indicated that at low dilution rates, Cry1Ab-endotoxins were detectable in slugs fed Bt-corn but no reactivity was elicited by specimens fed non-transgenic food. It was possible to detect Cry1Ab-endotoxins in slugs for 95.9 h after consumption of Bt-corn. Although quantities were small, these long detection periods indicated potential exposure of generalist predators to low concentrations of transgenic insecticidal toxins in the field.', 'en_US'),
(2142, 'Assessing the risk of releasing transgenic Cucurbita spp. in Mexico', 'A methodology to assess potential risks of releasing genetically modified organisms (GMO) to the environment was developed for the genus Cucurbita. Analysis of species biology (GMO, wild, and domesticated relatives) and their spatial distribution were considered. Biological information including reproductive systems, flowering and fructification patterns, pollination and dispersal mechanisms, genetic variability, hybridization and traits of the introduced gene, as well as environmental variables for the species were obtained. Spatial distributional patterns for these species were generated using distributed databases of herbaria specimens, environmental digital maps, and genetic algorithms. The risk of introducing a GMO of Cucurbita pepo in various localities of Mexico was analyzed for 15 taxa of this genus. A map of the potential spatial distribution of ''hot-spots'' for the genus was obtained. Likewise, maps of the potential distribution of fertile progeny (F1) resulting from a theoretical random crossing over of the native species of Cucurbita were also obtained. Results showed there are regions where up to seven wild and domesticated species can converge, mainly in Tamaulipas, Veracruz, and the eastern and central parts of San Luis Potosí. The intended sites for release of virus resistant squash were located where several wild and domesticated species of cucurbits coexist. Results showed that the localities with greater risk are in Nuevo León, Sinaloa, and Guanajuato. These localities harbor wild relatives (free-living C. pepo, C. moschata, C. argyrosperma ssp. sororia, C. fraterna, and C. ficifolia) that are sexually compatible with the virus resistant squash. Therefore, any escape of the genetically modified squash would greatly affect the wild and domesticated species. Finally, the usefulness of this type of analysis for limiting releases of GMO within geographic areas of potential regions of crop domestication was discussed.', 'en_US'),
(2143, 'Sub-chronic (13-week) oral toxicity study in rats with recombinant human lactoferrin produced in the milk of transgenic cows', 'The oral toxicity of recombinant human lactoferrin (rhLF) produced in the milk of transgenic cows was investigated in Wistar rats by daily administration via oral gavage for 13 consecutive weeks, 7 days per week. The study used four groups of 20 rats/sex/dose. The control group received physiological saline and the three test groups received daily doses of 200, 600 and 2000 mg of rhLF per kg body weight. Clinical observations, growth, food consumption, food conversion efficiency, water consumption, neurobehavioural testing, ophthalmoscopy, haematology, clinical chemistry, renal concentration test, urinalysis, organ weights and gross examination at necropsy and microscopic examination of various organs and tissues were used as criteria for detecting the effects of treatment. Overall, no treatment-related, toxicologically significant changes were observed. The few findings that may be related to the treatment (lower cholesterol in high-dose females, lower urinary pH in high-dose males and females and very slightly higher kidney weight in high-dose females) were considered of no toxicological significance.Based on the absence of treatment-related, toxicologically relevant changes, the no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) was considered to be at least 2000 mg/kg body weight/day.', 'en_US'),
(2144, 'Scientific and regulatory considerations on the immunogenicity of biologics', 'Immune responses against non-vaccine biologics can affect their efficacy and safety, resulting in adverse events that could include administration reactions, hypersensitivity, deficiency syndromes and lack of a clinical response in treated patients. With the relatively recent development of numerous biologics, immunogenicity testing has become a key component in the demonstration of clinical safety and efficacy; in fact, it is highly unlikely that regulatory approval would be granted for a biologic without an assessment of its immunogenicity. However, recommendations from regulatory agencies regarding the requirements for when and how to carry out immunogenicity testing are dispersed among numerous guidance documents. To enable the evaluation of the effects of immunogenicity on safety and efficacy, the authors have consolidated recommendations from the regulatory guidelines, and present current approaches and future directions for the assessment of immunogenicity.', 'en_US'),
(2145, 'Attitudes towards genetically modified and organic foods', 'Finnish students (N=3261) filled out a questionnaire on attitudes towards genetically modified and organic food, plus the rational-experiential inventory, the magical thinking about food and health scale, Schwartz''s value survey and the behavioural inhibition scale. In addition, they reported their eating of meat. Structural equation modelling of these measures had greater explanatory power for attitudes towards genetically modified (GM) foods than for attitudes towards organic foods (OF). GM attitudes were best predicted by natural science education and magical food and health beliefs, which mediated the influence of thinking styles. Positive attitudes towards organic food, on the other hand, were more directly related to such individual differences as thinking styles and set of values. The results of the study indicate that OF attitudes are rooted in more fundamental personal attributes than GM attitudes, which are embedded in a more complex but also in a more modifiable network of characteristics.', 'en_US'),
(2146, 'Recent developments and future prospects in insect pest control in transgenic crops', 'The adoption of insect-resistant transgenic crops has been increasing annually at double-digit rates since the commercial release of first-generation maize and cotton expressing a single modified Bacillus thuringiensis toxin (Bt) nine years ago. Studies have shown that these Bt crops can be successfully deployed in agriculture, which has led to a decrease in pesticide usage, and that they are environmentally benign. However, the sustainability and durability of pest resistance continues to be discussed. In this review, we focus on the science that underpins second- and third-generation insect-resistant transgenic plants and examine the appropriateness and relevance of models that are currently being used to determine deployment strategies to maximize sustainability and durability. We also review strategies that are being developed for novel approaches to transgenic insect pest control.', 'en_US'),
(2147, 'Valuing Crop Biodiversity: On-Farm Genetic Resources and Economic Change', 'This book examines the challenges faced by farmers trying to maintain crop biodiversity in developing and transitional economies. Using a collection of empirical case studies of farmers and crop scientists across a range of agricultural economies and income levels, it presents economic tools and methods for valuing and managing crop biodiversity. It discusses the economic benefits of crop biodiversity for farmers and suggests ways in which crop biodiversity can be supported by national policies. The book provides an indispensable ''tool kit'' for all those concerned with the development of strategies to facilitate sustainable management and conservation of crop genetic diversity for future generations.', 'en_US'),
(2148, 'Safety and Public Acceptance of Transgenic Products', 'Public acceptance of transgenic (genetically engineered, GE) products is influenced by the perception of direct or indirect risks and benefits and the credibility of regulatory agencies that evaluate food and environmental safety. In North America acceptance of GE foods is holding steady, while knowledge about them remains low. Development of transgenic foods with improved nutritional properties or other quality factors will likely be better received than products that primarily benefit the grower or developer of the product. There is continuing unease about biopharming and the association, by some members of the public, of GE crops with corporate agriculture. Several recent reports have reviewed the U.S. regulatory system for transgenic crops and called for a more coordinated and transparent process that allows for greater public participation. For society to benefit from GE crops, we must move away from the polarized positions that have defined the transgenic debate in the past, to positions of mutual respect that allow a rational discussion of the technology''s merits and risks.', 'en_US'),
(2149, 'SEED PHYSIOLOGY, PRODUCTION & TECHNOLOGY - Managing Reproductive Isolation in Hybrid Seed Corn Production', 'Production of hybrid corn (Zea mays L) depends on cross-pollination between male and female inbred parents. As such, reproductive isolation of seed fields is required to ensure genetic purity of the hybrid progeny. Customer demand for improved genetic purity prompted the seed industry to examine the level of genetic purity resulting from current isolation practices. A 3-yr study was conducted to monitor purity of hybrid seed produced in 315 fields from 24 seed companies in North America. Each field was near a commercial corn field shedding pollen synchronously with the seed parent: a worse case scenario. Seed samples were collected at five locations along a 200-m transect established perpendicular to the nearest potential adventitious pollen source, and 100 seed from each location were subjected to isozyme analysis to determine percent out-crossing. Isolation distance, seed field size, field block size, number of border rows, adventitious field size, male:female row ratio, male population, and male pollen class were analyzed as continuous predictors and as variable class predictors of out-crossing at the field margins and field midpoints. Year had a significant (p [less-than or equal to] 0.05) impact on observed out-crossing. Isolation distance, border rows, and male pollen class were significant predictors of out-crossing at the field margin but not at the field midpoint. A significant interaction between isolation distance and border rows was observed at both the field margin and midpoint. There also was an interaction between male:female ratio and male pollen class on out-crossing at the field margin. These results indicate that current practices used to isolate hybrid seed fields often achieve the goal of producing [greater-than or equal to] 99% genetically pure seed, but much higher levels of out-crossing can and do occur. Because out-crossing generally was greater and more variable at the field margins than at the field midpoint, adjustments to field management that focus on minimizing out-crossing at the field margins should lead to consistently high levels of genetic purity from hybrid seed fields.', 'en_US'),
(2150, 'Aphid alarm pheromone produced by transgenic plants affects aphid and parasitoid behavior', 'The alarm pheromone for many species of aphids, which causes dispersion in response to attack by predators or parasitoids, consists of the sesquiterpene (E)-â -farnesene (Eâ f). We used high levels of expression in Arabidopsis thaliana plants of an Eâf synthase gene cloned from Mentha x piperita to cause emission of pure Eâf. These plants elicited potent effects on behavior of the aphid Myzus persicae (alarm and repellent responses) and its parasitoid Diaeretiella rapae (an arrestant response). Here, we report the transformation of a plant to produce an insect pheromone and demonstrate that the resulting emission affects behavioral responses at two trophic levels.', 'en_US'),
(2151, 'Food Allergy: A Practice Parameter.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2152, 'Long term feeding of Bt-corn - a ten-generation study with quails', 'A ten-generation experiment with growing and laying quails were carried out to test diets with 40 (starter) or 50% (grower, layer) isogenic or transgenic (Bt 176) corn. Feeding of diets containing genetically-modified corn did not significantly influence health and performance of quails nor did it affect DNA-transfer and quality of meat and eggs of quails compared with the isogenic counterpart.', 'en_US'),
(2153, 'Translational Fusion Hybrid Bt Genes Confer Resistance against Yellow Stem Borer in Transgenic Elite Vietnamese Rice (Oryza sativa L.) Cultivars', 'We have shown the efficacies of translationally fused gene (cry1Ab-1B) under the control of maize ubiquitin promoter and hybrid Bt gene (cry1A/cry1Ac) driven by rice Actin-1 promoter against the yellow stem borer (Scirpophaga incertulas Walker, YSB) insect in rice (Oryza sativa L.). The integration, expression, and functionality of the transgenes were confirmed by Southern, western, and insect bioassay. The bioassay results correlated with the molecular data. The amount of Bt protein (within the range of 0.8?1.3% of the total soluble protein) in the transgenics was sufficient to cause 100% mortality of the neonate larvae of YSB within 1 wk of infestation. The transgenic plants expressing the foreign Bt protein were normal in phenotype with as good seed setting as the nontransgenic control plants.', 'en_US'),
(2154, 'Regulatory region of the vitellogenin receptor gene sufficient for high-level, germ line cell-specific ovarian expression in transgenic Aedes aegypti mosquitoes', 'Vitellogenin receptor (VgR) is responsible for the receptor-mediated endocytosis of vitellogenin (Vg) in the egg formation of an oviparous animal, including insects. Little is known about regulation of VgR gene expression. We analyzed the upstream region of the VgR gene from Aedes aegypti (AaVgR) to identify regulatory elements responsible for its expression in germ cell-specific ovarian expression. Experiments with genetic transformation using the transgene containing the 1.5-Kb upstream portion of the AaVgR gene fused with DsRed and the piggyBac vector showed that this regulatory region is sufficient for correct female and ovary-specific expression of the transgene. This 1.5-Kb upstream region contained binding sites for the ecdysone regulatory hierarchy early gene products E74 and BR-C, as well as transcription factors determining correct tissue- and stage-specific expression of GATA and HNF3/fkh. In situ hybridization demonstrated that in the ovaries of transgenic females DsRed mRNA was present in ovarian germ cells and nurse cells of mature ovarian follicles, together with VgR mRNA. In contrast, DsRed mRNA was absent in the oocyte that had a high level of endogenous VgR mRNA. Although the 1.5-Kb upstream region was sufficient to drive a high-level germ line cell-specific expression of the reporter, additional signals were required for translocation of exogenous mRNA from nurse cells into the oocyte.', 'en_US'),
(2155, 'Coherence between Legal Requirements and Approaches for Detection of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) and Their Derived Products', 'Analytical methods for the qualitative and quantitative detection of genetically modified (GM) products may serve multiple purposes. Legal requirements differ among jurisdictions, ranging from no requirements to mandatory use of event-specific quantitation and implementation of production chain traceability. Although efforts have been taken to harmonize the analytical methodology at national, regional, and international levels, no normative international standards have yet been established. Lack of coherence between analytical methodologies and their applicabilities, on the one hand, and legislation, on the other hand, is a major problem. Here, key points where coherence is lacking are discussed. These include the definition of units of measurements, expression of GM material quantities, terminology, and inconsistent legal status of products derived from related but slightly different transformation routes. Finally, recommendations to improve the coherence are brought forward, including guidance to stakeholders for prediction of product-specific GM material quantities from gene ratios in the originating seed.', 'en_US'),
(2156, 'Consequences for Protaphorura armata (Collembola: Onychiuridae) following exposure to genetically modified Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) maize and non-Bt maize', 'Studies on the effect of genetically modified Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) crops on true soil dwelling non-target arthropods are scarce. The objective of this study was to assess the influence of a 4-week exposure to two Bt maize varieties (Cry1Ab) Cascade and MEB307 on the collembolan Protaphorura armata. For comparison three non-Bt maize varieties, Rivaldo (isogenic to Cascade), Monumental (isogenic to MEB307) and DK242, and two control diets based on baker''s yeast (uncontaminated and contaminated with Bt toxin Cry1Ab) were also tested. Due to a lower C:N ratio, individuals reared on yeast performed significantly better in all of the measured endpoints than those reared on maize. P. armata performed equally well when reared on two Bt and three non-Bt maize varieties. Although there were no negative effects of Bt maize in this experiment, we recommend future studies on Bt crops to focus on species interactions in long-term, multi-species experiments.', 'en_US'),
(2157, 'Biodiversity in environmental assessment-current practice and tools for prediction', 'Habitat loss and fragmentation are major threats to biodiversity. Environmental impact assessment and strategic environmental assessment are essential instruments used in physical planning to address such problems. Yet there are no well-developed methods for quantifying and predicting impacts of fragmentation on biodiversity. In this study, a literature review was conducted on GIS-based ecological models that have potential as prediction tools for biodiversity assessment. Further, a review of environmental impact statements for road and railway projects from four European countries was performed, to study how impact prediction concerning biodiversity issues was addressed. The results of the study showed the existing gap between research in GIS-based ecological modelling and current practice in biodiversity assessment within environmental assessment.', 'en_US'),
(2158, 'Biosafety assessment protocols for new organisms in New Zealand: Can they apply internationally to emerging technologies?', 'An analysis of established biosafety protocols for release into the environment of exotic plants and biological control agents for weeds and arthropod pests has been carried out to determine whether such protocols can be applied to relatively new and emerging technologies intended for the primary production industries, such as transgenic plants. Example case studies are described to indicate the scope of issues considered by regulators who make decisions on new organism releases. No transgenic plants have been released to date in New Zealand, but two field test approvals are described as examples. An analysis of the biosafety protocols has shown that, while many of the risk criteria considered for decision-making by regulators are similar for all new organisms, a case-by-case examination of risks and potential impacts is required in order to fully assess risk. The value of post-release monitoring and validation of decisions made by regulators is emphasised.', 'en_US'),
(2159, 'Number of consumers necessary for sensory acceptability tests.', 'Basic concepts necessary to estimate the number of consumers necessary for sensory acceptability studies (N), variability data on previous consumer studies and estimations of N for different values of Type I and Type II errors are presented. The standard error of the experiment, reported as the root mean square error from the analysis of variance, was similar over 108 reported studies conducted in five countries over a wide range of food products. This allowed estimating the number of consumers necessary for future studies. These estimations are presented in a table. Considering the average standard error, an alpha value (Type I error) of 5%, a beta value (Type II error) of 10% and a difference between sample means of 10% of the sensory scale, gave an N value of 112 consumers for this particular set of parameters.', 'en_US'),
(2160, 'Expression of cholera toxin B subunit and the B chain of human insulin as a fusion protein in transgenic tobacco plants', 'A DNA construct containing the cholera toxin B subunit (CTB) gene genetically fused to a nucleotide sequence encoding three copies of tandemly repeated diabetes-associated autoantigen, the B chain of human insulin, was produced and transferred into low-nicotine tobaccos by Agrobacterium. Integration of the fusion gene into the plant genome was confirmed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The results of immunoblot analysis verified the synthesis and assembly of the fusion protein into pentamers in transgenic tobacco. GM1?ELISA showed that the plant-derived fusion protein retained GM1?ganglioside receptor binding specificity. The fusion protein accounted for 0.11% of the total leaf protein. The production of transgenic plants expressing CTB?InsB3 offers a new opportunity to test plant-based oral antigen therapy against autoimmune diabetes by inducing oral tolerance.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(2161, 'Novel foods and food allergies: A review of the issues.', 'This review identifies and explores the current issues around different types of novel foods and allergy concerns. An important issue relates to the observation that risk estimates associated with novel foods may differ depending on whether more emphasis is placed by the individual on the results of technical risk assessment or on an individual''s perceptions of risk associated with different hazards. Consumer perceptions of benefits associated with novel foods also vary. Perceptions of what constitutes both risk and benefit appear to be important determinants of consumer acceptability of particular products. One conclusion that can be made is that novel foods have the potential to contribute to food allergy management, but that consumer acceptance is likely to differ according to the preferences of individual consumers. It is concluded that some novel foods may result in improvements on the quality of life of food allergic patients, whereas others may result in the development of further socio-economic problems.', 'en_US'),
(2162, 'Can Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) corn residues and Bt-corn plants affect life-history traits in the earthworm Aporrectodea caliginosa?', 'Bt-corn is genetically engineered to express proteins from the common soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis which presents specific toxicity to targeted insect pests. One type of Bt-corn expresses the Cry1Ab protein that provides protection against certain lepidopteran pests, mainly the European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis) and the Mediterranean stalk borer (Sesamia nonagroides). Vast areas of agricultural soils worldwide are grown with transgenic Bt-corn. With such widespread use of Bt-corn, it is important to evaluate the potential risks of Bt-protein to non-target organisms in agro-ecosystems such as earthworms. In this study, we investigated the effects of Bt-corn on important life-history traits (survival, reproduction and growth) of the earthworm Aporrectodea caliginosa under various experimental conditions. Finely ground Bt-corn leaves added to soil had no deleterious effects on survival, growth, development or reproduction in A. caliginosa, even in high concentrations that could be considered as a worst-case scenario. Also, growth of juvenile A. caliginosa was unaffected when worms were kept in pots with a growing Bt-corn plant. Only when considering cocoon hatchability did we see a slight, but statistically significant, negative effect of Bt-corn residues. The implications of these results for risk assessment of Bt-corn are discussed.', 'en_US'),
(2163, 'Considerations for the Safety Assessment of Animal Feedstuffs Derived from Genetically Modified Plants.', 'This document addresses considerations in the safety assessment of GM feedstuffs, including the fate of DNA and protein in animal feeding, animal feeding studies, and future GM feedstuffs. As well, there is background material on the various organisms and traits constituting GM plants used as animal feeds.', 'en_US'),
(2164, 'Transgenic crop trial''s gene flow turns weeds into wimps.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2165, 'Production of plant secondary metabolites: a historical perspective.', 'Studies on plant secondary metabolites have been increasing over the last 50 years. These molecules are known to play a major role in the adaptation of plants to their environment, but also represent an important source of active pharmaceuticals. Plant cell culture technologies were introduced at the end of the 1960s as a possible tool for both studying and producing plant secondary metabolites. Different strategies, using in vitro systems, have been extensively studied with the objective of improving the production of secondary plant compounds. Undifferentiated cell cultures have been mainly studied, but a large interest has also been shown in hairy roots and other organ cultures. Specific processes have been designed to meet the requirements of plant cell and organ cultures in bioreactors. Despite all of these efforts of the last 30 years, plant biotechnologies have led to very few commercial successes for the production of valuable secondary compounds. Compared to other biotechnological fields such as microorganisms or mammalian cell cultures, this can be explained by a lack of basic knowledge about biosynthetic pathways, or insufficiently adapted reactor facilities. More recently, the emergence of recombinant DNA technology has opened a new field with the possibility of directly modifying the expression of genes related to biosyntheses. It is now possible to manipulate the pathways that lead to secondary plant compounds. Many research projects are now currently being carried out and should give a promising future for plant metabolic engineering.', 'en_US'),
(2166, 'Relative fitness of glyphosate resistant creeping bentgrass lines in Kentucky Bluegrass.', 'Genetically transformed cultivars of creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera L. syn. Agrostis palustris Huds.) that are resistant to glyphosate have been developed by a collaboration of the Scotts and Monsanto companies. Prior to commercial release, we desired to determine if the transformed plants behave similarly to traditional creeping bentgrass except for the effects expected from the inserted gene, i.e., resistance to glyphosate. Therefore, studies were initiated on 23 June 2000 in Marysville, Ohio; 14 July 2000 in Middleton, N.J.; and 20 June 2000 in Gervais, Ore., to examine the relative lateral spread and competitive ability of several transformed lines of creeping bentgrass, non-transformed controls, and reference cultivars. Vegetative plugs of creeping bentgrass were transplanted into a mature stand of Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.) or a uniform mixture of Kentucky bluegrass with perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.). The plots were watered as needed to prevent moisture stress. Competitive ability of the transformed plants and reference cultivars were determined monthly by measuring the average diameter of the creeping bentgrass patch. On all observation dates, the transgenic lines, as a group, were smaller in average diameter (5.1?7.6 cm) compared to the reference cultivars (5.4?14.2 cm) and non-transformed control lines (5.9?10.2 cm). At the end of the observation period (Aug. 2001), no differences (P = 0.05) in lateral spread were observed between individual lines of transgenic bentgrass. Three lines of interest, ASR365, ASR368, and ASR333, had lateral spread rates that are similar to, or less than, that of their non-transformed parent and the conventional creeping bentgrass cultivars tested. Chemical names used: N-(phosphonomethyl) glycine (glyphosate).', 'en_US'),
(2167, 'Have Transgenes Will Travel - Issues Raised by Gene Flow from Genetically Engineered Crops.', 'Brief summarizes economic and ecological concerns about gene flow from transgenic crops.', 'en_US'),
(2168, 'Biodiversity and Agricultural Biotechnology - A Review of the Impact of Agricultural Biotechnology on Biodiversity.', 'This paper gives an overview of biodiversity and how it is impacted by agricultural biotechnology, building upon chapters on the impact of biotechnology on biodiversity for the European Federation of Biotechnology (Braun & Bennett, 2001) and UNESCO (Braun & Ammann, 2002). Biodiversity encompasses the fundamental bases of life on earth, including genetic, species and ecosystem diversity. There is a need to better understand biodiversity in terms of its fundamental components (genes and taxa), the interrelatedness of these components (ecology), their importance for human life and life in general, and the factors that threaten biodiversity. Within the tropics, Biodiversity is still concentrated in unmanaged habitats. In temperate zones, particularly in the European Union, almost 50% of the landscape is agricultural, and agricultural lands contain a significant portion of the biodiversity in these zones. The greatest threats to biodiversity are destruction and deterioration of habitats, particularly in tropical developing countries, and introductions of exotic species. Maintaining biodiversity requires addressing these threats.', 'en_US'),
(2169, 'Evidence for Gene Flow Via Seed Dispersal From Crop to Wild Relatives in Beta vulgaris (Chenopodiaceae): Consequences for the Release of Genetically Modified Crop Species with Weedy Lineages', 'Gene flow and introgression from cultivated to wild plant populations have important evolutionary and ecological consequences and require detailed investigations for risk assessments of transgene escape into natural ecosystems. Sugar beets (Beta vulgaris ssp. vulgaris) are of particular concern because: (i) they are cross-compatible with their wild relatives (the sea beet, B. vulgaris ssp. maritima); (ii) crop-to-wild gene flow is likely to occur via weedy lineages resulting from hybridization events and locally infesting fields. Using a chloroplastic marker and a set of nuclear microsatellite loci, the occurrence of crop-to-wild gene flow was investigated in the French sugar beet production area within a ''contact-zone'' in between coastal wild populations and sugar beet fields. The results did not reveal large pollen dispersal from weed to wild beets. However, several pieces of evidence clearly show an escape of weedy lineages from fields via seed flow. Since most studies involving the assessment of transgene escape from crops to wild outcrossing relatives generally focused only on pollen dispersal, this last result was unexpected: it points out the key role of a long-lived seed bank and highlights support for transgene escape via man-mediated long-distance dispersal events.', 'en_US'),
(2170, 'No credible scientific evidence is presented to support claims that transgenic DNA was introgressed into traditional maize landraces in Oaxaca, Mexico.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2171, 'Environmental impact of biotech crops.', 'Agriculture will inevitably always have a significant impact on the environment. For biotech crops to be accepted by the regulatory process, it is a statutory requirement in most countries to complete an environmental impact assessment. The assessment includes determining the frequency and potential impact of gene flow by pollination, the effects on friendly nontarget organisms within the environment, the consequences of introducing particular genes, and, in some countries, a consideration of the effect of biotech crops on wildlife biodiversity. Assessing environmental impact raises many important challenges, because frequently we are required to make assessments of a kind that have rarely been carried out for conventionally bred crops. Debates about how we measure environmental impact most effectively have highlighted the illogicality of detailed environmental assessments of biotech crops and little or no comparable assessment of conventionally bred crops. It is important that all kinds of agricultural crops are evaluated against an evolving vision for the future of agriculture and the environment over the coming decades. Biotech crops have the potential to aggravate or to alleviate the environment of the future. This can be through direct effects of the crop on the environment or through changes in management required to grow them. Our challenge is to develop biotechnology actively for the benefit of humankind and the environment.', 'en_US'),
(2172, 'Containment and mitigation of transgene flow from crops.', 'The proceedings from this inaugural congress held in Glasgow, UK include all four keynote presentations plus all the platform and poster paper presentations.The programme was designed around three major themes:Crop protection - all aspects of crop protection in both temperate and tropical climates were addressed. This included weed science and pest & disease issues. Advances in spray application technology and precision crop management were also covered;Crop production and the food chain - this theme addressed topics such as minimising the risk of pesticide residues in food, crop performance with reduced input systems and biotechnology approaches to optimise crop development and quality. Farmland biodiversity and the impact of an enlarged EU community also featured;Environment & regulation - the environmental impact of GM crops remains a contentious issue, so the costs , benefits , safety aspects and regulation a decade after their commercialisation provided much debate.', 'en_US'),
(2173, 'Rapid degradation of a binary, PS149B1, ä-endotoxin of Bacillus thuringiensis in soil, and a novel mathematical model for fitting curve-linear decay.', 'A novel, binary ä-endotoxin from Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner (Bt) strain PS149B1 has been identified, and the two genes that code for the peptides that make up the binary insecticidal crystal protein (bICP) have been inserted into maize plants, Zea mays L. Transformed maize plants that express the proteins are resistant to western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte, a major pest of maize. A laboratory study was conducted to better understand the degradation of the bICP in soil. Insect bioassays using southern corn rootworm, Diabrotica undecimpunctata howardi Barber, were used to track degradation. A first-order kinetic model using a truncated data set predicts a half-life of <4 d, indicating a rapid rate of decay in soil. The degradation pattern for the complete data set exhibits systematic departures from a first-order kinetic model. A novel 3-parameter degradation model was developed and validated with 23 additional degradation data sets representing both Bt proteins and synthetic organic molecules. This new model often fits degradation patterns better than a first-order model and a 3-parameter, biexponential (biphasic) model. The new model also retains an additional degree of freedom in the analyses compared with the biexponential model, making it especially useful when modeling small data sets. The time until 50% dissipation of the bICP was estimated at <2 d based on this new model.', 'en_US'),
(2174, 'Rapid degradation of Cry1F delta-endotoxin in soil.', 'Dow AgroSciences has modified cotton plants (Gossypium hirsutum L.) by inserting a gene from Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner subsp. aizawai that produces an insect-active, full-length Cry1F delta-endotoxin, and is planning to commercialize insect-resistant cotton lines expressing this protein. These cotton lines control tobacco budworm, Heliothis virescens (F.), along with other lepidopteran larvae. A laboratory study was conducted to better understand the degradation of Cry1F protein in a representative soil from the midsouth cotton-growing area of the United States. Bioassay results with tobacco budworm were used to measure the relative titer of the protein in the soil after a series of incubation periods. Based on the decrease in toxicity over time, the half-life of the microbial Cry1F delta-endotoxin was estimated to be less than 1 d under laboratory conditions, indicating a rapid decay rate in soil.', 'en_US'),
(2175, 'Isolation distances for minimizing out-crossing in spring wheat.', 'Currently recommended isolation distances of 3 or 10 m for pedigreed seed production of spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) may not be sufficient for cultivars with high out-crossing (OC) rates. The detection of higher than expected OC rates in wheat has directed this research to reassess currently recommended minimum isolation distances. The objective of this study was to determine if increased isolation distances are needed for cultivars that exhibit higher than normal levels of out-crossing. In each of 2 yr, OC rates were determined for four Canadian spring wheat cultivars at each of 15 distances (0?33 m) from a blue aleurone pollen source. Cultivars were grown in rows perpendicular to the pollinator block to the north, south, west, and east. Target rows were replicated four times within each direction. Out-crossing in ''Katepwa'' and ''Biggar'' was not detected beyond 3 m. Cultivars ''Roblin'' and ''Oslo'' exhibited higher than normal OC at distances of up to 27 m. For Roblin and Oslo, an isolation distance of 30 m is recommended to mitigate OC-derived off-types in the subsequent generation of pedigreed seed.', 'en_US'),
(2176, 'Assessment of the non-target effects of transgenic Bt corn pollen and anthers on the milkweed tiger moth, Euchatias egle Drury (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae).', 'Many non-target lepidopteran species are potentially at risk from transgenic corn tissues (i.e., pollen and anthers) expressing a Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner derived toxin, however, risk assessment data is currently lacking for most species. A laboratory experiment examining the effect of transgenic Bt corn tissue on Euchatias egle Drury (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae) showed no larval mortality following a 48-hour exposure to Bt corn tissues on its food source, Asclepias syriaca (Asclepiadacea). Two Bt corn events were used; 176, which expressed 1.60 µg Bt/g of pollen and anther tissue; and Bt11, which expressed 0.39 µg Bt/g pollen and anther tissue. One of 15 larvae exposed to non-Bt corn tissue died compared to no mortality of the larvae exposed to either Bt11 or 176 Bt corn tissues. Based on these results it appears that E. egle will not be adversely affected by the wide-scale planting of Bt corn.', 'en_US'),
(2177, 'Bt Corn Not a Threat to Monarchs', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2178, 'Biomonitoring the genotoxicity of environmental factors with transgenic plants.', 'All organisms must react to constantly changing surroundings. Environmental factors are thus powerful forces continuously shaping the genomes of all species. Induced genetic changes can be followed using a biomonitor ? a living organism that reacts to a given compound in the environment. A vital but challenging task is identifying organisms with which to study the influence of changing environmental conditions. Plants are especially valuable biomonitors. Here, we describe the use of transgenic plant systems to evaluate the genotoxicity of chemical and radiological compounds. We evaluate the potential of further transgene-based systems for studying somatic and germ-line mutations.', 'en_US'),
(2179, 'Assessing responses of soil microorganisms to GM plants.', 'Risk assessment concerns and recent advances in microbial ecology have spurred a wave of research on the impact of genetically modified (GM) crops on soil-borne microbial community structure and function. Effects have often been observed, but these usually pale in comparison with ''normal'' sources of variation. In spite of our incomplete knowledge of the microbial communities and processes in plant?soil systems, recent technological and conceptual improvements do offer a way forward. We propose a case-by-case approach within a framework that targets both potentially vulnerable indicators as well as general community parameters for assessing the impact of GM plants on soil microorganisms.', 'en_US'),
(2180, 'Herbicide-resistant genetically-modified crop: its risks with an emphasis on gene flow.', 'Herbicide-resistant genetically-modified (GM) crops are the most widely cultivated worldwide, representing 78% of GM crops in 1999, followed by insect-resistant GM crops with Bt gene. Gene flow is the most touching risk arising from GM crops, and is categorized as three types: within species, between species and between GM crop and other organisms. This review shows that gene flow is a reality in the plant kingdom with evolutionary change. Herbicide resistance evolves naturally and spreads dynamically in weeds. One of the most concerning crop in relation to gene flow is Brassica napus, which has a high outcrossing rate and many relative species. In contrast, frequency of gene flow via outcrossing is relatively low in inbreeding cereal crops such as rice, wheat and barley, but published reports have shown that substantial gene flow is possible. Another possible and immediate risk is herbicide-resistant GM crops becoming volunteer weeds. Dry direct-seeded rice is one of the most likely crops in this respect. Stacking different resistance genes in a crop would accelerate multiple resistance evolution in weeds. Multiple resistance to three major herbicides has already been observed in oilseed rape cultivation. More efforts must be made for long-term risk assessment on GM crops in the natural ecosystem. More studies on weed biology and ecology, particularly reproductive processes in weeds, are essential for better understanding of gene flow and systematic management strategy. We hope that this review motivates researchers to analyze data available now, to collect fundamental information on crops and weeds in agro-ecosystem, and to lead to better risk assessment and management.', 'en_US'),
(2181, 'Using seed purity data to estimate an average pollen mediated gene flow from crops to wild relatives.', 'Gene flow from crops to wild related species has been recently under focus in risk-assessment studies of the ecological consequences of growing transgenic crops. However, experimental studies addressing this question are usually temporally or spatially limited. Indirect population-structure approaches can provide more global estimates of gene flow, but their assumptions appear inappropriate in an agricultural context. In an attempt to help the committees providing advice on the release of transgenic crops, we present a new method to estimate the quantity of genes migrating from crops to populations of related wild plants by way of pollen dispersal. This method provides an average estimate at a landscape level. Its originality is based on the measure of the inverse gene flow, i.e. gene flow from the wild plants to the crop. Such gene flow results in an observed level of impurities from wild plants in crop seeds. This level of impurity is usually known by the seed producers and, in any case, its measure is easier than a direct screen of wild populations because crop seeds are abundant and their genetic profile is known. By assuming that wild and cultivated plants have a similar individual pollen dispersal function, we infer the level of pollen-mediated gene flow from a crop to the surrounding wild populations from this observed level of impurity. We present an example for sugar beet data. Results suggest that under conditions of seed production in France (isolation distance of 1,000 m) wild beets produce high numbers of seeds fathered by cultivated plants.', 'en_US'),
(2182, 'Evaluation of noncorn host plants as a refuge in a resistance management program for european corn borer (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) on Bt-corn.', 'Studies in New York and Pennsylvania compared egg mass recruitment and larval survival on corn and other hosts of the European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (H[umlaut]ubner), to assess the potential of these plants to act as a refuge in a resistance management program. Assessments were made on replicated plantings and natural plant stands in the field and under controlled conditions in the laboratory. Scouting of mixed field plantings revealed more egg masses on corn than any other crop or weed species. At least twice as many larvae per plant were recovered from naturally infested corn compared with the next best host plant across both years. Larval recovery from noncorn host plants varied widely. Fewer adults emerged from overwintering weed stubble than from corn stubble, and the parasitoid Macrocentris grandii (Goidanich) was found associated only with corn stubble. Survival on plants infested with corn borer larvae was consistently higher on corn than on other plants. In a laboratory study, the number of corn borer tunnels in corn was double the next best host, ragweed. Noncorn hosts appear unlikely to provide a substantial number of corn borer individuals susceptible to B. thuringiensis (Berliner) in comparison with the number expected from the 20% planting refuge mandated by EPA registration of Bt-corn. Evidence from these studies do not support a recommendation of reduced refuge planting areas in the northeastern United States.', 'en_US'),
(2183, 'Diversity of arthropod communities in transgenic Bt cotton and nontransgenic cotton agroecosystems.', 'In a 3-yr field experiment, possible effects of Bt transgenic cotton plants expressing cry1A(c) gene from Bacillus thrungiensis Berliner variety kurstaki on diversities of arthropod communities and pest and natural enemy sub-communities were assessed in insecticide treated and untreated cotton fields, as measured by the Shannon-Weaver diversity index. The treatments included: 1) nontransgenic cotton with no insecticide treatment (nontransgenic), 2) nontransgenic cotton with insecticide treatments (nontransgenic+insecticide), 3) transgenic Bt-cotton with no insecticide treatment (Bt-cotton), and 4) transgenic Bt-cotton with insecticide treatments (Bt-cotton+insecticide). The results indicated that Bt-cotton increased the diversity of arthropod communities and pest sub-communities; however, it decreased the diversities of natural enemy sub-communities. Insecticide treatments increased diversities of communities and sub-communities of arthropods in both transgenic Bt-cotton and nontransgenic cotton agroecosystems, but the increase may be an artifact of increased evenness through mortality of insecticide-targeted species.', 'en_US'),
(2184, 'Biocomplexity: the post-genome challenge in ecotoxicology.', 'There are four crucial challenges for environmental toxicologists in the next decade: (1) understanding the mechanisms of molecular and subcellular interactions with pollutant chemicals, including genomic and proteomic aspects; (2) the development of predictive simulation models of toxic effects on complex cellular and physiological processes; (3) linking molecular, cellular and patho-pysiological ''endpoints'' with higher level ecological consequences; and (4) precautionary anticipation of possible harmful impacts of novel developments in industrial processes, including biotechnology and nanotechnology. One of the major difficulties in ecotoxicology is to link harmful effects of chemical pollutants in individual animals and plants with the ecological consequences. Consequently, this obstacle has resulted in a ''knowledge-gap'' for those seeking to develop policies for sustainable use of resources and environmental protection. The overall problem is: how to develop effective procedures for environmental/ecological impact and risk assessment? However, the use of diagnostic ''clinical-type'' tests or ''biomarkers'' has started to provide information on the health-status of populations based on relatively small samples of individuals. Also, biomarkers can now be used to begin to link processes of molecular and cellular damage through to the higher levels (i.e. prognostic capability), where they can result in reduced performance and reproductive success. Research effort to meet this challenge must be inter-disciplinary in character, since the key questions mainly involve complex interfacial problems. These include effects of physico-chemical speciation on uptake and toxicity, the toxicity of complex mixtures; and linking the impact of pollutants through the various hierarchical levels of biological organisation to ecosystem and human health. Finally, the development and use of process-based computational simulation models (i.e. ''virtual'' cells, organs and animals), illustrated using an endosomal/lysosomal uptake and cell injury model, will facilitate the development of a predictive capacity for estimating risk associated with the possibility of future environmental events.', 'en_US'),
(2185, 'Vertical movement in soil of insecticidal Cry1Ab protein from Bacillus thuringiensis.', 'The effects of montmorillonite (M) or kaolinite (K) on the vertical movement of the insecticidal Cry1Ab protein of Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki (Bt) were studied in repacked soil columns. The protein was added to the columns either in a purified form, as root exudates from growing plants of Bt corn, or within the biomass of residues of Bt corn. The soil was amended to 0, 3, 6, 9, or 12% (vol vol-1) with the clays. Vertical movement of the protein generally decreased as the content of either clay was increased, and the amount of protein recovered in leachates increased as the concentration of purified protein added was increased. The largest amount of purified protein (ca. 75%) was leached from soil not amended with clay, whereas the lowest amount (ca. 16%) was recovered from columns containing soil amended to 12% with M or K. The Cry1Ab protein was also present in leachates from soil columns in which various hybrids of Bt corn were grown or to which biomass of Bt corn had been added, whereas it was absent in leachates from columns in which the respective isolines of non-Bt corn were grown or to which biomass of non-Bt corn had been added. The Cry1Ab protein exhibited stronger binding and higher persistence, as well as remaining nearer the soil surface, in soil that contained the higher clay concentrations (i.e. had a higher cation-exchange capacity and specific surface area), indicating that it could be transported to surface waters via runoff and erosion. In contrast, the protein was more readily leached through soil with lower clay concentrations, indicating that it could contaminate groundwater.', 'en_US'),
(2186, 'Prospects of biodiversity in herbicide-resistant crops.', 'Long-term and large-scale field tests with different weed control methods and agricultural vegetation surveys provide an appropriate tool for an evaluation of the effects on biodiversity of different weed control strategies. In this paper, the toxicological effects, amounts and frequencies of applications, and changes in farming practice are described and compared. The test results are discussed in relation to the question of whether environmental benefits can be achieved by the herbicide-resistance technique. Cropping history and the absence of beneficial plant species invading from the vicinity often override the effects of actual farming practice. Thus long-term strategies are necessary in order to increase biodiversity.', 'en_US'),
(2187, 'The mammalian safety of Bacillus thuringiensis- based insecticides.', 'The United States Environmental Protection Agency between the years 1961 and 1995 registered 177 products containing viable Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). Numerous laboratory studies have demonstrated that Bt and Bt products are noninfectious and are toxic to mammals only at a dose ¡Ý108 colony forming units (cfu) per mouse (a human equivalent based on the weight of >1011 cfu). In contrast, as few as three vegetative cells of Bacillus anthracis can kill mice (a human equivalent of >103 cfu). There are only two literature reports of Bt infection in man between the year 1997 and the present, and all infected individuals had experienced either extensive burns or a blast injury, which predisposed them to infection. Two epidemiology studies conducted during large-scale aerial Bt serovar kurstaki spray campaigns reported no increased incidence of illness. Some recent papers have expressed concern about the production of Bacillus cereus enterotoxins by Bt isolates. Laboratory studies found no evidence of illness in rats and sheep fed Bt products, nor have epidemiology studies found increased incidence of diarrhea during Bt aerial spray campaigns. Increases in human antibody levels following exposure to Bt products have been reported but there was no increased incidence in asthma or other illness. Based on laboratory studies and field experience, Bt insecticides have an excellent safety record.', 'en_US'),
(2188, 'Life history traits of Hilecoverpa zea (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) on non-Bt and Bt transgenic corn hybrids in eastern North Carolina.', 'Transgenic varieties of field corn that express the Cry1Ab B. thuringiensis (Bt) toxin in ear tissue present the potential of reducing ear feeding by the corn earworm, Helicoverpa zea (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), and for reducing the size of populations of the insect infesting other host crops. Life history parameters of H. zea feeding on ears of conventional and Bt field corn varieties were measured in field plots in eastern North Carolina in 1997 and 1998. Transformation events investigated were Mon-810 and Bt-11. Bt corn was found to cause a steady mortality of larvae during development, but permitted 15-40% survival to the prepupal stage compared with non-Bt corn. Mortality of prepupae and pupae from Bt corn was also higher than from non-Bt corn, reducing overall adult production by 65-95%. The larvae that did survive grew more slowly on Bt than on non-Bt corn, and produced pupae that weighed 33% less. Pupation and adult eclosion were delayed by 6-10 d by feeding on Bt corn ears. Corn varieties expressing Bt in ear tissue have the potential to reduce H. zea ear feeding by up to 80%, and the potential to reduce populations emerging from ear-stage corn fields to infest cotton, soybean and other crops by around 75%. To have a measurable effect on area-wide populations, Bt corn varieties would need to be planted in large proportions of corn fields. Extensive planting of varieties such as those tested here, having only moderate effects on H. zea, would raise concerns about rapid evolution of resistance.', 'en_US'),
(2189, 'The population/biodiversity paradox. Agricultural efficiency to save wilderness.', '''I know of no time which is lost more thoroughly than that devoted to arguing on matters of fact with a disputant who has no facts but only very strong convictions'' (Simon, 1996). The comment aptly summarizes a common experience (including my own) in dealing with technophobes. In one sense, the genetic manipulation (GM) debate can only be conducted on a level in which the participants are prepared to enlarge their knowledge and refine their views accordingly. I consequently have tried in this article to provide plenty of facts that can be used in discussion with reasonable participants. My recommendation is to forget those who are not prepared to modify in any way a prepared (i.e. ideological) position. My own view of GM is that its primary use to mankind must come initially in helping to solve fundamental problems that currently present themselves. These outstanding problems concern population, global warming, and biodiversity. In a longer version of this article I have tried also to provide some critique of current trends toward placing ecological views into agriculture in the hope of generating reasoned discussion. The full version of this article is on my web site (www.ed.ac.uk/~ebot40/main.html). All the information below can be obtained from the referenced articles, although I have not always indicated where.', 'en_US'),
(2190, 'Preventing food allergy:  Emerging technologies.', 'Food allergy represents a largely avoidable threat. Technologies are presently available or are under development that better define the molecules (allergens) responsible for food allergy, better detect the presence of allergens, and can reduce or even eliminate specific allergens from the food supply. The incidence of food allergy and fatal anaphylaxis triggered by food allergens is expected to decline as a result of the application of a combination of key technologies such as biotechnology, bioinformatics and immunodiagnostics, and of the Internet, as well as following the development of well-defined science-based public health policies.', 'en_US'),
(2191, 'Stability of food allergens to digestion in vitro.', 'An integral part of the safety assessment of genetically modified plants is consideration of possible human health effects, especially food allergy. Prospective testing for allergenicity of proteins obtained from sources with no prior history of causing allergy has been difficult because of the absence of valid methods and models. Food allergens may share physicochemical properties that distinguish them from nonallergens, properties that may be used as a tool to predict the inherent allergenicity of proteins newly introduced into the food supply by genetic engineering. One candidate property is stability to digestion. We have systematically evaluated the stability of food allergens that are active via the gastrointestinal tract in a simple model of gastric digestion, emphasizing the major allergens of plant-derived foods such as legumes (peanuts and soybean). Important food allergens were stable to digestion in the gastric model (simulated gastric fluid). For example, soybean -conglycinin was stable for 60 min. In contrast, nonallergenic food proteins, such as spinach ribulose bis-phosphate carboxylase/oxygenase, were digested in simulated gastric fluid within 15 sec. The data are consistent with the hypothesis that food allergens must exhibit sufficient gastric stability to reach the intestinal mucosa where absorption and sensitization (development of atopy) can occur. Thus, the stability to digestion is a significant and valid parameter that distinguishes food allergens from nonallergens.', 'en_US'),
(2192, 'Digestive stability in the context of assessing the potential allergenicity of food proteins.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2193, 'Allergenicity test of genetically modified soybean in Sprague Dawley rats.', 'Allergenicitv of genetically-modified (GM) soybean was evaluated in male Sprague Dawley rats. To confirm the GM in this study, the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed using the chromosomal DNA of soybeans. The PCR result provided the clear discrimination of genetically-modified (GM) soybeans. To evaluate the allergenicity of GM soybean and non-GM control the soybean homogenate was inoculated subcutaneously 3 times in 3 weeks. The doses of soybean were 0, 2 and 20mg/kg of  protein. A week after the last inoculation, antisera were recovered from individual animals. When the sera were injected intradermally on the clipped back of unsensitized rats with at various dilutions, followed by a challenge with 20mg/kg of soybean homogenate containing 1% Evans blue, no sign of passive cutaneous anaphylactic reaction was detected. In addition, when the sera were treated in cultures of peritoneal mast cells, the increase of histamine released by GM soybean anti-sera was not observed when compared to that by non-GM soybean anti-sera. The present results indicate that the GM soybean might not act as a strong allergen in male Sprague Dawley rats.', 'en_US'),
(2194, 'Notice - Statement of Policy: Foods Derived from New Plant Varieties.', 'The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is issuing a policy statement on foods derived from new plant varieties, including plants developed by recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) techniques.  This policy statement is a clarification of FDA''s interpretation of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (the act), with respect to new technologies to produce foods, and reflects FDA''s current judgment based on new plant varieties now under development in agricultural research.  This action is being taken to ensure that relevant scientific, safety, and regulatory issues are resolved prior to the introduction of such products into the marketplace.', 'en_US'),
(2195, 'Bioinformatic methods for identifying known or potential allergens in the safety assessment of genetically modified crops.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2196, 'Guidelines for the Safety Assessment of Novel Foods.  VOLUME I - Preamble and Guidance Scheme for Notification and VOLUME II - Genetically Modified Microorganisms and Plants.', 'Please note that these guidelines are posted for historical reference purposes only, as they are no longer in force. If you are looking for the latest version, please see the current guidelines instead.', 'en_US'),
(2197, 'Guidelines for the Safety Assessment of Novel Foods.', 'This document replaces the Guidelines for the Safety Assessment of Novel Foods (Volumes I and II) originally published in September, 1994.', 'en_US'),
(2198, 'Recombinant food allergens.', 'Allergenic (glyco)proteins are the elicitors of food allergies and can cause acute severe hypersensitivity reactions. Recombinant food allergens are available in standardised quantity and constant quality. Therefore, they offer new perspectives to overcome current difficulties in the diagnosis, treatment and investigation of food allergies. This review summarises the expression strategies and characteristics of more than 40 recombinant food allergens that have been produced until today. Their IgE-binding properties are compared to those of their natural counterparts, in addition their application as diagnostic tools, the generation of hypoallergenic recombinant isoforms and mutants for therapeutic purposes, the determination of epitopes and cross-reactive structures are described.', 'en_US'),
(2199, 'Comparison of the nutritional profile of glyphosate-tolerant corn Event NK603 with that of conventional corn (Zea mays L.).', 'The composition of glyphosate-tolerant (Roundup Ready) corn event NK603 was compared with that of conventional corn grown in the United States in 1998 and in the European Union in 1999 to assess compositional equivalence. Grain and forage samples were collected from both replicated and nonreplicated field trials, and compositional analyses were performed to measure proximates, fiber, amino acids, fatty acids, vitamin E, nine minerals, phytic acid, trypsin inhibitor, and secondary metabolites in grain as well as proximates and fiber in forage. Statistical analysis of the data was conducted to assess statistical significance at the p < 0.05 level. The values for all of the biochemical components assessed for corn event NK603 were similar to those of the nontransgenic control or were within the published range observed for nontransgenic commercial corn hybrids. In addition, the compositional profile of Roundup Ready corn event NK603 was compared with that of traditional corn hybrids grown in Europe by calculating a 99% tolerance interval to describe compositional variability in the population of traditional corn varieties in the marketplace. These comparisons, together with the history of the safe use of corn as a common component of animal feed and human food, support the conclusion that Roundup Ready corn event NK603 is compositionally equivalent to, and as safe and nutritious as, conventional corn hybrids grown commercially today.', 'en_US'),
(2200, 'A comparative study of the allergenic potency of wild-type and glyphosate-tolerant gene-modified soybean cultivars.', 'A large proportion of soybean cultivars grown in the USA are now genetically modified varieties and concern has been raised about the safety of these products for consumers. A study of the impact on allergenic potency in soybeans, comparable except for the newly introduced gene (CP4 EPSPS), was performed using soybean-sensitized patients. The allergenicity of 18 different (10 GM and 8 WT) soybean extracts was examined blindly by the following three methods: A) Sera from patients with specific IgE against soybean were used to determine concentrations inducing 50% RAST inhibition; B) Histamine release induced by the extracts was examined using blood from sensitized patients; C) SPT was performed on sensitized patients with all 18 extracts. All three methods showed variations in the allergenic potency between the individual extracts but allergenic potential was not affected by presence of the transgene. By using standard in vitro methods and SPT for determination of allergenicity we were not able to detect any significant difference in the allergenic potency between GM and WT soybeans.', 'en_US'),
(2201, 'Factors affecting the determination of threshold doses for allergenic foods: How much is too much?', 'Background: Ingestion of small amounts of an offending food can elicit adverse reactions in individuals with IgE-mediated food allergies. The threshold dose for provocation of such reactions is often considered to be zero. However, because of various practical limitations in food production and processing, foods may occasionally contain trace residues of the offending food. Are these very low, residual quantities hazardous to allergic consumers? How much of the offending food is too much? Very little quantitative information exists to allow any risk assessments to be conducted by the food industry. Objective: We sought to determine whether the quality and quantity of existing clinical data on threshold doses for commonly allergenic foods were sufficient to allow consensus to be reached on establishment of threshold doses for specific foods. Methods: In September 1999, 12 clinical allergists and other interested parties were invited to participate in a roundtable conference to share existing data on threshold doses and to discuss clinical approaches that would allow the acquisition of that information. Results: Considerable data were identified in clinical files relating to the threshold doses for peanut, cows'' milk, and egg; limited data were available for other foods, such as fish and mustard. Conclusions: Because these data were often obtained by means of different protocols, the estimation of a threshold dose was very difficult. Development of a standardized protocol for clinical experiments to allow determination of the threshold dose is needed.', 'en_US'),
(2202, 'Antibiotic Resistance Markers in Genetically Modified (GM) Crops.', 'The use of marker genes for resistance to certain antibiotics in the development of genetically modified (GM) crops has given rise to considerable public concern. This briefing paper reviews what they are and why they are used, how the safety of GM crops is regulated and the possible alternatives to their use. The overall aim is to provide balanced information and advance public debate. This paper results from the combined contributions of scientists, industrialists, and governmental and public interest organisations across Europe.', 'en_US'),
(2203, 'ACNFP factsheet on the use of antibiotic resistance marker genes (ARMs) in GM plants.', '2005: This factsheet explains how and why antibiotic resistance marker genes (ARMs) are used in GM crop production and what is being done to ensure that foods derived from them are as safe to eat as conventional foods.', 'en_US'),
(2204, 'Using inactivated microbial biomass as fertilizer: the fate of antibiotic resistance genes in the environment.', 'The waste product produced by Novo Nordisk A/S from microbial fermentations is used as agricultural fertilizer in Denmark (NovoGro?) after being treated by heat and chemicals to destroy the microorganisms. The fertilizer contains DNA fragments from the genetically modified microorganisms used in industrial production. This DNA contains genes coding for the desired industrial products as well as genes used as genetic selection markers during production strain development. The antibiotic resistance markers used as genetic selection markers are chloramphenicol (Cm), kanamycin (Km) and ampicillin (Ap). The aim of the present study was to examine whether DNA and intact genes were present in NovoGro and whether horizontal transfer of DNA isolated from inactivated production strains occurred either in the laboratory or in the fields treated with NovoGro. DNA isolated from NovoGro was analysed by PCR and intact genes coding for a protease and chloramphenicol resistance were amplified. This isolated DNA was used for in vitro experiments including electroporation and transformation but no transfer of DNA to Escherichia coli or Bacillus subtilis was observed. The antibiotic resistance profile of the indigenous bacterial population in the fields treated with NovoGro compared with fields treated with inorganic fertilizers showed no differences. In addition, DNA isolated directly from the fields treated with NovoGro for up to 7 years was analysed by PCR and no specific production gene constructs could be detected.', 'en_US'),
(2205, 'An assessment of the risks associated with the use of antibiotic resistance genes in genetically modified plants: report of the Working Party of the British Society for Antimicrobial Chemotherapy.', 'Development of genetically modified (GM) plants is contentious, in part because bacterial antibiotic resistance (AR) genes are used in their construction and often become part of the plant genome. This arouses concern that cultivation of GM plants might provide a reservoir of AR genes that could power the evolution of new drug-resistant bacteria. We have considered bacterial DNA transfer systems (conjugation, transduction and transformation) and mechanisms of recombination (homologous recombination, transposition, site-specific recombination and DNA repair) that together might productively transfer AR genes from GM plants to bacterial cells, but are unable to identify a credible scenario whereby new drug-resistant bacteria would be created. However, we cannot entirely rule out the possibility of rare transfer events that involve novel mechanisms. Hence, we also considered if occasional transfers of AR genes (blaTEM, aph(3''), aadA) from GM plants into bacteria would pose a threat to public health. These AR genes are common in many bacteria and each is found on mobile genetic elements that have moved extensively between DNA molecules and bacterial cells. This gene mobility has already severely compromised clinical use of antibiotics to which resistance is conferred. Accordingly, the argument that occasional transfer of these particular resistance genes from GM plants to bacteria would pose an unacceptable risk to human or animal health has little substance. We conclude that the risk of transfer of AR genes from GM plants to bacteria is remote, and that the hazard arising from any such gene transfer is, at worst, slight.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(2206, 'The fate of antibiotic resistance marker genes in transgenic plant feed material fed to chickens.', 'We have examined the fate of an antibiotic resistance marker, incorporated into transgenic maize when fed to chicks. Plant-derived markers were found in the crops of five birds fed transgenic maize and in the stomach contents of two birds. The plant-derived marker gene was not found in the intestines. The survival of the antibiotic resistance marker gene mirrored that of plant DNA targets, demonstrating that it survives no better than other DNA and indicating that it is very unlikely that bacteria in the gut of chickens will be transformed to ampicillin resistance when the birds are fed transgenic maize.', 'en_US'),
(2207, 'Assessment of the risks of transferring antibiotic resistance determinants from transgenic plants to micro-organisms.', 'In the production of genetically modified (GM) plants, genes conferring ''desirable'' traits are identified and are then assembled in bacteria before delivery into the target plants. The assembly of genes in bacteria is made simple by including antibiotic resistance marker genes. The presence of a gene that codes for resistance to an antibiotic in a single bacterial cell means that, by adding the appropriate antibiotic to a culture, the single cell can be isolated from millions or even billions of bacteria lacking the resistance gene present in the same culture. By linking a gene that confers antibiotic resistance on its host bacterium to the genes that are to be inserted into plants, sufficient quantities of DNA can be harvested from a bacterial culture to allow the novel DNA to be delivered easily to the plant. One marker gene commonly used in the early days of GM crop development, called blaTEM, confers resistance to antibiotics such as ampicillin and amoxycillin. This gene causes the production of an enzyme, known as a â-lactamase, which breaks down the structure of these antibiotics, rendering them ineffective against bacteria. Although the bacteria that live in animal and human guts frequently carry blaTEM, which occurs naturally at a high frequency, this project is designed to examine the risk that blaTEM from GM maize can pass from the modified plant tissues into microbes in animals that are fed GM maize.', 'en_US'),
(2208, 'GENETICALLY MODIFIED FOODS - Widening the Debate on Health and Safety.  The OECD Edinburgh Conference on the Scientific and Health Aspects of Genetically Modified Foods (2000).  OECD Consultation with Non-governmental Organisations on Biotechnology and Ot', 'This publication contains the contributions of the OECD Directorate for Science, Technology and Industry (DSTI), prepared in response to the request of the G8 Heads of State and Government that the OECD ''undertake a study of the implications of biotechnology and other aspects of food safety...'' (G8 Summit in Cologne, June 1999).These DSTI reports are part of the complete OECD response to the G8 request, whose precise terms of reference were defined by the OECD Council in late Autumn 1999. This response consists of five sets of reports, mostly written by committees of officials from Member countries, which were co-ordinated by the Environment Directorate and the Directorate for Food, Agriculture and Fisheries. Mr. Michael Oborne, Head of the Internal Co-ordination Group on Biotechnology, was in charge of overall co-ordination of the OECD response. The complete list of OECD documents submitted to the G8 summit in Okinawa (July 2000) is attached in Annex. The reports are also available on the Web site: http://www.oecd.org/subject/biotech/g8_docs.htm.', 'en_US'),
(2209, 'Consensus Document on Compositional Considerations for New Varieties of Sugar Beet - Key Food and Feed Nutrients and Anti-Nutrients. OECD. Joint Meeting of the Chemicals Committee and the Working Party on Chemicals, Pesticides and Biotechnology.', 'The OECD''s Task Force for the Safety of Novel Foods and Feeds decided at its first session, in 1999, to focus its work on the development of science-based consensus documents, which are mutually acceptable among member countries. These consensus documents contain information for use during the regulatory assessment of a particular food/feed product. In the area of food and feed safety, consensus documents are being published on the nutrients, anti-nutrients or toxicants, information of its use as a food/feed and other relevant information.This consensus document addresses compositional considerations for new varieties of sugar beet by identifying the key food and feed nutrients and anti-nutrients. A general description of these components is provided. As well, there is background material on the growing, processing and uses of sugar beet and considerations to be taken when assessing new sugar beet varieties.Germany served as the lead country in the preparation of this document.The Joint Meeting of the Chemicals Committee and the Working Party on Chemicals, Pesticides and Biotechnology has recommended that this document be made available to the public. It is published on the authority of the Secretary-General of the OECD.', 'en_US'),
(2210, 'Safety assessment for genetically modified sweet pepper and tomato.', 'The coat protein (CP) gene of cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) was cloned from a Chinese CMV isolate, the CaMV promoter and NOS terminator added and the gene construct was transformed into both sweet pepper and tomato plants to confer resistance to CMV. Safety assessments of these genetically modified (GM) plants were conducted. It was found that these two GM products showed no genotoxicity either in vitro or in vivo by the micronucleus test, sperm aberration test and Ames test. Animal feeding studies showed no significant differences in growth, body weight gain, food consumption, hematology, blood biochemical indices, organ weights and histopathology between rats or mice of either sex fed with either GM sweet pepper or tomato diets compared with those with non-GM diets. These results demonstrate that the CMV-resistant sweet pepper and tomato are comparable to the non-GM counterparts in terms of food safety.', 'en_US'),
(2211, 'Biotechnology-derived, perennial turf and forage grasses - criteria for evaluation.', 'Following a 2-day workshop sponsored jointly by CAST and the U.S. Department of Agriculture-Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, an 11-member task force undertook the writing of this publication to present in summarized form the contributions made by the diverse group of workshop participants, as well as those who submitted comments before and after the formal meetings. Major sections include: principles supporting ecological risk assessment and regulatory decision making; background information on perennial grasses; gene migration and weed management of biotechnology-derived (BD) perennial grasses; criteria for evaluating BD grasses; and a summary of workshop responses and public comments.', 'en_US'),
(2212, 'Consensus Document on Key Nutrients and Key Toxicants in Low Erucic Acid Rapeseed (Canola).OECD. Joint Meeting of the Chemicals Committee and the Working Party on Chemicals, Pesticides and Biotechnology.', 'The OECD''s Task Force for the Safety of Novel Foods and Feeds decided at its first session, in 1999, to focus its work on the development of science-based consensus documents, which are mutually acceptable among member countries. These consensus documents contain information for use during the regulatory assessment of a particular food/feed product. In the area of food and feed safety, consensus documents are being published on the nutrients, anti-nutrients or toxicants, information of the product''s use as a food/feed and other relevant information.This consensus document identifies the key nutrients, toxicants, and other constituents that may contribute to the nutritional or anti-nutritional properties of low erucic acid rapeseed (canola). It contains a general description of the use of low erucic acid rapeseed as both a food and a feed product. The main nutrients, toxicants, and other constituents in both low erucic acid rapeseed oil and low erucic acid rapeseed meal are presented for consideration in any proposed changes to the composition of these products.In preparation of this document, Canada served as the lead country.The Joint Meeting of the Chemicals Committee and the Working Party on Chemicals, Pesticides and Biotechnology has recommended that this document be made available to the public. It is published on the authority of the Secretary-General of the OECD.', 'en_US'),
(2213, 'Multiple herbicide-resistant canola can be controlled by alternative herbicides.', 'Unintentional herbicide resistance gene stacking in canola may alter the sensitivity of volunteers to herbicides of alternative modes of action commonly used for their control. Greenhouse experiments were conducted to investigate the response of three single-herbicide?resistant (HR) cultivars (glyphosate, glufosinate, imidazolinone), one non-HR cultivar, and seven multiple (double or triple)?HR experimental lines to 2,4-D (amine and ester), MCPA ester, and metribuzin applied at the two- to three-leaf stage and of one non-HR and four HR cultivars (glyphosate, glufosinate, imidazolinone, bromoxynil) to 2,4-D amine applied at two growth stages (two- to three-leaf stage and five- to six-leaf stage). All canola cultivars or lines treated at the two- to three-leaf stage responded similarly to increasing doses of each of the three herbicides. At the five- to six-leaf stage, however, the bromoxynil HR cultivar was less sensitive to 2,4-D than the other cultivars. The results of this study suggest that canola with multiple-herbicide?resistance traits does not differ from cultivars that are non-HR or single HR in its sensitivity to herbicides commonly used to control volunteers. All volunteers, whether non-HR, single HR, or multiple HR, should be treated when plants are most sensitive to herbicides (two- to four-leaf stage) to reduce their interference against crops and their perpetuation of gene flow.', 'en_US'),
(2214, 'Life cycle and potential gene flow of volunteer oilseed rape in different tillage systems.', 'The study examined the effect of tillage (intensive vs. zero tillage) on potential gene flow during the life cycle of oilseed rape volunteers between July 2002 and August 2003. After growing oilseed rape, 4?29% of the seeds lost during harvest entered the soil seedbank when stubble tillage was performed immediately after the seed input. The seedbank was small (0?3%) when stubble tillage was delayed. Zero tillage resulted in seedbanks from 1 to 17% of the initial seed input. The seeds were distributed mainly in the upper soil layers after zero tillage or primary tillage with a rigid tine cultivator, whereas ploughing shifted most of the seeds into deeper layers. The highest number of volunteers (1 plant m2) emerged and flowered in the following crop of winter wheat either when a large soil seedbank existed and/or the seedbank was located mainly in the upper soil layer. Outcrossing with other rape crops was unlikely as volunteers flowered 1 month later than rape crops sown at the normal timing. These volunteers produced a maximum of 8 viable seeds m2. Ploughing preserved seeds in deep soil layers transferring the risk of gene flow to the future, whereas non-inversion tillage can cause gene flow from high numbers of flowering volunteers within the first year following oilseed rape cultivation.', 'en_US'),
(2215, 'Effects of herbicide-tolerant transgenic oilseed rape genotypes on honey bees and other pollinating insects under field conditions.', 'Field experiments were carried out to compare the diversity and density of pollinators foraging on two winter oilseed rape varieties, ''Falcon'' and ''Artus'', and their respective transgenic counterparts ''Falcon pat'' and ''Artus LL'', which are tolerant to glufosinate, a non-specific herbicide. The number of insects per 1000 available flowers was counted for the four main pollinators: honeybees, bumblebees, solitary bees, and Diptera. Additionally, on ''Falcon''/''Falcon pat'' the foraging behaviour of the main pollinating insects, i.e., honeybees and bumblebees, was observed (number of flowers visited per min, foraging postures, intervariety flights). A pleiotropic effect could affect nectar and pollen production, therefore we measured nectar volume, nectar sugar concentration, and composition for the four plant genotypes, and on ''Falcon'' and ''Falcon pat'' pollen production was also estimated. The diversity and density of the foraging insect population observed on the transgenic genotypes were similar to that on the non-transgenic controls. Moreover, the foraging behaviour strategy was similar on ''Falcon'' and ''Falcon pat'', and honeybees flew indifferently across these two genotypes. No difference was found in nectar and pollen between the genotypes. Thus, we may assume that the insects do not discriminate between conventional and transgenic oilseed rape specifically resistant to glufosinate. A case-by-case approach is recommended for other genetic modifications to plants potentially visited by bees.', 'en_US'),
(2216, 'Comparison of genetically modified and conventionally derived herbicide tolerance in oilseed rape: A case study.', 'Oilseed rape (Brassica napus) is an important source of oils for industrial and food processes. Agriculturally it is a useful break crop in cereal rotations but suffers from competition from broad-leaved weeds that can be difficult to control. To extend the range and efficacy of weed control options, herbicide-tolerant oilseed rape cultivars have been developed through both conventional and transgenic genetic modification processes. Here we compare the success of these approaches and discuss the implications of the new herbicide tolerance traits in agricultural production of oilseed rape. We conclude that the impact of HT traits on the agri-environment will be dependent on the nature of the trait and the management strategies under which it is employed. We find no evidence that the technology used in the production of HT cultivars has any influence on their performance as crops. In fact transgenic HT cultivars are simpler to monitor for agricultural and environmental impact than are conventional HT cultivars.', 'en_US'),
(2217, 'Consensus Document on Compositional Considerations for New Varieties of Maize - Zea mays - Key Food and Feed Nutrients, Anti-Nutrients and Secondary Plant Metabolites.', 'The OECD''s Task Force for the Safety of Novel Foods and Feeds decided at its first session, in1999, to focus its work on the development of science-based consensus documents, which are mutually acceptable among member countries. These consensus documents contain information for use during the regulatory assessment of a particular food/feed product. In the area of food and feed safety, consensus documents are being published on the nutrients, anti-nutrients or toxicants, information of its use as a food/feed and other relevant information.This consensus document addresses compositional considerations for new varieties of maize by identifying the key food and feed nutrients, anti-nutrients and secondary plant metabolites. A general description of these components is provided. Also included are considerations to be taken when assessing new maize varieties, including suggested analyses.The Netherlands and the United States served as the lead countries in the preparation of thisdocument.The Joint Meeting of the Chemicals Committee and the Working Party on Chemicals, Pesticides and Biotechnology has recommended that this document be made available to the public. It is published on the authority of the Secretary-General of the OECD.', 'en_US'),
(2218, 'Effect of Bt corn expressing the Cry3Bb1 toxin for corn rootworm control on aboveground nontarget arthropods.', 'The western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), is a major pest of corn in Kansas. Planting Bt corn hybrids resistant to this pest is being tested for control of the larval stage of corn rootworms. These hybrids express the Cry3Bb1 toxin and are expected to only directly impact chrysomelids and possibly related taxa. A 2-yr study was conducted to evaluate the effect of Bt corn expressing the Cry3Bb1 toxin on foliar and ground-dwelling nontarget arthropods in Kansas. Visual inspections of adult and immature Coleomegilla maculata (DeGeer), Orius insidiosus (Say), Hippodamia convergens Gurin-Meneville, and Scymnus spp. occurring in Bt corn and its isoline were made at eight locations in Kansas in 2000 and three locations in 2001. Pitfall traps were installed at three locations in 2000 and two locations in 2001 to collect ground-dwelling arthropods in Bt corn and its isoline. In general, no significant differences in numbers of C. maculata, O. insidiosus, H. convergens, and Scymnus spp. were detected between Bt corn and its non-Bt isoline. There were also no significant differences in number of insects collected in pitfall traps installed in plots of Bt corn and its isoline. Bt corn for corn rootworm control had no deleterious effects on beneficial and other nontarget arthropods sampled in this study.', 'en_US'),
(2219, 'Composition and technological value of genetically modified and conventional maize (Zea mays L.) grains.', 'An important aspect of the safety assessment of genetically modified crops to be used for human food and animal feed is the product composition and suitability to industrial processes (technological value). Four maize hybrids that have been modified genetically to confer levels of resistance to European maize borer and/or tolerance to glufosinate or glyphosate herbicides were investigated in comparison with their respective parental lines. Samples of maize grain were processed in a dry-milling pilot plant at a 150-kg scale into milling fractions such as hominy, grits, semolina and germs. The composition of the maize grain and milling fractions of each genetically modified hybrid was compared to that of the parent variety and to published values for conventional commercial maize hybrids. The nutrients measured on grains were: starch, cellulose, proteins and lipids. Amino acid and fatty acid profiles were also determined on grains. Physical characteristics of grains were: kernel weight, specific weight, kernel size, Promatest, hominy and semolina yields. Milling fractions were submitted to conventional processing at a pilot scale: semolina was processed into extruded products, grits were fermented and processed into beer; maize oil was extracted from germs. Technological parameters of the processes were recorded and intermediate and end products were analyzed using methods common to maize products. On the basis of the whole set of data collected, the results indicate that each genetically transformed hybrid is compositionally and technologically equivalent to the parental line and that all samples fall into the range of conventional maize hybrids.', 'en_US'),
(2220, 'Co-existence of GM and non GM Crops - Case Study of Maize Grown in Spain. Foundation for the Application of New Technology in Agriculture.', 'Given that GM (Bt) maize is in its sixth year of cultivation in Spain, this offers a unique (in the EU context) case study of whether approved GM, conventional and organic crops can co-exist.  This paper examines the issue.', 'en_US'),
(2221, 'Effect of Insect Damage on Fusarium Ear Rot and Fumonisin Concentration in Bt and Non-Bt Corn Hybrids.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2222, 'Reduction of Fungal and Fumonisin Levels in Bt Corn.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2223, 'Assessing the potential for unintended effects in genetically modified potatoes perturbed in metabolic and developmental processes. Targeted analysis of key nutrients and anti-nutrients.', 'Targeted compositional analysis was carried out on transgenic potato tubers of either cultivar (cv.) Record or cv. Desireé to assess the potential for unintended effects caused by the genetic modification process. The range of transgenic lines analysed included those modified in primary carbohydrate metabolism, polyamine biosynthesis and glycoprotein processing. Controls included wildtype tubers, tubers produced from plants regenerated through tissue culture (including a callus phase) and tubers derived from transformation with the ''empty vector'' i.e. no specific target gene included (with the exception of the kanamycin resistance gene as a selectable marker). Metabolite analysis included soluble carbohydrates, glycoalkaloids, vitamin C, total nitrogen and fatty acids.  Trypsin inhibitor activity was also assayed. These cover the major compounds recommended by the OECD in their Consensus Document on Compositional Considerations for New Varieties of Potatoes:  Key Food and Feed Nutrients, Anti-Nutrients and Toxicants (2002). Data was statistically analysed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) for individual compounds and, where applicable, principal component analysis (PCA). In general, targeted compositional analysis revealed no consistent differences between GM lines and respective controls. No construct specifically induced unintended effects.  Statistically significant differences between wildtype controls and specific GM lines did occur but appeared to be random and not associated with any specific construct. Indeed such significant differences were also found between wildtypes and both tissue culture derived tubers and tubers derived fromtransformation with the empty vector. This raises the possibility that somaclonal variation (known to occur significantly in potato, depending on genotype) may be responsible for an unknown proportion of any differences observed between specific GM lines and the wildtype. The most obvious differences seen in GC-MS profiles were between the two potato varieties used in the study.', 'en_US'),
(2224, 'Concentration of moniliformin produced by Fusarium species in grains of transgenic Bt maize hybrids compared to their isogenic counterparts and commercial varieties under European corn borer pressure.', 'The European corn borer (ECB), Ostrinia nubilalis Hb., is a major pest of maize in Central Europe and is suspected to promote infection of maize with Fusarium species. The objectives of this study were to (1) determine moniliformin (MON) concentration in early maturing European Bt maize hybrids, their isogenic counterparts, commercial cultivars and experimental hybrids, (2) evaluate the association between MON concentration and ECB resistance and (3) correlate MON concentration with concentrations of other mycotoxins determined from the same plant materials. The field experiments were performed at five locations in Germany. MON concentration was significantly higher with manual infestation of ECB larvae (296 ìg/kg) than under insecticide protection (66 ìg/kg). Bt hybrids showed significantly lower MON concentrations and higher grain yields under manual ECB infestation than their corresponding isogenic counterparts, as well as commercial and experimental hybrids. All ECB resistance traits and grain yield under ECB infestation were significantly correlated with MON concentration. Correlations between concentrations of MON and other Fusarium mycotoxins were not significant. The use of Bt maize hybrids or insecticides to control ECB reduces the contamination of maize grains with MON in Central Europe. The presence of resistance genes against Fusarium species in the current elite maize germplasm was indicated by ECB susceptible non-Bt hybrids with low-MON concentrations.', 'en_US'),
(2225, 'Relationship between European corn borer resistance and concentration of mycotoxins produced by Fusarium spp. in grains of transgenic Bt maize hybrids, their isogenic counterparts, and commercial varieties.', 'The European corn borer (ECB), Ostrinia nubilalis Hb., is a major pest of maize in central Europe and promotes the infection of maize with Fusarium spp. In this study, transgenic Bt maize hybrids were compared with their isogenic counterparts, and with commercial hybrids from the recommended list with regard to their level of ECB resistance and their concentration of deoxynivalenol (DON), its 15-acetyl (15-A-DON) and 3-acetyl (3-A-DON) derivatives, nivalenol (NIV), fusarenon-X (FUS-X), fumonisins (FUM), and zearalenon (ZEN) in harvested grains. The field experiments were performed in Germany at four locations in 1999 and at five locations in 2000. Transgenic Bt hybrids showed significantly lower means than their corresponding isogenic counterparts and than commercial hybrids for all resistance traits: damage rating of stalks, number of larvae per plant, number of larvae per ear, and percentage of damaged plants or ears under infestation. Among all mycotoxins analysed, DON consistently showed the highest concentration across all year × location combinations. Mycotoxin concentrations varied significantly between locations, years and genotypes, whereas mycotoxin concentrations were not significantly different between infested and protected plots. Associations between ECB resistance traits and mycotoxin concentrations were not consistent across years. It is concluded that under central European conditions, the use of Bt maize hybrids will only slightly reduce the contamination of maize kernels with mycotoxins produced by Fusarium spp.', 'en_US'),
(2226, 'Nontarget effects of Bt corn on pathogenic and toxigenic fungi.', 'There may be nontarget effects of transgenic corn hybrids, positive and negative, on fungi that interact with the targeted pests. What are the effects of Bt corn on fungi that are associated with corn plants and their insect pests?', 'en_US'),
(2227, 'Indigenous plants and weeds on the Makhathini Flats as refuge hosts to maintain bollworm population susceptibility to transgenic cotton (Bollgard?).', 'The Makhathini Flats is mainly a small-scale farming area, with many farmers planting cotton varieties that have been modified to contain the Bt gene derived from Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki (Bollgard?). This gene produces an endotoxin that provides resistance to attack from the bollworm complex. Cotton growers who plant transgenic cotton are required to plant a refuge area of non-transgenic cotton, as stated in the license agreement for Bollgard?. In addition to this requirement, indigenous plants and weeds were investigated as an additional refuge for bollworms. Scouting was used to monitor the number of bollworms (American or ''African'' bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner), spiny bollworms Earias biplaga Walker and Earias insulana Boisduval and the red bollworm Diparopsis castanea Hampson). Bollworm larvae were found to be present in high numbers on nine plant species that may serve as refuges. Abutilon austro-africanum Hochr. and A. sonneratianum (Cav.) Sweet, appeared to be the preferred alternative host plants of spiny bollworm.', 'en_US'),
(2228, 'Consensus Document on Compositional Considerations for New Varieties of Potatoes - Key Food and Feed Nutrients, Anti-Nutrients and Toxicants.', 'Food and feed products of modern biotechnology are being commercialised and marketed in OECD Member countries. The need has been identified for detailed technical work aimed at establishing appropriate approaches to the safety assessment of these products.At a Workshop held in Aussois, France (OECD, 1997), it was recognised that a consistent approach to the establishment of substantial equivalence might be improved through consensus on the appropriate components (e.g., key nutrients, key toxicants and anti-nutritional compounds) on a crop-bycrop basis, which should be considered in the comparison. It is recognised that the components may differ from crop to crop. The Task Force therefore decided to develop consensus documents on compositional data. These data are used to identify similarities and differences following a comparative approach as part of a food and feed safety assessment. They should be useful to the development of guidelines, both national and international and to encourage information sharing among OECD Member countries. These documents are a compilation of current information that is important in food and feed safety assessment. They provide a technical tool for regulatory officials as a general guide and reference source, and also for industry and other interested parties and will complement those of the Working Group on Harmonisation of Regulatory Oversight in Biotechnology. They are mutually acceptable to, but not legally binding on, Member countries. They are not intended to be a comprehensive description of all issues considered to be necessary for a safety assessment, but a base set for an individual product that supports the comparative approach. In assessing an individual product, additional components may be required depending on the specific case in question.In order to ensure that scientific and technical developments are taken into account, Member countries have agreed that these consensus documents will be reviewed periodically and updated as necessary. Users of these documents are invited to provide the OECD with new scientific and technical information, and to make proposals for additional areas to be considered.', 'en_US'),
(2229, 'Spread of recombinant DNA by roots and pollen of transgenic potato plants, identified by highly specific biomonitoring using natural transformation of an Acinetobacter sp.', 'Transgenic potato plants with the nptII gene coding for neomycin phosphotransferase (kanamycin resistance) as a selection marker were examined for the spread of recombinant DNA into the environment. We used the recombinant fusion of nptII with the tg4 terminator for a novel biomonitoring technique. This depended on natural transformation of Acinetobacter sp. strain BD413 cells having in their genomes a terminally truncated nptII gene (nptII''; kanamycin sensitivity) followed by the tg4 terminator. Integration of the recombinant fusion DNA by homologous recombination in nptII'' and tg4 restored nptII, leading to kanamycin-resistant transformants. DNA of the transgenic potato was detectable with high sensitivity, while no transformants were obtained with the DNA of other transgenic plants harboring nptII in different genetic contexts. The recombinant DNA was frequently found in rhizosphere extracts of transgenic potato plants from field plots. In a series of field plot and greenhouse experiments we identified two sources of this DNA: spread by roots during plant growth and by pollen during flowering. Both sources also contributed to the spread of the transgene into the rhizospheres of nontransgenic plants in the vicinity. The longest persistence of transforming DNA in field soil was observed with soil from a potato field in 1997 sampled in the following year in April and then stored moist at 4°C in the dark for 4 years prior to extract preparation and transformation. In this study natural transformation is used as a reliable laboratory technique to detect recombinant DNA but is not used for monitoring horizontal gene transfer in the environment.', 'en_US'),
(2230, 'Ecological impacts of genetically modified crops - Experiences from ten years of experimental field research and commercial cultivation.', 'The Swiss Expert Committee for Biosafety SECB advises on issues related to the protection of people and the environment in the areas of biotechnology and gene technology.  Consequently, the SECB counsels the authorities on permit applications for field trials and commercial cultivation of genetically modified (GM) crops and issues statements on safety aspects of GM crops.The SECB has appointed the Agroscope Reckenholz-Tänikon Research Station ART to review the available scientific data on ecological effects of commercially grown GM crops to enable the Committee to apply the results obtained from the worldwide experience with GM crops as a basis for its decision-making process. The present study focuses on insect-resistant maize and herbicide-tolerant soybean and oilseed rape, respectively, representing three of the major GM crops of significance for Swiss agriculture, and their possible impact on the environment. Peer-reviewed journals, scientific books and reports from international organizations have been the main source of data for the study.We believe that the study offers a science-based and broad overview of the worldwide situation of possible impacts of GM crops on the environment. We regret, however, that most of the data originate from large-scale field trials rather than from commercial cultivation. This lack of data from commercial cultivation is mostly due to the fact that legal requirements for a post-market monitoring of GM crops are missing in the major GM crop-producing countries. Furthermore, the conventional farming practices in those countries differ largely from the integrated-production system mainly applied in Switzerland, which makes the transferability of data difficult, especially when internationally recognized baselines for the comparison of environmental effects of GM crops in the context of modern agricultural systems are not available.Some committee members would have preferred a stronger focus on remaining uncertainties and knowledge gaps, as well as on the controversial discussions among scientists concerning the interpretation of scientific data. Therefore, the study does not represent the position of all committee members. A minority of the committee members dissents with the conclusion that the data available up to now do not provide any scientific evidence for harm caused to the environment by commercial cultivation of GM crops.Nevertheless, we believe that the Committee will profit from the worldwide experience drawn from the cultivation of GM crops reviewed in this study when assessing the risk of field trials with GM crops, taking into account the precautionary approach and a sustainable agricultural development in Switzerland. We hope that this study contributes to a sound discussion on benefits and risks of GM crops.', 'en_US'),
(2231, 'Glyphosate-tolerant alfalfa is compositionally equivalent to conventional alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.).', 'Glyphosate-tolerant alfalfa (GTA) was developed to withstand over-the-top applications of glyphosate, the active ingredient in Roundup agricultural herbicides. As a part of the safety assessment, GTA (designated J101 × J163) was grown under controlled field conditions at geographically diverse locations within the United States during the 2001 and 2003 field seasons along with control and other conventional alfalfa varieties for compositional assessment. Field trials were conducted using a randomized complete block design with four replication blocks at each site. Alfalfa forage was harvested at the late bud to early bloom stage from each plot at five field sites in 2001 (establishment year) and from four field sites in 2003 (third year of stand). The concentration of proximate constituents, fibers, amino acids, coumestrol, and minerals in the forage was measured. The results showed that the forage from GTA J101 × J163 is compositionally equivalent to forage from the control and conventional alfalfa varieties.', 'en_US'),
(2232, 'Plant biotechnology: ecological case studies on herbicide resistance.', 'The emerging field of molecular ecology aims to improve the ecological predictability of transgenic crop plants. The most widely cultivated lines are Roundup-Ready® plants, which are genetically modified to be resistant to the broad-spectrum herbicide glyphosate. Recent publications demonstrate two ecological effects that were not anticipated: the widespread emergence of glyphosate-resistant weed biotypes and the formation of a metabolic herbicidal residue. Both effects appear to be due to the increased use of glyphosate rather than the genetic modification in the transgenic crop plant. With one prominent exception, opinions collected from the literature point towards a certain degree of resistance mismanagement and an inadequate testing of the ecological effects of extensive glyphosate use.', 'en_US'),
(2233, 'GMO (Bt-Cry1Ac gene) cottonseed meal is similar to non-GMO low free gossypol cottonseed meal for growth performance of broiler chickens.', 'A study, of 7 weeks duration, was conducted for comparative evaluation of feeding value of diets containing cottonseed meals obtained from two types of cotton seeds, i.e. transgenic Bt (JKC-738) and its normal isoline (non-Bt) seeds obtained from J.K. Seeds, Hyderabad (India) in broiler chicken for optimum performance and carcass yield. The two types of cottonseeds were first processed for solvent extraction to obtain solvent-extracted cottonseed meals (CSM). The total and free gossypol (g kg-1) contents of different types of seeds were 32.7 and 11.3 in Bt and 38.7 and 13.5 in non-Bt type. The corresponding values of total and free gossypol contents of meals (solvent extracted) were 12.5 and 0.7 in Bt, and 12.5 and 0.4 g kg-1 in non-Bt, respectively.Day-old broiler chicks (n = 120) were divided into 12 groups of 10 each. Three experimental diets (iso-nitrogenous- 230 and 210 g kg-1 CP and iso-caloric- 12.15 and 12.35 MJ ME/kg for 0-4 and 4-7 weeks for starting and finishing phases, respectively) were formulated. Diet D1 was a typical maize-soyabean meal-based control diet. Two other diets were prepared by incorporating 100 g kg-1 each of Bt CSM (D2) and non-Bt CSM (D3) in the control diet. The calcium, available phosphorus and all the limiting amino acids for poultry, namely lysine, methionine, cystine, threonine and arginine were similar in all the diets in both growth phases (0-4 weeks starting and 4-7 weeks finishing phases). Each dietary treatment was offered to four replicated groups of birds from day old to 7 weeks of age. The birds were reared in battery cages with group wise brooding, feeding and watering facilities. The management and vaccination practices were kept identical for all the dietary treatments. Birds were weighed at weekly intervals and data of feed intake were also recorded simultaneously. At the end of seventh week of age, eight birds per treatment (two birds/replicate) were slaughtered to study the effect of feeding CSM types on different carcass traits and development of digestive and immune organs.Body weight gain, feed intake and feed conversion efficiency, did not differ statistically (P>0.05) either at starting (0-4 weeks), or overall (0-7 weeks) phases. However, during finishing phase (4-7 weeks), significantly (P<0.01) lower feed intake with better (P<0.05) FCR was observed in chicks fed Bt CSM diet. The carcass traits also remained statistically (P>0.05) similar due to various dietary treatments except for thigh (P<0.05). The dry matter metabolizability, nitrogen retention and blood biochemical constituents, viz. plasma protein, total cholesterol and haemoglobin did not differ statistically due to dietary treatments.The study concluded that neither the gossypol content nor transgenic gene/protein in Bt CSM had any deleterious effect on growth performance, blood biochemicals and various carcass characteristics of growing broiler chickens and therefore GMO (Bt-Cry1Ac gene) cottonseed meal is similar in growth performance to broilers as non-GMO low free gossypol cottonseed meal and could safely be included up to 100 g kg-1 level in maize-soybean meal-based diet up to 0-7 weeks of age of broiler chicken. ', 'en_US'),
(2234, 'Shall I compare thee to a GM potato?', 'A fundamental issue in the safety assessment of genetically modified crops is the question of whether unintentional changes have occurred in the crop plant as a consequence of the genetic modification. This question was addressed recently by using a powerful metabolite fingerprinting and metabolite profiling method to assess whether genetically modified potatoes are substantially similar to their corresponding conventional cultivars.', 'en_US'),
(2235, 'Investigation on possible allergenicity of 19 different commercial enzymes used in the food industry.', 'The aim of the study was to investigate the safety to allergic patients of 19 commercially available and authority-approved enzymes used in the food industry. Enzymes produced by genetically modified organisms were included. Four hundred consecutive adult patients with a diagnosed allergy to inhalation allergens, food allergens, bee or wasp were included. All had at least one positive skin prick test to the above allergens.Skin prick testing with the 19 enzymes was performed on the forearm and if positive (in 13 patients), in vitro histamine release from blood basophils were performed. Patients with positive results in skin prick test were subsequently reinvestigated with further purified enzymes and finally challenged orally with the enzymes in a double-blind, placebo-controlled protocol. Only one reaction to a placebo challenge was seen.In some instances a positive skin prick test result or a positive histamine release was seen elicited by the enzymes, but since none of the patients were positive to any of the commercial enzymes in the subsequent oral challenges using exaggerated dosages of the enzymes compared to normal daily intake, the findings are without clinical relevance.A wide variety of enzyme classes and origins was included in the study. Because there were no allergenic findings of clinical relevance it is concluded that ingestion of food enzymes in general is not considered to be a concern with regard to food allergy.', 'en_US'),
(2236, 'Carotenoid-Biofortified Maize Maintains Adequate Vitamin A Status in Mongolian Gerbils.', 'Efforts to biofortify maize with provitamin A carotenoids have been successful, but the impact on vitamin A (VA) status has not been determined. We conducted two studies that investigated the bioefficacy of provitamin A carotenoids from maize and compared maize percentage and carotenoid concentrations on VA status in VA-depleted Mongolian gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus). Gerbils (n = 40/study) were fed a white maize diet 4 wk prior to treatment. In study 1, treatments (n = 10/group) included oil control, 60% high-ß-carotene maize, and ß-carotene or VA supplements (matched to high-ß-carotene maize). In study 2, gerbils were fed 30 or 60% orange or yellow maize diets. Gerbils were killed after 4 wk. In study 1, liver VA concentrations, compared with the high-ß-carotene maize group (0.25 ± 0.15 µmol/g), were higher in the VA group (0.56 ± 0.15 µmol/g, P < 0.05), lower in the control (0.10 ± 0.04 µmol/g, P < 0.05), and did not differ in the ß-carotene group (0.25 ± 0.08 µmol/g). Bioconversion was ~3 µg ß-carotene to 1 µg retinol (1.5 mol ß-carotene to 1 mol retinol). The liver ß-carotene content was greater in the high-ß-carotene maize group (26.4 ± 6.0 nmol) than in the ß-carotene supplement group (14.1 ± 6.0 nmol; P < 0.05). In study 2, the gerbils'' VA status improved with increasing dietary ß-carotene. Liver VA in gerbils fed orange maize was greater than in those fed yellow maize, regardless of maize percentage (P < 0.05). Biofortified maize adequately maintained VA status in Mongolian gerbils and was as efficacious as ß-carotene supplementation. In populations consuming maize as a staple food, using orange instead of white maize could dramatically affect VA status.', 'en_US'),
(2237, 'Impacts of insect-resistant transgenic potatoes on the survival and fecundity of a parasitoid and an insect predator.', 'The impacts of selected transgenic potato lines expressing either the cry1Ac9 or cry9Aa2 gene were evaluated in the laboratory on two beneficial insects, a parasitoid, Apanteles subandinus, and a predator, the Tasmanian lacewing, Micromus tasmaniae. Potato tuberworm larvae (Phthorimaea operculella) reared on transgenic or non-transgenic tubers were exposed to the parasitoid, and then reared to pupae. Percentage parasitism was similar for hosts reared on transgenic or non-transgenic tubers. Male and female adult parasitoids that emerged from hosts reared on transgenic or non-transgenic tubers were paired and released into containers with a non-transgenic tuber infested with P. operculella larvae. There was no significant difference in the percentage of female progeny from parasitoid parents that had developed in larval hosts reared on transgenic tubers compared to those from hosts reared on non-transgenic tubers of the same cultivar. M. tasmaniae larvae were fed green peach aphids, Myzus persicae, reared on transgenic or non-transgenic plants. There was no marked difference in survival of larvae to adults (70?80%) for lacewings fed aphids reared on transgenic or non-transgenic foliage. There was no significant difference between the two treatments for lacewing fecundity. The compatibility of using insect-resistant transgenic potatoes with integrated pest management is discussed.', 'en_US'),
(2238, 'Gene flow in common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.).', 'This study was conducted in Brazil in order to assess the potential risk posed by gene escape from transgenic into non-transgenic plants and wild populations. A new methodology was applied to evaluate the gene flow between common bean cultivars, by means of a specially delineated experiment in two stages. The first stage consisted of the planting of one cultivar with violet flowers (BB) as pollen source (''Diamante Negro''), and a receiver (''Talismã'') with white flowers (bb), at different distances. The source was sown in the center of the area. The pollen receiver cultivar was sown, in concentrical squares around it. At maturity, the rows were sampled at varied distances from the source in the four cardinal directions. In the second stage, the sampled seeds of the previous stage were sown, and the percentage of outcrossing was evaluated during flowering through the presence of violet flowers (Bb). The highest frequency of natural hybrids, 0.136%, occurred at a distance of 0.5 m between the cultivars. The natural outcrossing rate was practically zero beyond a distance of 3.25 m.', 'en_US'),
(2239, 'A review of the detection and fate of novel plant molecules derived from biotechnology in livestock production.', 'Since the commercialization of the first genetically modified (GM) crop in 1996, the amount of arable land dedicated to the production of GM feed has increased significantly. Despite widespread adoption of GM foods and feeds, public perception of their safety remains mixed. To provide consumers the opportunity for choice, some countries have adopted mandatory labeling of GM foods and feeds when their adventitious presence exceeds a defined threshold percentage. Methods for detecting and quantifying GM plants in feeds include protein- and DNA-based assays, but their sensitivity may be influenced by the techniques used in feed processing. Interest in the consumption of transgenic protein and DNA has prompted investigations of their fate within the gastrointestinal tract of livestock and the potential to which transgenes or their products may be incorporated into tissues. Transgenic protein has not been detected in any animal tissues or products. Fragments of DNA from endogenous, high-copy number chloroplast genes from plants have been detected in poultry, pig and ruminant tissues. Low-copy endogenous and transgenic DNA in animal tissues have been detected but to a lesser extent than high-copy genes. Current research suggests that the passage of dietary DNA fragments across the intestinal wall is a natural physiological event, the likelihood of which is dependent on their concentration in the feed. To date, the transgenic traits approved for expression in crops used as feeds have not posed a safety concern for livestock.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(2240, 'Studies on feeds from genetically modified plants (GMP) - Contributions to nutritional and safety assessment.', 'Since 1997, 18 studies with feeds from genetically modified plants (GMP) in the nutrition of dairy cows, growing bulls, growing and finishing pigs, laying hens, chicken for finishing as well as growing and laying quails were conducted at the Federal Agricultural Research Centre (FAL) in Braunschweig (Germany).The majority of the experiments (16) were undertaken with GMP of the so-called first generation (plants with input traits and without substantial changes in composition) such as Bt-maize, Pat-maize, Pat-sugar beet, Gt-soybean, Gt-potatoes and Bt-potatoes. Two studies were carried out with GMP of the second generation (plants with output traits or with substantial changes in their chemical composition) such as an altered fatty acids profile in rapeseed or inulin potatoes. In all experiments, feeds from GMP were compared with their isogenic counterparts.The iso- and transgenic feeds were analysed for their composition (proximates, fibre fraction, amino acids, fatty acid pattern, minerals) and undesirable substances (e.g., mycotoxins). Animal studies were carried out for nutritional and safety assessment such as digestibility, feed intake, health and performance of target animal species and quality of food of animal origin. Reproduction was studied in a 10-generation experiment with quails and a 4-generation experiment with laying hens. Duration of experiments and number of animals were limited in some cases due to small amounts of GM-feed available for experimentation.Attention was drawn to the fate of DNA during feed processing (silage making, oil extraction), in the digestive tract of animals (slaughtering of animals 0, 4, 8, 12 and 24 h after feeding) and in the animal body (samples from several organs and tissues).In agreement with more than 100 animal studies available to date, results show no significant differences in the nutritional value of feeds from GMP of the first generation in comparison with non-GMP varieties. To date, no fragments of recombinant DNA have been found in any organ or tissue sample from animals fed GMP. The lower content of mycotoxins in Bt-maize and side effects in GMP of the second generation are of safety concern.The results indicate that routine feeding studies with target animal species add little to nutritional assessment of feed from GMP of the first generation, but they are of public interest and important for safety assessment. These studies will play a more important role in nutritional and safety assessment of feeds from GMP with output traits. Proposals for such studies were made on the basis of previous experiments', 'en_US'),
(2241, 'Local genetic diversity of sorghum in a village in northern Cameroon: structure and dynamics of landraces.', 'We present the first study of patterns of genetic diversity of sorghum landraces at the local scale. Understanding landrace diversity aids in deciphering evolutionary forces under domestication, and has applications in the conservation of genetic resources and their use in breeding programs. Duupa farmers in a village in Northern Cameroon distinguished 59 named sorghum taxa, representing 46 landraces. In each field, seeds are sown as a mixture of landraces (mean of 12 landraces per field), giving the potential for extensive gene flow. What level of genetic diversity underlies the great morphological diversity observed among landraces? Given the potential for gene flow, how well defined genetically is each landrace? To answer these questions, we recorded spatial patterns of planting and farmers'' perceptions of landraces, and characterized 21 landraces using SSR markers. Analysis using distance and clustering methods grouped the 21 landraces studied into four clusters. These clusters correspond to functionally and ecologically distinct groups of landraces. Within-landrace genetic variation accounted for 30% of total variation. The average F is over landraces was 0.68, suggesting high inbreeding within landraces. Differentiation among landraces was substantial and significant (F st = 0.36). Historical factors, variation in breeding systems, and farmers'' practices all affected patterns of genetic variation. Farmers'' practices are key to the maintenance, despite gene flow, of landraces with different combinations of agronomically and ecologically pertinent traits. They must be taken into account in strategies of conservation and use of genetic resources.', 'en_US'),
(2242, 'How does scientific risk assessment of GM crops fit within the wider risk analysis?', 'The debate concerning genetically modified crops illustrates confusion between the role of scientists and that of wider society in regulatory decision making. We identify two fundamental misunderstandings, which, if rectified, would allow progress with confidence. First, scientific risk assessment needs to test well-defined hypotheses, not simply collect data. Second, risk assessments need to be placed in the wider context of risk analysis to enable the wider ''non-scientific'' questions to be considered in regulatory decision making. Such integration and understanding is urgently required because the challenges to regulation will escalate as scientific progress advances.', 'en_US'),
(2243, 'Molecular farming on the rise - GMO regulators still walking a tightrope.', 'Recent increases in EU commercial and academic activities in molecular farming, and the proximity to market-stage of the first plant-made pharmaceuticals, represent a call to action for EU regulators. Drawing on the North American debate on molecular farming, it will be argued that both the rationale and the risks of molecular farming will differ significantly from those of first generation GM crops. Based on these differences, the suitability of the existing regulatory frameworks, which were developed in response to the arrival of earlier products, is discussed, and specific options for adapting the already complex EU regulatory system to cater for molecular farming are examined.', 'en_US'),
(2244, 'Characterization of Soybean Exhibiting High Expression of a Synthetic Bacillus thuringiensis cry1A Transgene That Confers a High Degree of Resistance to Lepidopteran Pests.', 'We report the generation of transgenic soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] via Agrobacterium-mediated gene transfers of a cry1A gene (tic107) from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) that exhibits a high degree of resistance against the lepidopteran pests Pseudoplusia includens (Walker) (soybean looper), Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) (soybean podworm), and Anticarsia gemmatalis Hübner (velvetbean caterpillar). Three transgenic soybean lines (862, 726, and 781) were evaluated for expression, molecular composition, efficacy against target pests, and agronomic characteristics. We have designed and tested an expression cassette that consistently and reproducibly generates transgenic soybeans that accumulate the tic107 protein at levels as high as 6.12 µg mg?1 of total extractable protein. Expression levels of this magnitude of a Bt insecticidal protein have never been reported in soybean. Previous reports have indicated expression levels 100-fold lower in the highest-expressing lines. In addition, the phenotypes of these high-expressing lines were indistinguishable from their negative segregant and the transformation parent (Asgrow var. ''A3237''). Insect bioassay data demonstrate complete protection against soybean looper, soybean podworm, and velvetbean caterpillar when negative controls exhibited defoliation as high as 98%. Unlike previous reports of transgenic soybeans, we report here highly efficacious, single-copy, and normal phenotypes of transgenic soybean plants containing the highly expressed cry1A gene.', 'en_US'),
(2245, 'A 90-day safety study of genetically modified rice expressing Cry1Ab protein (Bacillus thuringiensis toxin) in Wistar rats', 'An animal model for safety assessment of genetically modified foods was tested as part of the SAFOTEST project. In a 90-day feeding study on Wistar rats, the transgenic KMD1 rice expressing Cry1Ab protein was compared to its non-transgenic parental wild type, Xiushui 11. The KMD1 rice contained 15 mg Bt toxin/kg and based on the average feed consumption the daily intake was 0.54 mg Bt toxin/kg body weight.No adverse effects on animal behaviour or weight gain were observed during the study. Blood samples collected one week prior to sacrifice were analyzed and compared for standard haematological and biochemical parameters. A few parameters were significantly different, but all within the normal reference intervals for rats of this breed and age and not in relation to any other findings, thus not considered treatment related. Upon sacrifice a large number of organs were weighed, macroscopic and histopathological examinations were performed with only minor changes to report. The aim of the study was to use a known animal model in performance of safety assessment of a GM crop, in this case KMD1 rice. The results show no adverse or toxic effects of KMD1 rice when tested in the design used in this 90-day study. Nevertheless the experiences from this study lead to the overall conclusion that safety assessment for unintended effects of a GM crop cannot be done without additional test group(s).', 'en_US'),
(2246, 'Perceptions of the Impacts of Genetically Modified Cotton Varieties: A Case Study of the Cotton Industry in Gujarat, India.', 'The paper reports the findings of a study designed to consider the impact of the adoption of Bt cotton on markets, businesses, and institutional arrangements in India. Given that evidence to date suggests that widespread adoption of Bt cotton by farmers is likely to increase production, this study aims to assess possible implications for markets (access to inputs, prices of inputs and outputs, etc.) and local industries and to identify potential winners and losers. The results suggest that there are impacts on the cotton industry following from the release of Bt hybrids, and so far the impacts are most noticeable ''upstream'' (i.e., the input suppliers), where companies are rapidly moving away from the sale of bollworm insecticide and attempting to sell Bt seeds. Seed companies are looking for partnerships with Monsanto, the owner of the Bt gene. One reason that companies are keen to move away from insecticide is so they can avoid the need for credit supply to their customers. Seed purchase is not normally through credit, whereas insecticide purchase is. Issues for companies ''downstream'' (gins, textile manufacturers) relate more to the better quality of Bt cotton and the need for adequate segregation of Bt and non-Bt cotton.', 'en_US'),
(2247, 'Toxic secondary metabolite production in genetically modified potatoes in response to stress.', 'Potatoes produce a number of toxic secondary metabolites, which are divided into two groups: the sesquiterpenes and the glycoalkaloids (PGAs): whereas PGAs are largely preformed and present in toxic quantities in both the foliage and ''green'' potatoes, it is well documented that the levels of PGAs and sesquiterpenes are effected by many biotic an abiotic stresses. The development of genetically modified potato varieties has made it prudent to ascertain whether there may be changes in the amounts or types of these secondary metabolites either as a direct effect of the transgene or due to its interactions with environmental variables. Transgenic potato lines were exposed, along with nontransgenic lines, to a range of biotic and abiotic stresses and a range of environmental conditions in the field and store. Following stressing, a comparison was made of levels of potato glycoalkaloid and sesquiterpene levels between the two groups. Significant differences were observed in the levels of both glycoalkaloid and sesquiterpene levels between transgenic and control material and between infected and noninfected material.', 'en_US'),
(2248, 'Invasive ornamental plants: Problems, challenges and molecular tools to neutralize their invasiveness.', 'The spread of invasive plants is one of the most challenging ecological problems in the 21st Century, causing a $35 billion loss per year to the economy in the United States alone. More than 50% of all invasive plants and 85% of invasive woody species were introduced originally for ornamental and landscape use. Because many nonnative plants are commercially important and widely utilized for various purposes, completely banning their use and prohibiting their imports are unpractical solutions for control. On the other hand, the methods currently used to control the spread of nonnative plants are ineffective, expensive, or environmentally problematic. Recent advances in plant biotechnology may enable us to create sterile cultivars of these nonnative ornamental crops of commercial value. The use of sterile cultivars should reduce or eliminate the undesirable spread of some nonnative invasive plants into natural areas.', 'en_US'),
(2249, 'Phytoremediation-A novel and promising approach for environmental clean-up.', 'Phytoremediation is an eco friendly approach for remediaton of contaminated soil andwater using plants. Phytoremediation is comprised of two components, one by the root colonizing microbes and the other by plants themselves, which degrade the toxic compounds to further non-toxic metabolites. Various compounds, viz. organic compounds, xenobiotics, pesticides and heavy metals, are among the contaminants that can be effectively remediated by plants. Plant cell cultures, hairy roots and algae have been studied for their ability to degrade a number of contaminants. They exhibit various enzymatic activities for degradation of xenobiotics, viz. dehalogenation, denitrification leading to breakdown of complex compounds to simple and non-toxic products. Plants and algae also have the ability to hyper accumulate various heavy metals by the action of phytochelatins and metal lothioneins forming complexes with heavy metals and translocate them into vacuoles. Molecular cloning and expression of heavy metal accumulator genes and xenobiotic degrading enzyme coding genes resulted in enhanced remediation rates, which will be helpful in making the process for large-scale application to remediate vast areas of contaminated soils. A few companies worldwide are also working on this aspect of bioremediation, mainly by transgenic plants to replace expensive physical or chemical remediation techniques. Selection and testing multiple hyperaccumulator plants, protein engineering of phytochelatin and membrane transporter genes and their expression would enhance the rate of phytoremediation, making this process a successful one for bioremediation of environmental contamination. Recent years have seen major investments in the R&D, which have also resulted in competition of filing patents by several companies for economic gains. The details of science & technology related to phytoremediation have been discussed with a focus on future trends and prospects of global relevance.', 'en_US'),
(2250, 'Domestic import regulations for genetically modified organisms and their compatibility with WTO rules.', 'While the estimated global area of transgenic or genetically modified (GM) crops continues to increase the vast majority of acreage (99 per cent) remains confined to just four countries, namely the US, Argentina, Canada and China. In most developing countries it is still not legal to plant GM crops on a commercial basis, largely due to hold-ups in the approval process.  Even countries that have in the past moved rapidly on the adoption of GM organisms (GMOs), including China and Argentina, are now slowing down the approval processes. While the regulatory blockages are usually justified on biosafety grounds, trade concerns appear to play an increasing role with countries fearing export losses in markets such as the EU, Japan and Korea where the import regulations for GMOs continue to be tightened. The ongoing trade dispute between the US and the EU''s continued de facto moratorium on the approval of new GMOs is also adding to the prevailing uncertainty in the international commodities market.In this context, the first part of this paper will outline regulations affecting the import of GMOs and GM products in selected countries, including import restrictions, risk assessment provisions and labelling requirements. While most of the attention will focus on some of the major OECD countries, including the EU, the US and Australia/New Zealand, the paper will also review regulations in key developing countries in Asia, Latin America and Africa. The second part will look at possible conflicts between national import regulations and WTO rules, in particular regarding the current and proposed EU regulations. To this end, the section will briefly outline the relevant WTO agreements; assess the trade-restrictiveness of mandatory traceability and labelling requirements; evaluate whether GMO regulations covering substantially equivalent GM products might be trade-discriminatory; look at the role of precaution as a justification for an import ban on GMOs, and briefly discuss the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety and how its provisions might impact on a possible dispute at the WTO.', 'en_US'),
(2251, 'Effects of transgenic Cry1A+CpTI cotton and Cry1Ac toxin on the parasitoid, Campoketis chlorideae (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae).', 'The effect of transgenic double genes, Cry1A+CpTI cotton and Cry1Ac toxin on the parasitoid, Campoketis chlorideae Uchida of cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner), was investigated in the laboratory. Helicoverpa armigera larvae when in the first, second and third instar could not survive if fed on transgenic cotton leaves. Consequently, C. chlorideae larvae could not complete their development if parasitizing on such hosts. After H. armigera larvae were reared on transgenic or traditional cotton leaves for 12-48 hours, they were parasitized by C. chlorideae females. Parasitized larvae continued to feed on transgenic or traditional cotton for 12?48 h. The present results showed that the body weight of larvae of the parasitoids were significantly reduced when parasitized hosts fed on transgenic cotton leaves compared to those fed on traditional cotton. Duration of egg and larvae stage were significantly prolonged, pupal and adult weight of C. chloridae was decreased when the host larvae fed on transgenic cotton leaves longer than 48 h. The development duration of C. chlorideae pupae on the hosts fed on transgenic cotton leaves in each treatment was not significantly different from those of controls. The longevity of parasitoid females and males fed with a solution containing Cry1Ac toxin was not significantly different with that of the control.', 'en_US'),
(2252, 'Effects of transgenic plants on soil microorganisms.', 'The rapid development of agricultural biotechnology and release of new transgenic plants for agriculture has provided many economic benefits, but has also raised concern over the potential impact of transgenic plants on the environment. Considerable research has now been conducted on the effects of transgenic plants on soil microorganisms. These effects include unintentional changes in the chemical compositions of root exudates, and the direct effects of transgenic proteins on nontarget species of soil microorganisms. Most studies to date suggest that transgenic plants that have been released cause minor changes in microbial community structures that are often transient in duration. However, due to our limited knowledge of the linkage between microbial community structure and function, more work needs to be done on a case-by-case basis to further evaluate the effects of transgenic plants on soil microorganisms and soil ecosystem functions. This review summarizes the results of a variety of experiments that have been conducted to specifically test the effects of transgenic plants on soil microorganisms, and particularly examines the types of methods that are being used to study microbial interactions with transgenic plants.', 'en_US'),
(2253, 'Effects of Bt maize-fed prey on the generalist predator Poecilus cupreus L. (Coleoptera: Carabidae).', 'We investigated the effects of transgenic maize (Zea mays) expressing Bacillus thuringienses toxin (Bt maize) on larval and adult Poecilus cupreus carabid beetles in laboratory studies. In no-choice trials, neonate P. cupreus larvae were fed exclusively with Spodoptera littoralis caterpillars, which had been raised on Bt maize. S. littoralis raised on conventional maize or high quality Calliphora sp. pupae were fed to the beetle larvae in two control treatments. Bt-maize-fed caterpillar prey increased mortality to 100 within 40days. The experiment was repeated with 10-day-old beetle larvae. Bt treatment resulted in fewer pupae than in both controls, and in a higher mortality than in the Calliphora control. S. littoralis was suitable as exclusive prey in no-choice tests, at least for 40days, although prey quality seemed to be low compared to Calliphora pupae. The observed effects are most likely indirect effects due to further reduced nutritional prey quality. However, direct effects cannot be excluded. In the second part of the study, exposure of P. cupreus to Bt intoxicated prey was examined in paired-choice tests. Adult beetles were offered a choice between different prey conditions (frozen and thawed, freshly killed or living), prey types (S. littoralis caterpillars, Calliphorasp. pupae, cereal aphids) and prey treatments (raised on Bt or conventional maize). Living prey was preferred to frozen and dead prey. Caterpillars were only preferred to fly pupae and aphids when living. Prey treatment seemed to be least important for prey selection. The tests showed that P. cupreus ingested caterpillars readily and there was no evidence of them avoiding Bt containing prey, which means exposure in the field could occur. The presented protocols are a first step towards ecological risk assessment for carabid beetles.', 'en_US'),
(2254, 'Effects of Bt maize on the herbivore Spodoptera littoralis (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and the parasitoid Cotesia marginiventris (Hymenoptera: Braconidae).', 'Recent studies have shown that transgenic insect resistant plants can have negative effects on non-target herbivores as well as on beneficial insects. The study of tritrophic interactions gives insight into the complex mechanisms of food webs in the field and can easily be incorporated into a tiered risk assessment framework. We investigated the effects of transgenic maize (Zea mays) expressing insecticidal proteins derived from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt maize) on Spodoptera littoralis, a non-target herbivore, and on the hymenopteran parasitoid Cotesia marginiventris. In a laboratory study, S. littoralis larvae were reared for their whole lifespan on a mixture of leaves and stems from 2?4-week old Bt maize plants. S. littoralis survival, developmental times and larval weights were significantly affected by Bt maize diet. However, adult moths, which survived development on Bt maize, were the same size as the adults from the control group C. marginiventris survival, developmental times and cocoon weights were significantly negatively affected if their S. littoralis host larva had been fed Bt maize. ELISA tests confirmed that S. littoralis larvae ingest high amounts of Cry1A(b) toxin while feeding on Bt maize. In S. littoralis pupae and in C. marginiventris cocoon silk, only traces of the toxin could be detected. No toxin was found in S. littoralis and C. marginiventris adults. Thus the toxin is not accumulating in the trophic levels and in fact appears to be excreted. Our results suggest that the effects on C. marginiventris when developing in susceptible S. littoralis larvae are indirect (host mediated). The biological relevance of those results and the significance of this study in risk assessment are discussed.', 'en_US'),
(2255, 'Adult dispersal of Ostrinia nubilalis Hübner (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) and its implications for resistance management in Bt-maize.', 'Dispersal of European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis Hübner was examined by release and recapture of the dye marked adults and by capture of the feral adults in and around the large 50 ha center pivot irrigated fields of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) maize. Pheromone and black light traps were used to catch the adults. In 1999, 15 094 marked males and 7993 marked females were released, and in 2001, 13 942 marked males and 9977 marked females were released. In 1999, maximum mean recapture beyond the release point was 1.95 and 1.67% for males and females, but in 2001, the recapture rate was 9.97 and 4.37% for males and females. Few males (3.8%) and females (2.07%) were recaptured in neighbourhood maize fields. An exponential decay function explained recapture of marked adults across the dispersal distance. More than 90% of marked adults were recaptured within 300 m of the release point. Large numbers of feral adults were captured throughout the study fields. Feral adult dispersal could be fitted to a linear model. Virgin females (20% marked and 8% feral) were captured throughout the study fields. The recapture of marked insects suggests that the dispersal was limited. However, capture of feral adults throughout Bt-maize fields indicate that the actual dispersal may be more extensive than indicated by recapture of marked adults. Potential refuge sources for the feral adults were 587?1387 m from the edge of the study fields. It is not clear if the dispersal recorded in this study is extensive enough to support the current resistance management strategy for corn borers. There appears to be some dispersal of corn borers from the non-transgenic ''refuge'' fields into the transgenic fields that allows some genetic mixing of the two populations.', 'en_US'),
(2256, 'Assessing genetically modified crops to minimize the risk of increased food allergy: A review.', 'The first genetically modified (GM) crops approved for food use (tomato and soybean) were evaluated for safety by the United States Food and Drug Administration prior to commercial production. Among other factors, those products and all additional GM crops that have been grown commercially have been evaluated for potential increases in allergenic properties using methods that are consistent with the current understanding of food allergens and knowledge regarding the prediction of allergenic activity. Although there have been refinements, the key aspects of the evaluation have not changed. The allergenic properties of the gene donor and the host (recipient) organisms are considered in determining the appropriate testing strategy. The amino acid sequence of the encoded protein is compared to all known allergens to determine whether the protein is a known allergen or is sufficiently similar to any known allergen to indicate an increased probability of allergic cross-reactivity. Stability of the protein in the presence of acid with the stomach protease pepsin is tested as a risk factor for food allergenicity. In vitro or in vivo human IgE binding are tested when appropriate, if the gene donor is an allergen or the sequence of the protein is similar to an allergen. Serum donors and skin test subjects are selected based on their proven allergic responses to the gene donor or to material containing the allergen that was matched in sequence. While some scientists and regulators have suggested using animal models, performing broadly targeted serum IgE testing or extensive pre- or post-market clinical tests, current evidence does not support these tests as being predictive or practical. Based on the evidence to date, the current assessment process has worked well to prevent the unintended introduction of allergens in commercial GM crops.', 'en_US'),
(2257, 'Suggestions for the assessment of the allergenic potential of genetically modified organisms.', 'The prevalence of allergic diseases has been increasing continuously and, accordingly, there is a great desire to evaluate the allergenic potential of components in our daily environment (e.g., food). Although there is almost no scientific evidence that genetically modified organisms (GMOs) exhibit increased allergenicity compared with the corresponding wild type significant concerns have been raised regarding this matter. In principle, it is possible that the allergenic potential of GMOs may be increased due to the introduction of potential foreign allergens, to potentially upregulated expression of allergenic components caused by the modification of the wild type organism or to different means of exposure. According to the current practice, the proteins to be introduced into a GMO are evaluated for their physiochemical properties, sequence homology with known allergens and occasionally regarding their allergenic activity. We discuss why these current rules and procedures cannot predict or exclude the allergenicity of a given GMO with certainty. As an alternative we suggest to improve the current evaluation by an experimental comparison of the wild-type organism with the whole GMO regarding their potential to elicit reactions in allergic individuals and to induce de novo sensitizations. We also recommend that the suggested assessment procedures be equally applied to GMOs as well as to natural cultivars in order to establish effective measures for allergy revention.', 'en_US'),
(2258, 'Natural enemies and the evolution of resistance to transgenic insecticidal crops by pest insects: The role of egg mortality.', 'We explore the influence of egg mortality dynamics on the rate at which target pests evolve resistance to high-dose transgenic insecticidal crops. We develop a two-patch deterministic population genetic model in which pests can develop in either toxic or nontoxic (refuge) fields, and their eggs are subject to varying levels and forms of egg mortality. The three standard forms of egg mortality are studied: density independence (DI), positive density dependence (PDD), and inverse density dependence (IDD). Resistance is modeled as a single locus with a fully recessive allele that confers complete resistance with no fitness cost. Insect movement and oviposition is modeled as follows: males move panmictically before mating and females may either stay in their natal patch to oviposit or move after mating before oviposition. While our simulations show that both the magnitude and form of egg mortality can influence the rate of resistance evolution, important caveats apply. Higher levels of DI egg mortality can lead to substantial delays in resistance evolution, but this effect is dependent on the presence of intraspecific competition among larvae. The rate of resistance evolution is affected by the form of density dependence (DI versus PDD versus IDD), but these effects are dependent on at least some females ovipositing in their natal field. If this condition is met, the rate of resistance evolution is fastest when eggs are subject to PDD mortality and slowest when eggs are subject to IDD egg mortality. DI egg mortality produces intermediate rates of resistance evolution.', 'en_US'),
(2259, 'Interactions among western corn rootworm (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), yellow foxtail, and corn.', 'Field studies at sites with two contrasting soil types investigated effects from the presence of yellow foxtail [Setaria pumila (Poir.) Roem. and Schult.], established in bands parallel to corn rows, on western corn rootworm (Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte) survival, corn root injury, lodging, biomass production, and yield. Results suggested that the presence of foxtail as an alternate host influenced the degree and progression of corn rootworm damage and adult emergence in a given locality. Rootworm adults emerged later from foxtail band areas and had smaller head capsule size than did individuals from areas without foxtail, consistent with earlier findings that foxtail in the diet of western corn rootworm was a poor nutritional substitute for corn. Lodging was reduced in the presence of yellow foxtail in some cases, but corn stover biomass and yield also were lower. Influences, if any, of soil type on rootworm survival were unclear because of differences in planting date between the two sites. Foxtail may function as a buffer to reduce rootworm damage to corn and serves as an alternate host that should be considered in the development of resistance management strategies for transgenic corn modified for rootworm resistance.', 'en_US'),
(2260, 'Uptake of Bt endotoxins by nontarget herbivores and higher order arthropod predators: molecular evidence from a transgenic corn agroecosystem.', 'The planting of transgenic crops expressing Bacillus thuringiensis endotoxins is widespread throughout the world; the prolific increase in their application exposes nontarget organisms to toxins designed to control pests. To date, studies have focused upon the effects of Bt endotoxins on specific herbivores and detritivores, without consideration of their persistence within arthropod food webs. Here, we report the first quantitative field evaluation of levels of Bt endotoxin within nontarget herbivores and the uptake by higher order arthropods. Antibody-based assays indicated significant quantities of detectable Cry1Ab endotoxin within nontarget herbivores which feed on transgenic corn (including the corn flea beetle, Chaetocnema pulicaria, Japanese beetle, Popillia japonica and southern corn rootworm, Diabrotica undecimpunctata howardi). Furthermore, arthropod predators (Coccinellidae, Araneae, and Nabidae) collected from these agroecosystems also contained significant quantities of Cry1Ab endotoxin indicating its movement into higher trophic levels. This uptake by predators is likely to have occurred by direct feeding on plant material (in predators which are facultatively phytophagous) or the consumption of arthropod prey which contained these proteins. These data indicate that long-term exposure to insecticidal toxins occurs in the field. These levels of exposure should therefore be considered during future risk assessments of transgenic crops to nontarget herbivores and arthropod predators.', 'en_US'),
(2261, 'Genetically modified foods: the effect of information.', 'Purpose ? This paper examines the attitudes of young Greek University students towards genetically modified (GM) foods and studies the effect of appropriate information in shaping this attitude. Design/methodology/approach ? A questionnaire was distributed to 433 Greek students of the Technological Educational Institute of Athens during the academic year 2003-2004. Results were processed by SPSS 11.0. Findings ? The survey reveals that although Greek University students are more informed than the general population about genetic modification issues, still a large proportion (48 per cent) are unaware of what is exactly a GM plant and 55.3 per cent believe that GM foods may impose risks for public health and the environment. However, after reading a short informative statement the ''negative'' attitude of respondents is decreased by 15.5 percentage units and the ''positive'' attitude is increased by 13.2 percentage units. These results show that appropriate information could affect the acceptability of a technological innovation. Future research is required to investigate how scientists could intervene in order to make the GM issue clear on a scientific basis. Originality/value ? The findings of this study could be useful to those who are seeking to elucidate the complex issue of GM food acceptance and have an interest in establishing communication between the scientific community and the public, such as regulatory authorities, the industry or academics.', 'en_US'),
(2262, 'Variations in maize pollen emission and deposition in relation to microclimate.', 'The coexistence of genetically modified (GM) crops with conventional crops has become a subject of debate and inquiry. Maize (Zea mays L.) is one of the most cultivated crop plants in the world and there is a need to assess the risks of cross-pollination. Concentration and deposition rate downwind from different-sized maize crops were measured during three flowering seasons, together with micrometeorological conditions in the surrounding environment. Pollen release started once the air vapor pressure deficit (VPD) increases above 0.2 to 0.5 kPa. Moreover, the dynamics of release was correlated with the dynamics of VPD surrounding the tassels. Horizontal deposition appeared to follow a power law over short distance downwind from the source, and the dispersal distance increased with the source canopy height and the roughness length of the downwind canopy. This work also provides a data set containing both pollen measurements and contrasting weather conditions to validate dispersal models and further investigate maize pollen dispersal processes.', 'en_US'),
(2263, 'Modern food biotechnology, human health and development: an evidence-based study.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2264, 'Biotechnology, Agriculture, and Food Security in Southern Africa.', 'In 2002?2003, when a number of southern African countries suffering from food shortages rejected food aid in the form of genetically modified grain, a highly polarized debate over biotechnology came to the surface. Pro-biotech and anti-biotech camps forcefully argued about the role of modern biotechnology in Africa''s economic development, often excluding African policymakers from the dialogue and leaving the public uncertain about where the truth lay. In response, the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and the Food, Agriculture, and Natural Resources Policy Analysis Network (FANRPAN) embarked on a multistakeholder initiative aimed at raising awareness, promoting dialogue, and catalyzing consensus-building mechanisms to improve the institutions and policies governing agricultural biotechnology and to assess its implications for food security in southern Africa. The result of this initiative, this book brings together experts from within and outside Africa to discuss the current status of biotechnology in southern Africa, the conceptual framework for multistakeholder dialogues, the political and ethical issues surrounding biotechnology, food safety and consumer issues, biosafety, intellectual property rights, and trade involving genetically modified foods.', 'en_US'),
(2265, 'Food safety and consumer choice policy', 'Agricultural biotechnology has the potential to help address a wide range of public health, nutritional, agricultural, and environmental problems in developed and developing countries, as described in a wide variety of scientific (NRC 1985), government (Glickman 1999), industry (Council for Biotechnology Information n.d.), and international (Persley and Lantin 2000; FAO 2003) sources. Despite this potential, the commercialization of the first generation of crops based on these technologies has met with concern and protests from consumer and public interest groups (Consumer''s Union n.d.), environmental groups (NRDC 2000), and some governments (EC 2000) and scientists (Union of Concerned Scientists n.d.). This conflict has grown to such proportions that it has resulted in the banning or slowing of the commercialization or use of these products in some countries (Economist 1999), disrupted the distribution of food aid in drought-stricken southern Africa (Economist 2002), reduced U.S. exports of major commodities (Economist 2000), affected the value of Wall Street stocks for major agricultural biotechnology companies (Financial Times 2000), and become a major issue of contention in the regulation of international trade (Financial Times 2003). Many of the proponents of agricultural biotechnology have suggested that the issue should be resolved through the application of sound science (Prakash and Bruhn 2000) and that it would be unethical to ban the use of or inhibit the potential benefits associated with this technology for addressing serious problems related to public health, nutrition, poverty, and the environment (Leisinger 2000; Pinstrup-Andersen and Schioler 2000). Many of the critics have called into question the adequacy of the scientific knowledge (Wolfenbarger and Phifer 2000; Clark and Lehman 2001) about this technology, questioned its benefits and raised concerns regarding its potential risks (PSRAST 1998), and claimed that regulatory decisions have been based more on politics than on science (Eichenwald, Kolata, and Petersen 2001; Ferrara 2001). In contrast to the first generation of genetically modified (GM) crops, which have been designed to address production problems, the second-generation crops currently under development will include a much wider range of alterations. One set will involve changes of potential interest to consumers in developed and developing countries, such as changes in the levels and types of specific fatty acids, vitamins, minerals, phytochemicals, and antinutrients (e.g., phytate). A second set of genetic modifications will focus on agronomic, environmental, and nutritional traits relevant specifically in developing countries, such as drought and saline resistance, insect protection, antiviral and antifungal properties, and enhanced iron, zinc, folate, or pro?vitamin A content, among others. In general, the genetic, metabolic, and food compositional changes in these future crops are expected to be more complex than those of the first-generation crops and may pose more complex regulatory questions (FDA 2001; Kuiper et al. 2001). The purpose of this chapter is to describe the food safety and consumer issues raised by GM foods, with a particular focus on the choices and trade-offs relevant to southern Africa. Although the ultimate focus of the chapter is on the choices and policy trade-offs relevant to southern Africa, it begins with a detailed analysis of how GM foods are regulated in the United States by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). This is because FDA policies remain the authoritative position of the U.S. government as applied to the United States and, to a large extent, as projected into international and bilateral discussions and negotiations. Therefore, it is important that developing countries become very knowledgeable concerning FDA policies and their scientific, legal, and political bases so that they can engage in those discussions and negotiations on a more equal footing. In addition, an examination of how the scientific, legal, and political considerations were addressed in the U.S. context holds lessons for southern African countries as they ponder the most appropriate institutional and procedural mechanisms for them to use to reach judgments and develop policies of their own. The second section of this chapter builds on the first by placing the scientific considerations in the southern African context. This section highlights the significant differences between the U.S. and southern African contexts, the even greater scientific uncertainties in the southern African context as compared to the U.S. context, and the implications for research and policy development. The third and final section provides a framework for discussing policy options and trade-offs under conditions of high complexity and uncertainty, such as in GM agriculture.', 'en_US'),
(2266, 'Factors affecting the potential for gene flow from transgenic crops of Lupinus angustifolius L. in Western Australia.', 'Australian sweet lupins (Lupinus angustifolius L.) and their naturalised wild progenitor occur widely throughout the agricultural zone of Western Australia. Before unrestricted release of transgenic lupins is allowed, an assessment is needed of the likely level of gene flow between the wild and cultivated lupins. Three sets of data were collected to evaluate the likelihood of outcrossing and gene flow. These were the level of outcrossing between adjacent lupin crops, the spatial distribution of crops and wild lupins, and the relative flowering times of the crops and wild lupins. The level of outcrossing within the first 1.5 m of adjacent crops, assessed over 1.56 million plants, was 1 cross in 3600 plants. No crossing was detected at distances greater than 2.25 m (outcrossing rate less than 1 in 148 000). The distribution of 216 crops and 237 wild populations in Western Australia rarely overlapped. Only 5 wild populations were detected in the area where crops were found. No crops occurred in the areas where the remaining wild lupins (232 populations) were found. The crops were all early flowering, whereas the 3 selected wild populations, representing 3 different (medium, high, and very high rainfall) climatic zones, all flowered later. We conclude that the likelihood of gene flow from a transgenic lupin crop to wild lupin populations is extremely low. This is consistent with the fact that reverse gene flow from wild lupins carrying dominant genes for blue flowers and bitter seeds has never been found in farmers'' fields, despite 35 years of lupin cropping where areas of over 1 000 000 ha per year have been grown in Western Australia.', 'en_US'),
(2267, 'Science policy and agricultural biotechnology in Canada.', 'This paper examines Canadian science and technology (S&T) policies in the 1990s and the growth of the agriculture biotechnology sector. Drawing from several different data sources, we show that advances in biotechnology have made a substantive contribution to the agri-food landscape as evident by the growth in biotechnology companies, as well as the number of approved genetically modified field trials and canola biotechnology patents issued to inventors. We also show that Canadian inventors do not appear to have harvested a substantive number of enabling canola biotechnology patents as compared to U.S. and European inventors.', 'en_US'),
(2268, 'Proposals for nutritional assessments of feeds from genetically modified plants.', 'The cultivation of genetically modified plants (GMP) increased from 1.7 to 81 million. ha from 1996 to 2004 (James, 2004). Scientists and farmers, but also consumers, are asking for a nutritional assessment, including safety aspects, of feeds from those plants. Substantial equivalence was created as a framework for the compositional assessment of feeds from GMP of the so-called first generation (without substantial changes of composition or without output traits) and is widely accepted.  However, comprehensive studies are necessary for feeds from GMP of the second generation, with substantial changes in composition and nutritional value or so-called output-traits.The paper summarizes proposals for the nutritional assessment of feeds from GMP of the first generation and discusses experimental designs for assessing feeds from GMP of the second generation.', 'en_US'),
(2269, 'Stakeholder attitudes towards the risks and benefits of genetically modified crops in South Africa.', 'The attitudes and interests of stakeholders involved in national public debates on the risks and benefits of genetically modified crops are having a significant influence on public opinion as well as public policy outcomes related to the use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in agriculture in developed and developing countries. This article discusses the results of a perception survey conducted with South African stakeholders involved in the GMO debate in 2000 and uses them to explain GMO policy in South Africa in 2004. The results suggest that academia, government, producer and consumer organizations and industry in South Africa strongly believe in the benefits of GM crops, while non-governmental organizations and churches do not. Instead, the latter emphasize the potential risks that, they claim, the government does not address with its permissive policy toward GMOs. The paper concludes that South Africa has become an African leader in promoting as well as in opposing modern biotechnology in agriculture. At the same time, the domestic debate on GMOs continues to be very polarized. The South African government may reassume public leadership by designing a biotechnology policy that aims at minimizing the risks and maximizing the benefits of the technology not just in terms of economic growth but also environmental conservation and poverty alleviation.', 'en_US');
INSERT INTO `bibliography_bibliography_i18n` (`id`, `title`, `abstract`, `locale`) VALUES
(2270, 'Genetic diversity and gene flow among pearl millet crop/weed complex: a case study.', 'Weedy plants with intermediate (domesticated × wild) phenotypes occur in most pearl millet fields in West Africa, even in the absence of wild populations. They are usually found, in high numbers, both inside and outside of drills. Questions pertaining to the evolutionary dynamics of diversity within the pearl millet complex (domesticated?weedy?wild forms) were addressed in this study. The diversity of the different components of this complex sampled in two pearl millet fields in two villages of southwestern Niger was assessed at both molecular (AFLP) and morphological levels. Results show that, in both fields, weedy plants found outside of drills are morphologically distinct from weedy plants found inside drills, despite their close similarity at AFLP markers. The data suggest some introgression from the wild to the weedy population but nevertheless that the gene flow between the parapatric wild and domesticated populations is very low. This challenges the traditional view that regular hybridization between domesticated and wild pearl millets explains the abundance of these weedy plants despite farmers'' seed selection. The level of genetic differentiation between fields from the two villages was low when considering domesticated and weedy plants. This could be explained by high gene flow resulting from substantial seed exchanges between farmers. The fact that it is very difficult for farmers to keep their own selected seeds, and the consequent substantial seed exchanges between them, is probably the main factor accounting for the maintenance and dispersal of weedy pearl millets in the region, even in areas where no wild forms have been observed.', 'en_US'),
(2271, 'Gender differences in consumers'' acceptance of genetically modified foods.', 'Research has shown that women are less accepting of genetically engineered products than men. We expect two mechanisms to be at work here. First, in consumer behaviour theory, more knowledge is assumed to lead to more acceptance. We assumed that for genetically engineered foods, this general principle does not apply since long-term consequences are not known yet. The well-informed consumer is likely to be comparatively more concerned with this lack of knowledge. We call this the information paradox. Theory on the topic is relatively recent. The results of this study will help to distinguish consumer behaviour with regard to new types of food as compared with traditional foods. Second, we assumed that there is a gender factor included in attitudes toward foods. In general, women still plan food and household purchases. A tentative attitude and an accompanying reluctance toward food innovation are adopted when buying food for children. We call this the gender paradox. In this exploratory study we use data from the Eurobarometer. Eurobarometer surveys have been executed since 1973 by the European Commission among the adult population of European Union member countries (n > 10 000), monitoring the evolution of public opinion. Analysis of these surveys shows that gender differences exist in the acceptance of genetically modified (GM) foods in Europe. Women tend to be less accepting toward genetically modified foods. This supports our gender hypothesis. However, no evidence was found to support the assumed information paradox. It seems that knowledge leads to acceptance, also of GM foods, but more so for men than for women.', 'en_US'),
(2272, 'Effects of Bt maize on Frankliniella tenuicornis and exposure of thrips predators to prey-mediated Bt toxin.', 'As a part of a risk assessment procedure, the impact of Bt maize expressing Cry1Ab toxin on the thrips Frankliniella tenuicornis (Uzel) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) was investigated, and the potential risks for predators feeding on thrips on Bt maize were evaluated. The effects of Bt maize on F. tenuicornis were assessed by measuring life-table parameters when reared on Bt and non-Bt maize. The content of Cry1Ab toxin in different stages of F. tenuicornis reared on Bt maize and the persistence of the toxin in adults where determined in order to evaluate the possible exposure of predators when feeding on thrips. In addition, Chrysoperla carnea (Stephens) (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) was used as a model predator to assess how the behaviour of prey and predator may influence the exposure of a natural enemy to the Bt toxin. Life-table parameter results showed that F. tenuicornis was not affected when it was reared on Bt maize. This indicates that the potential for prey quality-mediated effects on predators is low. Bt content was highest in thrips larvae and adults, and negligible in the non-feeding prepupal and pupal stages. The persistence of the Cry1Ab toxin in adult F. tenuicornis was short, resulting in a decrease of 97% within the first 24 h. Predation success by young C. carnea larvae varied among the thrips stages, indicating that exposure of predators to Bt toxin can additionally depend on the prey stage. When combining the current knowledge of the susceptibility of major thrips predators with our findings showing no potential for prey quality-mediated effects, relatively low toxin content in thrips as well as short persistence, it can be concluded that the risks for predators when feeding on thrips in or next to Bt maize fields are negligible.', 'en_US'),
(2273, 'An algorithm for estimating potential deposition of corn pollen for environmental assessment.', 'The safety and impact on the environment of transgenic crops are important issues, and studies have shown that pollen from transgenic Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) corn (Zea mays L.) may kill nontarget insects. To develop an algorithm for assessing the environmental effect of transgenic crops, we arranged a field experiment in Tsukuba, Japan. Pollen dispersal and deposition were measured inside and outside a cornfield throughout the flowering period. Weather conditions such as wind speed and direction were measured at the same time. Pollen dispersal peaked 1 week after the start of flowering and continued for 12 days thereafter. The variation in daily pollen dispersal was similar at all observation points. Both pollen dispersal and deposition decreased exponentially with distance from the cornfield on all days. We estimated potential pollen deposition with a quasi-mechanistic model that incorporates the effects of wind direction, wind speed, and flowering intensity. The daily potential deposition was summed over the flowering period, and then the relationship between distance from the cornfield and the integrated potential deposition was estimated. It was possible to show the effective area of the environmental risk zone posed by genetically modified pollen by combining the distance/deposition relationship with the dose/response relationship derived from a laboratory assay. The algorithm described here can be applied to various wind-pollinated plants to estimate both potential and integrated pollen deposition.', 'en_US'),
(2274, 'Lack of stable inheritance of introgressed transgene from oilseed rape in wild radish.', 'Hybridization of Brassica napus L. (oilseed rape) and Raphanus raphanistrum L. (wild radish) has been demonstrated, and may be the first step towards introgression of transgenes in this wild relative. If wild radish were to display a new adaptive advantage by expressing the transgene, this could modify the ecological balance of species within the agro-ecosystem. To determine if transgenes remained stable in the hybrid, the frequency of herbicide resistance was studied over four advanced generations of hybrid progeny (G8 to G11) that were subjected to herbicide selection pressure. It is expected that hemizygous resistant plants containing an herbicide resistance transgene back-crossed to wild radish would have 50% resistant progeny. In each of the G8 to G11 generations, only 18% of the progeny from resistant plants were resistant. The chromosome complement of herbicide-susceptible progenies, analyzed at G9, was not different from that of wild populations of wild radish. Herbicide-resistant G9 progeny showed higher chromosome instability, and one third of the progeny contained a supernumerary chromosome. These results suggest that in the presence of herbicide selection pressure, the transgene for herbicide resistance would be maintained despite a lack of stabilized introgression. In the absence of selection, the frequency of resistance in the population is expected to decline.', 'en_US'),
(2275, 'Genetically modified crops and agricultural landscapes: spatial patterns of contamination.', 'A crucial question facing the global agri-food system is whether genetically modified (GM) crops can co-exist with traditional crops. The purpose of this paper is to clarify how the presence of GM crops and changes in the probability of genetic transfer between crops on an agricultural landscape can result in non-GM crop contamination. To investigate this issue, we develop and analyze a spatial simulation model of GM crop introduction and expansion. The GM crop has certain well-defined transfer characteristics related to space and location relative to other crops, and these help determine the rate at which individual fields become ''contaminated'' by the GM crop. We find that in many cases, careful attention needs to be paid to the spatial arrangement of GM crops in relation to non-GM crops in order to ensure that GM contamination is not ubiquitous. The relative ease of system-wide cross-pollination of farmland by GM crops indicates that significant external costs could be imposed on a typical farmer because of the inability to certify produce for sale in potentially lucrative GM-free markets. The analysis suggests that the potential for market failure in this industry may justify a need for government action, and that innovative and flexible regulatory structures will be needed to handle the wide range of co-mingling risks posed by differing crops.', 'en_US'),
(2276, 'Impact des cotonniers génétiquement modifiés sur la biodiversité de la faune entomologique: Le cas du coton Bt en Afrique du Sud', 'For the last three years, CIRAD (Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement, France) and the University of Pretoria led field research to evaluate the impact of transgenic Bt cotton, expressing the Cry1Ac toxin, on arthropod biodiversity in South Africa. The diversity and the density of insect populations were estimated at different crop development stages using traps, sweep-nets, and direct observations on the cotton plants. In untreated plots, the insect diversity in Bt cotton did not show major changes. The toxin was efficient in controlling one of the major bollworm species, Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner), and reduced the population density of specific larval parasitoids. Predators were present in comparable numbers in both cotton types, except for ladybirds. The toxin did not affect pollinators. In small-scale farming fields, where pesticides are still sprayed for controlling sucking insects, the introduction of Bt cotton did not help meet the expected reduction in insecticide use.Au cours des trois dernières années, le Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement (Cirad, France) et l''université de Pretoria ont conduit en Afrique du Sud des études sur l''impact de la mise en culture de cotonniers génétiquement modifiés, exprimant une toxine de Bacillus thuringiensis (coton Bt), sur la biodiversité de la faune entomologique. La diversité et la densité des populations d''insectes présentes à différents stades phénologiques de la culture ont été estimées par piégeage, fauchage et dénombrement sur la plante. En l''absence de traitements insecticides, la diversité de l''entomofaune est peu affectée par la mise en culture du coton Bt. L''efficacité de la toxine sur l''un des principaux insectes cibles, la noctuelle Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner), conduit logiquement à une réduction de l''effectif des parasitoïdes liés aux larves de ce ravageur. Par contre, les espèces prédatrices se rencontrent en nombres similaires sur l''un et l''autre cultivar, à l''exception remarquable des coccinelles, moins abondantes sur coton Bt. La densité des pollinisateurs n''est pas affectée par la toxine. En parcelles paysannes, où sont maintenues les interventions chimiques dirigées contre les insectes piqueurs, l''intérêt annoncé du coton Bt pour une réduction de l''usage des pesticides s''est révélé décevant.', 'en_US'),
(2277, 'Response of Danaus plexippus to pollen of two new Bt corn events via laboratory bioassay.', 'Laboratory bioassays were conducted to evaluate the response of first instar larvae of the monarch butterfly, Danaus plexippus L. (Lepidoptera: Danaidae), a non-target species, to pollen from corn, Zea mays L. (Commelinales: Poaceae), from two new corn hybrids genetically modified to express different types of insecticidal proteins derived from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner (Bacillales: Bacillaceae) (Bt). One hybrid expresses both Cry1Ab and Cry2Ab2 proteins (MON 810 × MON 84006), active against lepidopteran pests, and the other expresses Cry3Bb1 protein (MON 863), targeted against coleopteran pests. First instar larvae were placed on milkweed leaves (Asclepias syriaca L.) (Gentianales: Asclepiadaceae) dusted with doses of either Bt pollen or its nonexpressing (isoline) pollen counterpart ranging from 50 to 3200 grains cm2 of milkweed leaves, or no pollen at all. Larvae were exposed to pollen for 4 days, then moved to pollen-free leaves and observed for another 6 days. Survival was observed after 2, 4, and 10 days. Weight gain was estimated after 4 and 10 days, leaf consumption after 2 and 4 days, and larval development after 10 days. Exposure to pollen of the Cry1Ab/Cry2Ab2-Bt expressing hybrid reduced larval survival approximately 7.5?23.5% at the dose ranges tested relative to a no pollen control. Larval weight gain and consumption were reduced for larvae exposed to pollen of this hybrid and a small minority of larvae (3.1%) never developed past the third instar after 10 days of observation. Exposure to pollen of the Cry3Bb1-Bt expressing hybrid had no negative effects on larval mortality, weight gain, consumption, or development relative to the consumption of Bt-free corn pollen. The relevance of these findings to the risk that these Bt corn hybrids pose to monarch populations is discussed.', 'en_US'),
(2278, 'European Review of Agricultural Economics 2005 32(2):269-288; Preference heterogeneity and GM food in the UK.', 'This study uses mixed logit models to reconsider the findings of choice experiment surveys with a focus on heterogeneity among consumers. The motivation is that these techniques allow the researcher to segment the market better. This is critical because it is not the average attitude or preference that is important, but the size of the groups who will be prepared to accept the product under certain circumstances. The causes of heterogeneity within the sample are investigated and the proportions of consumers willing to buy GM foods at various discounts are simulated.', 'en_US'),
(2279, 'Environmental impact of genetically modified cotton in South Africa.', 'This paper presents the results of a large-scale study designed to monitor the impact arising from the introduction of insect-resistant Bt cotton in the Makhathini Flats, Republic of South Africa. Bt cotton provides a degree of resistance to cotton bollworm complex (Lepidoptera). Data were collected on the use of insecticides (type and quantity) as well as the farm-level economics of production from over 2200 farmers in three growing seasons (1998/1999, 1999/2000 and 2000/2001), and the results are discussed within the context of environmental impact brought about by insecticide. Over the three seasons of the study it was clear that Bt cotton provided benefits in terms of higher yield and gross margin relative to farmers growing conventional (non-Bt) cotton, and the benefits were particularly apparent for the smallest producers. Bt growers also used significantly less insecticide than growers of non-Bt cotton. Once quantities of insecticide applied to Bt and non-Bt cotton were converted into a Biocide Index and an Environmental Impact Quotient (EIQ) in order to allow for differences in terms of toxicity and persistence in the environment, it was apparent that the growing of Bt had a less negative impact on the environment. While this points to beneficial impacts on agricultural sustainability there are wider concerns regarding the vulnerability of resource-poor farmers in an area with limited (as yet) marketing options for their product and options for livelihood diversification both within and outside agriculture. Cotton producers in Makhathini are vulnerable as they rely on just one company for inputs (including credit) and for their market. While Bt cotton provides benefits it does not in itself address some of the structural limitations that farmers face.', 'en_US'),
(2280, 'Considerations for the recovery of recombinant proteins from plants.', 'The past 5 years have seen the commercialization of two recombinant protein products from transgenic plants, and many recombinant therapeutic proteins produced in plants are currently undergoing development. The emergence of plants as an alternative production host has brought new challenges and opportunities to downstream processing efforts. Plant hosts contain a unique set of matrix contaminants (proteins, oils, phenolic compounds, etc.) that must be removed during purification of the target protein. Furthermore, plant solids, which require early removal after extraction, are generally in higher concentration, wider in size range, and denser than traditional bacterial and mammalian cell culture debris. At the same time, there remains the desire to incorporate highly selective and integrative separation technologies (those capable of performing multiple tasks) during the purification process from plant material. The general plant processing and purification scheme consists of isolation of the plant tissue containing the recombinant protein, fractionation of the tissue along with particle size reduction, extraction of the target protein into an aqueous medium, clarification of the crude extract, and finally purification of the product. Each of these areas will be discussed here, focusing on what has been learned and where potential concerns remain. We also present details of how the choice of plant host, along with location within the plant for targeting the recombinant protein, can play an important role in the ultimate ease of recovery and the emergence of regulations governing plant hosts. Major emphasis is placed on three crops, canola, corn, and soy, with brief discussions of tobacco and rice.', 'en_US'),
(2281, 'The new EU regulatory framework for GM food (Part I) procedural aspects: safety assessment, authorisation and administrative review.', 'On 18 April 2004, a little more than a year before the publication of this article, the core provisions of the new regulatory framework for genetically modified food products entered into force.This article is of a descriptive nature. It goes into the new framework as far as food is concerned. Feed will not be discussed. This article is published in 2 parts. Part 1 deals mainly with the new authorisation procedure. In this context some attention will first be given to the developments that led to the new framework and at the end of part 1 to administrative review. The main topics discussed in part 2 are the traceability requirements and labelling. Further some attention will be given to emergency measures, legal protection and transitory measures.', 'en_US'),
(2282, 'Regulation on agricultural genetically modified organisms in Australia.', 'Until recently there were no specific regulatory controls on the development and release of agricultural genetically modified organisms (''GMOs'') or their products in Australia. A voluntary and self-regulatory system had existed since the mid-seventies but there were no direct legal repercussions where those ''regulations'' were not adhered to. Commercialisation of GMOs'' end products was also not specifically regulated. Some end products were subject to general regulation which applied regardless of whether genetic modification (''GM'') was used in their production. Other GM end products were not regulated at all. This Article concerns the regulatory background against which agricultural GMO commercialisers must act in Australia. It does not concern cloning of human beings and associated techniques, which are prohibited in Australia pursuant to the Prohibition of Human Cloning Act 2002(Cth) and complementary State legislation. The Article begins in Part 2 with a description of the new national regulatory scheme for GMOs. The recently introduced second level of regulation of agricultural GMOs, that of the individual States of Australia rather than national legislation, is then summarised in Part 3. Part 4 concerns end product regulation relevant to those wanting to commercialise agricultural GMOs in Australia. It explains how the most significant of those regimes for agricultural GMOs, food regulation, operates. Part 5 is the conclusion.', 'en_US'),
(2283, 'The Coexistence of genetically modified crops with other forms of farming: the regulation by EU member states in the light of EC law.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2284, 'The EU''s traceability and labeling and food and feed proposals for products of transgenic origin.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2285, 'Co-existence of GM and non GM crops: real world experience shows it is not a problem.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2286, 'Impact of Bt corn on rhizospheric and soil eubacterial communities and on beneficial mycorrhizal symbiosis in experimental microcosms.', 'A polyphasic approach has been developed to gain knowledge of suitable key indicators for the evaluation of environmental impact of genetically modified Bt 11 and Bt 176 corn lines on soil ecosystems. We assessed the effects of Bt corn (which constitutively expresses the insecticidal toxin from Bacillus thuringiensis, encoded by the truncated Cry1Ab gene) and non-Bt corn plants and their residues on rhizospheric and bulk soil eubacterial communities by means of denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis analyses of 16S rRNA genes, on the nontarget mycorrhizal symbiont Glomus mosseae, and on soil respiration. Microcosm experiments showed differences in rhizospheric eubacterial communities associated with the three corn lines and a significantly lower level of mycorrhizal colonization in Bt 176 corn roots. In greenhouse experiments, differences between Bt and non-Bt corn plants were detected in rhizospheric eubacterial communities (both total and active), in culturable rhizospheric heterotrophic bacteria, and in mycorrhizal colonization. Plant residues of transgenic plants, plowed under at harvest and kept mixed with soil for up to 4 months, affected soil respiration, bacterial communities, and mycorrhizal establishment by indigenous endophytes. The multimodal approach utilized in our work may be applied in long-term field studies aimed at monitoring the real hazard of genetically modified crops and their residues on nontarget soil microbial communities.', 'en_US'),
(2287, 'Survival of genetically modified and self-cloned strains of commercial baker''s yeast in simulated natural environments: environmental risk assessment.', 'Although genetic engineering techniques for baker''s yeast might improve the yeast''s fermentation characteristics, the lack of scientific data on the survival of such strains in natural environments as well as the effects on human health prevent their commercial use. Disruption of acid trehalase gene (ATH1) improves freeze tolerance, which is a crucial characteristic in frozen-dough baking. In this study, ATH1 disruptants constructed by genetic modification (GM) and self-cloning (SC) techniques were used as models to study such effects because these strains have higher freeze tolerance and are expected to be used commercially. Behavior of the strains in simulated natural environments, namely, in soil and water, was studied by measuring the change in the number of viable cells and in the concentration of DNA that contains ATH1 loci. Measurements were made using a real-time PCR method during 40 days of cultivation. Results showed that the number of viable cells of GM and SC strains decreased in a time-dependent manner and that the decrease rate was nearly equal to or higher than that for wild-type (WT) yeast. For all three strains (SC, GM, and WT) in the two simulated natural environments (water and soil), the DNA remained longer than did viable cells but the decrease patterns of either the DNA or the viable cells of SC and GM strains had tendencies similar to those of the WT strain. In conclusion, disruption of ATH1 by genetic engineering apparently does not promote the survival of viable cells and DNA in natural environments.', 'en_US'),
(2288, 'Food sovereignty or trade obstruction? Labelling of genetically engineered foods.', 'This paper examines labelling of Genetically Engineered Foods (GEFs) in the context of: trade issues, the food sovereignty movement, and consumer research. Labelling is explored as a middle ground between food sovereignty and the anti-labelling positions of GEF-producing countries. Surveys around the world concur that the majority of consumers want GEFs labelled. Psychological and neuroscience research implies that when we lack experience with a particular situation even experts view risks high where benefits are low and vice versa. Without direct consumer benefits, consumers will remain skeptical of GEFs and risk communication campaigns will do little to change consumers'' feelings.', 'en_US'),
(2289, 'HPV vaccines in plants: an appetising solution to control infection and associated cancers.', 'The cultivation of plants with specific properties has been the foundation of medicine for millennia. Modern biotechnology may one day extend their medicinal uses to include the delivery of vaccines. Because of their low production costs and facility of use, plant-derived vaccines provide an interesting perspective. The simple demands for solar light, water and minerals make plants an economic system for the production of heterologous proteins, supplying eukaryotic post-translational modifications (e.g. glycosylation, phosphorylation), eliminating the risks of contaminations with animal pathogens and allowing oral administration. Other advantages stem from the possibility to express the protein of interest in reservoir organs, of production on wide scale and to omit purification passages, particularly for oral administration. In this case, crushed seeds, endosperma, fruits could be used for direct administration (edible vaccine). The list of plant-derived antigens, potentially usable as vaccines, continues to lengthen and includes pathogenic viral and bacterial proteins. In this chapter recent advances in production of prophylactic and therapeutic plant vaccines against papillomaviruses are reported. Some aspects of the public debate on the genetically modified organism will be discussed too.', 'en_US'),
(2290, 'Biotechnology risks and project interdependence.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2291, 'Tree biotechnology: regulation and international trade.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2292, 'The coexistence of GM and non-GM arable crops in the EU:  Economic and market considerations.', NULL, 'en_US'),
(2293, 'Food-grade corynebacteria for enzyme production.', 'The expression of genes coding for heterologous extracellular enzymes or proteins in corynebacteria has provided new capacities to these industrially important microorganisms, such as the use of the culture media as sources of essential amino acids and hydrolytic enzymes that can be used as complements in animal food or for the production of enzymes with industrial, clinical, or pharmaceutical applications. Using genetic manipulation techniques, several corynebacteria strains expressing genes coding for hydrolytic enzymes or proteins have been constructed in different laboratories. Such strains carry antibiotic resistance genes and consequently they cannot be used in the food industry due to the stringent regulations on genetically manipulated microorganisms. To solve this problem, here we describe a general method for the construction of engineered corynebacteria bearing a single copy of a gene coding for a hydrolytic enzyme or a desired protein in its chromosome where it is stably maintained with no selective pressure and lacking any antibiotic resistance gene.', 'en_US'),
(2294, 'Detection of genetically modified soy in processed foods sold commercially in Malaysia by PCR-based method', 'Regulations for the use and labeling of genetically modified organism (GMO) products and derived ingredients are being implemented worldwide, that demands reliable and accurate methods to detect GMO in raw materials and food products. In this study, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method was established for monitoring products derived from GMO that are sold in the markets in Malaysia, which specifically amplify the 35S promoter, nos (nopaline synthase-terminator), EPSPS (5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase) and RRS (CTP/CP4EPSPS). Using this method, we investigated the incidence of genetically modified soy (GM-soy) and specifically the presence of roundup ready soy (RRS). All the soybean samples were evidenced by presence of the lectin gene. Out of 85 samples examined, the 18 positive GM samples were raw bean (9), tofu (8) and tempe (1) (a traditional Malay food). The results demonstrate for the first time the presence of GM-soy in Malaysian food products, reinforcing the need for the development of accurate quantitative methods for routine analyses.', 'en_US'),
(2295, 'Social acceptance of plant-made vaccines: indications from a public survey.', 'The use of transgenic plants for production and oral delivery of vaccines has been shown effective in animal trials and Phase I human clinical testing. The use of edible plants for production of vaccines represents an interesting intersection between medical treatments and the use of genetically modified (GM) food crops. Public acceptance of GM foods is highly variable on a global scale, and similar issues of social acceptance will influence the commercial feasibility of a plant-made vaccine. The recipient of a plant-made vaccine may have to weigh the perceived benefits of vaccination against the perceived risks associated with consumption of GM plant materials. A public opinion survey of 706 respondents was conducted to gain an indication of the prospects for public acceptance of this technology and demonstrated strong potential support for a plant-made vaccine.', 'en_US'),
(2296, 'Issues in development and adoption of genetically modified (GM) wheats.', 'There are several contentious issues remaining in the development of genetically modified (GM) wheats. This paper summarizes current knowledge and critical issues for commercialization including evolution of GM wheats, agronomic competitiveness, consumer acceptance, traits, regulatory issues, segregation, identity preservation, production and marketing risks, and discusses the marketing system likely to evolve.', 'en_US'),
(2297, 'Biotech and planted trees: some economic and regulatory issues.', 'In recent years, the application of biotechnology to agriculture has resulted in a host of changes and innovations. Transgenic (genetically modified) crops are now common in much of North American agriculture. Transgenic forestry is not yet at that level of commercial application. However, there are numerous biotechnological innovations under development in forestry, many of them adapted from agriculture. This paper provides an introduction and background into transgenic trees and forestry. It then discusses some aspects of the economic potential and the regulatory system related to transgenic trees.', 'en_US'),
(2298, 'Consumer acceptance of genetically modified food products in the developing world.', 'Worldwide consumer response toward food products made from genetically modified (GM) ingredients has been largely negative. However, the majority of the previous studies on consumer attitudes towards food products were conducted in developed countries in Europe as well as Japan. The small number of studies conducted in developing nations obtain different results from those of the developed world. This paper considers the motivations for consumer attitudes towards genetically modified foods in developing nations. We conclude that the generally positive perception towards GM foods in developing nations stems from more urgent needs in terms of food availability and nutritional content. Additionally, perceived levels of risk may be smaller due to trust in government, positive perceptions of science, and positive media influences. This is contrary to the smaller benefits and higher perceived risks found in many developed countries, and hence, the rational for low or non-acceptance of GM foods in those countries.', 'en_US'),
(2299, 'Risk perceptions of urban Italian and United States consumers for genetically modified foods.', 'The effects of Italian and US consumers'' risk perceptions, knowledge and awareness of GM foods, and trust in government agencies on willingness to buy GM foods is examined. Results indicated that effects of risk perception of GM foods to human health and the environment are similar between urban consumers in Italy and the United States. However, Italian consumers were found to be more sensitive to the potential risks that GM foods may pose to human health and the environment, relative to the US consumer. In general, Italians were also less likely to purchase GM foods relative to US consumers.', 'en_US'),
(2300, 'Acceptance of genetically modified foods.', 'This study examines the role of product benefits and potential risks in consumer acceptance of genetically modified (GM) foods. The study analyzes consumer willingness to consume three meat products that confer specific benefits with an inherent risk. Results indicate that respondents who were provided both the product benefit and risk information were less likely to consume the three GM food products than those who were only provided the product benefit information. Results also suggest that males are consistently more likely to consume the three GM products than females. Those who take the time to read food labels were also consistently less likely to consume the three products considered in this study. Differences in social or political values (i.e., conservative or liberal) and trust in private and public entities were not significant factors affecting consumers'' willingness to accept GM foods.', 'en_US'),
(2301, 'Using a spatial and stage-structured invasion model to assess the spread of feral populations of transgenic oilseed rape.', 'The risk of roadside verge invasion by transgenic plants is favoured when a cultivated species can persist outside fields as feral populations. We chose oilseed rape as a model species to evaluate the spread of genetically modified herbicide tolerant (GMHT) feral populations under selection pressure (herbicide spraying) in the medium term. We developed a stepwise invasion model that combines stage-structured dynamics (via a leslie matrix) and seed dispersal (via a mixture of two kernels) within an integro-differential equation. Modelling choices were made to conform to our intention to obtain methodological insight about the necessity to integrate long-distance seed dispersal in models of gene flow among oilseed rape. We thus assumed that roadside verges are a one-dimensional and uniformly suitable habitat and that events of dispersal and demography are deterministic. We performed elasticity analyses of population growth rate and invasion speed to highlight the determinants of population demography and spread. Rare events of long-distance dispersal controlled population spread. The risk of road verge invasion by feral populations of GMHT oilseed rape under selection pressure is thus real and does exist, since it was proved experimentally that oilseed rape can be dispersed by vehicles. Models of oilseed rape should then include long-distance seed dispersal otherwise they would underestimate feral population spread. Population growth rate and invasion speed depended on the same demographic transitions, i.e. those including local recruitment (local production of new individuals), but not on the persistence of seeds in the seed bank. Therefore, plant sterilisation would be more efficient to limit feral population spread than selection of cultivars without seed dormancy. The assumptions made about habitat continuity and homogeneity were consistent in the framework of this stepwise approach. However, integrating habitat heterogeneity and stochasticity would improve this invasion model.', 'en_US'),
(2302, 'Strategic environmental assessments for genetically modified organisms.', 'Genetically modified crops appear to provide a promising option in finding sustainable solutions to end global hunger and poverty, but strategic decisions need to be made on how to spend limited agricultural research funds. Potentially, strategic environmental assessment (SEA) may be used as part of an environmental management system to introduce mainstreaming of environmental considerations in the policy research and priority-setting process of development organizations to help achieve international development goals. This paper sets out a possible biotechnology SEA process that integrates qualitative and quantitative assessments with a focus on risk assessment and management within the SEA and policy environmental assessment frameworks. It uses the International Association for Impact Assessment six performance criteria for SEAs: integration; sustainability; focus; accountability; participation; and iteration.', 'en_US'),
(2303, 'Insect communities on maize expressing a Bt-toxin.', 'The maize cultivar Monumental MON810 was used to examine the environmental impact of the plant-expressed Bacillus thuringiensis toxin Cry 1 Ab. The Bt-maize was planted on five plots and alternated with five similar plots seeded with the non-transgenic parental cultivar. The whole field was treated with Guardian EC herbicide before sowing and again after maize germination. Samples of plants were analyzed for Cry 1 Ab expression and the presence of insects in 2 or 3-week intervals. The toxin was present in leaves and stems throughout the season and efficiently prevented maize attack by the European corn borer, Ostrinia nubialis, which occurred only on the non-Bt maize. Aphids, thrips and Orius bugs dominated among the plant-dwelling non-target insects. Their occurrence was not affected by toxin expression. The results indicate that the presence of Cry 1Ab in maize is lethal for O. nubialis, but innocuous for the non-lepidopteran insects that are associated with maize.', 'en_US'),
(2304, 'Engineered crops: transgenes go wild.', 'Genetically modified Agrostis stolonifera has escaped from cultivation. For the first time, a herbicide-resistant perennial weed has established itself in wild populations.', 'en_US'),
(2305, 'Safety testing of GM-rice expressing PHA-E lectin using a new animal test design.', 'The 90-day animal study is the core study for the safety assessment of genetically modified foods in the SAFOTEST project. The model compound tested in the 90-day study was a rice variety expressing the kidney bean Phaseolus vulgaris lectin agglutinin E-form (PHA-E lectin). Female Wistar rats were given a nutritionally balanced purified diet with 60% parental rice, 60% PHA-E rice or 60% PHA-E rice spiked with 0.1% recombinant PHA-E lectin for 90 days. This corresponded to a mean daily PHA-E lectin intake of approximately 0, 30 and 100 mg/kg body weight for each group, respectively. The spiking was used to increase the specificity and to demonstrate the sensitivity of the study. A range of biological, biochemical, microbiological and pathological parameters were examined and significant differences in weight of small intestine, stomach and pancreas and plasma biochemistry were seen between groups. Included in this paper are also data from the molecular characterisation and chemical analysis of the PHA-E rice, from the construction and production of the PHA-E lectin, and from the preceding 28-day in vivo study where the toxicity of the pure PHA-E lectin was determined. In conclusion, the combined use of information from the compositional analysis, the 28-day study and the characterisation of the PHA-E rice and the PHA-E lectin has improved the design of the 90-day study. The spiking procedure has facilitated the interpretation of the results of the study and transferred it into a valuable tool for the future safety testing of genetically modified foods.', 'en_US'),
(2306, 'A 90-day safety study in Wistar rats fed genetically modified rice expressing snowdrop lectin Galanthus nivalis (GNA)', 'Genetically modified plants expressing insecticidal traits offer a new strategy for crop protection, but at the same time present a challenge in terms of food safety assessment. The present 90-day feeding study was designed to assess the safety of a rice variety expressing the snowdrop Galanthus nivalis lectin (GNA lectin), and forms part of a EU-funded project where the objective has been to develop and validate sensitive and specific methods to assess the safety of genetically modified foods. Male and female Wistar rats were given a purified diet containing either 60% genetically modified or parental rice for 90 days. This corresponds to a mean daily GNA lectin intake of approximately 58 and 67 mg/kg body weight for males and females, respectively. Prior to the animal study comprehensive analytical characterization of both rice materials was performed. The chemical analyses showed a number of statistically significant differences, with the majority being within the ranges reported in the literature. In the animal study a range of clinical, biological, immunological, microbiological and pathological parameters were examined. A number of significant differences were seen between groups fed the two diets, but none of them were considered to be adverse. In conclusion, the design of the present animal study did not enable us to conclude on the safety of the GM food. Additional group(s) where the expressed gene products have been spiked to the diet should be included in order to be able to distinguish whether the observed effects were due to the GNA lectin per se or to secondary changes in the GM rice.', 'en_US'),
(2307, 'Expression of Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Ac protein in cotton plants, acquisition by pests and predators: a tritrophic analysis.', '1. Studies have shown that Cry proteins of the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis expressed in transgenic plants can be acquired by nontarget herbivores and predators. A series of studies under field and controlled conditions was conducted to investigate the extent to which Cry1Ac protein from Bt transgenic cotton reaches the third trophic level and to measure the amount of protein that herbivores can acquire and expose to predators.2. Levels of Cry1Ac in Bt cotton leaves decreased over the season. Among herbivores (four species), Cry1Ac was detected in lepidopteran larvae and the amount varied between species. Among predators (seven species), Cry1Ac was detected in Podisus maculiventris and Chrysoperla rufilabris.3. In the greenhouse, only 14% of the Cry1Ac detected in the prey (Spodoptera exigua larvae) was subsequently found in the predator P. maculiventris. Detection of Cry1Ac protein in Orius insidiosus, Geocoris punctipes and Nabis roseipennis was probably limited by the amount of prey consumed that had fed on Bt cotton.4. Purified Cry1Ac was acquired by the small predatory bug G. punctipes but at much higher concentration than found in plants or in lepidopteran larvae.5. Bt protein was shown to move through prey to the third trophic level. Predatory heteropterans acquired Cry1Ac from prey fed Bt cotton, but acquisition was dependent on the concentration of Cry1Ac conveyed by the prey and the amount of prey consumed. The type and availability of prey capable of acquiring the protein, coupled with the generalist feeding behaviour of the most common predators in the cotton ecosystem, probably constrain the flow of Cry1Ac through trophic levels.', 'en_US'),
(2308, 'Adsorption of the pesticidal toxin from Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. tenebrionis on tropical soils and their particle-size fractions.', 'Genetically modified crops, which produce Bacillus thuringiensis toxins, release the toxins into soils through root exudates and upon decomposition of residues. Several studies showed that Bacillus thuringiensis toxins adsorbed on pure clay minerals and model clay-OM or oxides associations as well as on soils. We determined the adsorption of the toxin from Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. tenebrionis (Btt), active against Coleoptera, on tropical soils and their constituents. Particle-size fractions were separated from a vertisol, an alfisol and an oxisol and the role of constituents of the clay-size fractions was analysed using clay-size fractions from which specific components had been extracted. The adsorbed amounts and affinities of the soil were in the order, oxisol < alfisol < vertisol. Clay-size fractions adsorbed more, with higher affinities and less reversibility, than the silt or particulate organic matter fractions or bulk soils. In the clay-size fractions, organic matter increased adsorption whereas Fe oxides decreased it, and the mineralogy had a prominent role. Smectitic clay fractions adsorbed much more of the toxin from Btt than kaolinitic ones, in relation with the surface area and charge of these minerals. The features of adsorption of the toxin from Btt on tropical soils and their constituents show that the toxin is likely to be retained by soil after cropping with transgenic plants.', 'en_US'),
(2309, 'Review of the development of methodology for evaluating the human allergenic potential of novel proteins.', 'Safety assessment of novel proteins in genetic-engineered foods is a key component of the overall safety evaluation for these products. Since allergens are typically proteins, assessment of the potential allergenicity of the novel proteins in genetically engineered foods is critical. This article reviews methods available to assess the potential allergenicity of novel proteins, as well as problems and deficiencies in the existing methods. The role of bioinformatics and knowledge of allergenic epitopes in developing new approaches to this problem is discussed.', 'en_US'),
(2310, 'Biosafety in Populus spp. and other forest trees: from non-native species to taxa derived from traditional breeding and genetic engineering.', 'Forest trees are fundamental components of our environment, mainly due to their long lifetime and important role in forest ecology. In the past, some non-native tree species and taxa from traditional breeding have induced severe environmental impacts such as biological invasion, changes in the ''gene pool'', and spread of diseases in forestry. Genetically modified trees obtained in different research groups worldwide are particularly confronted with increased concerns regarding biosafety issues. In the light of current biosafety research worldwide, various threats facing forests and natural tree populations are evaluated in this review: biological invasions, horizontal gene transfer, vertical gene transfer and effects on other organisms. Results available from groups working in biosafety research and risk avoidance using forest trees, with emphasis on transgenic trees, are reviewed. Independent biosafety research as well as the establishment of biosafety research programs for forest trees financed by national and international authorities is now more important than ever before. Biosafety problems detected in the past clearly show the importance of a prior case-by-case evaluation of non-native species, new taxa and also genetically modified trees according to the precautionary principle before their release to avoid risks to the environment and human health.', 'en_US'),
(2311, 'Digestion assays in allergenicity assessment of transgenic proteins.', 'The food-allergy risk assessment for transgenic proteins expressed in crops is currently based on a weight-of-evidence approach that holistically considers multiple lines of evidence. This approach recognizes that no single test or property is known to distinguish allergens from nonallergens. The stability of a protein to digestion, as predicted by an in vitro simulated gastric fluid assay, currently is used as one element in the risk assessment process. A review of the literature on the use of the simulated gastric fluid assay to predict the allergenic status of proteins suggests that more extensive kinetic studies with well-characterized reference proteins are required before the predictive value of this assay can be adequately judged.', 'en_US');
